Wikipedia gpewiki https://gpe.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.7 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 2773 103544 103172 2026-06-17T17:43:44Z DaSupremo 9 Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/MABRIZA|MABRIZA]] ([[User talk:MABRIZA|talk]]) to last revision by [[User:Apparition11|Apparition11]] 79742 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Akosombo Dam''', wey dem sanso dey bell am '''Volta Dam''', be sam hydroelectric dam wey dey de Volta River top for southeastern [[Ghana]] wey dey Akosombo gorge insyd den part of de Volta River Authority.<ref>[https://www.myjoyonline.com/akosombo-dam-could-serve-ghana-for-another-50-years-if-well-maintained-kweku-awotwi/ "Akosombo Dam could serve Ghana for another 50 years if well maintained – Kweku Awotwi - MyJoyOnline.com".] ''www.myjoyonline.com''. Retrieved 18 May 2021.</ref> De construction of de dam flood part of de Volta River Basin wey elead go de subsequent creation of Lake Volta. Lake Volta be de largest man-made lake for de world insyd by surface area. It covers 8,502 square kilometres (3,283 sq mi), wey be 3.6% of Ghana ein land area. Plus de volume of 148 cubic kilometers, Lake Volta be de world ein third largest man-made lake by volume; de largest wey be Lake Kariba wey get 185 cubic kilometers of water.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Akosombo_Dam#CITEREFFobil2003|Fobil 2003]]</ref> Na de primary purpose of de Akosombo Dam be say ego provide electricity for de aluminium industry.<ref>[[:en:Akosombo_Dam#CITEREFZakhary1997|Zakhary 1997]]</ref> Na dem dey bell Akosombo Dam as "de largest single investment for de economic development plans of Ghana."<ref name=":1">[http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/history/akosombo_dam.php "History of Akosombo dam".] Ghana Home Page. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110516134942/http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/history/akosombo_dam.php Archived] from the original on 16 May 2011. Retrieved 8 May 2011.</ref> De dam be significant for providing de majority of both [[Togo]] den [[Benin]] ein electricity, although de construction of de [[Adjarala Dam]] (for Togo ein [[Mono River]]) dey hope say ego reduce dese countries' reliance for imported electricity top.<ref>Europa Publications (2014). ''Africa South of the Sahara 2014''. Routledge. p. 112. ISBN 9781857436983.</ref> Na de dam ein original electrical output be 912 megawatts (1,223,000 hp), wey dem upgrade go 1,020 megawatts (1,370,000 hp) for sam retrofit project insyd wey dem fini for 2006 insyd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070808064226/http://www.vra.com/Power/retrofit.html "Akosombo Hydro Power Plant Retrofit".] Volta River Authority. Archived from [http://www.vra.com/Power/retrofit.html the original] on 8 August 2007. Retrieved 30 July 2007.</ref> De flood wey create de Lake Volta reservoir displace chaw menners wey na eget significant impact for de local environment top,<ref name=":2">[[:en:Akosombo_Dam#CITEREFGyau-Boakye2001|Gyau-Boakye 2001]]</ref> edey include seismic activity wey lead go coastal erosion; sam hydrology wey echange cause microclimatic changes plus less rain den higher temperatures. De soil wey dey surround de lake be less fertile than de soil wey dey ein unders, wey heavy agricultural use dey require de use of fertilizers, wey elater dey lead am go eutrophication, wey cause, among others, de explosive growth of sam invasive weed wey dey render water navigation den transportation difficult, wey edey form sam habitat for de vectors of water-borne illnesses such as bilharzia, river blindness den malaria. Resettlement of de inhabitants wey edisplace prove complex wey for sam cases ebe unsuccessful; traditional farming practices disappear wey emake poverty increase. == Ein Design == Geologist Albert Kitson wey he conceive de dam for 1915 insyd, but dem no draw any plan till de 1940s insyd.<ref>Okoampa-Ahoofe, Kwame (16 July 2009). [http://www.thestatesmanonline.com/pages/news_detail.php?newsid=8696&section=1 "The False Ghanaian History of Paa Kwesi Nduom".] ''The Statesman''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110930095101/http://www.thestatesmanonline.com/pages/news_detail.php?newsid=8696&section=1 Archived] from the original on 30 September 2011. Retrieved 11 October 2023.</ref> Dem propose de development of de Volta River Basin for 1949 insyd, bah secof na funds no chaw, de American company Volta Aluminum Company (Valco) lend Ghana money so say dem go fi construct de dam. Presido [[Kwame Nkrumah]] adopt de Volta River hydropower project.<ref name=":1" /> == Ein Construction == [[File:Akosombo_Dam_is_spilling_water,_Ghana.JPG|left|thumb|Akosombo dam plus open spillways]] For May 1960 insyd, de Ghana government call for tenders for construction of de hydroelectric dam. For 1961 insyd, sam Italian consortium, Impregilo wey na ecomplete de Kariba Dam, win de contract. For 1961 insyd, Ghana ein Parliament establish Volta River Authority (VRA) through de passage of de Volta River Development Act. Six Board members den Nkrumah as chairman wey structure VRA ein fundamental operations. VRA ein primary task be say ego manage de development of de Volta River Basin, wey na edey include de construction den supervision of de dam, de power station den de power transmission network. De VRA be responsible for de reservoir wey dem impound by de dam, fishing for de lake insyd, lake transportation den communication, den de welfare of menners wey dey surround de lake.<ref name=":0" /> [[File:1_Ghana_Cedi.png|left|thumb|Akosombo Dam for de reverse of sam 2007 1 [[Ghanaian cedi|Cedi]] specimen banknote]] == Ein Power generation == De dam dey provide electricity go Ghana den ein neighboring West African countries, wey dey include [[Togo]] den [[Benin]].<ref>[[:en:Akosombo_Dam#CITEREFSuave2002|Suave 2002]]</ref> Initially na 20% of Akosombo Dam ein electric output (wey dey serve 70% of national demand) be wat Ghanaians dey get for form of electricity, na dem dey generate de remaining 80% give Valco.<ref>Kwame Okoampa-Ahoofe (28 August 2007). [https://archive.today/20120530185104/http://www.thestatesmanonline.com/pages/news_detail.php?section=11&newsid=4580 "NPP cuts sod for Bui Dam".] Statesman online. Archived from [http://www.thestatesmanonline.com/pages/news_detail.php?section=11&newsid=4580 the original] on 30 May 2012. Retrieved 13 October 2007.</ref> == Ein Impacts == [[File:Akosombo_Dam_hydroelectric_plant.jpg|left|thumb|De hydroelectric power plant for Lake Volta top]] De Akosombo Dam dey benefit sam industrial den economic activities from de addition of lake transportation, fishing wey e increase, fresh farming activities for de shoreline, den tourism.<ref name=":2" /> === Biological habitat === [[File:Volta_lake.jpg|right|thumb|Lake Volta from space]] == References == [[Category:Ghana]] [[Category:Dams insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Lake Volta]] [[Category:Dams for de Volta River top]] [[Category:Volta River Authority]] [[Category:Dams dem plete insyd 1965]] [[Category:1965 establishments insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Eastern Region (Ghana)]] [[Category:Dams insyd Africa]] [[Category:Pages plus maps]] qyk6947hgwlv28kgekiqs57hjvzee3z 0 26736 103605 97682 2026-06-17T23:05:35Z ~2026-35508-81 6482 103605 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lisinopril''' is a medication belonging to the drug class of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors wey e be used to treat [[hypertension]] (high blood pressure), [[heart failure]], and [[myocardial infarction|heart attacks]].<ref name="AHFS20182">{{cite web |title=Lisinopril Monograph for Professionals |url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/lisinopril.html |access-date=23 December 2018 |website=Drugs.com |publisher=American Society of Health-System Pharmacists}}</ref> For high blood pressure e usually be a first-line treatment. Dem sanso dey use am to prevent kidney problems insyd people plus [[diabetes]] mellitus.<ref name="AHFS20182" /> Dem dey take lisinopril orally (dem swallow by mouth).<ref name="AHFS20182" /> Full effect fi take up to four weeks to occur.<ref name="AHFS20182" /> Common side effects may include headache, dizziness, feeling tired, cough, nausea, den rash.<ref name="AHFS20182" /> Serious side effects fi include low blood pressure, liver problems, hyperkalemia (high blood potassium), den angioedema.<ref name="AHFS20182" /> Ein use no be recommended during de entire duration of pregnancy as e fi harm de baby.<ref name="AHFS20182" /> Lisinopril dey work by inhibiting de renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system.<ref name="AHFS20182" /> Dem patent lisinopril insyd 1978 wey dem approve am for medical use insyd de [[United States]] insyd 1987.<ref name="AHFS20182" /><ref name=Fis2006>{{cite book | vauthors = Fischer J, Ganellin CR |title=Analogue-based Drug Discovery |date=2006 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-3-527-60749-5 |page=467 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FjKfqkaKkAAC&pg=PA467 }}</ref> E be available as a generic medication.<ref name="AHFS20182" /> Insyd 2023, na e be de fourth most commonly prescribed medication insyd de United States, plus more dan 76{{nbsp}}million prescriptions.<ref name="Top 300 of 2023">{{cite web | title=The Top 300 of 2023 | url=https://clincalc.com/DrugStats/Top300Drugs.aspx | website=ClinCalc | access-date=12 August 2025 | archive-date=12 August 2025 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250812130026/https://clincalc.com/DrugStats/Top300Drugs.aspx | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Lisinopril Drug Usage Statistics, United States, 2014 - 2023 | website = ClinCalc | url = https://clincalc.com/DrugStats/Drugs/Lisinopril | access-date = 12 August 2025 }}</ref> E be available in combination plus [[amlodipine]] (as lisinopril/amlodipine) den in combination plus hydrochlorothiazide (as lisinopril/hydrochlorothiazide). == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Fogari R, Zoppi A, Corradi L, Lazzari P, Mugellini A, Lusardi P | title = Comparative effects of lisinopril and losartan on insulin sensitivity in the treatment of non diabetic hypertensive patients | journal = Br J Clin Pharmacol | volume = 46 | issue = 5 | pages = 467–71 |date=November 1998 | pmid = 9833600 | pmc = 1873694 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2125.1998.00811.x }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Bussien JP, Waeber B, Nussberger J, Gomez HJ, Brunner HR | title = Once-daily lisinopril in hypertensive patients: Effect on blood pressure and the renin–angiotensin system | journal = Curr Therap Res | volume = 37 | pages = 342–51 | year = 1985 }} [[Category:ACE inhibitors]] [[Category:Alpha-Amino acids]] [[Category:Amino acid derivatives]] [[Category:Drugs wey AstraZeneca develop]] [[Category:Carboxamides]] [[Category:Carboxylic acids]] [[Category:Embryotoxicants]] [[Category:Enantiopure drugs]] [[Category:Drugs wey Merck & Co. develop]] [[Category:Pyrrolidines]] [[Category:Teratogens]] [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] jzxl3k6qmkjcb3rwyd5y26636i0pqo8 0 27010 103587 98943 2026-06-17T21:44:02Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more information 103587 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Oti River''' anaa '''Pendjari River''' (French: ''Rivière Pendjari'') be an international river insyd [[West Africa]]. E dey rise insyd [[Benin]], dey form de border between Benin den [[Burkina Faso]], dey flow thru [[Togo]], den dey join de Volta River insyd [[Ghana]]. == Geography == De Oti River be about 520 km (323 mi) long. Ein headwaters be insyd Benin den Burkina Faso, e dey flow thru Benin den Togo den dey join de Volta River insyd Ghana. Tributaries on de left bank insyd Togo dey originate from de Togo Mountains to de south. One of ein eastern tributaries be de Kara River, de confluence be on de Ghana–Togo border, wer anoda tributary, de Koumongou River, dey join from de south. Na de mouth of de Oti formerly be on de Volta River, buh e now dey flow into [[Lake Volta]] reservoir insyd Ghana.<ref name="Atlas">{{Cite book |last=Philip's |title=Atlas of the World |publisher=Reed International |year=1994 |isbn=0-540-05831-9 |page=101}}</ref> De river dey cross de northern part of Togo insyd a savannah-clad valley sam 40 anaa 50 km (25 anaa 31 mi) wide. Along de margins of de river be gallery forest wich dey flood periodically. De dry season hie dey last from about November til April, wey de hot dry Harmattan wind dey blow from de north. At dis time of de year de river ein flow be minimal. Both de Oti den de Koumongou get floodplains, sam 10 den 4 km (6.2 den 2.5 mi) wide, respectively. Dese dey flood extensively during de wet season, buh during de dry season dem cam be dry, dusty plains, plus de occasional pond anaa lake insyd a depression. Cattle dey graze on de floodplains during de dry season. Der sanso be sam small-scale growing of crops, den de hunting of game dey take place der.<ref name="Hughes">{{Cite book |last=Hughes, R.H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VLjafeXa3gMC&pg=PA443 |title=A Directory of African Wetlands |publisher=IUCN |year=1992 |isbn=978-2-88032-949-5 |pages=443–447}}</ref> === International borders === De river dey form part of de international borders between [[Ghana]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Togo]], den [[Benin]].<ref name="Rivers and Lakes">{{Cite web |title=Ghana - Rivers and Lakes |url=http://www.countrystudies.us/ghana/30.htm |access-date=2017-08-17 |website=www.countrystudies.us}}</ref> === Parks === De Oti River dey flow thru Pendjari National Park insyd Benin<ref>{{Cite web |title=Parc National de la Pendjari |url=http://www.pendjari.net/en/ |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170714032607/http://www.pendjari.net/en/ |archive-date=14 July 2017 |access-date=21 November 2016}}</ref> den de Oti-Kéran National Park insyd Togo.<ref name="Hughes">{{Cite book |last=Hughes, R.H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VLjafeXa3gMC&pg=PA443 |title=A Directory of African Wetlands |publisher=IUCN |year=1992 |isbn=978-2-88032-949-5 |pages=443–447}}</ref> == Length and Basin Characteristics == The Oti River get approximate length of about 520 km.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Environment |first=Gregory Sousa in |date=2017-04-25 |title=The Major Rivers Of Ghana |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-major-rivers-of-ghana.html |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=WorldAtlas |language=en-US}}</ref> The river basin dey experience strong seasonal changes. Most of the tributaries dey reduce their water flow or even dry up during the dry season.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Koch |first=Hagen |last2=Yangouliba |first2=Gnibga Issoufou |last3=Liersch |first3=Stefan |date=2025-03-13 |title=From Data Scarcity to Solutions: Hydrological and Water Management Modeling in a Highly Managed River Basin |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/17/6/823 |journal=Water |language=en |volume=17 |issue=6 |pages=823 |doi=10.3390/w17060823 |issn=2073-4441}}</ref> == Hydrology and seasonal flow == The Oti River dey highly seasonal. The river discharge dey reach en highest level during the rainy season, while during the Harmattan dry season the water flow dey become very low.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |title=Burkina Faso {{!}} Coup, Map, Capital, Flag, Government, & History {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Burkina-Faso?utm |access-date=2026-06-17 |work=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}}</ref> This seasonal change dey cause regular flooding for the surrounding floodplains, especially for Togo and northern Ghana.<ref name=":1" /> == Ecology and environment == The Oti River basin include savannah ecosystems, floodplains and gallery forests wey support seasonal farming and livestock grazing.<ref name=":1" /> When the river water level reduce during the dry season, people dey use the floodplains for grazing animals and cultivating crops.<ref name=":1" /> == Economic and human importance == The river be important water resource for agriculture, livestock production and local fishing communities across Burkina Faso, Togo and Ghana.<ref name=":0" /> The river too support irrigation potential and rural livelihoods inside the Volta Basin, wey be one of the most important hydrological systems for West Africa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Volta Basin |url=https://www.fao.org/4/W4347E/w4347e0u.htm?utm |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=www.fao.org}}</ref>. [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Volta River]] [[Category:Rivers of Benin]] [[Category:Rivers of Burkina Faso]] [[Category:Rivers of Ghana]] [[Category:Rivers of Togo]] [[Category:Lake Volta]] [[Category:Benin–Burkina Faso border]] [[Category:Benin–Togo border]] [[Category:Burkina Faso–Togo border]] [[Category:Ghana–Togo border]] [[Category:Ramsar sites in Benin]] [[Category:Border rivers]] == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Volta River]] [[Category:Rivers of Benin]] [[Category:Rivers of Burkina Faso]] [[Category:Rivers insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Rivers of Togo]] [[Category:Lake Volta]] [[Category:Benin–Burkina Faso border]] [[Category:Benin–Togo border]] [[Category:Burkina Faso–Togo border]] [[Category:Ghana–Togo border]] [[Category:Ramsar sites insyd Benin]] [[Category:Border rivers]] nlbivcyglaj7xk02ep8ibn7vwtcxgf7 0 27179 103588 100089 2026-06-17T21:50:27Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 103588 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Senegal River''' (Serer: ''"Seen O Gal"'' anaa "Senegal" - compound of de&nbsp;Serer term "Seen" anaa "Sene" anaa "Sen" (from&nbsp;Roog Seen, Supreme Deity insyd&nbsp;Serer religion) den "O Gal" (wey dey mean "body of water")); Wolof: ''Dexug Senegaal'', Arabic: نهر السنغال, romanized: ''Nahr as-Siniġāl'', French: ''Fleuve Sénégal'') be a 1086-kilometre-long (675 mi) river insyd [[West Africa]]; much of ein length dey mark part of de border between [[Senegal]] den [[Mauritania]]. E get a drainage basin of 270000 km2 (100000 sq mi), a mean flow of 680 m3/s (24,000 cu ft/s), den an annual discharge of 21.5 km3 (5.2 cu mi). Important tributaries be de Falémé River, Karakoro River, den de Gorgol River. De river dey divide into two branches once e pass Kaédi. De left branch, dem call de Doué, dey run parallel to de main river to de north. After 200 km (120 mi) de two branches rejoin a few kilometers downstream of Podor. Insyd 1972 [[Mali]], Mauritania den Senegal found de Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Sénégal (OMVS) to manage de river basin. [[Guinea]] join insyd 2005. As of 2012, na only very limited use be made of de river for de transportation of goods den passengers. Na de OMVS look at de feasibility of creating a navigable channel 55 m (180 ft) in width between de small town of Ambidédi insyd [[Mali]] den Saint-Louis, a distance of 905 km (562 mi).E go give landlocked Mali a direct route to de [[Atlantic Ocean]]. De aquatic fauna insyd de Senegal River basin be closely associated plus dat of de [[Gambia River]] basin, wey de two be usually combined under a single ecoregion dem know as de Senegal-Gambia Catchments. Only three species of frogs den one fish be endemic to dis ecoregion. De river get two large dams along ein course, de Manantali Dam insyd [[Mali]] den de Maka-Diama Dam downstream on de Mauritania-Senegal border. In between be de Félou Hydroelectric Plant, dem build insyd 1927, buh dem replace insyd 2014. De construction of de Gouina Hydroelectric Plant upstream of Felou at Gouina Falls begin insyd 2013. == Geography == [[File:Senegal River Saint Louis.jpg|thumb|Fishermen for Senegal River estuary bank near Saint-Louis, Senegal]] Senegal River source na Semefé (Bakoye) River plus Bafing River. Both rivers start from Guinea. Dem join small for Guinea-Mali border before dem meet for Bafoulabé inside Mali. From there, Senegal River dey flow go west den north through Talari Gorges near Galougo, pass Gouina Falls, before e continue gently pass Kayes, where Kolimbiné River join am. After Karakoro River join am, the river continue along Mali-Mauritania border for some kilometres reach Bakel, where Falémé River join am. Falémé River too start from Guinea and pass part of Guinea-Mali border before e form most of Senegal-Mali border till Bakel. From there, Senegal River continue through dry northern Senegal, dey form border between Senegal and Mauritania before e enter Atlantic Ocean. For Kaedi, Gorgol River from Mauritania join am. The river pass Boghé, reach Richard Toll where Ferlo River from Lac de Guiers side join am. After that e pass Rosso and reach Saint-Louis. Before e empty inside Atlantic Ocean, one narrow sand strip wey dem dey call Langue de Barbarie separate the river from the ocean. The river get two big dams. One be Manantali Dam for Mali wey dem use am for different purposes, and the other one be Maka-Diama Dam near Mauritania-Senegal border close to where the river enter the sea. This dam stop salt water from the Atlantic make e no enter upstream. Between Manantali Dam and Maka-Diama Dam dey Félou Hydroelectric Plant. Dem first complete am for 1927 and e dey use weir. Dem replace the old power station for 2014. For 2013 too, construction start for Gouina Hydroelectric Plant upstream from Félou near Gouina Falls. Senegal River drainage basin cover {{Convert|270,000|km2|abbr=on|comma=gaps}}, with average flow of {{Convert|680|m3/s|abbr=on|comma=gaps}} and yearly discharge of {{Convert|21.5|km3|abbr=on}}.<ref name=whycos>{{citation | title=SENEGAL-HYCOS: Renforcement des capacités nationales et régionales d'observation, transmission et traitement de données pour contribuer au développement durable du bassin du Fleuve Sénégal (Document de projet préliminaire) | publisher=Système Mondial d’Observation du Cycle Hydrologique (WHYCOS) | url=http://www.whycos.org/IMG/pdf/Senegal_HYCOS_september_2007.pdf | year=2007 | language=fr | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228165424/http://www.whycos.org/IMG/pdf/Senegal_HYCOS_september_2007.pdf | archive-date=28 December 2013 | df=dmy-all }}.</ref><!--actually p3--><ref name=":0">[http://www.grdc.sr.unh.edu/html/Polygons/P1812100.html UNH/GRDC Composite Runoff Fields V 1.0 data for Dagana].</ref> Important tributaries be Falémé River, Karakoro River and Gorgol River. Downstream from Kaédi, the river divide into two branches. The left branch wey dem dey call Doué River dey run side by side with the main river for north. After {{Convert|200|km|abbr=on}}, the two branches join again small distance after Pondor. The long land between the two branches na Île á Morfil.<ref name=whycos/><!--actually p5--> For 1972, Mali, Mauritania and Senegal create Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Sénégal (OMVS) make dem manage the whole river basin together. Guinea join the organisation for 2005. As e be now, people no dey use the river plenty for transport of goods and passengers. OMVS don study whether dem fit create navigable channel wey go be {{Convert|55|m|abbr=on}} wide from Ambidédi for Mali reach Saint-Louis, distance of {{Convert|905|km|abbr=on}}. If dem build am, e go give Mali direct route go Atlantic Ocean.<ref name=whycos/><!--page 20--> Animals wey dey inside Senegal River basin dey closely relate to those for Gambia River basin, so scientists dey group the two together under one freshwater ecoregion wey dem dey call Senegal-Gambia Catchments. Even though the area get moderate species diversity, only three frog species and one fish species na endemic to this ecoregion.<ref>Freshwater Ecoregions of the World (2008). ''[http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=509 Senegal-Gambia.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005204342/http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=509 |date=5 October 2011 }}'' Accessed 2 May 2011.</ref> == History == De area be previously occupied by de Serer people, wey dey follow dema religious den ethnic persecution by Islamic forces insyd de 11th century, result in de Serer exodus to de south.<ref name="Villalón2006p54">{{cite book |author=Villalón, Leonardo A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xFC1KUbXJ6gC&pg=PA54 |title=Islamic Society and State Power in Senegal: Disciples and Citizens in Fatick |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-03232-2 |pages=54–55}}, Quote: "Serer oral tradition recounts the group's origins in the Senegal River valley, where it was part of, or closely related to, the same group as the ancestors of today's [[Toucouleur people|Tukulor]]."</ref><ref name=":1">Galvan, Dennis Charles,&nbsp;''The State Must Be Our Master of Fire: How Peasants Craft Culturally Sustainable Development in Senegal,'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004, p.&nbsp;51</ref><ref name=":2">Berg, Elizabeth; Wan, Ruth; and Lau, Ruth (2009).&nbsp;''Senegal''. Marshall Cavendish. {{ISBN|9780761444817}}, p. 63</ref><ref name=":3">Page, Willie F., ''Encyclopedia of African history and culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500)'', pp. 209, 676. Vol.2, Facts on File (2001), {{ISBN|0-8160-4472-4}}</ref><ref name=":4">Streissguth, Thomas, "Senegal in Pictures, Visual Geography", Second Series, p. 23, Twenty-First Century Books (2009), {{ISBN|1-57505-951-7}}</ref><ref name=":5">Oliver, Roland Anthony; & Fage, J. D.,; "Journal of African history", Volume 10, p. 367. Cambridge University Press (1969)</ref><ref name=":6">Mwakikagile, Godfrey, "Ethnic Diversity and Integration in The Gambia: The Land, The People and The Culture," (2010), p. 11, {{ISBN|9987-9322-2-3}}</ref> == References == <references /> == Read further == * {{cite book |last=Betz |first=R. L. |title=The Mapping of Africa: a cartobibliography of printed maps of the African continent to 1700 |publisher=Hes & de Graaf |year=2007 |isbn=978-90-6194-489-8}} * {{cite book |last=Davidson |first=Basil |title=West Africa Before the Colonial Era: a history to 1850 |publisher=Longman |year=1998 |isbn=0-582-31852-1 |location=London}} * {{cite book |last=De la Roncière |first=Charles |title=La découverte de l'Afrique au moyen âge |publisher=Société Royale de Géographie d'Égypte |others=2 volumes |year=1925 |location=Cairo}} == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070629065341/http://zope0.itcilo.org/delta/lmdd2003/news/1067611432/1068825691/presentation%20ressources%20en%20eau%20senegal.ppt The Hydrology of Senegal] (PowerPoint presentation) {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Senegal River}} [[Category:Senegal River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Senegal]] [[Category:Rivers of Mauritania]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Mauritania–Senegal border]] [[Category:Rivers of Mali]] [[Category:Lowest points of countries]] [[Category:Serer history]] 2lg540j72gvxh1tvj6gp09tms98w8nn 103589 103588 2026-06-17T21:54:03Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 /* History */ added more content 103589 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Senegal River''' (Serer: ''"Seen O Gal"'' anaa "Senegal" - compound of de&nbsp;Serer term "Seen" anaa "Sene" anaa "Sen" (from&nbsp;Roog Seen, Supreme Deity insyd&nbsp;Serer religion) den "O Gal" (wey dey mean "body of water")); Wolof: ''Dexug Senegaal'', Arabic: نهر السنغال, romanized: ''Nahr as-Siniġāl'', French: ''Fleuve Sénégal'') be a 1086-kilometre-long (675 mi) river insyd [[West Africa]]; much of ein length dey mark part of de border between [[Senegal]] den [[Mauritania]]. E get a drainage basin of 270000 km2 (100000 sq mi), a mean flow of 680 m3/s (24,000 cu ft/s), den an annual discharge of 21.5 km3 (5.2 cu mi). Important tributaries be de Falémé River, Karakoro River, den de Gorgol River. De river dey divide into two branches once e pass Kaédi. De left branch, dem call de Doué, dey run parallel to de main river to de north. After 200 km (120 mi) de two branches rejoin a few kilometers downstream of Podor. Insyd 1972 [[Mali]], Mauritania den Senegal found de Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Sénégal (OMVS) to manage de river basin. [[Guinea]] join insyd 2005. As of 2012, na only very limited use be made of de river for de transportation of goods den passengers. Na de OMVS look at de feasibility of creating a navigable channel 55 m (180 ft) in width between de small town of Ambidédi insyd [[Mali]] den Saint-Louis, a distance of 905 km (562 mi).E go give landlocked Mali a direct route to de [[Atlantic Ocean]]. De aquatic fauna insyd de Senegal River basin be closely associated plus dat of de [[Gambia River]] basin, wey de two be usually combined under a single ecoregion dem know as de Senegal-Gambia Catchments. Only three species of frogs den one fish be endemic to dis ecoregion. De river get two large dams along ein course, de Manantali Dam insyd [[Mali]] den de Maka-Diama Dam downstream on de Mauritania-Senegal border. In between be de Félou Hydroelectric Plant, dem build insyd 1927, buh dem replace insyd 2014. De construction of de Gouina Hydroelectric Plant upstream of Felou at Gouina Falls begin insyd 2013. == Geography == [[File:Senegal River Saint Louis.jpg|thumb|Fishermen for Senegal River estuary bank near Saint-Louis, Senegal]] Senegal River source na Semefé (Bakoye) River plus Bafing River. Both rivers start from Guinea. Dem join small for Guinea-Mali border before dem meet for Bafoulabé inside Mali. From there, Senegal River dey flow go west den north through Talari Gorges near Galougo, pass Gouina Falls, before e continue gently pass Kayes, where Kolimbiné River join am. After Karakoro River join am, the river continue along Mali-Mauritania border for some kilometres reach Bakel, where Falémé River join am. Falémé River too start from Guinea and pass part of Guinea-Mali border before e form most of Senegal-Mali border till Bakel. From there, Senegal River continue through dry northern Senegal, dey form border between Senegal and Mauritania before e enter Atlantic Ocean. For Kaedi, Gorgol River from Mauritania join am. The river pass Boghé, reach Richard Toll where Ferlo River from Lac de Guiers side join am. After that e pass Rosso and reach Saint-Louis. Before e empty inside Atlantic Ocean, one narrow sand strip wey dem dey call Langue de Barbarie separate the river from the ocean. The river get two big dams. One be Manantali Dam for Mali wey dem use am for different purposes, and the other one be Maka-Diama Dam near Mauritania-Senegal border close to where the river enter the sea. This dam stop salt water from the Atlantic make e no enter upstream. Between Manantali Dam and Maka-Diama Dam dey Félou Hydroelectric Plant. Dem first complete am for 1927 and e dey use weir. Dem replace the old power station for 2014. For 2013 too, construction start for Gouina Hydroelectric Plant upstream from Félou near Gouina Falls. Senegal River drainage basin cover {{Convert|270,000|km2|abbr=on|comma=gaps}}, with average flow of {{Convert|680|m3/s|abbr=on|comma=gaps}} and yearly discharge of {{Convert|21.5|km3|abbr=on}}.<ref name=whycos>{{citation | title=SENEGAL-HYCOS: Renforcement des capacités nationales et régionales d'observation, transmission et traitement de données pour contribuer au développement durable du bassin du Fleuve Sénégal (Document de projet préliminaire) | publisher=Système Mondial d’Observation du Cycle Hydrologique (WHYCOS) | url=http://www.whycos.org/IMG/pdf/Senegal_HYCOS_september_2007.pdf | year=2007 | language=fr | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228165424/http://www.whycos.org/IMG/pdf/Senegal_HYCOS_september_2007.pdf | archive-date=28 December 2013 | df=dmy-all }}.</ref><!--actually p3--><ref name=":0">[http://www.grdc.sr.unh.edu/html/Polygons/P1812100.html UNH/GRDC Composite Runoff Fields V 1.0 data for Dagana].</ref> Important tributaries be Falémé River, Karakoro River and Gorgol River. Downstream from Kaédi, the river divide into two branches. The left branch wey dem dey call Doué River dey run side by side with the main river for north. After {{Convert|200|km|abbr=on}}, the two branches join again small distance after Pondor. The long land between the two branches na Île á Morfil.<ref name=whycos/><!--actually p5--> For 1972, Mali, Mauritania and Senegal create Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Sénégal (OMVS) make dem manage the whole river basin together. Guinea join the organisation for 2005. As e be now, people no dey use the river plenty for transport of goods and passengers. OMVS don study whether dem fit create navigable channel wey go be {{Convert|55|m|abbr=on}} wide from Ambidédi for Mali reach Saint-Louis, distance of {{Convert|905|km|abbr=on}}. If dem build am, e go give Mali direct route go Atlantic Ocean.<ref name=whycos/><!--page 20--> Animals wey dey inside Senegal River basin dey closely relate to those for Gambia River basin, so scientists dey group the two together under one freshwater ecoregion wey dem dey call Senegal-Gambia Catchments. Even though the area get moderate species diversity, only three frog species and one fish species na endemic to this ecoregion.<ref>Freshwater Ecoregions of the World (2008). ''[http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=509 Senegal-Gambia.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005204342/http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=509 |date=5 October 2011 }}'' Accessed 2 May 2011.</ref> == History == De area be previously occupied by de Serer people, wey dey follow dema religious den ethnic persecution by Islamic forces insyd de 11th century, result in de Serer exodus to de south.<ref name="Villalón2006p54">{{cite book |author=Villalón, Leonardo A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xFC1KUbXJ6gC&pg=PA54 |title=Islamic Society and State Power in Senegal: Disciples and Citizens in Fatick |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-03232-2 |pages=54–55}}, Quote: "Serer oral tradition recounts the group's origins in the Senegal River valley, where it was part of, or closely related to, the same group as the ancestors of today's [[Toucouleur people|Tukulor]]."</ref><ref name=":1">Galvan, Dennis Charles,&nbsp;''The State Must Be Our Master of Fire: How Peasants Craft Culturally Sustainable Development in Senegal,'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004, p.&nbsp;51</ref><ref name=":2">Berg, Elizabeth; Wan, Ruth; and Lau, Ruth (2009).&nbsp;''Senegal''. Marshall Cavendish. {{ISBN|9780761444817}}, p. 63</ref><ref name=":3">Page, Willie F., ''Encyclopedia of African history and culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500)'', pp. 209, 676. Vol.2, Facts on File (2001), {{ISBN|0-8160-4472-4}}</ref><ref name=":4">Streissguth, Thomas, "Senegal in Pictures, Visual Geography", Second Series, p. 23, Twenty-First Century Books (2009), {{ISBN|1-57505-951-7}}</ref><ref name=":5">Oliver, Roland Anthony; & Fage, J. D.,; "Journal of African history", Volume 10, p. 367. Cambridge University Press (1969)</ref><ref name=":6">Mwakikagile, Godfrey, "Ethnic Diversity and Integration in The Gambia: The Land, The People and The Culture," (2010), p. 11, {{ISBN|9987-9322-2-3}}</ref> {{See also|Serer history|Serer ancient history|Timeline of Serer history|Takrur#Serer Exodus}} People from early Mediterranean civilizations already know about Senegal River. Pliny the Elder call am ''Bambotus'' (maybe from Phoenician word for hippopotamus), while Claudius Ptolemy call am ''Nias''.<ref>Pliny, ''Natural History'', Lib. 5, Ch.1 ([https://books.google.com/books?id=VzwZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA380 p. 380])</ref> Around 450 BCE, Hanno the Carthaginian pass the river during him sea journey from Carthage through the Pillars of Herakles to Theon Ochema (possibly Mount Cameroon) inside Gulf of Guinea. Trade continue between this area and the Mediterranean world until Carthage destroy for 146 BCE together with ein West African trade network. === Arab sources === For Early Middle Ages (around 800 CE), Senegal River connect West Africa and Mediterranean again through the Trans-Saharan trade route between Morocco and Ghana Empire. Arab geographers like al-Masudi of Baghdad (957), al-Bakri of Spain (1068), and al-Idrisi of Sicily (1154) write some of the earliest detailed descriptions of the Senegal River.<ref>A translation of al-Bakri's 1068 account is found in Levtzion & Hopkins, (2000, ''Corpus'': ([https://books.google.com/books?id=L3tNlgQmT9wC&pg=PA77 p. 77]). In French, see Monteil (1968). For an attempt to reconstruct the Senegal river's course from the accounts of al-Bakri and al-Idrisi, see Cooley (1841: [https://books.google.com/books?id=380NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA52 p. 52]).</ref> Early Arab geographers believe say upper Senegal River and upper Niger River connect together and form one big river wey dey flow from east go west. Dem call am "Western Nile".<ref>The term "Nile" seems to have been applied quite early to the Senegal. During the Arab conquest of North Africa in the 8th century, Ifriqiyan commanders launched several expeditionary raids from the Sous valley against the desert-dwelling nomadic Berbers of Western Sahara. There is a report from an Arab commander from the 750s who claims to have reached as far south as "the Nile" (i.e. the Senegal). See Hrbek (1992: p.308).</ref> Some people believe say the river be western branch of the Egyptian Nile or both rivers come from the same source, like the Mountains of the Moon, Ptolemy's Gir, or the Biblical Gihon stream.<ref>Geographia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4ksBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA222 Book IV, Chapter 6, Section 13].</ref><ref>e.g. Leo Africanus, [https://books.google.com/books?id=rmcMAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Leo%20Africanus%22%20Niger&pg=PA124 p. 124]</ref> [[File:Senegal River according to al-Bakri.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Western Nile (Senegal-Niger River) according to al-Bakri (1068)]] Arab geographers Abd al-Hassan Ali ibn Omar (1230), Ibn Said al-Maghribi (1274), and Abulfeda (1331) call Senegal River the "Nile of Ghana" (Nil Gana or Nili Ganah).<ref>See R.H. Major (1868) ''Life of Prince Henry'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=UfE5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA114 p. 114]</ref> Because Senegal River enter the heart of the gold-producing Ghana Empire and later Mali Empire, Trans-Saharan traders give am the famous nickname "River of Gold". Stories about this River of Gold spread reach European merchants wey dey trade for Morocco ports. Arab historians even record at least three different Arab sea expeditions, including one by eight ''mughrarin'' ("wanderers") from Lisbon before 1147, wey try sail down the Atlantic coast to look for the mouth of the Senegal River.<ref>See Beazley (1899: p. xliv, lxxv)</ref> == References == <references /> == Read further == * {{cite book |last=Betz |first=R. L. |title=The Mapping of Africa: a cartobibliography of printed maps of the African continent to 1700 |publisher=Hes & de Graaf |year=2007 |isbn=978-90-6194-489-8}} * {{cite book |last=Davidson |first=Basil |title=West Africa Before the Colonial Era: a history to 1850 |publisher=Longman |year=1998 |isbn=0-582-31852-1 |location=London}} * {{cite book |last=De la Roncière |first=Charles |title=La découverte de l'Afrique au moyen âge |publisher=Société Royale de Géographie d'Égypte |others=2 volumes |year=1925 |location=Cairo}} == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070629065341/http://zope0.itcilo.org/delta/lmdd2003/news/1067611432/1068825691/presentation%20ressources%20en%20eau%20senegal.ppt The Hydrology of Senegal] (PowerPoint presentation) {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Senegal River}} [[Category:Senegal River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Senegal]] [[Category:Rivers of Mauritania]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Mauritania–Senegal border]] [[Category:Rivers of Mali]] [[Category:Lowest points of countries]] [[Category:Serer history]] 10uipgia9nj559cc77nud8rxybm99kq 103590 103589 2026-06-17T21:57:04Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 /* Arab sources */ added more content 103590 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Senegal River''' (Serer: ''"Seen O Gal"'' anaa "Senegal" - compound of de&nbsp;Serer term "Seen" anaa "Sene" anaa "Sen" (from&nbsp;Roog Seen, Supreme Deity insyd&nbsp;Serer religion) den "O Gal" (wey dey mean "body of water")); Wolof: ''Dexug Senegaal'', Arabic: نهر السنغال, romanized: ''Nahr as-Siniġāl'', French: ''Fleuve Sénégal'') be a 1086-kilometre-long (675 mi) river insyd [[West Africa]]; much of ein length dey mark part of de border between [[Senegal]] den [[Mauritania]]. E get a drainage basin of 270000 km2 (100000 sq mi), a mean flow of 680 m3/s (24,000 cu ft/s), den an annual discharge of 21.5 km3 (5.2 cu mi). Important tributaries be de Falémé River, Karakoro River, den de Gorgol River. De river dey divide into two branches once e pass Kaédi. De left branch, dem call de Doué, dey run parallel to de main river to de north. After 200 km (120 mi) de two branches rejoin a few kilometers downstream of Podor. Insyd 1972 [[Mali]], Mauritania den Senegal found de Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Sénégal (OMVS) to manage de river basin. [[Guinea]] join insyd 2005. As of 2012, na only very limited use be made of de river for de transportation of goods den passengers. Na de OMVS look at de feasibility of creating a navigable channel 55 m (180 ft) in width between de small town of Ambidédi insyd [[Mali]] den Saint-Louis, a distance of 905 km (562 mi).E go give landlocked Mali a direct route to de [[Atlantic Ocean]]. De aquatic fauna insyd de Senegal River basin be closely associated plus dat of de [[Gambia River]] basin, wey de two be usually combined under a single ecoregion dem know as de Senegal-Gambia Catchments. Only three species of frogs den one fish be endemic to dis ecoregion. De river get two large dams along ein course, de Manantali Dam insyd [[Mali]] den de Maka-Diama Dam downstream on de Mauritania-Senegal border. In between be de Félou Hydroelectric Plant, dem build insyd 1927, buh dem replace insyd 2014. De construction of de Gouina Hydroelectric Plant upstream of Felou at Gouina Falls begin insyd 2013. == Geography == [[File:Senegal River Saint Louis.jpg|thumb|Fishermen for Senegal River estuary bank near Saint-Louis, Senegal]] Senegal River source na Semefé (Bakoye) River plus Bafing River. Both rivers start from Guinea. Dem join small for Guinea-Mali border before dem meet for Bafoulabé inside Mali. From there, Senegal River dey flow go west den north through Talari Gorges near Galougo, pass Gouina Falls, before e continue gently pass Kayes, where Kolimbiné River join am. After Karakoro River join am, the river continue along Mali-Mauritania border for some kilometres reach Bakel, where Falémé River join am. Falémé River too start from Guinea and pass part of Guinea-Mali border before e form most of Senegal-Mali border till Bakel. From there, Senegal River continue through dry northern Senegal, dey form border between Senegal and Mauritania before e enter Atlantic Ocean. For Kaedi, Gorgol River from Mauritania join am. The river pass Boghé, reach Richard Toll where Ferlo River from Lac de Guiers side join am. After that e pass Rosso and reach Saint-Louis. Before e empty inside Atlantic Ocean, one narrow sand strip wey dem dey call Langue de Barbarie separate the river from the ocean. The river get two big dams. One be Manantali Dam for Mali wey dem use am for different purposes, and the other one be Maka-Diama Dam near Mauritania-Senegal border close to where the river enter the sea. This dam stop salt water from the Atlantic make e no enter upstream. Between Manantali Dam and Maka-Diama Dam dey Félou Hydroelectric Plant. Dem first complete am for 1927 and e dey use weir. Dem replace the old power station for 2014. For 2013 too, construction start for Gouina Hydroelectric Plant upstream from Félou near Gouina Falls. Senegal River drainage basin cover {{Convert|270,000|km2|abbr=on|comma=gaps}}, with average flow of {{Convert|680|m3/s|abbr=on|comma=gaps}} and yearly discharge of {{Convert|21.5|km3|abbr=on}}.<ref name=whycos>{{citation | title=SENEGAL-HYCOS: Renforcement des capacités nationales et régionales d'observation, transmission et traitement de données pour contribuer au développement durable du bassin du Fleuve Sénégal (Document de projet préliminaire) | publisher=Système Mondial d’Observation du Cycle Hydrologique (WHYCOS) | url=http://www.whycos.org/IMG/pdf/Senegal_HYCOS_september_2007.pdf | year=2007 | language=fr | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228165424/http://www.whycos.org/IMG/pdf/Senegal_HYCOS_september_2007.pdf | archive-date=28 December 2013 | df=dmy-all }}.</ref><!--actually p3--><ref name=":0">[http://www.grdc.sr.unh.edu/html/Polygons/P1812100.html UNH/GRDC Composite Runoff Fields V 1.0 data for Dagana].</ref> Important tributaries be Falémé River, Karakoro River and Gorgol River. Downstream from Kaédi, the river divide into two branches. The left branch wey dem dey call Doué River dey run side by side with the main river for north. After {{Convert|200|km|abbr=on}}, the two branches join again small distance after Pondor. The long land between the two branches na Île á Morfil.<ref name=whycos/><!--actually p5--> For 1972, Mali, Mauritania and Senegal create Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Sénégal (OMVS) make dem manage the whole river basin together. Guinea join the organisation for 2005. As e be now, people no dey use the river plenty for transport of goods and passengers. OMVS don study whether dem fit create navigable channel wey go be {{Convert|55|m|abbr=on}} wide from Ambidédi for Mali reach Saint-Louis, distance of {{Convert|905|km|abbr=on}}. If dem build am, e go give Mali direct route go Atlantic Ocean.<ref name=whycos/><!--page 20--> Animals wey dey inside Senegal River basin dey closely relate to those for Gambia River basin, so scientists dey group the two together under one freshwater ecoregion wey dem dey call Senegal-Gambia Catchments. Even though the area get moderate species diversity, only three frog species and one fish species na endemic to this ecoregion.<ref>Freshwater Ecoregions of the World (2008). ''[http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=509 Senegal-Gambia.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005204342/http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=509 |date=5 October 2011 }}'' Accessed 2 May 2011.</ref> == History == De area be previously occupied by de Serer people, wey dey follow dema religious den ethnic persecution by Islamic forces insyd de 11th century, result in de Serer exodus to de south.<ref name="Villalón2006p54">{{cite book |author=Villalón, Leonardo A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xFC1KUbXJ6gC&pg=PA54 |title=Islamic Society and State Power in Senegal: Disciples and Citizens in Fatick |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-03232-2 |pages=54–55}}, Quote: "Serer oral tradition recounts the group's origins in the Senegal River valley, where it was part of, or closely related to, the same group as the ancestors of today's [[Toucouleur people|Tukulor]]."</ref><ref name=":1">Galvan, Dennis Charles,&nbsp;''The State Must Be Our Master of Fire: How Peasants Craft Culturally Sustainable Development in Senegal,'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004, p.&nbsp;51</ref><ref name=":2">Berg, Elizabeth; Wan, Ruth; and Lau, Ruth (2009).&nbsp;''Senegal''. Marshall Cavendish. {{ISBN|9780761444817}}, p. 63</ref><ref name=":3">Page, Willie F., ''Encyclopedia of African history and culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500)'', pp. 209, 676. Vol.2, Facts on File (2001), {{ISBN|0-8160-4472-4}}</ref><ref name=":4">Streissguth, Thomas, "Senegal in Pictures, Visual Geography", Second Series, p. 23, Twenty-First Century Books (2009), {{ISBN|1-57505-951-7}}</ref><ref name=":5">Oliver, Roland Anthony; & Fage, J. D.,; "Journal of African history", Volume 10, p. 367. Cambridge University Press (1969)</ref><ref name=":6">Mwakikagile, Godfrey, "Ethnic Diversity and Integration in The Gambia: The Land, The People and The Culture," (2010), p. 11, {{ISBN|9987-9322-2-3}}</ref> {{See also|Serer history|Serer ancient history|Timeline of Serer history|Takrur#Serer Exodus}} People from early Mediterranean civilizations already know about Senegal River. Pliny the Elder call am ''Bambotus'' (maybe from Phoenician word for hippopotamus), while Claudius Ptolemy call am ''Nias''.<ref>Pliny, ''Natural History'', Lib. 5, Ch.1 ([https://books.google.com/books?id=VzwZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA380 p. 380])</ref> Around 450 BCE, Hanno the Carthaginian pass the river during him sea journey from Carthage through the Pillars of Herakles to Theon Ochema (possibly Mount Cameroon) inside Gulf of Guinea. Trade continue between this area and the Mediterranean world until Carthage destroy for 146 BCE together with ein West African trade network. === Arab sources === For Early Middle Ages (around 800 CE), Senegal River connect West Africa and Mediterranean again through the Trans-Saharan trade route between Morocco and Ghana Empire. Arab geographers like al-Masudi of Baghdad (957), al-Bakri of Spain (1068), and al-Idrisi of Sicily (1154) write some of the earliest detailed descriptions of the Senegal River.<ref>A translation of al-Bakri's 1068 account is found in Levtzion & Hopkins, (2000, ''Corpus'': ([https://books.google.com/books?id=L3tNlgQmT9wC&pg=PA77 p. 77]). In French, see Monteil (1968). For an attempt to reconstruct the Senegal river's course from the accounts of al-Bakri and al-Idrisi, see Cooley (1841: [https://books.google.com/books?id=380NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA52 p. 52]).</ref> Early Arab geographers believe say upper Senegal River and upper Niger River connect together and form one big river wey dey flow from east go west. Dem call am "Western Nile".<ref>The term "Nile" seems to have been applied quite early to the Senegal. During the Arab conquest of North Africa in the 8th century, Ifriqiyan commanders launched several expeditionary raids from the Sous valley against the desert-dwelling nomadic Berbers of Western Sahara. There is a report from an Arab commander from the 750s who claims to have reached as far south as "the Nile" (i.e. the Senegal). See Hrbek (1992: p.308).</ref> Some people believe say the river be western branch of the Egyptian Nile or both rivers come from the same source, like the Mountains of the Moon, Ptolemy's Gir, or the Biblical Gihon stream.<ref>Geographia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4ksBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA222 Book IV, Chapter 6, Section 13].</ref><ref>e.g. Leo Africanus, [https://books.google.com/books?id=rmcMAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Leo%20Africanus%22%20Niger&pg=PA124 p. 124]</ref> [[File:Senegal River according to al-Bakri.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Western Nile (Senegal-Niger River) according to al-Bakri (1068)]] Arab geographers Abd al-Hassan Ali ibn Omar (1230), Ibn Said al-Maghribi (1274), and Abulfeda (1331) call Senegal River the "Nile of Ghana" (Nil Gana or Nili Ganah).<ref>See R.H. Major (1868) ''Life of Prince Henry'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=UfE5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA114 p. 114]</ref> Because Senegal River enter the heart of the gold-producing Ghana Empire and later Mali Empire, Trans-Saharan traders give am the famous nickname "River of Gold". Stories about this River of Gold spread reach European merchants wey dey trade for Morocco ports. Arab historians even record at least three different Arab sea expeditions, including one by eight ''mughrarin'' ("wanderers") from Lisbon before 1147, wey try sail down the Atlantic coast to look for the mouth of the Senegal River.<ref>See Beazley (1899: p. xliv, lxxv)</ref> === Cartographic representation === [[File:Senegal River according to al-Idrisi.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Western Nile (Senegal-Niger River) according to Muhammad al-Idrisi (1154)]] Based on Classical stories and Arab writings, the "River of Gold" begin show for European maps from the 14th century. For the Hereford Mappa Mundi (around 1300), one river wey dem label ''Nilus Fluvius'' show parallel to Africa coast, although e no connect to the Atlantic Ocean because e end inside one lake. The map also show giant ants wey dey dig gold from the river sand, with the note "''Hic grandes formice auream serican [or servant] arenas''".<ref>Bevan and Phillott (1873: [https://books.google.com/books?id=u_oHAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA105 p. 105].</ref> For Pietro Vesconte map wey e prepare for Marino Sanuto around 1320, one unnamed river dey flow from inside Africa into the Atlantic Ocean. The 1351 Medici-Laurentian Atlas show both the Egyptian Nile and the Western Nile say dem come from the same mountain range inside Africa, together with the note "''Ilic coligitur aureaum''".<ref>See João de Andrade Corvo (1882) ''Roteiro de Lisboa a Goa por D. João de Castro'', Lisbon. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Q8M5AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA68 p.68n.]</ref> The portolan chart by Giovanni da Carignano (1310s–1320s) also label the river as ''iste fluuis exit de nilo ubi multum aurum repperitur''.<ref>Winter (1962: p. 18)</ref> Later portolan charts, beginning with the 1367 chart by Domenico and Francesco Pizzigano and continuing with the 1375 Catalan Atlas and the 1413 chart by Mecia de Viladestes, show the "River of Gold" flowing into the Atlantic Ocean somewhere south of Cape Bojador. Around this same period, many Europeans believe say Cape Bojador be dangerous place wey sailors no fit pass, maybe because Trans-Saharan traders no want sea trade replace their land trade. Many maps show one big island inside the middle of the river wey dem call the "Island of Gold". Al-Masudi first mention am, al-Idrisi call am ''Wangara'', while the Pizzigani brothers call am ''Palolus''. Many researchers believe say this "island" actually represent the Bambuk-Buré goldfields wey rivers surround on almost every side.<ref>Delafosse (1912: v.1,p.55), Crone (1937: p.xv), Mauny (1961: p.302), Levtzion (1973: p.155). However, McIntosh (1981) suggests an alternative identification of this riverine "island" to be the Djenné area, around the bend of the Niger.</ref> [[Image:Palolus river (Senegal-Niger) in 1413 Mecia de Viladestes map.jpg|thumb|1000px|center|Course of the "River of Gold" (Senegal-Niger) in the 1413 portolan chart of Mecia de Viladestes.]] The 1413 portolan chart by Mecia de Viladestes give one of the most detailed European pictures of the Senegal River before Portuguese explorers reach the area during the 1440s. The map label the river as "''riu del or''" ("River of Gold") and place am well south of Cape Bojador. The map also include many notes about the plenty gold and ivory wey dey the area. {{Quote|"This river is called Wad al-Nil and also is called the River of Gold, for one can here obtain the gold of Palolus. And know that the greater part of those that live here occupy themselves collecting gold on the shores of the river which, at its mouth, is a league wide, and deep enough for the largest ship of the world."<ref>"Aquest flum es apelat ued anil axi matex es apelat riu de lor per tal com si requyl lor de palola. Et scire debeatis quod major pars gentium in partibus istis habitantium sunt electi ad colligendum aurum ipso flumine, qui habet latitudinem unius legue et fondum pro majori nave mundi"</ref>}} [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|thumb|Slave trade along the Senegal River, kingdom of Cayor]] The map also show the galley of Jaume Ferrer close to the coast, referring to ein 1346 voyage. One golden island at the river mouth probably represent Langue de Barbarie or Saint-Louis Island. The first town for the river mouth dey labelled "isingan", which some historians believe fit be where the name "Senegal" come from. Farther inland, the map show Takrur, Emperor Mansa Musa of Mali holding one gold nugget, and the capital of Mali Empire beside the river. The map also show the famous "Island of Gold", believed by many scholars to represent the Bambuk-Buré goldfields, together with towns like Timbuktu and Gao connected by one continuous river system. North of the Senegal-Niger system, the map show different oases and stations along the Trans-Saharan trade routes leading to the Mediterranean. It also show rulers from Nubia, Ethiopia and other kingdoms according to European geographical knowledge at that time. One unique feature of the Viladestes map be another river south of the Senegal wey dem label "''flumen gelica''", which some historians believe fit represent the Gambia River. Later, the 1459 Fra Mauro world map show two separate rivers flowing westward from the same inland lake, one labelled "Mas River" and the other "Channel of Gold". Fra Mauro also note say people dey collect gold from the sands of both rivers.<ref>João de Andrade Corvo (1882: p.70)</ref> == References == <references /> == Read further == * {{cite book |last=Betz |first=R. L. |title=The Mapping of Africa: a cartobibliography of printed maps of the African continent to 1700 |publisher=Hes & de Graaf |year=2007 |isbn=978-90-6194-489-8}} * {{cite book |last=Davidson |first=Basil |title=West Africa Before the Colonial Era: a history to 1850 |publisher=Longman |year=1998 |isbn=0-582-31852-1 |location=London}} * {{cite book |last=De la Roncière |first=Charles |title=La découverte de l'Afrique au moyen âge |publisher=Société Royale de Géographie d'Égypte |others=2 volumes |year=1925 |location=Cairo}} == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070629065341/http://zope0.itcilo.org/delta/lmdd2003/news/1067611432/1068825691/presentation%20ressources%20en%20eau%20senegal.ppt The Hydrology of Senegal] (PowerPoint presentation) {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Senegal River}} [[Category:Senegal River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Senegal]] [[Category:Rivers of Mauritania]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Mauritania–Senegal border]] [[Category:Rivers of Mali]] [[Category:Lowest points of countries]] [[Category:Serer history]] pp0w91ljh2p79ipefdvv3q2b3chwrvv 103591 103590 2026-06-17T21:59:18Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 103591 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Senegal River''' (Serer: ''"Seen O Gal"'' anaa "Senegal" - compound of de&nbsp;Serer term "Seen" anaa "Sene" anaa "Sen" (from&nbsp;Roog Seen, Supreme Deity insyd&nbsp;Serer religion) den "O Gal" (wey dey mean "body of water")); Wolof: ''Dexug Senegaal'', Arabic: نهر السنغال, romanized: ''Nahr as-Siniġāl'', French: ''Fleuve Sénégal'') be a 1086-kilometre-long (675 mi) river insyd [[West Africa]]; much of ein length dey mark part of de border between [[Senegal]] den [[Mauritania]]. E get a drainage basin of 270000 km2 (100000 sq mi), a mean flow of 680 m3/s (24,000 cu ft/s), den an annual discharge of 21.5 km3 (5.2 cu mi). Important tributaries be de Falémé River, Karakoro River, den de Gorgol River. De river dey divide into two branches once e pass Kaédi. De left branch, dem call de Doué, dey run parallel to de main river to de north. After 200 km (120 mi) de two branches rejoin a few kilometers downstream of Podor. Insyd 1972 [[Mali]], Mauritania den Senegal found de Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Sénégal (OMVS) to manage de river basin. [[Guinea]] join insyd 2005. As of 2012, na only very limited use be made of de river for de transportation of goods den passengers. Na de OMVS look at de feasibility of creating a navigable channel 55 m (180 ft) in width between de small town of Ambidédi insyd [[Mali]] den Saint-Louis, a distance of 905 km (562 mi).E go give landlocked Mali a direct route to de [[Atlantic Ocean]]. De aquatic fauna insyd de Senegal River basin be closely associated plus dat of de [[Gambia River]] basin, wey de two be usually combined under a single ecoregion dem know as de Senegal-Gambia Catchments. Only three species of frogs den one fish be endemic to dis ecoregion. De river get two large dams along ein course, de Manantali Dam insyd [[Mali]] den de Maka-Diama Dam downstream on de Mauritania-Senegal border. In between be de Félou Hydroelectric Plant, dem build insyd 1927, buh dem replace insyd 2014. De construction of de Gouina Hydroelectric Plant upstream of Felou at Gouina Falls begin insyd 2013. == Geography == [[File:Senegal River Saint Louis.jpg|thumb|Fishermen for Senegal River estuary bank near Saint-Louis, Senegal]] Senegal River source na Semefé (Bakoye) River plus Bafing River. Both rivers start from Guinea. Dem join small for Guinea-Mali border before dem meet for Bafoulabé inside Mali. From there, Senegal River dey flow go west den north through Talari Gorges near Galougo, pass Gouina Falls, before e continue gently pass Kayes, where Kolimbiné River join am. After Karakoro River join am, the river continue along Mali-Mauritania border for some kilometres reach Bakel, where Falémé River join am. Falémé River too start from Guinea and pass part of Guinea-Mali border before e form most of Senegal-Mali border till Bakel. From there, Senegal River continue through dry northern Senegal, dey form border between Senegal and Mauritania before e enter Atlantic Ocean. For Kaedi, Gorgol River from Mauritania join am. The river pass Boghé, reach Richard Toll where Ferlo River from Lac de Guiers side join am. After that e pass Rosso and reach Saint-Louis. Before e empty inside Atlantic Ocean, one narrow sand strip wey dem dey call Langue de Barbarie separate the river from the ocean. The river get two big dams. One be Manantali Dam for Mali wey dem use am for different purposes, and the other one be Maka-Diama Dam near Mauritania-Senegal border close to where the river enter the sea. This dam stop salt water from the Atlantic make e no enter upstream. Between Manantali Dam and Maka-Diama Dam dey Félou Hydroelectric Plant. Dem first complete am for 1927 and e dey use weir. Dem replace the old power station for 2014. For 2013 too, construction start for Gouina Hydroelectric Plant upstream from Félou near Gouina Falls. Senegal River drainage basin cover {{Convert|270,000|km2|abbr=on|comma=gaps}}, with average flow of {{Convert|680|m3/s|abbr=on|comma=gaps}} and yearly discharge of {{Convert|21.5|km3|abbr=on}}.<ref name=whycos>{{citation | title=SENEGAL-HYCOS: Renforcement des capacités nationales et régionales d'observation, transmission et traitement de données pour contribuer au développement durable du bassin du Fleuve Sénégal (Document de projet préliminaire) | publisher=Système Mondial d’Observation du Cycle Hydrologique (WHYCOS) | url=http://www.whycos.org/IMG/pdf/Senegal_HYCOS_september_2007.pdf | year=2007 | language=fr | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228165424/http://www.whycos.org/IMG/pdf/Senegal_HYCOS_september_2007.pdf | archive-date=28 December 2013 | df=dmy-all }}.</ref><!--actually p3--><ref name=":0">[http://www.grdc.sr.unh.edu/html/Polygons/P1812100.html UNH/GRDC Composite Runoff Fields V 1.0 data for Dagana].</ref> Important tributaries be Falémé River, Karakoro River and Gorgol River. Downstream from Kaédi, the river divide into two branches. The left branch wey dem dey call Doué River dey run side by side with the main river for north. After {{Convert|200|km|abbr=on}}, the two branches join again small distance after Pondor. The long land between the two branches na Île á Morfil.<ref name=whycos/><!--actually p5--> For 1972, Mali, Mauritania and Senegal create Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Sénégal (OMVS) make dem manage the whole river basin together. Guinea join the organisation for 2005. As e be now, people no dey use the river plenty for transport of goods and passengers. OMVS don study whether dem fit create navigable channel wey go be {{Convert|55|m|abbr=on}} wide from Ambidédi for Mali reach Saint-Louis, distance of {{Convert|905|km|abbr=on}}. If dem build am, e go give Mali direct route go Atlantic Ocean.<ref name=whycos/><!--page 20--> Animals wey dey inside Senegal River basin dey closely relate to those for Gambia River basin, so scientists dey group the two together under one freshwater ecoregion wey dem dey call Senegal-Gambia Catchments. Even though the area get moderate species diversity, only three frog species and one fish species na endemic to this ecoregion.<ref>Freshwater Ecoregions of the World (2008). ''[http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=509 Senegal-Gambia.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005204342/http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=509 |date=5 October 2011 }}'' Accessed 2 May 2011.</ref> == History == De area be previously occupied by de Serer people, wey dey follow dema religious den ethnic persecution by Islamic forces insyd de 11th century, result in de Serer exodus to de south.<ref name="Villalón2006p54">{{cite book |author=Villalón, Leonardo A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xFC1KUbXJ6gC&pg=PA54 |title=Islamic Society and State Power in Senegal: Disciples and Citizens in Fatick |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-03232-2 |pages=54–55}}, Quote: "Serer oral tradition recounts the group's origins in the Senegal River valley, where it was part of, or closely related to, the same group as the ancestors of today's [[Toucouleur people|Tukulor]]."</ref><ref name=":1">Galvan, Dennis Charles,&nbsp;''The State Must Be Our Master of Fire: How Peasants Craft Culturally Sustainable Development in Senegal,'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004, p.&nbsp;51</ref><ref name=":2">Berg, Elizabeth; Wan, Ruth; and Lau, Ruth (2009).&nbsp;''Senegal''. Marshall Cavendish. {{ISBN|9780761444817}}, p. 63</ref><ref name=":3">Page, Willie F., ''Encyclopedia of African history and culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500)'', pp. 209, 676. Vol.2, Facts on File (2001), {{ISBN|0-8160-4472-4}}</ref><ref name=":4">Streissguth, Thomas, "Senegal in Pictures, Visual Geography", Second Series, p. 23, Twenty-First Century Books (2009), {{ISBN|1-57505-951-7}}</ref><ref name=":5">Oliver, Roland Anthony; & Fage, J. D.,; "Journal of African history", Volume 10, p. 367. Cambridge University Press (1969)</ref><ref name=":6">Mwakikagile, Godfrey, "Ethnic Diversity and Integration in The Gambia: The Land, The People and The Culture," (2010), p. 11, {{ISBN|9987-9322-2-3}}</ref> {{See also|Serer history|Serer ancient history|Timeline of Serer history|Takrur#Serer Exodus}} People from early Mediterranean civilizations already know about Senegal River. Pliny the Elder call am ''Bambotus'' (maybe from Phoenician word for hippopotamus), while Claudius Ptolemy call am ''Nias''.<ref>Pliny, ''Natural History'', Lib. 5, Ch.1 ([https://books.google.com/books?id=VzwZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA380 p. 380])</ref> Around 450 BCE, Hanno the Carthaginian pass the river during him sea journey from Carthage through the Pillars of Herakles to Theon Ochema (possibly Mount Cameroon) inside Gulf of Guinea. Trade continue between this area and the Mediterranean world until Carthage destroy for 146 BCE together with ein West African trade network. === Arab sources === For Early Middle Ages (around 800 CE), Senegal River connect West Africa and Mediterranean again through the Trans-Saharan trade route between Morocco and Ghana Empire. Arab geographers like al-Masudi of Baghdad (957), al-Bakri of Spain (1068), and al-Idrisi of Sicily (1154) write some of the earliest detailed descriptions of the Senegal River.<ref>A translation of al-Bakri's 1068 account is found in Levtzion & Hopkins, (2000, ''Corpus'': ([https://books.google.com/books?id=L3tNlgQmT9wC&pg=PA77 p. 77]). In French, see Monteil (1968). For an attempt to reconstruct the Senegal river's course from the accounts of al-Bakri and al-Idrisi, see Cooley (1841: [https://books.google.com/books?id=380NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA52 p. 52]).</ref> Early Arab geographers believe say upper Senegal River and upper Niger River connect together and form one big river wey dey flow from east go west. Dem call am "Western Nile".<ref>The term "Nile" seems to have been applied quite early to the Senegal. During the Arab conquest of North Africa in the 8th century, Ifriqiyan commanders launched several expeditionary raids from the Sous valley against the desert-dwelling nomadic Berbers of Western Sahara. There is a report from an Arab commander from the 750s who claims to have reached as far south as "the Nile" (i.e. the Senegal). See Hrbek (1992: p.308).</ref> Some people believe say the river be western branch of the Egyptian Nile or both rivers come from the same source, like the Mountains of the Moon, Ptolemy's Gir, or the Biblical Gihon stream.<ref>Geographia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4ksBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA222 Book IV, Chapter 6, Section 13].</ref><ref>e.g. Leo Africanus, [https://books.google.com/books?id=rmcMAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Leo%20Africanus%22%20Niger&pg=PA124 p. 124]</ref> [[File:Senegal River according to al-Bakri.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Western Nile (Senegal-Niger River) according to al-Bakri (1068)]] Arab geographers Abd al-Hassan Ali ibn Omar (1230), Ibn Said al-Maghribi (1274), and Abulfeda (1331) call Senegal River the "Nile of Ghana" (Nil Gana or Nili Ganah).<ref>See R.H. Major (1868) ''Life of Prince Henry'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=UfE5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA114 p. 114]</ref> Because Senegal River enter the heart of the gold-producing Ghana Empire and later Mali Empire, Trans-Saharan traders give am the famous nickname "River of Gold". Stories about this River of Gold spread reach European merchants wey dey trade for Morocco ports. Arab historians even record at least three different Arab sea expeditions, including one by eight ''mughrarin'' ("wanderers") from Lisbon before 1147, wey try sail down the Atlantic coast to look for the mouth of the Senegal River.<ref>See Beazley (1899: p. xliv, lxxv)</ref> === Cartographic representation === [[File:Senegal River according to al-Idrisi.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Western Nile (Senegal-Niger River) according to Muhammad al-Idrisi (1154)]] Based on Classical stories and Arab writings, the "River of Gold" begin show for European maps from the 14th century. For the Hereford Mappa Mundi (around 1300), one river wey dem label ''Nilus Fluvius'' show parallel to Africa coast, although e no connect to the Atlantic Ocean because e end inside one lake. The map also show giant ants wey dey dig gold from the river sand, with the note "''Hic grandes formice auream serican [or servant] arenas''".<ref>Bevan and Phillott (1873: [https://books.google.com/books?id=u_oHAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA105 p. 105].</ref> For Pietro Vesconte map wey e prepare for Marino Sanuto around 1320, one unnamed river dey flow from inside Africa into the Atlantic Ocean. The 1351 Medici-Laurentian Atlas show both the Egyptian Nile and the Western Nile say dem come from the same mountain range inside Africa, together with the note "''Ilic coligitur aureaum''".<ref>See João de Andrade Corvo (1882) ''Roteiro de Lisboa a Goa por D. João de Castro'', Lisbon. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Q8M5AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA68 p.68n.]</ref> The portolan chart by Giovanni da Carignano (1310s–1320s) also label the river as ''iste fluuis exit de nilo ubi multum aurum repperitur''.<ref>Winter (1962: p. 18)</ref> Later portolan charts, beginning with the 1367 chart by Domenico and Francesco Pizzigano and continuing with the 1375 Catalan Atlas and the 1413 chart by Mecia de Viladestes, show the "River of Gold" flowing into the Atlantic Ocean somewhere south of Cape Bojador. Around this same period, many Europeans believe say Cape Bojador be dangerous place wey sailors no fit pass, maybe because Trans-Saharan traders no want sea trade replace their land trade. Many maps show one big island inside the middle of the river wey dem call the "Island of Gold". Al-Masudi first mention am, al-Idrisi call am ''Wangara'', while the Pizzigani brothers call am ''Palolus''. Many researchers believe say this "island" actually represent the Bambuk-Buré goldfields wey rivers surround on almost every side.<ref>Delafosse (1912: v.1,p.55), Crone (1937: p.xv), Mauny (1961: p.302), Levtzion (1973: p.155). However, McIntosh (1981) suggests an alternative identification of this riverine "island" to be the Djenné area, around the bend of the Niger.</ref> [[Image:Palolus river (Senegal-Niger) in 1413 Mecia de Viladestes map.jpg|thumb|1000px|center|Course of the "River of Gold" (Senegal-Niger) in the 1413 portolan chart of Mecia de Viladestes.]] The 1413 portolan chart by Mecia de Viladestes give one of the most detailed European pictures of the Senegal River before Portuguese explorers reach the area during the 1440s. The map label the river as "''riu del or''" ("River of Gold") and place am well south of Cape Bojador. The map also include many notes about the plenty gold and ivory wey dey the area. {{Quote|"This river is called Wad al-Nil and also is called the River of Gold, for one can here obtain the gold of Palolus. And know that the greater part of those that live here occupy themselves collecting gold on the shores of the river which, at its mouth, is a league wide, and deep enough for the largest ship of the world."<ref>"Aquest flum es apelat ued anil axi matex es apelat riu de lor per tal com si requyl lor de palola. Et scire debeatis quod major pars gentium in partibus istis habitantium sunt electi ad colligendum aurum ipso flumine, qui habet latitudinem unius legue et fondum pro majori nave mundi"</ref>}} [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|thumb|Slave trade along the Senegal River, kingdom of Cayor]] The map also show the galley of Jaume Ferrer close to the coast, referring to ein 1346 voyage. One golden island at the river mouth probably represent Langue de Barbarie or Saint-Louis Island. The first town for the river mouth dey labelled "isingan", which some historians believe fit be where the name "Senegal" come from. Farther inland, the map show Takrur, Emperor Mansa Musa of Mali holding one gold nugget, and the capital of Mali Empire beside the river. The map also show the famous "Island of Gold", believed by many scholars to represent the Bambuk-Buré goldfields, together with towns like Timbuktu and Gao connected by one continuous river system. North of the Senegal-Niger system, the map show different oases and stations along the Trans-Saharan trade routes leading to the Mediterranean. It also show rulers from Nubia, Ethiopia and other kingdoms according to European geographical knowledge at that time. One unique feature of the Viladestes map be another river south of the Senegal wey dem label "''flumen gelica''", which some historians believe fit represent the Gambia River. Later, the 1459 Fra Mauro world map show two separate rivers flowing westward from the same inland lake, one labelled "Mas River" and the other "Channel of Gold". Fra Mauro also note say people dey collect gold from the sands of both rivers.<ref>João de Andrade Corvo (1882: p.70)</ref> === European contact === Christian Europeans begin look for sea route wey go lead dem to the mouth of Senegal River. The first known attempt fit be by the Genoese brothers Vandino and Ugolino Vivaldi. Dem sail along the African coast for 1291 with two ships, but nobody hear anything about dem again. For 1346, Majorcan sailor Jaume Ferrer sail with one galley because e want find the famous "River of Gold" (''Riu de l'Or''). E hear say people wey dey live along the river dey collect gold from the river banks and say the river deep enough for even the biggest ships. After the journey, nobody hear from am again. For 1402, after French adventurers Jean de Béthencourt and Gadifer de la Salle establish the first European settlement for the Canary Islands, dem begin explore the African coast to search for the mouth of Senegal River. [[File:Bababé.jpg|thumb|Boat on Senegal River]] For the 1420s, Portuguese prince Henry the Navigator continue the search and spend plenty resources on the project. For 1434, one of ein captains, Gil Eanes, become the first European to sail beyond Cape Bojador and return safely. The following year, Henry send another expedition under Gil Eanes and Afonso Gonçalves Baldaia. Dem reach one inlet near Dakhla for Western Sahara and mistakenly believe say na the mouth of Senegal River. Because of that mistake, dem call the place "Rio do Ouro", a name wey remain there for many centuries. After Henry realize say the inlet no be Senegal River, e continue send more expeditions farther south. For 1445, Portuguese captain Nuno Tristão finally reach Langue de Barbarie. There e notice say the desert begin end, trees begin appear, and the people change from Sanhaja Berbers to black Wolof people. Because of bad weather or lack of supplies, Tristão no enter the river but e return Portugal convinced say e don reach the "Land of the Blacks" and say the Nile dey nearby. Not long after, another Portuguese captain, Dinis Dias, become the first known European since ancient times wey reach the mouth of Senegal River. Instead of sailing inside the river, e continue along the Grande Côte to Dakar Bay. The next year, for 1446, Portuguese slave-raiding fleet under Lançarote de Freitas arrive the river mouth. One captain, Estêvão Afonso, volunteer make e enter the river with one small launch to explore the area. E become the first European wey actually sail inside Senegal River. The journey no last long. After Afonso try kidnap two Wolof children from one hut near the river bank, their father chase the Portuguese men back to their boat and beat dem well. Because of that, the explorers stop the journey and return to their ships.<ref>Zurara (p.178-83), Barros (p.110-12)</ref> [[File:RiverSenegalNearKanel.jpg|thumb|Young boys swimming in the Senegal River]] Between 1448 and 1455, Portuguese captain Lourenço Dias establish regular trade with the Wolof states of Waalo and Cayor along the Senegal River. The Portuguese exchange Mediterranean goods, especially horses, for gold and slaves.<ref>Cadamosto suggest this was begun in 1450: "Five years before I went on this voyage, this river was discovered by three caravels belonging to Don Henry, which entered it, and their commanders settled peace and trade with the Moors; since which time ships have been sent to this place every year to trade with the natives." Cadamosto (Engl. 1811 trans., [https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA220 p. 220]) The identification of Lourenço Dias as the opener of Portuguese trade on the Senegal River is suggested in a 1489 document. See Russell (2000:p.97n14).</ref> Historian Gomes Eanes de Zurara, writing for 1453, still call the river the "Nile River". But by the 1460s, Alvise Cadamosto dey call am "Senega", and most Portuguese maps after that period label am as ''Rio do Çanagà''.<ref>Cadamosto (Engl. 1811 trans., ([https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA213 p. 213]). Giovanni Battista Ramusio, publisher of the 1550 Italian edition of Cadamosto's memoir, refers to the gold from the Senegal as ''oro tiber'' ([https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA107 p. 107]), thus leading some to imagine it was also customary to call the Senegal the Tiber River. In all likelihood, "Tiber Gold" was just a generic Italian reference to river-dug gold.</ref> Cadamosto also record the old belief say both Senegal River and the Egyptian Nile be branches of the Biblical Gihon River wey flow from the Garden of Eden through Ethiopia.<ref>Cadamosto ([https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA220 p. 220]; Ital: [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA111 p. 111]).</ref> E also write say ancient people call Senegal River "the Niger", probably because of Ptolemy's legendary Nigir River.<ref>Geographia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4ksBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA222 Book IV, Chapter 6, Section 14].</ref> Later, Leo Africanus identify this legendary river with the modern Niger River.<ref>By confounding the Ptolemy's Greek 'Nigir' with the Latin word for "black", Leo Africanus assumed the "Nile of the Blacks" (i.e. Senegal-Niger of the Arab traders) must be the Nigir of the ancients. See Leo Africanus, (Ital: [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=PA7 p. 7], Eng: [https://books.google.com/books?id=rmcMAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Leo%20Africanus%22%20Niger&pg=PA124 p. 124]</ref> Luis del Marmol Carvajal repeat similar story for 1573 and add say both Senegal River and Gambia River be tributaries of the Niger River.<ref>Luis del Marmol Carvajal (1573) ([https://books.google.com/books?id=1WVevz1cDnwC&q=Zenega&pg=PT23 ch. 17])</ref> [[File:Guillaume Delisle Senegambia 1707.jpg|thumb|Senegambia region, detail from Guillaume Delisle's 1707 map, still showing Senegal River connected to the Niger. Later editions corrected this mistake.]] Portuguese historian João de Barros write for 1552 say the original Wolof name of the river be ''Ovedech'', believed to come from the Wolof words meaning "this river".<ref>Barros, ''Décadas da Ásia'' ([https://books.google.com/books?id=Epo2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA109 p. 109]). See also Bailot (1853: p.199).</ref> Damião de Góis later record the name as ''Sonedech'', meaning "our river".<ref>See also A.M. de Castilho (1866) ''Descripção e roteiro da costa occidental de Africa'', vol. 1, [https://books.google.com/books?id=8ikiSWPVYDUC&dq=editions%3ASTANFORD36105015335362&pg=PA92 p. 92].</ref> For 1573, Luis del Marmol Carvajal write say different ethnic groups call the river by different names. According to am, the Portuguese call am ''Zenega'', the Zenaga Berbers call am ''Zenedec'', the Wolof call am ''Dengueh'', the Toucouleur call am ''Mayo'', the Soninke call am ''Colle'', while people from other areas get different local names too.<ref>Luis del Marmol Carvajal (1573), Lib. VIII, [https://books.google.com/books?id=hwtxRhuIkIoC&pg=PA3 ch.3]. See also Phérotée de La Croix (1688: Ch. 2 [https://books.google.com/books?id=JaUBAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA406 p. 406]) and Cooley (1841: [https://books.google.com/books?id=380NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA38 p. 38])</ref> == References == <references /> == Read further == * {{cite book |last=Betz |first=R. L. |title=The Mapping of Africa: a cartobibliography of printed maps of the African continent to 1700 |publisher=Hes & de Graaf |year=2007 |isbn=978-90-6194-489-8}} * {{cite book |last=Davidson |first=Basil |title=West Africa Before the Colonial Era: a history to 1850 |publisher=Longman |year=1998 |isbn=0-582-31852-1 |location=London}} * {{cite book |last=De la Roncière |first=Charles |title=La découverte de l'Afrique au moyen âge |publisher=Société Royale de Géographie d'Égypte |others=2 volumes |year=1925 |location=Cairo}} == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070629065341/http://zope0.itcilo.org/delta/lmdd2003/news/1067611432/1068825691/presentation%20ressources%20en%20eau%20senegal.ppt The Hydrology of Senegal] (PowerPoint presentation) {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Senegal River}} [[Category:Senegal River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Senegal]] [[Category:Rivers of Mauritania]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Mauritania–Senegal border]] [[Category:Rivers of Mali]] [[Category:Lowest points of countries]] [[Category:Serer history]] oy06bk3ptgc0jn9dj6tc1t2ubc5zhm1 103592 103591 2026-06-17T22:00:52Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 103592 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Senegal River''' (Serer: ''"Seen O Gal"'' anaa "Senegal" - compound of de&nbsp;Serer term "Seen" anaa "Sene" anaa "Sen" (from&nbsp;Roog Seen, Supreme Deity insyd&nbsp;Serer religion) den "O Gal" (wey dey mean "body of water")); Wolof: ''Dexug Senegaal'', Arabic: نهر السنغال, romanized: ''Nahr as-Siniġāl'', French: ''Fleuve Sénégal'') be a 1086-kilometre-long (675 mi) river insyd [[West Africa]]; much of ein length dey mark part of de border between [[Senegal]] den [[Mauritania]]. E get a drainage basin of 270000 km2 (100000 sq mi), a mean flow of 680 m3/s (24,000 cu ft/s), den an annual discharge of 21.5 km3 (5.2 cu mi). Important tributaries be de Falémé River, Karakoro River, den de Gorgol River. De river dey divide into two branches once e pass Kaédi. De left branch, dem call de Doué, dey run parallel to de main river to de north. After 200 km (120 mi) de two branches rejoin a few kilometers downstream of Podor. Insyd 1972 [[Mali]], Mauritania den Senegal found de Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Sénégal (OMVS) to manage de river basin. [[Guinea]] join insyd 2005. As of 2012, na only very limited use be made of de river for de transportation of goods den passengers. Na de OMVS look at de feasibility of creating a navigable channel 55 m (180 ft) in width between de small town of Ambidédi insyd [[Mali]] den Saint-Louis, a distance of 905 km (562 mi).E go give landlocked Mali a direct route to de [[Atlantic Ocean]]. De aquatic fauna insyd de Senegal River basin be closely associated plus dat of de [[Gambia River]] basin, wey de two be usually combined under a single ecoregion dem know as de Senegal-Gambia Catchments. Only three species of frogs den one fish be endemic to dis ecoregion. De river get two large dams along ein course, de Manantali Dam insyd [[Mali]] den de Maka-Diama Dam downstream on de Mauritania-Senegal border. In between be de Félou Hydroelectric Plant, dem build insyd 1927, buh dem replace insyd 2014. De construction of de Gouina Hydroelectric Plant upstream of Felou at Gouina Falls begin insyd 2013. == Geography == [[File:Senegal River Saint Louis.jpg|thumb|Fishermen for Senegal River estuary bank near Saint-Louis, Senegal]] Senegal River source na Semefé (Bakoye) River plus Bafing River. Both rivers start from Guinea. Dem join small for Guinea-Mali border before dem meet for Bafoulabé inside Mali. From there, Senegal River dey flow go west den north through Talari Gorges near Galougo, pass Gouina Falls, before e continue gently pass Kayes, where Kolimbiné River join am. After Karakoro River join am, the river continue along Mali-Mauritania border for some kilometres reach Bakel, where Falémé River join am. Falémé River too start from Guinea and pass part of Guinea-Mali border before e form most of Senegal-Mali border till Bakel. From there, Senegal River continue through dry northern Senegal, dey form border between Senegal and Mauritania before e enter Atlantic Ocean. For Kaedi, Gorgol River from Mauritania join am. The river pass Boghé, reach Richard Toll where Ferlo River from Lac de Guiers side join am. After that e pass Rosso and reach Saint-Louis. Before e empty inside Atlantic Ocean, one narrow sand strip wey dem dey call Langue de Barbarie separate the river from the ocean. The river get two big dams. One be Manantali Dam for Mali wey dem use am for different purposes, and the other one be Maka-Diama Dam near Mauritania-Senegal border close to where the river enter the sea. This dam stop salt water from the Atlantic make e no enter upstream. Between Manantali Dam and Maka-Diama Dam dey Félou Hydroelectric Plant. Dem first complete am for 1927 and e dey use weir. Dem replace the old power station for 2014. For 2013 too, construction start for Gouina Hydroelectric Plant upstream from Félou near Gouina Falls. Senegal River drainage basin cover {{Convert|270,000|km2|abbr=on|comma=gaps}}, with average flow of {{Convert|680|m3/s|abbr=on|comma=gaps}} and yearly discharge of {{Convert|21.5|km3|abbr=on}}.<ref name=whycos>{{citation | title=SENEGAL-HYCOS: Renforcement des capacités nationales et régionales d'observation, transmission et traitement de données pour contribuer au développement durable du bassin du Fleuve Sénégal (Document de projet préliminaire) | publisher=Système Mondial d’Observation du Cycle Hydrologique (WHYCOS) | url=http://www.whycos.org/IMG/pdf/Senegal_HYCOS_september_2007.pdf | year=2007 | language=fr | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228165424/http://www.whycos.org/IMG/pdf/Senegal_HYCOS_september_2007.pdf | archive-date=28 December 2013 | df=dmy-all }}.</ref><!--actually p3--><ref name=":0">[http://www.grdc.sr.unh.edu/html/Polygons/P1812100.html UNH/GRDC Composite Runoff Fields V 1.0 data for Dagana].</ref> Important tributaries be Falémé River, Karakoro River and Gorgol River. Downstream from Kaédi, the river divide into two branches. The left branch wey dem dey call Doué River dey run side by side with the main river for north. After {{Convert|200|km|abbr=on}}, the two branches join again small distance after Pondor. The long land between the two branches na Île á Morfil.<ref name=whycos/><!--actually p5--> For 1972, Mali, Mauritania and Senegal create Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Sénégal (OMVS) make dem manage the whole river basin together. Guinea join the organisation for 2005. As e be now, people no dey use the river plenty for transport of goods and passengers. OMVS don study whether dem fit create navigable channel wey go be {{Convert|55|m|abbr=on}} wide from Ambidédi for Mali reach Saint-Louis, distance of {{Convert|905|km|abbr=on}}. If dem build am, e go give Mali direct route go Atlantic Ocean.<ref name=whycos/><!--page 20--> Animals wey dey inside Senegal River basin dey closely relate to those for Gambia River basin, so scientists dey group the two together under one freshwater ecoregion wey dem dey call Senegal-Gambia Catchments. Even though the area get moderate species diversity, only three frog species and one fish species na endemic to this ecoregion.<ref>Freshwater Ecoregions of the World (2008). ''[http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=509 Senegal-Gambia.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005204342/http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=509 |date=5 October 2011 }}'' Accessed 2 May 2011.</ref> == History == De area be previously occupied by de Serer people, wey dey follow dema religious den ethnic persecution by Islamic forces insyd de 11th century, result in de Serer exodus to de south.<ref name="Villalón2006p54">{{cite book |author=Villalón, Leonardo A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xFC1KUbXJ6gC&pg=PA54 |title=Islamic Society and State Power in Senegal: Disciples and Citizens in Fatick |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-03232-2 |pages=54–55}}, Quote: "Serer oral tradition recounts the group's origins in the Senegal River valley, where it was part of, or closely related to, the same group as the ancestors of today's [[Toucouleur people|Tukulor]]."</ref><ref name=":1">Galvan, Dennis Charles,&nbsp;''The State Must Be Our Master of Fire: How Peasants Craft Culturally Sustainable Development in Senegal,'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004, p.&nbsp;51</ref><ref name=":2">Berg, Elizabeth; Wan, Ruth; and Lau, Ruth (2009).&nbsp;''Senegal''. Marshall Cavendish. {{ISBN|9780761444817}}, p. 63</ref><ref name=":3">Page, Willie F., ''Encyclopedia of African history and culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500)'', pp. 209, 676. Vol.2, Facts on File (2001), {{ISBN|0-8160-4472-4}}</ref><ref name=":4">Streissguth, Thomas, "Senegal in Pictures, Visual Geography", Second Series, p. 23, Twenty-First Century Books (2009), {{ISBN|1-57505-951-7}}</ref><ref name=":5">Oliver, Roland Anthony; & Fage, J. D.,; "Journal of African history", Volume 10, p. 367. Cambridge University Press (1969)</ref><ref name=":6">Mwakikagile, Godfrey, "Ethnic Diversity and Integration in The Gambia: The Land, The People and The Culture," (2010), p. 11, {{ISBN|9987-9322-2-3}}</ref> {{See also|Serer history|Serer ancient history|Timeline of Serer history|Takrur#Serer Exodus}} People from early Mediterranean civilizations already know about Senegal River. Pliny the Elder call am ''Bambotus'' (maybe from Phoenician word for hippopotamus), while Claudius Ptolemy call am ''Nias''.<ref>Pliny, ''Natural History'', Lib. 5, Ch.1 ([https://books.google.com/books?id=VzwZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA380 p. 380])</ref> Around 450 BCE, Hanno the Carthaginian pass the river during him sea journey from Carthage through the Pillars of Herakles to Theon Ochema (possibly Mount Cameroon) inside Gulf of Guinea. Trade continue between this area and the Mediterranean world until Carthage destroy for 146 BCE together with ein West African trade network. === Arab sources === For Early Middle Ages (around 800 CE), Senegal River connect West Africa and Mediterranean again through the Trans-Saharan trade route between Morocco and Ghana Empire. Arab geographers like al-Masudi of Baghdad (957), al-Bakri of Spain (1068), and al-Idrisi of Sicily (1154) write some of the earliest detailed descriptions of the Senegal River.<ref>A translation of al-Bakri's 1068 account is found in Levtzion & Hopkins, (2000, ''Corpus'': ([https://books.google.com/books?id=L3tNlgQmT9wC&pg=PA77 p. 77]). In French, see Monteil (1968). For an attempt to reconstruct the Senegal river's course from the accounts of al-Bakri and al-Idrisi, see Cooley (1841: [https://books.google.com/books?id=380NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA52 p. 52]).</ref> Early Arab geographers believe say upper Senegal River and upper Niger River connect together and form one big river wey dey flow from east go west. Dem call am "Western Nile".<ref>The term "Nile" seems to have been applied quite early to the Senegal. During the Arab conquest of North Africa in the 8th century, Ifriqiyan commanders launched several expeditionary raids from the Sous valley against the desert-dwelling nomadic Berbers of Western Sahara. There is a report from an Arab commander from the 750s who claims to have reached as far south as "the Nile" (i.e. the Senegal). See Hrbek (1992: p.308).</ref> Some people believe say the river be western branch of the Egyptian Nile or both rivers come from the same source, like the Mountains of the Moon, Ptolemy's Gir, or the Biblical Gihon stream.<ref>Geographia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4ksBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA222 Book IV, Chapter 6, Section 13].</ref><ref>e.g. Leo Africanus, [https://books.google.com/books?id=rmcMAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Leo%20Africanus%22%20Niger&pg=PA124 p. 124]</ref> [[File:Senegal River according to al-Bakri.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Western Nile (Senegal-Niger River) according to al-Bakri (1068)]] Arab geographers Abd al-Hassan Ali ibn Omar (1230), Ibn Said al-Maghribi (1274), and Abulfeda (1331) call Senegal River the "Nile of Ghana" (Nil Gana or Nili Ganah).<ref>See R.H. Major (1868) ''Life of Prince Henry'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=UfE5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA114 p. 114]</ref> Because Senegal River enter the heart of the gold-producing Ghana Empire and later Mali Empire, Trans-Saharan traders give am the famous nickname "River of Gold". Stories about this River of Gold spread reach European merchants wey dey trade for Morocco ports. Arab historians even record at least three different Arab sea expeditions, including one by eight ''mughrarin'' ("wanderers") from Lisbon before 1147, wey try sail down the Atlantic coast to look for the mouth of the Senegal River.<ref>See Beazley (1899: p. xliv, lxxv)</ref> === Cartographic representation === [[File:Senegal River according to al-Idrisi.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Western Nile (Senegal-Niger River) according to Muhammad al-Idrisi (1154)]] Based on Classical stories and Arab writings, the "River of Gold" begin show for European maps from the 14th century. For the Hereford Mappa Mundi (around 1300), one river wey dem label ''Nilus Fluvius'' show parallel to Africa coast, although e no connect to the Atlantic Ocean because e end inside one lake. The map also show giant ants wey dey dig gold from the river sand, with the note "''Hic grandes formice auream serican [or servant] arenas''".<ref>Bevan and Phillott (1873: [https://books.google.com/books?id=u_oHAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA105 p. 105].</ref> For Pietro Vesconte map wey e prepare for Marino Sanuto around 1320, one unnamed river dey flow from inside Africa into the Atlantic Ocean. The 1351 Medici-Laurentian Atlas show both the Egyptian Nile and the Western Nile say dem come from the same mountain range inside Africa, together with the note "''Ilic coligitur aureaum''".<ref>See João de Andrade Corvo (1882) ''Roteiro de Lisboa a Goa por D. João de Castro'', Lisbon. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Q8M5AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA68 p.68n.]</ref> The portolan chart by Giovanni da Carignano (1310s–1320s) also label the river as ''iste fluuis exit de nilo ubi multum aurum repperitur''.<ref>Winter (1962: p. 18)</ref> Later portolan charts, beginning with the 1367 chart by Domenico and Francesco Pizzigano and continuing with the 1375 Catalan Atlas and the 1413 chart by Mecia de Viladestes, show the "River of Gold" flowing into the Atlantic Ocean somewhere south of Cape Bojador. Around this same period, many Europeans believe say Cape Bojador be dangerous place wey sailors no fit pass, maybe because Trans-Saharan traders no want sea trade replace their land trade. Many maps show one big island inside the middle of the river wey dem call the "Island of Gold". Al-Masudi first mention am, al-Idrisi call am ''Wangara'', while the Pizzigani brothers call am ''Palolus''. Many researchers believe say this "island" actually represent the Bambuk-Buré goldfields wey rivers surround on almost every side.<ref>Delafosse (1912: v.1,p.55), Crone (1937: p.xv), Mauny (1961: p.302), Levtzion (1973: p.155). However, McIntosh (1981) suggests an alternative identification of this riverine "island" to be the Djenné area, around the bend of the Niger.</ref> [[Image:Palolus river (Senegal-Niger) in 1413 Mecia de Viladestes map.jpg|thumb|1000px|center|Course of the "River of Gold" (Senegal-Niger) in the 1413 portolan chart of Mecia de Viladestes.]] The 1413 portolan chart by Mecia de Viladestes give one of the most detailed European pictures of the Senegal River before Portuguese explorers reach the area during the 1440s. The map label the river as "''riu del or''" ("River of Gold") and place am well south of Cape Bojador. The map also include many notes about the plenty gold and ivory wey dey the area. {{Quote|"This river is called Wad al-Nil and also is called the River of Gold, for one can here obtain the gold of Palolus. And know that the greater part of those that live here occupy themselves collecting gold on the shores of the river which, at its mouth, is a league wide, and deep enough for the largest ship of the world."<ref>"Aquest flum es apelat ued anil axi matex es apelat riu de lor per tal com si requyl lor de palola. Et scire debeatis quod major pars gentium in partibus istis habitantium sunt electi ad colligendum aurum ipso flumine, qui habet latitudinem unius legue et fondum pro majori nave mundi"</ref>}} [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|thumb|Slave trade along the Senegal River, kingdom of Cayor]] The map also show the galley of Jaume Ferrer close to the coast, referring to ein 1346 voyage. One golden island at the river mouth probably represent Langue de Barbarie or Saint-Louis Island. The first town for the river mouth dey labelled "isingan", which some historians believe fit be where the name "Senegal" come from. Farther inland, the map show Takrur, Emperor Mansa Musa of Mali holding one gold nugget, and the capital of Mali Empire beside the river. The map also show the famous "Island of Gold", believed by many scholars to represent the Bambuk-Buré goldfields, together with towns like Timbuktu and Gao connected by one continuous river system. North of the Senegal-Niger system, the map show different oases and stations along the Trans-Saharan trade routes leading to the Mediterranean. It also show rulers from Nubia, Ethiopia and other kingdoms according to European geographical knowledge at that time. One unique feature of the Viladestes map be another river south of the Senegal wey dem label "''flumen gelica''", which some historians believe fit represent the Gambia River. Later, the 1459 Fra Mauro world map show two separate rivers flowing westward from the same inland lake, one labelled "Mas River" and the other "Channel of Gold". Fra Mauro also note say people dey collect gold from the sands of both rivers.<ref>João de Andrade Corvo (1882: p.70)</ref> === European contact === Christian Europeans begin look for sea route wey go lead dem to the mouth of Senegal River. The first known attempt fit be by the Genoese brothers Vandino and Ugolino Vivaldi. Dem sail along the African coast for 1291 with two ships, but nobody hear anything about dem again. For 1346, Majorcan sailor Jaume Ferrer sail with one galley because e want find the famous "River of Gold" (''Riu de l'Or''). E hear say people wey dey live along the river dey collect gold from the river banks and say the river deep enough for even the biggest ships. After the journey, nobody hear from am again. For 1402, after French adventurers Jean de Béthencourt and Gadifer de la Salle establish the first European settlement for the Canary Islands, dem begin explore the African coast to search for the mouth of Senegal River. [[File:Bababé.jpg|thumb|Boat on Senegal River]] For the 1420s, Portuguese prince Henry the Navigator continue the search and spend plenty resources on the project. For 1434, one of ein captains, Gil Eanes, become the first European to sail beyond Cape Bojador and return safely. The following year, Henry send another expedition under Gil Eanes and Afonso Gonçalves Baldaia. Dem reach one inlet near Dakhla for Western Sahara and mistakenly believe say na the mouth of Senegal River. Because of that mistake, dem call the place "Rio do Ouro", a name wey remain there for many centuries. After Henry realize say the inlet no be Senegal River, e continue send more expeditions farther south. For 1445, Portuguese captain Nuno Tristão finally reach Langue de Barbarie. There e notice say the desert begin end, trees begin appear, and the people change from Sanhaja Berbers to black Wolof people. Because of bad weather or lack of supplies, Tristão no enter the river but e return Portugal convinced say e don reach the "Land of the Blacks" and say the Nile dey nearby. Not long after, another Portuguese captain, Dinis Dias, become the first known European since ancient times wey reach the mouth of Senegal River. Instead of sailing inside the river, e continue along the Grande Côte to Dakar Bay. The next year, for 1446, Portuguese slave-raiding fleet under Lançarote de Freitas arrive the river mouth. One captain, Estêvão Afonso, volunteer make e enter the river with one small launch to explore the area. E become the first European wey actually sail inside Senegal River. The journey no last long. After Afonso try kidnap two Wolof children from one hut near the river bank, their father chase the Portuguese men back to their boat and beat dem well. Because of that, the explorers stop the journey and return to their ships.<ref>Zurara (p.178-83), Barros (p.110-12)</ref> [[File:RiverSenegalNearKanel.jpg|thumb|Young boys swimming in the Senegal River]] Between 1448 and 1455, Portuguese captain Lourenço Dias establish regular trade with the Wolof states of Waalo and Cayor along the Senegal River. The Portuguese exchange Mediterranean goods, especially horses, for gold and slaves.<ref>Cadamosto suggest this was begun in 1450: "Five years before I went on this voyage, this river was discovered by three caravels belonging to Don Henry, which entered it, and their commanders settled peace and trade with the Moors; since which time ships have been sent to this place every year to trade with the natives." Cadamosto (Engl. 1811 trans., [https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA220 p. 220]) The identification of Lourenço Dias as the opener of Portuguese trade on the Senegal River is suggested in a 1489 document. See Russell (2000:p.97n14).</ref> Historian Gomes Eanes de Zurara, writing for 1453, still call the river the "Nile River". But by the 1460s, Alvise Cadamosto dey call am "Senega", and most Portuguese maps after that period label am as ''Rio do Çanagà''.<ref>Cadamosto (Engl. 1811 trans., ([https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA213 p. 213]). Giovanni Battista Ramusio, publisher of the 1550 Italian edition of Cadamosto's memoir, refers to the gold from the Senegal as ''oro tiber'' ([https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA107 p. 107]), thus leading some to imagine it was also customary to call the Senegal the Tiber River. In all likelihood, "Tiber Gold" was just a generic Italian reference to river-dug gold.</ref> Cadamosto also record the old belief say both Senegal River and the Egyptian Nile be branches of the Biblical Gihon River wey flow from the Garden of Eden through Ethiopia.<ref>Cadamosto ([https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA220 p. 220]; Ital: [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA111 p. 111]).</ref> E also write say ancient people call Senegal River "the Niger", probably because of Ptolemy's legendary Nigir River.<ref>Geographia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4ksBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA222 Book IV, Chapter 6, Section 14].</ref> Later, Leo Africanus identify this legendary river with the modern Niger River.<ref>By confounding the Ptolemy's Greek 'Nigir' with the Latin word for "black", Leo Africanus assumed the "Nile of the Blacks" (i.e. Senegal-Niger of the Arab traders) must be the Nigir of the ancients. See Leo Africanus, (Ital: [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=PA7 p. 7], Eng: [https://books.google.com/books?id=rmcMAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Leo%20Africanus%22%20Niger&pg=PA124 p. 124]</ref> Luis del Marmol Carvajal repeat similar story for 1573 and add say both Senegal River and Gambia River be tributaries of the Niger River.<ref>Luis del Marmol Carvajal (1573) ([https://books.google.com/books?id=1WVevz1cDnwC&q=Zenega&pg=PT23 ch. 17])</ref> [[File:Guillaume Delisle Senegambia 1707.jpg|thumb|Senegambia region, detail from Guillaume Delisle's 1707 map, still showing Senegal River connected to the Niger. Later editions corrected this mistake.]] Portuguese historian João de Barros write for 1552 say the original Wolof name of the river be ''Ovedech'', believed to come from the Wolof words meaning "this river".<ref>Barros, ''Décadas da Ásia'' ([https://books.google.com/books?id=Epo2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA109 p. 109]). See also Bailot (1853: p.199).</ref> Damião de Góis later record the name as ''Sonedech'', meaning "our river".<ref>See also A.M. de Castilho (1866) ''Descripção e roteiro da costa occidental de Africa'', vol. 1, [https://books.google.com/books?id=8ikiSWPVYDUC&dq=editions%3ASTANFORD36105015335362&pg=PA92 p. 92].</ref> For 1573, Luis del Marmol Carvajal write say different ethnic groups call the river by different names. According to am, the Portuguese call am ''Zenega'', the Zenaga Berbers call am ''Zenedec'', the Wolof call am ''Dengueh'', the Toucouleur call am ''Mayo'', the Soninke call am ''Colle'', while people from other areas get different local names too.<ref>Luis del Marmol Carvajal (1573), Lib. VIII, [https://books.google.com/books?id=hwtxRhuIkIoC&pg=PA3 ch.3]. See also Phérotée de La Croix (1688: Ch. 2 [https://books.google.com/books?id=JaUBAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA406 p. 406]) and Cooley (1841: [https://books.google.com/books?id=380NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA38 p. 38])</ref> === European contact === Christian Europe people later start try find sea route wey go carry dem reach mouth of Senegal River. Di first known attempt fit be di one wey two Genoa brothers, Vandino and Ugolino Vivaldi, do for 1291, as dem sail go south along di coast with two ships, but nobody hear from dem again. For 1346, Majorca sailor Jaume Ferrer take one galley ship go search di famous "River of Gold" (Riu de l'Or). E hear say plenty people wey dey stay near di river dey gather gold from di riverbanks and say di river big enough for very large ships. Nobody hear from am again after dat. For 1402, after dem establish di first European settlement for Canary Islands, two French Norman adventurers, Jean de Béthencourt and Gadifer de la Salle, begin explore di West African coast to look for di mouth of Senegal River. [[File:Bababé.jpg|thumb|Boat on Senegal River]] For 1420s, Portuguese prince Henry the Navigator continue invest plenty money make dem find di Senegal River. For 1434, one of ein captains, Gil Eanes, finally cross Cape Bojador and return safely. Di next year, Henry send another expedition under Gil Eanes and Afonso Gonçalves Baldaia. Dem reach one inlet for Western Sahara and mistakenly believe say e be di mouth of Senegal River. Because of dat mistake, dem call am "Rio do Ouro", and dat name remain for many centuries. After Henry realize say dem make mistake, e continue send more expeditions. For 1445, Portuguese captain Nuno Tristão reach Langue de Barbarie. E notice say di desert finish and greener land begin. E also notice say di people no be Sanhaja Berbers again but Wolof people. Because of bad weather or lack of supplies, e no enter di river but return Portugal to report say e don find "Land of the Blacks" (Terra dos Negros) and believe say di Nile River dey nearby. Soon after, maybe dat same year, another Portuguese captain, Dinis Dias, become di first known European since ancient times wey actually reach di mouth of Senegal River. However, instead of sailing inside di river, e continue along di Grande Côte to Dakar Bay. For 1446, Portuguese slave-raiding fleet under Lançarote de Freitas arrive for di river mouth. One captain, Estêvão Afonso, volunteer make e explore di river by boat. E become di first European wey enter inside Senegal River. During di journey, e try kidnap two Wolof children from one woodsman's house. Di children's father chase dem go back to dia boat and beat dem well well, so dem stop di exploration and return to dia ships.<ref>Zurara (p.178-83), Barros (p.110-12)</ref> [[File:RiverSenegalNearKanel.jpg|thumb|Young boys swimming in the Senegal River]] Between 1448 and 1455, Portuguese captain Lourenço Dias establish regular trade with di Wolof states of Waalo and Cayor. Dem exchange Mediterranean goods, especially horses, for gold and slaves.<ref>Cadamosto suggest this was begun in 1450: "Five years before I went on this voyage, this river was discovered by three caravels belonging to Don Henry, which entered it, and their commanders settled peace and trade with the Moors; since which time ships have been sent to this place every year to trade with the natives." Cadamosto (Engl. 1811 trans., [https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA220 p. 220]) The identification of Lourenço Dias as the opener of Portuguese trade on the Senegal River is suggested in a 1489 document. See Russell (2000:p.97n14).</ref> Historian Gomes Eanes de Zurara, wey write for 1453, still call di river "Nile River". But Alvise Cadamosto, wey write during di 1460s, call am "Senega", and many Portuguese maps after dat also label am as Rio do Çanagà.<ref>Cadamosto (Engl. 1811 trans., ([https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA213 p. 213]). Giovanni Battista Ramusio, publisher of the 1550 Italian edition of Cadamosto's memoir, refers to the gold from the Senegal as oro tiber ([https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA107 p. 107]), thus leading some to imagine it was also customary to call the Senegal the Tiber River! In all likelihood, "Tiber Gold" was just a generic Italian reference to river-dug gold.</ref> Cadamosto also write say people believe both Senegal River and Egyptian Nile be branches of di Biblical Gihon River wey flow from Garden of Eden through Ethiopia.<ref>Cadamosto ([https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA220 p. 220]; Ital: [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA111 p. 111]).</ref> E also mention say ancient people call Senegal River "Niger", probably because of Ptolemy ein legendary Nigir River.<ref>Geographia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4ksBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA222 Book IV, Chapter 6, Section 14].</ref> Later, Leo Africanus identify dat legendary river with today's Niger River.<ref>By confounding the Ptolemy's Greek 'Nigir' with the Latin word for "black", Leo Africanus assumed the "Nile of the Blacks" (i.e. Senegal-Niger of the Arab traders) must be the Nigir of the ancients. See Leo Africanus, (Ital: [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=PA7 p. 7], Eng: [https://books.google.com/books?id=rmcMAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Leo%20Africanus%22%20Niger&pg=PA124 p. 124]</ref> Luis del Marmol Carvajal repeat almost di same story for 1573 and add say both Senegal River and Gambia River be tributaries of Niger River.<ref>Luis del Marmol Carvajal (1573) ([https://books.google.com/books?id=1WVevz1cDnwC&q=Zenega&pg=PT23 ch. 17])</ref> [[File:Guillaume Delisle Senegambia 1707.jpg|thumb|Senegambia region, detail from the map of Guillaume Delisle (1707), wey still show Senegal connected to Niger; later editions (1722 and 1727) correct dat mistake.]] Portuguese historian João de Barros, wey write for 1552, say di original Wolof name for di river be ''Ovedech'', wey one source explain as "vi-dekh", meaning "this river".<ref>Barros, Décadas da Ásia ([https://books.google.com/books?id=Epo2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA109 p. 109]). See also Bailot (1853: p.199).</ref> Damião de Góis later record di name as ''Sonedech'', from "sunu dekh", meaning "our river".<ref>See also A.M. de Castilho (1866) Descripção e roteiro da costa occidental de Africa, vol. 1, [https://books.google.com/books?id=8ikiSWPVYDUC&dq=editions%3ASTANFORD36105015335362&pg=PA92 p. 92].</ref> For 1573, Luis del Marmol Carvajal record different local names wey different ethnic groups use for di river. According to am, Portuguese call am ''Zenega'', Zenaga Berbers call am ''Zenedec'', Wolof people call am ''Dengueh'', Toucouleur people call am ''Mayo'', Soninke people of Ngalam call am ''Colle'', Bambara people call am ''Zimbala'', while people for Timbuktu call am ''Yça''.<ref>Luis del Marmol Carvajal (1573), Lib. VIII, [https://books.google.com/books?id=hwtxRhuIkIoC&pg=PA3 ch.3]. See also Phérotée de La Croix (1688: Ch. 2 [https://books.google.com/books?id=JaUBAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA406 p. 406]) and Cooley (1841: [https://books.google.com/books?id=380NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA38 p. 38])</ref> == References == <references /> == Read further == * {{cite book |last=Betz |first=R. L. |title=The Mapping of Africa: a cartobibliography of printed maps of the African continent to 1700 |publisher=Hes & de Graaf |year=2007 |isbn=978-90-6194-489-8}} * {{cite book |last=Davidson |first=Basil |title=West Africa Before the Colonial Era: a history to 1850 |publisher=Longman |year=1998 |isbn=0-582-31852-1 |location=London}} * {{cite book |last=De la Roncière |first=Charles |title=La découverte de l'Afrique au moyen âge |publisher=Société Royale de Géographie d'Égypte |others=2 volumes |year=1925 |location=Cairo}} == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070629065341/http://zope0.itcilo.org/delta/lmdd2003/news/1067611432/1068825691/presentation%20ressources%20en%20eau%20senegal.ppt The Hydrology of Senegal] (PowerPoint presentation) {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Senegal River}} [[Category:Senegal River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Senegal]] [[Category:Rivers of Mauritania]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Mauritania–Senegal border]] [[Category:Rivers of Mali]] [[Category:Lowest points of countries]] [[Category:Serer history]] e5ku4w66gbh46cdedmt8tytau20r3o7 103593 103592 2026-06-17T22:02:43Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 103593 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Senegal River''' (Serer: ''"Seen O Gal"'' anaa "Senegal" - compound of de&nbsp;Serer term "Seen" anaa "Sene" anaa "Sen" (from&nbsp;Roog Seen, Supreme Deity insyd&nbsp;Serer religion) den "O Gal" (wey dey mean "body of water")); Wolof: ''Dexug Senegaal'', Arabic: نهر السنغال, romanized: ''Nahr as-Siniġāl'', French: ''Fleuve Sénégal'') be a 1086-kilometre-long (675 mi) river insyd [[West Africa]]; much of ein length dey mark part of de border between [[Senegal]] den [[Mauritania]]. E get a drainage basin of 270000 km2 (100000 sq mi), a mean flow of 680 m3/s (24,000 cu ft/s), den an annual discharge of 21.5 km3 (5.2 cu mi). Important tributaries be de Falémé River, Karakoro River, den de Gorgol River. De river dey divide into two branches once e pass Kaédi. De left branch, dem call de Doué, dey run parallel to de main river to de north. After 200 km (120 mi) de two branches rejoin a few kilometers downstream of Podor. Insyd 1972 [[Mali]], Mauritania den Senegal found de Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Sénégal (OMVS) to manage de river basin. [[Guinea]] join insyd 2005. As of 2012, na only very limited use be made of de river for de transportation of goods den passengers. Na de OMVS look at de feasibility of creating a navigable channel 55 m (180 ft) in width between de small town of Ambidédi insyd [[Mali]] den Saint-Louis, a distance of 905 km (562 mi).E go give landlocked Mali a direct route to de [[Atlantic Ocean]]. De aquatic fauna insyd de Senegal River basin be closely associated plus dat of de [[Gambia River]] basin, wey de two be usually combined under a single ecoregion dem know as de Senegal-Gambia Catchments. Only three species of frogs den one fish be endemic to dis ecoregion. De river get two large dams along ein course, de Manantali Dam insyd [[Mali]] den de Maka-Diama Dam downstream on de Mauritania-Senegal border. In between be de Félou Hydroelectric Plant, dem build insyd 1927, buh dem replace insyd 2014. De construction of de Gouina Hydroelectric Plant upstream of Felou at Gouina Falls begin insyd 2013. == Geography == [[File:Senegal River Saint Louis.jpg|thumb|Fishermen for Senegal River estuary bank near Saint-Louis, Senegal]] Senegal River source na Semefé (Bakoye) River plus Bafing River. Both rivers start from Guinea. Dem join small for Guinea-Mali border before dem meet for Bafoulabé inside Mali. From there, Senegal River dey flow go west den north through Talari Gorges near Galougo, pass Gouina Falls, before e continue gently pass Kayes, where Kolimbiné River join am. After Karakoro River join am, the river continue along Mali-Mauritania border for some kilometres reach Bakel, where Falémé River join am. Falémé River too start from Guinea and pass part of Guinea-Mali border before e form most of Senegal-Mali border till Bakel. From there, Senegal River continue through dry northern Senegal, dey form border between Senegal and Mauritania before e enter Atlantic Ocean. For Kaedi, Gorgol River from Mauritania join am. The river pass Boghé, reach Richard Toll where Ferlo River from Lac de Guiers side join am. After that e pass Rosso and reach Saint-Louis. Before e empty inside Atlantic Ocean, one narrow sand strip wey dem dey call Langue de Barbarie separate the river from the ocean. The river get two big dams. One be Manantali Dam for Mali wey dem use am for different purposes, and the other one be Maka-Diama Dam near Mauritania-Senegal border close to where the river enter the sea. This dam stop salt water from the Atlantic make e no enter upstream. Between Manantali Dam and Maka-Diama Dam dey Félou Hydroelectric Plant. Dem first complete am for 1927 and e dey use weir. Dem replace the old power station for 2014. For 2013 too, construction start for Gouina Hydroelectric Plant upstream from Félou near Gouina Falls. Senegal River drainage basin cover {{Convert|270,000|km2|abbr=on|comma=gaps}}, with average flow of {{Convert|680|m3/s|abbr=on|comma=gaps}} and yearly discharge of {{Convert|21.5|km3|abbr=on}}.<ref name=whycos>{{citation | title=SENEGAL-HYCOS: Renforcement des capacités nationales et régionales d'observation, transmission et traitement de données pour contribuer au développement durable du bassin du Fleuve Sénégal (Document de projet préliminaire) | publisher=Système Mondial d’Observation du Cycle Hydrologique (WHYCOS) | url=http://www.whycos.org/IMG/pdf/Senegal_HYCOS_september_2007.pdf | year=2007 | language=fr | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228165424/http://www.whycos.org/IMG/pdf/Senegal_HYCOS_september_2007.pdf | archive-date=28 December 2013 | df=dmy-all }}.</ref><!--actually p3--><ref name=":0">[http://www.grdc.sr.unh.edu/html/Polygons/P1812100.html UNH/GRDC Composite Runoff Fields V 1.0 data for Dagana].</ref> Important tributaries be Falémé River, Karakoro River and Gorgol River. Downstream from Kaédi, the river divide into two branches. The left branch wey dem dey call Doué River dey run side by side with the main river for north. After {{Convert|200|km|abbr=on}}, the two branches join again small distance after Pondor. The long land between the two branches na Île á Morfil.<ref name=whycos/><!--actually p5--> For 1972, Mali, Mauritania and Senegal create Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Sénégal (OMVS) make dem manage the whole river basin together. Guinea join the organisation for 2005. As e be now, people no dey use the river plenty for transport of goods and passengers. OMVS don study whether dem fit create navigable channel wey go be {{Convert|55|m|abbr=on}} wide from Ambidédi for Mali reach Saint-Louis, distance of {{Convert|905|km|abbr=on}}. If dem build am, e go give Mali direct route go Atlantic Ocean.<ref name=whycos/><!--page 20--> Animals wey dey inside Senegal River basin dey closely relate to those for Gambia River basin, so scientists dey group the two together under one freshwater ecoregion wey dem dey call Senegal-Gambia Catchments. Even though the area get moderate species diversity, only three frog species and one fish species na endemic to this ecoregion.<ref>Freshwater Ecoregions of the World (2008). ''[http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=509 Senegal-Gambia.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005204342/http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=509 |date=5 October 2011 }}'' Accessed 2 May 2011.</ref> == History == De area be previously occupied by de Serer people, wey dey follow dema religious den ethnic persecution by Islamic forces insyd de 11th century, result in de Serer exodus to de south.<ref name="Villalón2006p54">{{cite book |author=Villalón, Leonardo A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xFC1KUbXJ6gC&pg=PA54 |title=Islamic Society and State Power in Senegal: Disciples and Citizens in Fatick |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-03232-2 |pages=54–55}}, Quote: "Serer oral tradition recounts the group's origins in the Senegal River valley, where it was part of, or closely related to, the same group as the ancestors of today's [[Toucouleur people|Tukulor]]."</ref><ref name=":1">Galvan, Dennis Charles,&nbsp;''The State Must Be Our Master of Fire: How Peasants Craft Culturally Sustainable Development in Senegal,'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004, p.&nbsp;51</ref><ref name=":2">Berg, Elizabeth; Wan, Ruth; and Lau, Ruth (2009).&nbsp;''Senegal''. Marshall Cavendish. {{ISBN|9780761444817}}, p. 63</ref><ref name=":3">Page, Willie F., ''Encyclopedia of African history and culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500)'', pp. 209, 676. Vol.2, Facts on File (2001), {{ISBN|0-8160-4472-4}}</ref><ref name=":4">Streissguth, Thomas, "Senegal in Pictures, Visual Geography", Second Series, p. 23, Twenty-First Century Books (2009), {{ISBN|1-57505-951-7}}</ref><ref name=":5">Oliver, Roland Anthony; & Fage, J. D.,; "Journal of African history", Volume 10, p. 367. Cambridge University Press (1969)</ref><ref name=":6">Mwakikagile, Godfrey, "Ethnic Diversity and Integration in The Gambia: The Land, The People and The Culture," (2010), p. 11, {{ISBN|9987-9322-2-3}}</ref> {{See also|Serer history|Serer ancient history|Timeline of Serer history|Takrur#Serer Exodus}} People from early Mediterranean civilizations already know about Senegal River. Pliny the Elder call am ''Bambotus'' (maybe from Phoenician word for hippopotamus), while Claudius Ptolemy call am ''Nias''.<ref>Pliny, ''Natural History'', Lib. 5, Ch.1 ([https://books.google.com/books?id=VzwZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA380 p. 380])</ref> Around 450 BCE, Hanno the Carthaginian pass the river during him sea journey from Carthage through the Pillars of Herakles to Theon Ochema (possibly Mount Cameroon) inside Gulf of Guinea. Trade continue between this area and the Mediterranean world until Carthage destroy for 146 BCE together with ein West African trade network. === Arab sources === For Early Middle Ages (around 800 CE), Senegal River connect West Africa and Mediterranean again through the Trans-Saharan trade route between Morocco and Ghana Empire. Arab geographers like al-Masudi of Baghdad (957), al-Bakri of Spain (1068), and al-Idrisi of Sicily (1154) write some of the earliest detailed descriptions of the Senegal River.<ref>A translation of al-Bakri's 1068 account is found in Levtzion & Hopkins, (2000, ''Corpus'': ([https://books.google.com/books?id=L3tNlgQmT9wC&pg=PA77 p. 77]). In French, see Monteil (1968). For an attempt to reconstruct the Senegal river's course from the accounts of al-Bakri and al-Idrisi, see Cooley (1841: [https://books.google.com/books?id=380NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA52 p. 52]).</ref> Early Arab geographers believe say upper Senegal River and upper Niger River connect together and form one big river wey dey flow from east go west. Dem call am "Western Nile".<ref>The term "Nile" seems to have been applied quite early to the Senegal. During the Arab conquest of North Africa in the 8th century, Ifriqiyan commanders launched several expeditionary raids from the Sous valley against the desert-dwelling nomadic Berbers of Western Sahara. There is a report from an Arab commander from the 750s who claims to have reached as far south as "the Nile" (i.e. the Senegal). See Hrbek (1992: p.308).</ref> Some people believe say the river be western branch of the Egyptian Nile or both rivers come from the same source, like the Mountains of the Moon, Ptolemy's Gir, or the Biblical Gihon stream.<ref>Geographia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4ksBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA222 Book IV, Chapter 6, Section 13].</ref><ref>e.g. Leo Africanus, [https://books.google.com/books?id=rmcMAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Leo%20Africanus%22%20Niger&pg=PA124 p. 124]</ref> [[File:Senegal River according to al-Bakri.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Western Nile (Senegal-Niger River) according to al-Bakri (1068)]] Arab geographers Abd al-Hassan Ali ibn Omar (1230), Ibn Said al-Maghribi (1274), and Abulfeda (1331) call Senegal River the "Nile of Ghana" (Nil Gana or Nili Ganah).<ref>See R.H. Major (1868) ''Life of Prince Henry'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=UfE5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA114 p. 114]</ref> Because Senegal River enter the heart of the gold-producing Ghana Empire and later Mali Empire, Trans-Saharan traders give am the famous nickname "River of Gold". Stories about this River of Gold spread reach European merchants wey dey trade for Morocco ports. Arab historians even record at least three different Arab sea expeditions, including one by eight ''mughrarin'' ("wanderers") from Lisbon before 1147, wey try sail down the Atlantic coast to look for the mouth of the Senegal River.<ref>See Beazley (1899: p. xliv, lxxv)</ref> === Cartographic representation === [[File:Senegal River according to al-Idrisi.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Western Nile (Senegal-Niger River) according to Muhammad al-Idrisi (1154)]] Based on Classical stories and Arab writings, the "River of Gold" begin show for European maps from the 14th century. For the Hereford Mappa Mundi (around 1300), one river wey dem label ''Nilus Fluvius'' show parallel to Africa coast, although e no connect to the Atlantic Ocean because e end inside one lake. The map also show giant ants wey dey dig gold from the river sand, with the note "''Hic grandes formice auream serican [or servant] arenas''".<ref>Bevan and Phillott (1873: [https://books.google.com/books?id=u_oHAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA105 p. 105].</ref> For Pietro Vesconte map wey e prepare for Marino Sanuto around 1320, one unnamed river dey flow from inside Africa into the Atlantic Ocean. The 1351 Medici-Laurentian Atlas show both the Egyptian Nile and the Western Nile say dem come from the same mountain range inside Africa, together with the note "''Ilic coligitur aureaum''".<ref>See João de Andrade Corvo (1882) ''Roteiro de Lisboa a Goa por D. João de Castro'', Lisbon. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Q8M5AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA68 p.68n.]</ref> The portolan chart by Giovanni da Carignano (1310s–1320s) also label the river as ''iste fluuis exit de nilo ubi multum aurum repperitur''.<ref>Winter (1962: p. 18)</ref> Later portolan charts, beginning with the 1367 chart by Domenico and Francesco Pizzigano and continuing with the 1375 Catalan Atlas and the 1413 chart by Mecia de Viladestes, show the "River of Gold" flowing into the Atlantic Ocean somewhere south of Cape Bojador. Around this same period, many Europeans believe say Cape Bojador be dangerous place wey sailors no fit pass, maybe because Trans-Saharan traders no want sea trade replace their land trade. Many maps show one big island inside the middle of the river wey dem call the "Island of Gold". Al-Masudi first mention am, al-Idrisi call am ''Wangara'', while the Pizzigani brothers call am ''Palolus''. Many researchers believe say this "island" actually represent the Bambuk-Buré goldfields wey rivers surround on almost every side.<ref>Delafosse (1912: v.1,p.55), Crone (1937: p.xv), Mauny (1961: p.302), Levtzion (1973: p.155). However, McIntosh (1981) suggests an alternative identification of this riverine "island" to be the Djenné area, around the bend of the Niger.</ref> [[Image:Palolus river (Senegal-Niger) in 1413 Mecia de Viladestes map.jpg|thumb|1000px|center|Course of the "River of Gold" (Senegal-Niger) in the 1413 portolan chart of Mecia de Viladestes.]] The 1413 portolan chart by Mecia de Viladestes give one of the most detailed European pictures of the Senegal River before Portuguese explorers reach the area during the 1440s. The map label the river as "''riu del or''" ("River of Gold") and place am well south of Cape Bojador. The map also include many notes about the plenty gold and ivory wey dey the area. {{Quote|"This river is called Wad al-Nil and also is called the River of Gold, for one can here obtain the gold of Palolus. And know that the greater part of those that live here occupy themselves collecting gold on the shores of the river which, at its mouth, is a league wide, and deep enough for the largest ship of the world."<ref>"Aquest flum es apelat ued anil axi matex es apelat riu de lor per tal com si requyl lor de palola. Et scire debeatis quod major pars gentium in partibus istis habitantium sunt electi ad colligendum aurum ipso flumine, qui habet latitudinem unius legue et fondum pro majori nave mundi"</ref>}} [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|thumb|Slave trade along the Senegal River, kingdom of Cayor]] The map also show the galley of Jaume Ferrer close to the coast, referring to ein 1346 voyage. One golden island at the river mouth probably represent Langue de Barbarie or Saint-Louis Island. The first town for the river mouth dey labelled "isingan", which some historians believe fit be where the name "Senegal" come from. Farther inland, the map show Takrur, Emperor Mansa Musa of Mali holding one gold nugget, and the capital of Mali Empire beside the river. The map also show the famous "Island of Gold", believed by many scholars to represent the Bambuk-Buré goldfields, together with towns like Timbuktu and Gao connected by one continuous river system. North of the Senegal-Niger system, the map show different oases and stations along the Trans-Saharan trade routes leading to the Mediterranean. It also show rulers from Nubia, Ethiopia and other kingdoms according to European geographical knowledge at that time. One unique feature of the Viladestes map be another river south of the Senegal wey dem label "''flumen gelica''", which some historians believe fit represent the Gambia River. Later, the 1459 Fra Mauro world map show two separate rivers flowing westward from the same inland lake, one labelled "Mas River" and the other "Channel of Gold". Fra Mauro also note say people dey collect gold from the sands of both rivers.<ref>João de Andrade Corvo (1882: p.70)</ref> === European contact === Christian Europeans begin look for sea route wey go lead dem to the mouth of Senegal River. The first known attempt fit be by the Genoese brothers Vandino and Ugolino Vivaldi. Dem sail along the African coast for 1291 with two ships, but nobody hear anything about dem again. For 1346, Majorcan sailor Jaume Ferrer sail with one galley because e want find the famous "River of Gold" (''Riu de l'Or''). E hear say people wey dey live along the river dey collect gold from the river banks and say the river deep enough for even the biggest ships. After the journey, nobody hear from am again. For 1402, after French adventurers Jean de Béthencourt and Gadifer de la Salle establish the first European settlement for the Canary Islands, dem begin explore the African coast to search for the mouth of Senegal River. [[File:Bababé.jpg|thumb|Boat on Senegal River]] For the 1420s, Portuguese prince Henry the Navigator continue the search and spend plenty resources on the project. For 1434, one of ein captains, Gil Eanes, become the first European to sail beyond Cape Bojador and return safely. The following year, Henry send another expedition under Gil Eanes and Afonso Gonçalves Baldaia. Dem reach one inlet near Dakhla for Western Sahara and mistakenly believe say na the mouth of Senegal River. Because of that mistake, dem call the place "Rio do Ouro", a name wey remain there for many centuries. After Henry realize say the inlet no be Senegal River, e continue send more expeditions farther south. For 1445, Portuguese captain Nuno Tristão finally reach Langue de Barbarie. There e notice say the desert begin end, trees begin appear, and the people change from Sanhaja Berbers to black Wolof people. Because of bad weather or lack of supplies, Tristão no enter the river but e return Portugal convinced say e don reach the "Land of the Blacks" and say the Nile dey nearby. Not long after, another Portuguese captain, Dinis Dias, become the first known European since ancient times wey reach the mouth of Senegal River. Instead of sailing inside the river, e continue along the Grande Côte to Dakar Bay. The next year, for 1446, Portuguese slave-raiding fleet under Lançarote de Freitas arrive the river mouth. One captain, Estêvão Afonso, volunteer make e enter the river with one small launch to explore the area. E become the first European wey actually sail inside Senegal River. The journey no last long. After Afonso try kidnap two Wolof children from one hut near the river bank, their father chase the Portuguese men back to their boat and beat dem well. Because of that, the explorers stop the journey and return to their ships.<ref>Zurara (p.178-83), Barros (p.110-12)</ref> [[File:RiverSenegalNearKanel.jpg|thumb|Young boys swimming in the Senegal River]] Between 1448 and 1455, Portuguese captain Lourenço Dias establish regular trade with the Wolof states of Waalo and Cayor along the Senegal River. The Portuguese exchange Mediterranean goods, especially horses, for gold and slaves.<ref>Cadamosto suggest this was begun in 1450: "Five years before I went on this voyage, this river was discovered by three caravels belonging to Don Henry, which entered it, and their commanders settled peace and trade with the Moors; since which time ships have been sent to this place every year to trade with the natives." Cadamosto (Engl. 1811 trans., [https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA220 p. 220]) The identification of Lourenço Dias as the opener of Portuguese trade on the Senegal River is suggested in a 1489 document. See Russell (2000:p.97n14).</ref> Historian Gomes Eanes de Zurara, writing for 1453, still call the river the "Nile River". But by the 1460s, Alvise Cadamosto dey call am "Senega", and most Portuguese maps after that period label am as ''Rio do Çanagà''.<ref>Cadamosto (Engl. 1811 trans., ([https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA213 p. 213]). Giovanni Battista Ramusio, publisher of the 1550 Italian edition of Cadamosto's memoir, refers to the gold from the Senegal as ''oro tiber'' ([https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA107 p. 107]), thus leading some to imagine it was also customary to call the Senegal the Tiber River. In all likelihood, "Tiber Gold" was just a generic Italian reference to river-dug gold.</ref> Cadamosto also record the old belief say both Senegal River and the Egyptian Nile be branches of the Biblical Gihon River wey flow from the Garden of Eden through Ethiopia.<ref>Cadamosto ([https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA220 p. 220]; Ital: [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA111 p. 111]).</ref> E also write say ancient people call Senegal River "the Niger", probably because of Ptolemy's legendary Nigir River.<ref>Geographia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4ksBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA222 Book IV, Chapter 6, Section 14].</ref> Later, Leo Africanus identify this legendary river with the modern Niger River.<ref>By confounding the Ptolemy's Greek 'Nigir' with the Latin word for "black", Leo Africanus assumed the "Nile of the Blacks" (i.e. Senegal-Niger of the Arab traders) must be the Nigir of the ancients. See Leo Africanus, (Ital: [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=PA7 p. 7], Eng: [https://books.google.com/books?id=rmcMAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Leo%20Africanus%22%20Niger&pg=PA124 p. 124]</ref> Luis del Marmol Carvajal repeat similar story for 1573 and add say both Senegal River and Gambia River be tributaries of the Niger River.<ref>Luis del Marmol Carvajal (1573) ([https://books.google.com/books?id=1WVevz1cDnwC&q=Zenega&pg=PT23 ch. 17])</ref> [[File:Guillaume Delisle Senegambia 1707.jpg|thumb|Senegambia region, detail from Guillaume Delisle's 1707 map, still showing Senegal River connected to the Niger. Later editions corrected this mistake.]] Portuguese historian João de Barros write for 1552 say the original Wolof name of the river be ''Ovedech'', believed to come from the Wolof words meaning "this river".<ref>Barros, ''Décadas da Ásia'' ([https://books.google.com/books?id=Epo2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA109 p. 109]). See also Bailot (1853: p.199).</ref> Damião de Góis later record the name as ''Sonedech'', meaning "our river".<ref>See also A.M. de Castilho (1866) ''Descripção e roteiro da costa occidental de Africa'', vol. 1, [https://books.google.com/books?id=8ikiSWPVYDUC&dq=editions%3ASTANFORD36105015335362&pg=PA92 p. 92].</ref> For 1573, Luis del Marmol Carvajal write say different ethnic groups call the river by different names. According to am, the Portuguese call am ''Zenega'', the Zenaga Berbers call am ''Zenedec'', the Wolof call am ''Dengueh'', the Toucouleur call am ''Mayo'', the Soninke call am ''Colle'', while people from other areas get different local names too.<ref>Luis del Marmol Carvajal (1573), Lib. VIII, [https://books.google.com/books?id=hwtxRhuIkIoC&pg=PA3 ch.3]. See also Phérotée de La Croix (1688: Ch. 2 [https://books.google.com/books?id=JaUBAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA406 p. 406]) and Cooley (1841: [https://books.google.com/books?id=380NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA38 p. 38])</ref> === European contact === Christian Europe people later start try find sea route wey go carry dem reach mouth of Senegal River. Di first known attempt fit be di one wey two Genoa brothers, Vandino and Ugolino Vivaldi, do for 1291, as dem sail go south along di coast with two ships, but nobody hear from dem again. For 1346, Majorca sailor Jaume Ferrer take one galley ship go search di famous "River of Gold" (Riu de l'Or). E hear say plenty people wey dey stay near di river dey gather gold from di riverbanks and say di river big enough for very large ships. Nobody hear from am again after dat. For 1402, after dem establish di first European settlement for Canary Islands, two French Norman adventurers, Jean de Béthencourt and Gadifer de la Salle, begin explore di West African coast to look for di mouth of Senegal River. [[File:Bababé.jpg|thumb|Boat on Senegal River]] For 1420s, Portuguese prince Henry the Navigator continue invest plenty money make dem find di Senegal River. For 1434, one of ein captains, Gil Eanes, finally cross Cape Bojador and return safely. Di next year, Henry send another expedition under Gil Eanes and Afonso Gonçalves Baldaia. Dem reach one inlet for Western Sahara and mistakenly believe say e be di mouth of Senegal River. Because of dat mistake, dem call am "Rio do Ouro", and dat name remain for many centuries. After Henry realize say dem make mistake, e continue send more expeditions. For 1445, Portuguese captain Nuno Tristão reach Langue de Barbarie. E notice say di desert finish and greener land begin. E also notice say di people no be Sanhaja Berbers again but Wolof people. Because of bad weather or lack of supplies, e no enter di river but return Portugal to report say e don find "Land of the Blacks" (Terra dos Negros) and believe say di Nile River dey nearby. Soon after, maybe dat same year, another Portuguese captain, Dinis Dias, become di first known European since ancient times wey actually reach di mouth of Senegal River. However, instead of sailing inside di river, e continue along di Grande Côte to Dakar Bay. For 1446, Portuguese slave-raiding fleet under Lançarote de Freitas arrive for di river mouth. One captain, Estêvão Afonso, volunteer make e explore di river by boat. E become di first European wey enter inside Senegal River. During di journey, e try kidnap two Wolof children from one woodsman's house. Di children's father chase dem go back to dia boat and beat dem well well, so dem stop di exploration and return to dia ships.<ref>Zurara (p.178-83), Barros (p.110-12)</ref> [[File:RiverSenegalNearKanel.jpg|thumb|Young boys swimming in the Senegal River]] Between 1448 and 1455, Portuguese captain Lourenço Dias establish regular trade with di Wolof states of Waalo and Cayor. Dem exchange Mediterranean goods, especially horses, for gold and slaves.<ref>Cadamosto suggest this was begun in 1450: "Five years before I went on this voyage, this river was discovered by three caravels belonging to Don Henry, which entered it, and their commanders settled peace and trade with the Moors; since which time ships have been sent to this place every year to trade with the natives." Cadamosto (Engl. 1811 trans., [https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA220 p. 220]) The identification of Lourenço Dias as the opener of Portuguese trade on the Senegal River is suggested in a 1489 document. See Russell (2000:p.97n14).</ref> Historian Gomes Eanes de Zurara, wey write for 1453, still call di river "Nile River". But Alvise Cadamosto, wey write during di 1460s, call am "Senega", and many Portuguese maps after dat also label am as Rio do Çanagà.<ref>Cadamosto (Engl. 1811 trans., ([https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA213 p. 213]). Giovanni Battista Ramusio, publisher of the 1550 Italian edition of Cadamosto's memoir, refers to the gold from the Senegal as oro tiber ([https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA107 p. 107]), thus leading some to imagine it was also customary to call the Senegal the Tiber River! In all likelihood, "Tiber Gold" was just a generic Italian reference to river-dug gold.</ref> Cadamosto also write say people believe both Senegal River and Egyptian Nile be branches of di Biblical Gihon River wey flow from Garden of Eden through Ethiopia.<ref>Cadamosto ([https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA220 p. 220]; Ital: [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA111 p. 111]).</ref> E also mention say ancient people call Senegal River "Niger", probably because of Ptolemy ein legendary Nigir River.<ref>Geographia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4ksBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA222 Book IV, Chapter 6, Section 14].</ref> Later, Leo Africanus identify dat legendary river with today's Niger River.<ref>By confounding the Ptolemy's Greek 'Nigir' with the Latin word for "black", Leo Africanus assumed the "Nile of the Blacks" (i.e. Senegal-Niger of the Arab traders) must be the Nigir of the ancients. See Leo Africanus, (Ital: [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=PA7 p. 7], Eng: [https://books.google.com/books?id=rmcMAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Leo%20Africanus%22%20Niger&pg=PA124 p. 124]</ref> Luis del Marmol Carvajal repeat almost di same story for 1573 and add say both Senegal River and Gambia River be tributaries of Niger River.<ref>Luis del Marmol Carvajal (1573) ([https://books.google.com/books?id=1WVevz1cDnwC&q=Zenega&pg=PT23 ch. 17])</ref> [[File:Guillaume Delisle Senegambia 1707.jpg|thumb|Senegambia region, detail from the map of Guillaume Delisle (1707), wey still show Senegal connected to Niger; later editions (1722 and 1727) correct dat mistake.]] Portuguese historian João de Barros, wey write for 1552, say di original Wolof name for di river be ''Ovedech'', wey one source explain as "vi-dekh", meaning "this river".<ref>Barros, Décadas da Ásia ([https://books.google.com/books?id=Epo2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA109 p. 109]). See also Bailot (1853: p.199).</ref> Damião de Góis later record di name as ''Sonedech'', from "sunu dekh", meaning "our river".<ref>See also A.M. de Castilho (1866) Descripção e roteiro da costa occidental de Africa, vol. 1, [https://books.google.com/books?id=8ikiSWPVYDUC&dq=editions%3ASTANFORD36105015335362&pg=PA92 p. 92].</ref> For 1573, Luis del Marmol Carvajal record different local names wey different ethnic groups use for di river. According to am, Portuguese call am ''Zenega'', Zenaga Berbers call am ''Zenedec'', Wolof people call am ''Dengueh'', Toucouleur people call am ''Mayo'', Soninke people of Ngalam call am ''Colle'', Bambara people call am ''Zimbala'', while people for Timbuktu call am ''Yça''.<ref>Luis del Marmol Carvajal (1573), Lib. VIII, [https://books.google.com/books?id=hwtxRhuIkIoC&pg=PA3 ch.3]. See also Phérotée de La Croix (1688: Ch. 2 [https://books.google.com/books?id=JaUBAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA406 p. 406]) and Cooley (1841: [https://books.google.com/books?id=380NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA38 p. 38])</ref> == Etymology == 16th-century Portuguese historian João de Barros talk say na Portuguese traders give di river di name "Senegal" because one local Wolof chief wey dem dey trade with get dat personal name.<ref>Barros, p. 109. This is reiterated in Marmol, Ch.8.3.</ref> But many historians no agree with dis explanation. For example, di ruler of Waalo dey use di title ''Brak'', while Alvise Cadamosto write say di chief wey Portuguese traders dey meet for Senegal River be person wey dem call "Zucholin".<ref>Cadamosto (Ital: p. 110; Eng: p.220).</ref> Di confusion fit come because Cadamosto also mention one Wolof chief south of di river wey e call ''Budomel''.<ref>Cadamosto (Ital: [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA113 p. 113]; Eng., [https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA225 p. 225] )</ref> Most researchers believe say "Budomel" come from di title ''Damel'', wey get di Wolof word ''bor'' ("lord") join am.<ref>Russell (2000: p.298)</ref> Interestingly, di name ''Budomel'' resemble di older Genoese name ''Vedamel'', wey already appear for 14th-century records as another name for Senegal River.<ref>e.g. in a Genoese note about Jaume Ferrer's 1346 trip to the River Gold, "Istud flumen vocatur Vedamel similiter vocatur riu Auri". See G. Gråberg (1802) Annali di geografia e di statistica, Genoa, vol. II, p. 290</ref> Many scholars believe say di Genoese name ''Vedamel'' come from Arabic words like ''Wad al-mal'' ("River of Treasure"), ''Wad al-Melli'' ("River of Mali"), or maybe ''Wad al-Nill'' ("River of Nile").<ref>The "River of Treasure" interpretation of Vedamel can be found in J.G.H. "'Histoire du commerce entre le Levant et l'Europe' in 1831, Antologia; giornale di scienze, lettere e arti, Vol. 3 (Aug.) [https://books.google.com/books?id=lFtKAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA26 p. 27]. R.H. Major (p.113) proposes the "Nile" interpretation.</ref> [[File:FleuveSénégal1889.jpg|thumb|Route of the Senegal River, map from 1889]] Another popular explanation come from Fr. David Boilat for 1853. E suggest say "Senegal" come from di Wolof words ''sunu gaal'', wey mean "our canoe" or "our pirogue".<ref>Fr. David Boilat (1853) Esquisses sénégalaises [https://books.google.com/books?id=qfsRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA199 p. 199]</ref> According to Bailot, one Portuguese captain ask some Wolof fishermen di name of di river, but dem think say e dey ask who own dia canoe. Dem answer, "sunu gaal" ("our canoe"), and Portuguese mistakenly take dat as di river's name.<ref>Bailot, p. 199</ref> Today, plenty people for Senegal still like dis story because e represent unity, as if everybody dey inside one canoe together. Some modern historians instead believe say "Senegal" come from ''Azenegue'', di Portuguese name for di Zenaga Berber people wey dey live north of di river.<ref>Monod & Mauny, in the French translation of Zurara, although it is already noted by editor Kerr in the 1811 English translation of Cadamosto.</ref> Another strong theory be say di name "Senegal" old pass all dese explanations. E fit come from "Sanghana" (also written as Isenghan, Asengan or Singhanah), one town wey Arab historian al-Bakri describe for 1068 as di capital of one kingdom near di mouth of Senegal River.<ref>Al Bakri ([https://books.google.com/books?id=L3tNlgQmT9wC&pg=PA77 p. 77]). Monteil (1964: p. 91; 1968). Cooley (1841: [https://books.google.com/books?id=380NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA50 p. 50], p.55) believes that al-Idrisi, contrarily to al-Bakri, might have confused Sanghana with Ganah/Awkat, the capital of the Ghana empire.</ref> Di place ''Senegany'' also appear for one Genoese map from 1351 known as di Medici Atlas.<ref>Delafosse "Senegal River", in First encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936, Leiden: E.J. Brill. vol. 7 ([https://books.google.com/books?id=sP_hVmik-QYC&pg=PA223 pp. 223–24])</ref> Later, Majorcan cartographer Mecia de Viladestes include di same town ("Isingan") for ein famous 1413 map.<ref name="Monteil, 1964: p.91">Monteil, 1964: p. 91</ref> Some researchers think say di name fit get Zenaga Berber origin, connected to ''Ismegh'' ("black slave") or ''sagui nughal'' ("border").<ref name="Monteil, 1964: p.91"/> Other sources also say ''Isinghan'' continue be di common Berber name for di Wolof Kingdom of Cayor.<ref name="Monteil, 1964: p.91"/> Some Serer people from southern Senegal also claim say di river's name come from joining two Serer words: "Sene", from Rog Sene (di Supreme Deity for Serer religion), and "O Gal", wey mean "body of water". == Economic Importance == Senegal River be one of di most important economic resources for West Africa, especially for di four countries wey share am: Guinea, Mali, Mauritania and Senegal. Di river support both traditional livelihoods and modern industries.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=The World Bank |title=Senegal River Valley Development and Resilience Project |journal=World Bank Report |date=28 November 2023 |page=4 |url=chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099112823230029545/pdf/P1794490e9e591020802b03680fe96c805.pdf |access-date=16 June 2026}}</ref> === Hydropower generation === Senegal River be major source of electricity for di region. Di biggest facilities include di 1,460-metre-long Manantali Dam, wey get power generation capacity of 200 MW.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Case Study on the Manantali Dam Project (Mali, Mauritania, Senegal) |url=https://riverresourcehub.org/resources/a-case-study-on-the-manantali-dam-project-mali-mauritania-senegal-2011/ |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=International Rivers Resource Hub |language=en-GB}}</ref> Other important hydropower stations include Gouina Hydroelectric Plant for Mali, wey generate 140 MW,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cities |first=Green Building Africa-Net Carbon Zero Buildings and |date=2022-12-11 |title=Construction of 140MW Gouina Hydroelectric Plant in Mali Complete |url=https://www.greenbuildingafrica.co.za/construction-of-140mw-gouina-hydroelectric-plant-in-mali-complete/ |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=Green Building Africa}}</ref> and Félou Hydroelectric Plant, wey produce 62 MW.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mali: Félou Regional Hydropower Project {{!}} KYOTO |url=https://www.wbkyotofunds.org/projects/mali-felou-regional-hydropower-project |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.wbkyotofunds.org}}</ref> Di electricity wey dese dams produce dey support industries, businesses and homes across di region. More hydropower projects still dey under development, including Koukoutamba (294 MW),<ref>{{Cite web |last=kgi-admin |date=2023-04-18 |title=Power plant profile: Koukoutamba, Guinea |url=https://www.power-technology.com/marketdata/power-plant-profile-koukoutamba-guinea/ |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=Power Technology |language=en-US}}</ref> Boureya (161 MW),<ref>{{Cite web |last=kgi-admin |date=2023-04-22 |title=Power plant profile: Boureya Hydro Power Plant, Guinea |url=https://www.power-technology.com/marketdata/power-plant-profile-boureya-hydro-power-plant-guinea/ |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=Power Technology |language=en-US}}</ref> and Gourbassi Hydroelectric Plant (18 MW).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Senegal/Mali: CMEC to build Gourbassi hydroelectric dam {{!}} African Energy |url=https://www.africa-energy.com/news-centre/article/senegalmali-cmec-build-gourbassi-hydroelectric-dam |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.africa-energy.com}}</ref> == See also == * Futa Toro == References == <references /> == Read further == * {{cite book |last=Betz |first=R. L. |title=The Mapping of Africa: a cartobibliography of printed maps of the African continent to 1700 |publisher=Hes & de Graaf |year=2007 |isbn=978-90-6194-489-8}} * {{cite book |last=Davidson |first=Basil |title=West Africa Before the Colonial Era: a history to 1850 |publisher=Longman |year=1998 |isbn=0-582-31852-1 |location=London}} * {{cite book |last=De la Roncière |first=Charles |title=La découverte de l'Afrique au moyen âge |publisher=Société Royale de Géographie d'Égypte |others=2 volumes |year=1925 |location=Cairo}} == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070629065341/http://zope0.itcilo.org/delta/lmdd2003/news/1067611432/1068825691/presentation%20ressources%20en%20eau%20senegal.ppt The Hydrology of Senegal] (PowerPoint presentation) {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Senegal River}} [[Category:Senegal River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Senegal]] [[Category:Rivers of Mauritania]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Mauritania–Senegal border]] [[Category:Rivers of Mali]] [[Category:Lowest points of countries]] [[Category:Serer history]] nnakk5v4c1xxjweebkzlb5mcztng3fv 103594 103593 2026-06-17T22:04:25Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 /* See also */ added more content 103594 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Senegal River''' (Serer: ''"Seen O Gal"'' anaa "Senegal" - compound of de&nbsp;Serer term "Seen" anaa "Sene" anaa "Sen" (from&nbsp;Roog Seen, Supreme Deity insyd&nbsp;Serer religion) den "O Gal" (wey dey mean "body of water")); Wolof: ''Dexug Senegaal'', Arabic: نهر السنغال, romanized: ''Nahr as-Siniġāl'', French: ''Fleuve Sénégal'') be a 1086-kilometre-long (675 mi) river insyd [[West Africa]]; much of ein length dey mark part of de border between [[Senegal]] den [[Mauritania]]. E get a drainage basin of 270000 km2 (100000 sq mi), a mean flow of 680 m3/s (24,000 cu ft/s), den an annual discharge of 21.5 km3 (5.2 cu mi). Important tributaries be de Falémé River, Karakoro River, den de Gorgol River. De river dey divide into two branches once e pass Kaédi. De left branch, dem call de Doué, dey run parallel to de main river to de north. After 200 km (120 mi) de two branches rejoin a few kilometers downstream of Podor. Insyd 1972 [[Mali]], Mauritania den Senegal found de Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Sénégal (OMVS) to manage de river basin. [[Guinea]] join insyd 2005. As of 2012, na only very limited use be made of de river for de transportation of goods den passengers. Na de OMVS look at de feasibility of creating a navigable channel 55 m (180 ft) in width between de small town of Ambidédi insyd [[Mali]] den Saint-Louis, a distance of 905 km (562 mi).E go give landlocked Mali a direct route to de [[Atlantic Ocean]]. De aquatic fauna insyd de Senegal River basin be closely associated plus dat of de [[Gambia River]] basin, wey de two be usually combined under a single ecoregion dem know as de Senegal-Gambia Catchments. Only three species of frogs den one fish be endemic to dis ecoregion. De river get two large dams along ein course, de Manantali Dam insyd [[Mali]] den de Maka-Diama Dam downstream on de Mauritania-Senegal border. In between be de Félou Hydroelectric Plant, dem build insyd 1927, buh dem replace insyd 2014. De construction of de Gouina Hydroelectric Plant upstream of Felou at Gouina Falls begin insyd 2013. == Geography == [[File:Senegal River Saint Louis.jpg|thumb|Fishermen for Senegal River estuary bank near Saint-Louis, Senegal]] Senegal River source na Semefé (Bakoye) River plus Bafing River. Both rivers start from Guinea. Dem join small for Guinea-Mali border before dem meet for Bafoulabé inside Mali. From there, Senegal River dey flow go west den north through Talari Gorges near Galougo, pass Gouina Falls, before e continue gently pass Kayes, where Kolimbiné River join am. After Karakoro River join am, the river continue along Mali-Mauritania border for some kilometres reach Bakel, where Falémé River join am. Falémé River too start from Guinea and pass part of Guinea-Mali border before e form most of Senegal-Mali border till Bakel. From there, Senegal River continue through dry northern Senegal, dey form border between Senegal and Mauritania before e enter Atlantic Ocean. For Kaedi, Gorgol River from Mauritania join am. The river pass Boghé, reach Richard Toll where Ferlo River from Lac de Guiers side join am. After that e pass Rosso and reach Saint-Louis. Before e empty inside Atlantic Ocean, one narrow sand strip wey dem dey call Langue de Barbarie separate the river from the ocean. The river get two big dams. One be Manantali Dam for Mali wey dem use am for different purposes, and the other one be Maka-Diama Dam near Mauritania-Senegal border close to where the river enter the sea. This dam stop salt water from the Atlantic make e no enter upstream. Between Manantali Dam and Maka-Diama Dam dey Félou Hydroelectric Plant. Dem first complete am for 1927 and e dey use weir. Dem replace the old power station for 2014. For 2013 too, construction start for Gouina Hydroelectric Plant upstream from Félou near Gouina Falls. Senegal River drainage basin cover {{Convert|270,000|km2|abbr=on|comma=gaps}}, with average flow of {{Convert|680|m3/s|abbr=on|comma=gaps}} and yearly discharge of {{Convert|21.5|km3|abbr=on}}.<ref name=whycos>{{citation | title=SENEGAL-HYCOS: Renforcement des capacités nationales et régionales d'observation, transmission et traitement de données pour contribuer au développement durable du bassin du Fleuve Sénégal (Document de projet préliminaire) | publisher=Système Mondial d’Observation du Cycle Hydrologique (WHYCOS) | url=http://www.whycos.org/IMG/pdf/Senegal_HYCOS_september_2007.pdf | year=2007 | language=fr | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228165424/http://www.whycos.org/IMG/pdf/Senegal_HYCOS_september_2007.pdf | archive-date=28 December 2013 | df=dmy-all }}.</ref><!--actually p3--><ref name=":0">[http://www.grdc.sr.unh.edu/html/Polygons/P1812100.html UNH/GRDC Composite Runoff Fields V 1.0 data for Dagana].</ref> Important tributaries be Falémé River, Karakoro River and Gorgol River. Downstream from Kaédi, the river divide into two branches. The left branch wey dem dey call Doué River dey run side by side with the main river for north. After {{Convert|200|km|abbr=on}}, the two branches join again small distance after Pondor. The long land between the two branches na Île á Morfil.<ref name=whycos/><!--actually p5--> For 1972, Mali, Mauritania and Senegal create Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Sénégal (OMVS) make dem manage the whole river basin together. Guinea join the organisation for 2005. As e be now, people no dey use the river plenty for transport of goods and passengers. OMVS don study whether dem fit create navigable channel wey go be {{Convert|55|m|abbr=on}} wide from Ambidédi for Mali reach Saint-Louis, distance of {{Convert|905|km|abbr=on}}. If dem build am, e go give Mali direct route go Atlantic Ocean.<ref name=whycos/><!--page 20--> Animals wey dey inside Senegal River basin dey closely relate to those for Gambia River basin, so scientists dey group the two together under one freshwater ecoregion wey dem dey call Senegal-Gambia Catchments. Even though the area get moderate species diversity, only three frog species and one fish species na endemic to this ecoregion.<ref>Freshwater Ecoregions of the World (2008). ''[http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=509 Senegal-Gambia.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005204342/http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=509 |date=5 October 2011 }}'' Accessed 2 May 2011.</ref> == History == De area be previously occupied by de Serer people, wey dey follow dema religious den ethnic persecution by Islamic forces insyd de 11th century, result in de Serer exodus to de south.<ref name="Villalón2006p54">{{cite book |author=Villalón, Leonardo A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xFC1KUbXJ6gC&pg=PA54 |title=Islamic Society and State Power in Senegal: Disciples and Citizens in Fatick |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-03232-2 |pages=54–55}}, Quote: "Serer oral tradition recounts the group's origins in the Senegal River valley, where it was part of, or closely related to, the same group as the ancestors of today's [[Toucouleur people|Tukulor]]."</ref><ref name=":1">Galvan, Dennis Charles,&nbsp;''The State Must Be Our Master of Fire: How Peasants Craft Culturally Sustainable Development in Senegal,'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004, p.&nbsp;51</ref><ref name=":2">Berg, Elizabeth; Wan, Ruth; and Lau, Ruth (2009).&nbsp;''Senegal''. Marshall Cavendish. {{ISBN|9780761444817}}, p. 63</ref><ref name=":3">Page, Willie F., ''Encyclopedia of African history and culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500)'', pp. 209, 676. Vol.2, Facts on File (2001), {{ISBN|0-8160-4472-4}}</ref><ref name=":4">Streissguth, Thomas, "Senegal in Pictures, Visual Geography", Second Series, p. 23, Twenty-First Century Books (2009), {{ISBN|1-57505-951-7}}</ref><ref name=":5">Oliver, Roland Anthony; & Fage, J. D.,; "Journal of African history", Volume 10, p. 367. Cambridge University Press (1969)</ref><ref name=":6">Mwakikagile, Godfrey, "Ethnic Diversity and Integration in The Gambia: The Land, The People and The Culture," (2010), p. 11, {{ISBN|9987-9322-2-3}}</ref> {{See also|Serer history|Serer ancient history|Timeline of Serer history|Takrur#Serer Exodus}} People from early Mediterranean civilizations already know about Senegal River. Pliny the Elder call am ''Bambotus'' (maybe from Phoenician word for hippopotamus), while Claudius Ptolemy call am ''Nias''.<ref>Pliny, ''Natural History'', Lib. 5, Ch.1 ([https://books.google.com/books?id=VzwZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA380 p. 380])</ref> Around 450 BCE, Hanno the Carthaginian pass the river during him sea journey from Carthage through the Pillars of Herakles to Theon Ochema (possibly Mount Cameroon) inside Gulf of Guinea. Trade continue between this area and the Mediterranean world until Carthage destroy for 146 BCE together with ein West African trade network. === Arab sources === For Early Middle Ages (around 800 CE), Senegal River connect West Africa and Mediterranean again through the Trans-Saharan trade route between Morocco and Ghana Empire. Arab geographers like al-Masudi of Baghdad (957), al-Bakri of Spain (1068), and al-Idrisi of Sicily (1154) write some of the earliest detailed descriptions of the Senegal River.<ref>A translation of al-Bakri's 1068 account is found in Levtzion & Hopkins, (2000, ''Corpus'': ([https://books.google.com/books?id=L3tNlgQmT9wC&pg=PA77 p. 77]). In French, see Monteil (1968). For an attempt to reconstruct the Senegal river's course from the accounts of al-Bakri and al-Idrisi, see Cooley (1841: [https://books.google.com/books?id=380NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA52 p. 52]).</ref> Early Arab geographers believe say upper Senegal River and upper Niger River connect together and form one big river wey dey flow from east go west. Dem call am "Western Nile".<ref>The term "Nile" seems to have been applied quite early to the Senegal. During the Arab conquest of North Africa in the 8th century, Ifriqiyan commanders launched several expeditionary raids from the Sous valley against the desert-dwelling nomadic Berbers of Western Sahara. There is a report from an Arab commander from the 750s who claims to have reached as far south as "the Nile" (i.e. the Senegal). See Hrbek (1992: p.308).</ref> Some people believe say the river be western branch of the Egyptian Nile or both rivers come from the same source, like the Mountains of the Moon, Ptolemy's Gir, or the Biblical Gihon stream.<ref>Geographia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4ksBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA222 Book IV, Chapter 6, Section 13].</ref><ref>e.g. Leo Africanus, [https://books.google.com/books?id=rmcMAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Leo%20Africanus%22%20Niger&pg=PA124 p. 124]</ref> [[File:Senegal River according to al-Bakri.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Western Nile (Senegal-Niger River) according to al-Bakri (1068)]] Arab geographers Abd al-Hassan Ali ibn Omar (1230), Ibn Said al-Maghribi (1274), and Abulfeda (1331) call Senegal River the "Nile of Ghana" (Nil Gana or Nili Ganah).<ref>See R.H. Major (1868) ''Life of Prince Henry'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=UfE5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA114 p. 114]</ref> Because Senegal River enter the heart of the gold-producing Ghana Empire and later Mali Empire, Trans-Saharan traders give am the famous nickname "River of Gold". Stories about this River of Gold spread reach European merchants wey dey trade for Morocco ports. Arab historians even record at least three different Arab sea expeditions, including one by eight ''mughrarin'' ("wanderers") from Lisbon before 1147, wey try sail down the Atlantic coast to look for the mouth of the Senegal River.<ref>See Beazley (1899: p. xliv, lxxv)</ref> === Cartographic representation === [[File:Senegal River according to al-Idrisi.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Western Nile (Senegal-Niger River) according to Muhammad al-Idrisi (1154)]] Based on Classical stories and Arab writings, the "River of Gold" begin show for European maps from the 14th century. For the Hereford Mappa Mundi (around 1300), one river wey dem label ''Nilus Fluvius'' show parallel to Africa coast, although e no connect to the Atlantic Ocean because e end inside one lake. The map also show giant ants wey dey dig gold from the river sand, with the note "''Hic grandes formice auream serican [or servant] arenas''".<ref>Bevan and Phillott (1873: [https://books.google.com/books?id=u_oHAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA105 p. 105].</ref> For Pietro Vesconte map wey e prepare for Marino Sanuto around 1320, one unnamed river dey flow from inside Africa into the Atlantic Ocean. The 1351 Medici-Laurentian Atlas show both the Egyptian Nile and the Western Nile say dem come from the same mountain range inside Africa, together with the note "''Ilic coligitur aureaum''".<ref>See João de Andrade Corvo (1882) ''Roteiro de Lisboa a Goa por D. João de Castro'', Lisbon. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Q8M5AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA68 p.68n.]</ref> The portolan chart by Giovanni da Carignano (1310s–1320s) also label the river as ''iste fluuis exit de nilo ubi multum aurum repperitur''.<ref>Winter (1962: p. 18)</ref> Later portolan charts, beginning with the 1367 chart by Domenico and Francesco Pizzigano and continuing with the 1375 Catalan Atlas and the 1413 chart by Mecia de Viladestes, show the "River of Gold" flowing into the Atlantic Ocean somewhere south of Cape Bojador. Around this same period, many Europeans believe say Cape Bojador be dangerous place wey sailors no fit pass, maybe because Trans-Saharan traders no want sea trade replace their land trade. Many maps show one big island inside the middle of the river wey dem call the "Island of Gold". Al-Masudi first mention am, al-Idrisi call am ''Wangara'', while the Pizzigani brothers call am ''Palolus''. Many researchers believe say this "island" actually represent the Bambuk-Buré goldfields wey rivers surround on almost every side.<ref>Delafosse (1912: v.1,p.55), Crone (1937: p.xv), Mauny (1961: p.302), Levtzion (1973: p.155). However, McIntosh (1981) suggests an alternative identification of this riverine "island" to be the Djenné area, around the bend of the Niger.</ref> [[Image:Palolus river (Senegal-Niger) in 1413 Mecia de Viladestes map.jpg|thumb|1000px|center|Course of the "River of Gold" (Senegal-Niger) in the 1413 portolan chart of Mecia de Viladestes.]] The 1413 portolan chart by Mecia de Viladestes give one of the most detailed European pictures of the Senegal River before Portuguese explorers reach the area during the 1440s. The map label the river as "''riu del or''" ("River of Gold") and place am well south of Cape Bojador. The map also include many notes about the plenty gold and ivory wey dey the area. {{Quote|"This river is called Wad al-Nil and also is called the River of Gold, for one can here obtain the gold of Palolus. And know that the greater part of those that live here occupy themselves collecting gold on the shores of the river which, at its mouth, is a league wide, and deep enough for the largest ship of the world."<ref>"Aquest flum es apelat ued anil axi matex es apelat riu de lor per tal com si requyl lor de palola. Et scire debeatis quod major pars gentium in partibus istis habitantium sunt electi ad colligendum aurum ipso flumine, qui habet latitudinem unius legue et fondum pro majori nave mundi"</ref>}} [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|thumb|Slave trade along the Senegal River, kingdom of Cayor]] The map also show the galley of Jaume Ferrer close to the coast, referring to ein 1346 voyage. One golden island at the river mouth probably represent Langue de Barbarie or Saint-Louis Island. The first town for the river mouth dey labelled "isingan", which some historians believe fit be where the name "Senegal" come from. Farther inland, the map show Takrur, Emperor Mansa Musa of Mali holding one gold nugget, and the capital of Mali Empire beside the river. The map also show the famous "Island of Gold", believed by many scholars to represent the Bambuk-Buré goldfields, together with towns like Timbuktu and Gao connected by one continuous river system. North of the Senegal-Niger system, the map show different oases and stations along the Trans-Saharan trade routes leading to the Mediterranean. It also show rulers from Nubia, Ethiopia and other kingdoms according to European geographical knowledge at that time. One unique feature of the Viladestes map be another river south of the Senegal wey dem label "''flumen gelica''", which some historians believe fit represent the Gambia River. Later, the 1459 Fra Mauro world map show two separate rivers flowing westward from the same inland lake, one labelled "Mas River" and the other "Channel of Gold". Fra Mauro also note say people dey collect gold from the sands of both rivers.<ref>João de Andrade Corvo (1882: p.70)</ref> === European contact === Christian Europeans begin look for sea route wey go lead dem to the mouth of Senegal River. The first known attempt fit be by the Genoese brothers Vandino and Ugolino Vivaldi. Dem sail along the African coast for 1291 with two ships, but nobody hear anything about dem again. For 1346, Majorcan sailor Jaume Ferrer sail with one galley because e want find the famous "River of Gold" (''Riu de l'Or''). E hear say people wey dey live along the river dey collect gold from the river banks and say the river deep enough for even the biggest ships. After the journey, nobody hear from am again. For 1402, after French adventurers Jean de Béthencourt and Gadifer de la Salle establish the first European settlement for the Canary Islands, dem begin explore the African coast to search for the mouth of Senegal River. [[File:Bababé.jpg|thumb|Boat on Senegal River]] For the 1420s, Portuguese prince Henry the Navigator continue the search and spend plenty resources on the project. For 1434, one of ein captains, Gil Eanes, become the first European to sail beyond Cape Bojador and return safely. The following year, Henry send another expedition under Gil Eanes and Afonso Gonçalves Baldaia. Dem reach one inlet near Dakhla for Western Sahara and mistakenly believe say na the mouth of Senegal River. Because of that mistake, dem call the place "Rio do Ouro", a name wey remain there for many centuries. After Henry realize say the inlet no be Senegal River, e continue send more expeditions farther south. For 1445, Portuguese captain Nuno Tristão finally reach Langue de Barbarie. There e notice say the desert begin end, trees begin appear, and the people change from Sanhaja Berbers to black Wolof people. Because of bad weather or lack of supplies, Tristão no enter the river but e return Portugal convinced say e don reach the "Land of the Blacks" and say the Nile dey nearby. Not long after, another Portuguese captain, Dinis Dias, become the first known European since ancient times wey reach the mouth of Senegal River. Instead of sailing inside the river, e continue along the Grande Côte to Dakar Bay. The next year, for 1446, Portuguese slave-raiding fleet under Lançarote de Freitas arrive the river mouth. One captain, Estêvão Afonso, volunteer make e enter the river with one small launch to explore the area. E become the first European wey actually sail inside Senegal River. The journey no last long. After Afonso try kidnap two Wolof children from one hut near the river bank, their father chase the Portuguese men back to their boat and beat dem well. Because of that, the explorers stop the journey and return to their ships.<ref>Zurara (p.178-83), Barros (p.110-12)</ref> [[File:RiverSenegalNearKanel.jpg|thumb|Young boys swimming in the Senegal River]] Between 1448 and 1455, Portuguese captain Lourenço Dias establish regular trade with the Wolof states of Waalo and Cayor along the Senegal River. The Portuguese exchange Mediterranean goods, especially horses, for gold and slaves.<ref>Cadamosto suggest this was begun in 1450: "Five years before I went on this voyage, this river was discovered by three caravels belonging to Don Henry, which entered it, and their commanders settled peace and trade with the Moors; since which time ships have been sent to this place every year to trade with the natives." Cadamosto (Engl. 1811 trans., [https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA220 p. 220]) The identification of Lourenço Dias as the opener of Portuguese trade on the Senegal River is suggested in a 1489 document. See Russell (2000:p.97n14).</ref> Historian Gomes Eanes de Zurara, writing for 1453, still call the river the "Nile River". But by the 1460s, Alvise Cadamosto dey call am "Senega", and most Portuguese maps after that period label am as ''Rio do Çanagà''.<ref>Cadamosto (Engl. 1811 trans., ([https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA213 p. 213]). Giovanni Battista Ramusio, publisher of the 1550 Italian edition of Cadamosto's memoir, refers to the gold from the Senegal as ''oro tiber'' ([https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA107 p. 107]), thus leading some to imagine it was also customary to call the Senegal the Tiber River. In all likelihood, "Tiber Gold" was just a generic Italian reference to river-dug gold.</ref> Cadamosto also record the old belief say both Senegal River and the Egyptian Nile be branches of the Biblical Gihon River wey flow from the Garden of Eden through Ethiopia.<ref>Cadamosto ([https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA220 p. 220]; Ital: [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA111 p. 111]).</ref> E also write say ancient people call Senegal River "the Niger", probably because of Ptolemy's legendary Nigir River.<ref>Geographia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4ksBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA222 Book IV, Chapter 6, Section 14].</ref> Later, Leo Africanus identify this legendary river with the modern Niger River.<ref>By confounding the Ptolemy's Greek 'Nigir' with the Latin word for "black", Leo Africanus assumed the "Nile of the Blacks" (i.e. Senegal-Niger of the Arab traders) must be the Nigir of the ancients. See Leo Africanus, (Ital: [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=PA7 p. 7], Eng: [https://books.google.com/books?id=rmcMAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Leo%20Africanus%22%20Niger&pg=PA124 p. 124]</ref> Luis del Marmol Carvajal repeat similar story for 1573 and add say both Senegal River and Gambia River be tributaries of the Niger River.<ref>Luis del Marmol Carvajal (1573) ([https://books.google.com/books?id=1WVevz1cDnwC&q=Zenega&pg=PT23 ch. 17])</ref> [[File:Guillaume Delisle Senegambia 1707.jpg|thumb|Senegambia region, detail from Guillaume Delisle's 1707 map, still showing Senegal River connected to the Niger. Later editions corrected this mistake.]] Portuguese historian João de Barros write for 1552 say the original Wolof name of the river be ''Ovedech'', believed to come from the Wolof words meaning "this river".<ref>Barros, ''Décadas da Ásia'' ([https://books.google.com/books?id=Epo2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA109 p. 109]). See also Bailot (1853: p.199).</ref> Damião de Góis later record the name as ''Sonedech'', meaning "our river".<ref>See also A.M. de Castilho (1866) ''Descripção e roteiro da costa occidental de Africa'', vol. 1, [https://books.google.com/books?id=8ikiSWPVYDUC&dq=editions%3ASTANFORD36105015335362&pg=PA92 p. 92].</ref> For 1573, Luis del Marmol Carvajal write say different ethnic groups call the river by different names. According to am, the Portuguese call am ''Zenega'', the Zenaga Berbers call am ''Zenedec'', the Wolof call am ''Dengueh'', the Toucouleur call am ''Mayo'', the Soninke call am ''Colle'', while people from other areas get different local names too.<ref>Luis del Marmol Carvajal (1573), Lib. VIII, [https://books.google.com/books?id=hwtxRhuIkIoC&pg=PA3 ch.3]. See also Phérotée de La Croix (1688: Ch. 2 [https://books.google.com/books?id=JaUBAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA406 p. 406]) and Cooley (1841: [https://books.google.com/books?id=380NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA38 p. 38])</ref> === European contact === Christian Europe people later start try find sea route wey go carry dem reach mouth of Senegal River. Di first known attempt fit be di one wey two Genoa brothers, Vandino and Ugolino Vivaldi, do for 1291, as dem sail go south along di coast with two ships, but nobody hear from dem again. For 1346, Majorca sailor Jaume Ferrer take one galley ship go search di famous "River of Gold" (Riu de l'Or). E hear say plenty people wey dey stay near di river dey gather gold from di riverbanks and say di river big enough for very large ships. Nobody hear from am again after dat. For 1402, after dem establish di first European settlement for Canary Islands, two French Norman adventurers, Jean de Béthencourt and Gadifer de la Salle, begin explore di West African coast to look for di mouth of Senegal River. [[File:Bababé.jpg|thumb|Boat on Senegal River]] For 1420s, Portuguese prince Henry the Navigator continue invest plenty money make dem find di Senegal River. For 1434, one of ein captains, Gil Eanes, finally cross Cape Bojador and return safely. Di next year, Henry send another expedition under Gil Eanes and Afonso Gonçalves Baldaia. Dem reach one inlet for Western Sahara and mistakenly believe say e be di mouth of Senegal River. Because of dat mistake, dem call am "Rio do Ouro", and dat name remain for many centuries. After Henry realize say dem make mistake, e continue send more expeditions. For 1445, Portuguese captain Nuno Tristão reach Langue de Barbarie. E notice say di desert finish and greener land begin. E also notice say di people no be Sanhaja Berbers again but Wolof people. Because of bad weather or lack of supplies, e no enter di river but return Portugal to report say e don find "Land of the Blacks" (Terra dos Negros) and believe say di Nile River dey nearby. Soon after, maybe dat same year, another Portuguese captain, Dinis Dias, become di first known European since ancient times wey actually reach di mouth of Senegal River. However, instead of sailing inside di river, e continue along di Grande Côte to Dakar Bay. For 1446, Portuguese slave-raiding fleet under Lançarote de Freitas arrive for di river mouth. One captain, Estêvão Afonso, volunteer make e explore di river by boat. E become di first European wey enter inside Senegal River. During di journey, e try kidnap two Wolof children from one woodsman's house. Di children's father chase dem go back to dia boat and beat dem well well, so dem stop di exploration and return to dia ships.<ref>Zurara (p.178-83), Barros (p.110-12)</ref> [[File:RiverSenegalNearKanel.jpg|thumb|Young boys swimming in the Senegal River]] Between 1448 and 1455, Portuguese captain Lourenço Dias establish regular trade with di Wolof states of Waalo and Cayor. Dem exchange Mediterranean goods, especially horses, for gold and slaves.<ref>Cadamosto suggest this was begun in 1450: "Five years before I went on this voyage, this river was discovered by three caravels belonging to Don Henry, which entered it, and their commanders settled peace and trade with the Moors; since which time ships have been sent to this place every year to trade with the natives." Cadamosto (Engl. 1811 trans., [https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA220 p. 220]) The identification of Lourenço Dias as the opener of Portuguese trade on the Senegal River is suggested in a 1489 document. See Russell (2000:p.97n14).</ref> Historian Gomes Eanes de Zurara, wey write for 1453, still call di river "Nile River". But Alvise Cadamosto, wey write during di 1460s, call am "Senega", and many Portuguese maps after dat also label am as Rio do Çanagà.<ref>Cadamosto (Engl. 1811 trans., ([https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA213 p. 213]). Giovanni Battista Ramusio, publisher of the 1550 Italian edition of Cadamosto's memoir, refers to the gold from the Senegal as oro tiber ([https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA107 p. 107]), thus leading some to imagine it was also customary to call the Senegal the Tiber River! In all likelihood, "Tiber Gold" was just a generic Italian reference to river-dug gold.</ref> Cadamosto also write say people believe both Senegal River and Egyptian Nile be branches of di Biblical Gihon River wey flow from Garden of Eden through Ethiopia.<ref>Cadamosto ([https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA220 p. 220]; Ital: [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA111 p. 111]).</ref> E also mention say ancient people call Senegal River "Niger", probably because of Ptolemy ein legendary Nigir River.<ref>Geographia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4ksBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA222 Book IV, Chapter 6, Section 14].</ref> Later, Leo Africanus identify dat legendary river with today's Niger River.<ref>By confounding the Ptolemy's Greek 'Nigir' with the Latin word for "black", Leo Africanus assumed the "Nile of the Blacks" (i.e. Senegal-Niger of the Arab traders) must be the Nigir of the ancients. See Leo Africanus, (Ital: [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=PA7 p. 7], Eng: [https://books.google.com/books?id=rmcMAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Leo%20Africanus%22%20Niger&pg=PA124 p. 124]</ref> Luis del Marmol Carvajal repeat almost di same story for 1573 and add say both Senegal River and Gambia River be tributaries of Niger River.<ref>Luis del Marmol Carvajal (1573) ([https://books.google.com/books?id=1WVevz1cDnwC&q=Zenega&pg=PT23 ch. 17])</ref> [[File:Guillaume Delisle Senegambia 1707.jpg|thumb|Senegambia region, detail from the map of Guillaume Delisle (1707), wey still show Senegal connected to Niger; later editions (1722 and 1727) correct dat mistake.]] Portuguese historian João de Barros, wey write for 1552, say di original Wolof name for di river be ''Ovedech'', wey one source explain as "vi-dekh", meaning "this river".<ref>Barros, Décadas da Ásia ([https://books.google.com/books?id=Epo2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA109 p. 109]). See also Bailot (1853: p.199).</ref> Damião de Góis later record di name as ''Sonedech'', from "sunu dekh", meaning "our river".<ref>See also A.M. de Castilho (1866) Descripção e roteiro da costa occidental de Africa, vol. 1, [https://books.google.com/books?id=8ikiSWPVYDUC&dq=editions%3ASTANFORD36105015335362&pg=PA92 p. 92].</ref> For 1573, Luis del Marmol Carvajal record different local names wey different ethnic groups use for di river. According to am, Portuguese call am ''Zenega'', Zenaga Berbers call am ''Zenedec'', Wolof people call am ''Dengueh'', Toucouleur people call am ''Mayo'', Soninke people of Ngalam call am ''Colle'', Bambara people call am ''Zimbala'', while people for Timbuktu call am ''Yça''.<ref>Luis del Marmol Carvajal (1573), Lib. VIII, [https://books.google.com/books?id=hwtxRhuIkIoC&pg=PA3 ch.3]. See also Phérotée de La Croix (1688: Ch. 2 [https://books.google.com/books?id=JaUBAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA406 p. 406]) and Cooley (1841: [https://books.google.com/books?id=380NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA38 p. 38])</ref> == Etymology == 16th-century Portuguese historian João de Barros talk say na Portuguese traders give di river di name "Senegal" because one local Wolof chief wey dem dey trade with get dat personal name.<ref>Barros, p. 109. This is reiterated in Marmol, Ch.8.3.</ref> But many historians no agree with dis explanation. For example, di ruler of Waalo dey use di title ''Brak'', while Alvise Cadamosto write say di chief wey Portuguese traders dey meet for Senegal River be person wey dem call "Zucholin".<ref>Cadamosto (Ital: p. 110; Eng: p.220).</ref> Di confusion fit come because Cadamosto also mention one Wolof chief south of di river wey e call ''Budomel''.<ref>Cadamosto (Ital: [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA113 p. 113]; Eng., [https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA225 p. 225] )</ref> Most researchers believe say "Budomel" come from di title ''Damel'', wey get di Wolof word ''bor'' ("lord") join am.<ref>Russell (2000: p.298)</ref> Interestingly, di name ''Budomel'' resemble di older Genoese name ''Vedamel'', wey already appear for 14th-century records as another name for Senegal River.<ref>e.g. in a Genoese note about Jaume Ferrer's 1346 trip to the River Gold, "Istud flumen vocatur Vedamel similiter vocatur riu Auri". See G. Gråberg (1802) Annali di geografia e di statistica, Genoa, vol. II, p. 290</ref> Many scholars believe say di Genoese name ''Vedamel'' come from Arabic words like ''Wad al-mal'' ("River of Treasure"), ''Wad al-Melli'' ("River of Mali"), or maybe ''Wad al-Nill'' ("River of Nile").<ref>The "River of Treasure" interpretation of Vedamel can be found in J.G.H. "'Histoire du commerce entre le Levant et l'Europe' in 1831, Antologia; giornale di scienze, lettere e arti, Vol. 3 (Aug.) [https://books.google.com/books?id=lFtKAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA26 p. 27]. R.H. Major (p.113) proposes the "Nile" interpretation.</ref> [[File:FleuveSénégal1889.jpg|thumb|Route of the Senegal River, map from 1889]] Another popular explanation come from Fr. David Boilat for 1853. E suggest say "Senegal" come from di Wolof words ''sunu gaal'', wey mean "our canoe" or "our pirogue".<ref>Fr. David Boilat (1853) Esquisses sénégalaises [https://books.google.com/books?id=qfsRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA199 p. 199]</ref> According to Bailot, one Portuguese captain ask some Wolof fishermen di name of di river, but dem think say e dey ask who own dia canoe. Dem answer, "sunu gaal" ("our canoe"), and Portuguese mistakenly take dat as di river's name.<ref>Bailot, p. 199</ref> Today, plenty people for Senegal still like dis story because e represent unity, as if everybody dey inside one canoe together. Some modern historians instead believe say "Senegal" come from ''Azenegue'', di Portuguese name for di Zenaga Berber people wey dey live north of di river.<ref>Monod & Mauny, in the French translation of Zurara, although it is already noted by editor Kerr in the 1811 English translation of Cadamosto.</ref> Another strong theory be say di name "Senegal" old pass all dese explanations. E fit come from "Sanghana" (also written as Isenghan, Asengan or Singhanah), one town wey Arab historian al-Bakri describe for 1068 as di capital of one kingdom near di mouth of Senegal River.<ref>Al Bakri ([https://books.google.com/books?id=L3tNlgQmT9wC&pg=PA77 p. 77]). Monteil (1964: p. 91; 1968). Cooley (1841: [https://books.google.com/books?id=380NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA50 p. 50], p.55) believes that al-Idrisi, contrarily to al-Bakri, might have confused Sanghana with Ganah/Awkat, the capital of the Ghana empire.</ref> Di place ''Senegany'' also appear for one Genoese map from 1351 known as di Medici Atlas.<ref>Delafosse "Senegal River", in First encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936, Leiden: E.J. Brill. vol. 7 ([https://books.google.com/books?id=sP_hVmik-QYC&pg=PA223 pp. 223–24])</ref> Later, Majorcan cartographer Mecia de Viladestes include di same town ("Isingan") for ein famous 1413 map.<ref name="Monteil, 1964: p.91">Monteil, 1964: p. 91</ref> Some researchers think say di name fit get Zenaga Berber origin, connected to ''Ismegh'' ("black slave") or ''sagui nughal'' ("border").<ref name="Monteil, 1964: p.91"/> Other sources also say ''Isinghan'' continue be di common Berber name for di Wolof Kingdom of Cayor.<ref name="Monteil, 1964: p.91"/> Some Serer people from southern Senegal also claim say di river's name come from joining two Serer words: "Sene", from Rog Sene (di Supreme Deity for Serer religion), and "O Gal", wey mean "body of water". == Economic Importance == Senegal River be one of di most important economic resources for West Africa, especially for di four countries wey share am: Guinea, Mali, Mauritania and Senegal. Di river support both traditional livelihoods and modern industries.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=The World Bank |title=Senegal River Valley Development and Resilience Project |journal=World Bank Report |date=28 November 2023 |page=4 |url=chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099112823230029545/pdf/P1794490e9e591020802b03680fe96c805.pdf |access-date=16 June 2026}}</ref> === Hydropower generation === Senegal River be major source of electricity for di region. Di biggest facilities include di 1,460-metre-long Manantali Dam, wey get power generation capacity of 200 MW.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Case Study on the Manantali Dam Project (Mali, Mauritania, Senegal) |url=https://riverresourcehub.org/resources/a-case-study-on-the-manantali-dam-project-mali-mauritania-senegal-2011/ |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=International Rivers Resource Hub |language=en-GB}}</ref> Other important hydropower stations include Gouina Hydroelectric Plant for Mali, wey generate 140 MW,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cities |first=Green Building Africa-Net Carbon Zero Buildings and |date=2022-12-11 |title=Construction of 140MW Gouina Hydroelectric Plant in Mali Complete |url=https://www.greenbuildingafrica.co.za/construction-of-140mw-gouina-hydroelectric-plant-in-mali-complete/ |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=Green Building Africa}}</ref> and Félou Hydroelectric Plant, wey produce 62 MW.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mali: Félou Regional Hydropower Project {{!}} KYOTO |url=https://www.wbkyotofunds.org/projects/mali-felou-regional-hydropower-project |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.wbkyotofunds.org}}</ref> Di electricity wey dese dams produce dey support industries, businesses and homes across di region. More hydropower projects still dey under development, including Koukoutamba (294 MW),<ref>{{Cite web |last=kgi-admin |date=2023-04-18 |title=Power plant profile: Koukoutamba, Guinea |url=https://www.power-technology.com/marketdata/power-plant-profile-koukoutamba-guinea/ |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=Power Technology |language=en-US}}</ref> Boureya (161 MW),<ref>{{Cite web |last=kgi-admin |date=2023-04-22 |title=Power plant profile: Boureya Hydro Power Plant, Guinea |url=https://www.power-technology.com/marketdata/power-plant-profile-boureya-hydro-power-plant-guinea/ |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=Power Technology |language=en-US}}</ref> and Gourbassi Hydroelectric Plant (18 MW).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Senegal/Mali: CMEC to build Gourbassi hydroelectric dam {{!}} African Energy |url=https://www.africa-energy.com/news-centre/article/senegalmali-cmec-build-gourbassi-hydroelectric-dam |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.africa-energy.com}}</ref> == See also == * Futa Toro == References == {{Reflist|30em}} == Sources == *{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Senegal (river)|volume=24 |page=639}} * João de Barros (1552–59) ''Décadas da Ásia: Dos feitos, que os Portuguezes fizeram no descubrimento, e conquista, dos mares, e terras do Oriente.''. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Epo2AAAAMAAJ&dq=editions%3AUOM39015057112644&pg=PP35 Vol. 1 (Dec I, Lib.1-5)]. * Beazley, C.R. (1899) "Introduction" to vol. 2 of C.R. Beazley and E. Prestage, editors, Zurara's ''The Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea''. London: Haklyut. * {{cite book |last1=Boilat |first1=Fr. David |author1-link=David Boilat |title=Esquisses sénégalaises: physionomie du pays, peuplades, commerce, religions, passé et avenir, récits et légendes |date=1853 |publisher=P. Bertrand |location=Paris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qfsRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA491 |language=fr }} * Alvise Cadamosto (1460s) "Il Libro di Messer Alvise Ca da Mosto Gentilhuomo Venetiano" & "Navigatione del Capitano Pietro di Sintra Portoghese scritta per il medesimo M. Alvise da Ca da Mosto", as printed in Venice (1550), by Giovanni Battista Ramusio, ed., ''Primo volume delle navigationi et viaggi nel qua si contine la descrittione dell'Africa, et del paese del Prete Ianni, on varii viaggi, dal mar Rosso a Calicut,& infin all'isole Molucche, dove nascono le Spetierie et la navigatione attorno il mondo.'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA106-IA1 online]. (English translation: "Original Journals of the Voyages of Cada Mosto and Piedro de Cintra to the Coast of Africa, the former in the years 1455 and 1456, and the latter soon afterwards", in R. Kerr, 1811, ''A General History of Voyages and Travels to the end of the 18th century'', vol. 2, Edinburgh: Blackwood. [https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA200 online]) * {{cite book |last1=Cooley |first1=W. D. |author1-link=William Desborough Cooley |title=The Negroland of the Arabs examined and explained; or, An inquiry into the early history and geography of Central Africa |date=1841 |publisher=Arrowsmith |location=London |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=380NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR3 |language=en }} * Delafosse, M. (1912). ''Haut-Sénégal-Niger''. 3 vols. Paris: Emil Larose. * Hrbek, I. (1992). ''Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century''. University of California Press. * Levtzion, N. (1973). ''Ancient Ghana and Mali''. London: Methuen. * Levtzion, N. and J.F.P. Hopkins, editors (2000). ''Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History''. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener. * Leo Africanus (1526). ''Descrittione dell'Africa, & delle cose notabili che lui sono'', printed in Venice (1550) by Giovanni Battista Ramusio, ed., ''Primo volume delle navigationi et viaggi...''. English translation (1896): ''The History and Description of Africa, and of the Notable Things Therein Contained''. London: Haklyut. [https://books.google.com/books?id=rmcMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PP7 vol. 1] * {{cite book |last1=Major |first1=Richard Henry |title=The Discoveries of Prince Henry the Navigator: and Their Results |date=1868 |edition=1877 |publisher=S. Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington |location=London |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VrkEAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR3 |language=en }} * Luis de Marmol Carvajal (1573). ''Primera Parte de la Descripción General de Áffrica...''. Granada: Rabut. * {{cite journal |last1=Mauny |first1=R. |title=Tableau géographique de l'ouest africain au moyen-âge d'après les sources écrites, la tradition et l'archéologie |journal=Mémoire de l'Institut Fondamental d'Afrique Noire |date=1961 |volume=61 |location=Dakar }} * {{cite journal |last1=McIntosh |first1=Susan Keech |title=A Reconsideration of the Wangara/Palolus Island of Gold |journal=Journal of African History |date=April 1981 |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=145–158 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001937X |s2cid=162961695 }} * {{cite book |last1=Monteil |first1=Vincent |title=L'Islam Noir |date=1964 |publisher=Edit. du Seuil |location=Paris |isbn=978-2020024624 |language=fr }} * {{cite journal |last1=Monteil |first1=Vincent |title=al-Bakri (Cordoue, 1068) - Routier de l'Afrique blanche et noire du Nord-Ouest |journal=Bulletin de l'Ifan |date=1968 |volume=30 |pages=39–116 }} * Phérotée de La Croix (1688). ''Relation universelle de l'Afrique, ancienne et moderne''. Alyon: Amaulry. * Pliny the Elder (c. 30 AD). ''Naturalis Historiae''. 1855 edition translated by John Bostock and Henry Thomas Riley as ''The Natural History of Pliny''. London: H.G. Bohn. * {{cite book |last1=Russell |first1=P. E. |title=Prince Henry 'the Navigator': A Life |date=2000 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, Conn. |isbn=9780300091304 |url=https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300091304/prince-henry-navigator/ }} * Livio Sanuto (1588). ''Geografia di M. Livio Sanvto distinta in XII libri...''. Venice: Damiano Zenaro. * {{cite journal |last1=Winter |first1=Heinrich |title=The Fra Mauro Portolan Chart in the Vatican |journal=Imago Mundi |date=1962 |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=17–28 |doi=10.1080/03085696208592198 |jstor=1150299 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1150299 }} * Gomes Eanes de Zurara (1453). ''Crónica dos feitos notáveis que se passaram na Conquista da Guiné''. English translation by C.R. Beazley and E. Prestage (1896–99), ''The Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea''. London: Haklyut. * {{cite book |author=Villalón, Leonardo A. |title=Islamic Society and State Power in Senegal: Disciples and Citizens in Fatick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xFC1KUbXJ6gC&pg=PA54 |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-03232-2 |pages=54–55 }} * Galvan, Dennis Charles (2004). ''The State Must Be Our Master of Fire: How Peasants Craft Culturally Sustainable Development in Senegal''. Berkeley: University of California Press. * Berg, Elizabeth; Wan, Ruth; and Lau, Ruth (2009). ''Senegal''. Marshall Cavendish. {{ISBN|9780761444817}}. * Page, Willie F. (2001). ''Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African Kingdoms (500 to 1500)'', Vol. 2. Facts on File. {{ISBN|0-8160-4472-4}}. * Streissguth, Thomas (2009). ''Senegal in Pictures, Visual Geography''. Twenty-First Century Books. {{ISBN|1-57505-951-7}}. * Oliver, Roland Anthony & Fage, J. D. (1969). ''Journal of African History'', Volume 10. Cambridge University Press. * Mwakikagile, Godfrey (2010). ''Ethnic Diversity and Integration in The Gambia: The Land, The People and The Culture''. {{ISBN|9987-9322-2-3}}. == References == <references /> == Read further == * {{cite book |last=Betz |first=R. L. |title=The Mapping of Africa: a cartobibliography of printed maps of the African continent to 1700 |publisher=Hes & de Graaf |year=2007 |isbn=978-90-6194-489-8}} * {{cite book |last=Davidson |first=Basil |title=West Africa Before the Colonial Era: a history to 1850 |publisher=Longman |year=1998 |isbn=0-582-31852-1 |location=London}} * {{cite book |last=De la Roncière |first=Charles |title=La découverte de l'Afrique au moyen âge |publisher=Société Royale de Géographie d'Égypte |others=2 volumes |year=1925 |location=Cairo}} == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070629065341/http://zope0.itcilo.org/delta/lmdd2003/news/1067611432/1068825691/presentation%20ressources%20en%20eau%20senegal.ppt The Hydrology of Senegal] (PowerPoint presentation) {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Senegal River}} [[Category:Senegal River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Senegal]] [[Category:Rivers of Mauritania]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Mauritania–Senegal border]] [[Category:Rivers of Mali]] [[Category:Lowest points of countries]] [[Category:Serer history]] jpas7nxypl20jorikl13ax5up4zzm2w 103595 103594 2026-06-17T22:06:07Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 103595 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Senegal River''' (Serer: ''"Seen O Gal"'' anaa "Senegal" - compound of de&nbsp;Serer term "Seen" anaa "Sene" anaa "Sen" (from&nbsp;Roog Seen, Supreme Deity insyd&nbsp;Serer religion) den "O Gal" (wey dey mean "body of water")); Wolof: ''Dexug Senegaal'', Arabic: نهر السنغال, romanized: ''Nahr as-Siniġāl'', French: ''Fleuve Sénégal'') be a 1086-kilometre-long (675 mi) river insyd [[West Africa]]; much of ein length dey mark part of de border between [[Senegal]] den [[Mauritania]]. E get a drainage basin of 270000 km2 (100000 sq mi), a mean flow of 680 m3/s (24,000 cu ft/s), den an annual discharge of 21.5 km3 (5.2 cu mi). Important tributaries be de Falémé River, Karakoro River, den de Gorgol River. De river dey divide into two branches once e pass Kaédi. De left branch, dem call de Doué, dey run parallel to de main river to de north. After 200 km (120 mi) de two branches rejoin a few kilometers downstream of Podor. Insyd 1972 [[Mali]], Mauritania den Senegal found de Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Sénégal (OMVS) to manage de river basin. [[Guinea]] join insyd 2005. As of 2012, na only very limited use be made of de river for de transportation of goods den passengers. Na de OMVS look at de feasibility of creating a navigable channel 55 m (180 ft) in width between de small town of Ambidédi insyd [[Mali]] den Saint-Louis, a distance of 905 km (562 mi).E go give landlocked Mali a direct route to de [[Atlantic Ocean]]. De aquatic fauna insyd de Senegal River basin be closely associated plus dat of de [[Gambia River]] basin, wey de two be usually combined under a single ecoregion dem know as de Senegal-Gambia Catchments. Only three species of frogs den one fish be endemic to dis ecoregion. De river get two large dams along ein course, de Manantali Dam insyd [[Mali]] den de Maka-Diama Dam downstream on de Mauritania-Senegal border. In between be de Félou Hydroelectric Plant, dem build insyd 1927, buh dem replace insyd 2014. De construction of de Gouina Hydroelectric Plant upstream of Felou at Gouina Falls begin insyd 2013. == Geography == [[File:Senegal River Saint Louis.jpg|thumb|Fishermen for Senegal River estuary bank near Saint-Louis, Senegal]] Senegal River source na Semefé (Bakoye) River plus Bafing River. Both rivers start from Guinea. Dem join small for Guinea-Mali border before dem meet for Bafoulabé inside Mali. From there, Senegal River dey flow go west den north through Talari Gorges near Galougo, pass Gouina Falls, before e continue gently pass Kayes, where Kolimbiné River join am. After Karakoro River join am, the river continue along Mali-Mauritania border for some kilometres reach Bakel, where Falémé River join am. Falémé River too start from Guinea and pass part of Guinea-Mali border before e form most of Senegal-Mali border till Bakel. From there, Senegal River continue through dry northern Senegal, dey form border between Senegal and Mauritania before e enter Atlantic Ocean. For Kaedi, Gorgol River from Mauritania join am. The river pass Boghé, reach Richard Toll where Ferlo River from Lac de Guiers side join am. After that e pass Rosso and reach Saint-Louis. Before e empty inside Atlantic Ocean, one narrow sand strip wey dem dey call Langue de Barbarie separate the river from the ocean. The river get two big dams. One be Manantali Dam for Mali wey dem use am for different purposes, and the other one be Maka-Diama Dam near Mauritania-Senegal border close to where the river enter the sea. This dam stop salt water from the Atlantic make e no enter upstream. Between Manantali Dam and Maka-Diama Dam dey Félou Hydroelectric Plant. Dem first complete am for 1927 and e dey use weir. Dem replace the old power station for 2014. For 2013 too, construction start for Gouina Hydroelectric Plant upstream from Félou near Gouina Falls. Senegal River drainage basin cover {{Convert|270,000|km2|abbr=on|comma=gaps}}, with average flow of {{Convert|680|m3/s|abbr=on|comma=gaps}} and yearly discharge of {{Convert|21.5|km3|abbr=on}}.<ref name=whycos>{{citation | title=SENEGAL-HYCOS: Renforcement des capacités nationales et régionales d'observation, transmission et traitement de données pour contribuer au développement durable du bassin du Fleuve Sénégal (Document de projet préliminaire) | publisher=Système Mondial d’Observation du Cycle Hydrologique (WHYCOS) | url=http://www.whycos.org/IMG/pdf/Senegal_HYCOS_september_2007.pdf | year=2007 | language=fr | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228165424/http://www.whycos.org/IMG/pdf/Senegal_HYCOS_september_2007.pdf | archive-date=28 December 2013 | df=dmy-all }}.</ref><!--actually p3--><ref name=":0">[http://www.grdc.sr.unh.edu/html/Polygons/P1812100.html UNH/GRDC Composite Runoff Fields V 1.0 data for Dagana].</ref> Important tributaries be Falémé River, Karakoro River and Gorgol River. Downstream from Kaédi, the river divide into two branches. The left branch wey dem dey call Doué River dey run side by side with the main river for north. After {{Convert|200|km|abbr=on}}, the two branches join again small distance after Pondor. The long land between the two branches na Île á Morfil.<ref name=whycos/><!--actually p5--> For 1972, Mali, Mauritania and Senegal create Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Sénégal (OMVS) make dem manage the whole river basin together. Guinea join the organisation for 2005. As e be now, people no dey use the river plenty for transport of goods and passengers. OMVS don study whether dem fit create navigable channel wey go be {{Convert|55|m|abbr=on}} wide from Ambidédi for Mali reach Saint-Louis, distance of {{Convert|905|km|abbr=on}}. If dem build am, e go give Mali direct route go Atlantic Ocean.<ref name=whycos/><!--page 20--> Animals wey dey inside Senegal River basin dey closely relate to those for Gambia River basin, so scientists dey group the two together under one freshwater ecoregion wey dem dey call Senegal-Gambia Catchments. Even though the area get moderate species diversity, only three frog species and one fish species na endemic to this ecoregion.<ref>Freshwater Ecoregions of the World (2008). ''[http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=509 Senegal-Gambia.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005204342/http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=509 |date=5 October 2011 }}'' Accessed 2 May 2011.</ref> == History == De area be previously occupied by de Serer people, wey dey follow dema religious den ethnic persecution by Islamic forces insyd de 11th century, result in de Serer exodus to de south.<ref name="Villalón2006p54">{{cite book |author=Villalón, Leonardo A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xFC1KUbXJ6gC&pg=PA54 |title=Islamic Society and State Power in Senegal: Disciples and Citizens in Fatick |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-03232-2 |pages=54–55}}, Quote: "Serer oral tradition recounts the group's origins in the Senegal River valley, where it was part of, or closely related to, the same group as the ancestors of today's [[Toucouleur people|Tukulor]]."</ref><ref name=":1">Galvan, Dennis Charles,&nbsp;''The State Must Be Our Master of Fire: How Peasants Craft Culturally Sustainable Development in Senegal,'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004, p.&nbsp;51</ref><ref name=":2">Berg, Elizabeth; Wan, Ruth; and Lau, Ruth (2009).&nbsp;''Senegal''. Marshall Cavendish. {{ISBN|9780761444817}}, p. 63</ref><ref name=":3">Page, Willie F., ''Encyclopedia of African history and culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500)'', pp. 209, 676. Vol.2, Facts on File (2001), {{ISBN|0-8160-4472-4}}</ref><ref name=":4">Streissguth, Thomas, "Senegal in Pictures, Visual Geography", Second Series, p. 23, Twenty-First Century Books (2009), {{ISBN|1-57505-951-7}}</ref><ref name=":5">Oliver, Roland Anthony; & Fage, J. D.,; "Journal of African history", Volume 10, p. 367. Cambridge University Press (1969)</ref><ref name=":6">Mwakikagile, Godfrey, "Ethnic Diversity and Integration in The Gambia: The Land, The People and The Culture," (2010), p. 11, {{ISBN|9987-9322-2-3}}</ref> {{See also|Serer history|Serer ancient history|Timeline of Serer history|Takrur#Serer Exodus}} People from early Mediterranean civilizations already know about Senegal River. Pliny the Elder call am ''Bambotus'' (maybe from Phoenician word for hippopotamus), while Claudius Ptolemy call am ''Nias''.<ref>Pliny, ''Natural History'', Lib. 5, Ch.1 ([https://books.google.com/books?id=VzwZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA380 p. 380])</ref> Around 450 BCE, Hanno the Carthaginian pass the river during him sea journey from Carthage through the Pillars of Herakles to Theon Ochema (possibly Mount Cameroon) inside Gulf of Guinea. Trade continue between this area and the Mediterranean world until Carthage destroy for 146 BCE together with ein West African trade network. === Arab sources === For Early Middle Ages (around 800 CE), Senegal River connect West Africa and Mediterranean again through the Trans-Saharan trade route between Morocco and Ghana Empire. Arab geographers like al-Masudi of Baghdad (957), al-Bakri of Spain (1068), and al-Idrisi of Sicily (1154) write some of the earliest detailed descriptions of the Senegal River.<ref>A translation of al-Bakri's 1068 account is found in Levtzion & Hopkins, (2000, ''Corpus'': ([https://books.google.com/books?id=L3tNlgQmT9wC&pg=PA77 p. 77]). In French, see Monteil (1968). For an attempt to reconstruct the Senegal river's course from the accounts of al-Bakri and al-Idrisi, see Cooley (1841: [https://books.google.com/books?id=380NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA52 p. 52]).</ref> Early Arab geographers believe say upper Senegal River and upper Niger River connect together and form one big river wey dey flow from east go west. Dem call am "Western Nile".<ref>The term "Nile" seems to have been applied quite early to the Senegal. During the Arab conquest of North Africa in the 8th century, Ifriqiyan commanders launched several expeditionary raids from the Sous valley against the desert-dwelling nomadic Berbers of Western Sahara. There is a report from an Arab commander from the 750s who claims to have reached as far south as "the Nile" (i.e. the Senegal). See Hrbek (1992: p.308).</ref> Some people believe say the river be western branch of the Egyptian Nile or both rivers come from the same source, like the Mountains of the Moon, Ptolemy's Gir, or the Biblical Gihon stream.<ref>Geographia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4ksBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA222 Book IV, Chapter 6, Section 13].</ref><ref>e.g. Leo Africanus, [https://books.google.com/books?id=rmcMAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Leo%20Africanus%22%20Niger&pg=PA124 p. 124]</ref> [[File:Senegal River according to al-Bakri.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Western Nile (Senegal-Niger River) according to al-Bakri (1068)]] Arab geographers Abd al-Hassan Ali ibn Omar (1230), Ibn Said al-Maghribi (1274), and Abulfeda (1331) call Senegal River the "Nile of Ghana" (Nil Gana or Nili Ganah).<ref>See R.H. Major (1868) ''Life of Prince Henry'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=UfE5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA114 p. 114]</ref> Because Senegal River enter the heart of the gold-producing Ghana Empire and later Mali Empire, Trans-Saharan traders give am the famous nickname "River of Gold". Stories about this River of Gold spread reach European merchants wey dey trade for Morocco ports. Arab historians even record at least three different Arab sea expeditions, including one by eight ''mughrarin'' ("wanderers") from Lisbon before 1147, wey try sail down the Atlantic coast to look for the mouth of the Senegal River.<ref>See Beazley (1899: p. xliv, lxxv)</ref> === Cartographic representation === [[File:Senegal River according to al-Idrisi.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Western Nile (Senegal-Niger River) according to Muhammad al-Idrisi (1154)]] Based on Classical stories and Arab writings, the "River of Gold" begin show for European maps from the 14th century. For the Hereford Mappa Mundi (around 1300), one river wey dem label ''Nilus Fluvius'' show parallel to Africa coast, although e no connect to the Atlantic Ocean because e end inside one lake. The map also show giant ants wey dey dig gold from the river sand, with the note "''Hic grandes formice auream serican [or servant] arenas''".<ref>Bevan and Phillott (1873: [https://books.google.com/books?id=u_oHAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA105 p. 105].</ref> For Pietro Vesconte map wey e prepare for Marino Sanuto around 1320, one unnamed river dey flow from inside Africa into the Atlantic Ocean. The 1351 Medici-Laurentian Atlas show both the Egyptian Nile and the Western Nile say dem come from the same mountain range inside Africa, together with the note "''Ilic coligitur aureaum''".<ref>See João de Andrade Corvo (1882) ''Roteiro de Lisboa a Goa por D. João de Castro'', Lisbon. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Q8M5AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA68 p.68n.]</ref> The portolan chart by Giovanni da Carignano (1310s–1320s) also label the river as ''iste fluuis exit de nilo ubi multum aurum repperitur''.<ref>Winter (1962: p. 18)</ref> Later portolan charts, beginning with the 1367 chart by Domenico and Francesco Pizzigano and continuing with the 1375 Catalan Atlas and the 1413 chart by Mecia de Viladestes, show the "River of Gold" flowing into the Atlantic Ocean somewhere south of Cape Bojador. Around this same period, many Europeans believe say Cape Bojador be dangerous place wey sailors no fit pass, maybe because Trans-Saharan traders no want sea trade replace their land trade. Many maps show one big island inside the middle of the river wey dem call the "Island of Gold". Al-Masudi first mention am, al-Idrisi call am ''Wangara'', while the Pizzigani brothers call am ''Palolus''. Many researchers believe say this "island" actually represent the Bambuk-Buré goldfields wey rivers surround on almost every side.<ref>Delafosse (1912: v.1,p.55), Crone (1937: p.xv), Mauny (1961: p.302), Levtzion (1973: p.155). However, McIntosh (1981) suggests an alternative identification of this riverine "island" to be the Djenné area, around the bend of the Niger.</ref> [[Image:Palolus river (Senegal-Niger) in 1413 Mecia de Viladestes map.jpg|thumb|1000px|center|Course of the "River of Gold" (Senegal-Niger) in the 1413 portolan chart of Mecia de Viladestes.]] The 1413 portolan chart by Mecia de Viladestes give one of the most detailed European pictures of the Senegal River before Portuguese explorers reach the area during the 1440s. The map label the river as "''riu del or''" ("River of Gold") and place am well south of Cape Bojador. The map also include many notes about the plenty gold and ivory wey dey the area. {{Quote|"This river is called Wad al-Nil and also is called the River of Gold, for one can here obtain the gold of Palolus. And know that the greater part of those that live here occupy themselves collecting gold on the shores of the river which, at its mouth, is a league wide, and deep enough for the largest ship of the world."<ref>"Aquest flum es apelat ued anil axi matex es apelat riu de lor per tal com si requyl lor de palola. Et scire debeatis quod major pars gentium in partibus istis habitantium sunt electi ad colligendum aurum ipso flumine, qui habet latitudinem unius legue et fondum pro majori nave mundi"</ref>}} [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|thumb|Slave trade along the Senegal River, kingdom of Cayor]] The map also show the galley of Jaume Ferrer close to the coast, referring to ein 1346 voyage. One golden island at the river mouth probably represent Langue de Barbarie or Saint-Louis Island. The first town for the river mouth dey labelled "isingan", which some historians believe fit be where the name "Senegal" come from. Farther inland, the map show Takrur, Emperor Mansa Musa of Mali holding one gold nugget, and the capital of Mali Empire beside the river. The map also show the famous "Island of Gold", believed by many scholars to represent the Bambuk-Buré goldfields, together with towns like Timbuktu and Gao connected by one continuous river system. North of the Senegal-Niger system, the map show different oases and stations along the Trans-Saharan trade routes leading to the Mediterranean. It also show rulers from Nubia, Ethiopia and other kingdoms according to European geographical knowledge at that time. One unique feature of the Viladestes map be another river south of the Senegal wey dem label "''flumen gelica''", which some historians believe fit represent the Gambia River. Later, the 1459 Fra Mauro world map show two separate rivers flowing westward from the same inland lake, one labelled "Mas River" and the other "Channel of Gold". Fra Mauro also note say people dey collect gold from the sands of both rivers.<ref>João de Andrade Corvo (1882: p.70)</ref> === European contact === Christian Europeans begin look for sea route wey go lead dem to the mouth of Senegal River. The first known attempt fit be by the Genoese brothers Vandino and Ugolino Vivaldi. Dem sail along the African coast for 1291 with two ships, but nobody hear anything about dem again. For 1346, Majorcan sailor Jaume Ferrer sail with one galley because e want find the famous "River of Gold" (''Riu de l'Or''). E hear say people wey dey live along the river dey collect gold from the river banks and say the river deep enough for even the biggest ships. After the journey, nobody hear from am again. For 1402, after French adventurers Jean de Béthencourt and Gadifer de la Salle establish the first European settlement for the Canary Islands, dem begin explore the African coast to search for the mouth of Senegal River. [[File:Bababé.jpg|thumb|Boat on Senegal River]] For the 1420s, Portuguese prince Henry the Navigator continue the search and spend plenty resources on the project. For 1434, one of ein captains, Gil Eanes, become the first European to sail beyond Cape Bojador and return safely. The following year, Henry send another expedition under Gil Eanes and Afonso Gonçalves Baldaia. Dem reach one inlet near Dakhla for Western Sahara and mistakenly believe say na the mouth of Senegal River. Because of that mistake, dem call the place "Rio do Ouro", a name wey remain there for many centuries. After Henry realize say the inlet no be Senegal River, e continue send more expeditions farther south. For 1445, Portuguese captain Nuno Tristão finally reach Langue de Barbarie. There e notice say the desert begin end, trees begin appear, and the people change from Sanhaja Berbers to black Wolof people. Because of bad weather or lack of supplies, Tristão no enter the river but e return Portugal convinced say e don reach the "Land of the Blacks" and say the Nile dey nearby. Not long after, another Portuguese captain, Dinis Dias, become the first known European since ancient times wey reach the mouth of Senegal River. Instead of sailing inside the river, e continue along the Grande Côte to Dakar Bay. The next year, for 1446, Portuguese slave-raiding fleet under Lançarote de Freitas arrive the river mouth. One captain, Estêvão Afonso, volunteer make e enter the river with one small launch to explore the area. E become the first European wey actually sail inside Senegal River. The journey no last long. After Afonso try kidnap two Wolof children from one hut near the river bank, their father chase the Portuguese men back to their boat and beat dem well. Because of that, the explorers stop the journey and return to their ships.<ref>Zurara (p.178-83), Barros (p.110-12)</ref> [[File:RiverSenegalNearKanel.jpg|thumb|Young boys swimming in the Senegal River]] Between 1448 and 1455, Portuguese captain Lourenço Dias establish regular trade with the Wolof states of Waalo and Cayor along the Senegal River. The Portuguese exchange Mediterranean goods, especially horses, for gold and slaves.<ref>Cadamosto suggest this was begun in 1450: "Five years before I went on this voyage, this river was discovered by three caravels belonging to Don Henry, which entered it, and their commanders settled peace and trade with the Moors; since which time ships have been sent to this place every year to trade with the natives." Cadamosto (Engl. 1811 trans., [https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA220 p. 220]) The identification of Lourenço Dias as the opener of Portuguese trade on the Senegal River is suggested in a 1489 document. See Russell (2000:p.97n14).</ref> Historian Gomes Eanes de Zurara, writing for 1453, still call the river the "Nile River". But by the 1460s, Alvise Cadamosto dey call am "Senega", and most Portuguese maps after that period label am as ''Rio do Çanagà''.<ref>Cadamosto (Engl. 1811 trans., ([https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA213 p. 213]). Giovanni Battista Ramusio, publisher of the 1550 Italian edition of Cadamosto's memoir, refers to the gold from the Senegal as ''oro tiber'' ([https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA107 p. 107]), thus leading some to imagine it was also customary to call the Senegal the Tiber River. In all likelihood, "Tiber Gold" was just a generic Italian reference to river-dug gold.</ref> Cadamosto also record the old belief say both Senegal River and the Egyptian Nile be branches of the Biblical Gihon River wey flow from the Garden of Eden through Ethiopia.<ref>Cadamosto ([https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA220 p. 220]; Ital: [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA111 p. 111]).</ref> E also write say ancient people call Senegal River "the Niger", probably because of Ptolemy's legendary Nigir River.<ref>Geographia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4ksBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA222 Book IV, Chapter 6, Section 14].</ref> Later, Leo Africanus identify this legendary river with the modern Niger River.<ref>By confounding the Ptolemy's Greek 'Nigir' with the Latin word for "black", Leo Africanus assumed the "Nile of the Blacks" (i.e. Senegal-Niger of the Arab traders) must be the Nigir of the ancients. See Leo Africanus, (Ital: [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=PA7 p. 7], Eng: [https://books.google.com/books?id=rmcMAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Leo%20Africanus%22%20Niger&pg=PA124 p. 124]</ref> Luis del Marmol Carvajal repeat similar story for 1573 and add say both Senegal River and Gambia River be tributaries of the Niger River.<ref>Luis del Marmol Carvajal (1573) ([https://books.google.com/books?id=1WVevz1cDnwC&q=Zenega&pg=PT23 ch. 17])</ref> [[File:Guillaume Delisle Senegambia 1707.jpg|thumb|Senegambia region, detail from Guillaume Delisle's 1707 map, still showing Senegal River connected to the Niger. Later editions corrected this mistake.]] Portuguese historian João de Barros write for 1552 say the original Wolof name of the river be ''Ovedech'', believed to come from the Wolof words meaning "this river".<ref>Barros, ''Décadas da Ásia'' ([https://books.google.com/books?id=Epo2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA109 p. 109]). See also Bailot (1853: p.199).</ref> Damião de Góis later record the name as ''Sonedech'', meaning "our river".<ref>See also A.M. de Castilho (1866) ''Descripção e roteiro da costa occidental de Africa'', vol. 1, [https://books.google.com/books?id=8ikiSWPVYDUC&dq=editions%3ASTANFORD36105015335362&pg=PA92 p. 92].</ref> For 1573, Luis del Marmol Carvajal write say different ethnic groups call the river by different names. According to am, the Portuguese call am ''Zenega'', the Zenaga Berbers call am ''Zenedec'', the Wolof call am ''Dengueh'', the Toucouleur call am ''Mayo'', the Soninke call am ''Colle'', while people from other areas get different local names too.<ref>Luis del Marmol Carvajal (1573), Lib. VIII, [https://books.google.com/books?id=hwtxRhuIkIoC&pg=PA3 ch.3]. See also Phérotée de La Croix (1688: Ch. 2 [https://books.google.com/books?id=JaUBAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA406 p. 406]) and Cooley (1841: [https://books.google.com/books?id=380NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA38 p. 38])</ref> === European contact === Christian Europe people later start try find sea route wey go carry dem reach mouth of Senegal River. Di first known attempt fit be di one wey two Genoa brothers, Vandino and Ugolino Vivaldi, do for 1291, as dem sail go south along di coast with two ships, but nobody hear from dem again. For 1346, Majorca sailor Jaume Ferrer take one galley ship go search di famous "River of Gold" (Riu de l'Or). E hear say plenty people wey dey stay near di river dey gather gold from di riverbanks and say di river big enough for very large ships. Nobody hear from am again after dat. For 1402, after dem establish di first European settlement for Canary Islands, two French Norman adventurers, Jean de Béthencourt and Gadifer de la Salle, begin explore di West African coast to look for di mouth of Senegal River. [[File:Bababé.jpg|thumb|Boat on Senegal River]] For 1420s, Portuguese prince Henry the Navigator continue invest plenty money make dem find di Senegal River. For 1434, one of ein captains, Gil Eanes, finally cross Cape Bojador and return safely. Di next year, Henry send another expedition under Gil Eanes and Afonso Gonçalves Baldaia. Dem reach one inlet for Western Sahara and mistakenly believe say e be di mouth of Senegal River. Because of dat mistake, dem call am "Rio do Ouro", and dat name remain for many centuries. After Henry realize say dem make mistake, e continue send more expeditions. For 1445, Portuguese captain Nuno Tristão reach Langue de Barbarie. E notice say di desert finish and greener land begin. E also notice say di people no be Sanhaja Berbers again but Wolof people. Because of bad weather or lack of supplies, e no enter di river but return Portugal to report say e don find "Land of the Blacks" (Terra dos Negros) and believe say di Nile River dey nearby. Soon after, maybe dat same year, another Portuguese captain, Dinis Dias, become di first known European since ancient times wey actually reach di mouth of Senegal River. However, instead of sailing inside di river, e continue along di Grande Côte to Dakar Bay. For 1446, Portuguese slave-raiding fleet under Lançarote de Freitas arrive for di river mouth. One captain, Estêvão Afonso, volunteer make e explore di river by boat. E become di first European wey enter inside Senegal River. During di journey, e try kidnap two Wolof children from one woodsman's house. Di children's father chase dem go back to dia boat and beat dem well well, so dem stop di exploration and return to dia ships.<ref>Zurara (p.178-83), Barros (p.110-12)</ref> [[File:RiverSenegalNearKanel.jpg|thumb|Young boys swimming in the Senegal River]] Between 1448 and 1455, Portuguese captain Lourenço Dias establish regular trade with di Wolof states of Waalo and Cayor. Dem exchange Mediterranean goods, especially horses, for gold and slaves.<ref>Cadamosto suggest this was begun in 1450: "Five years before I went on this voyage, this river was discovered by three caravels belonging to Don Henry, which entered it, and their commanders settled peace and trade with the Moors; since which time ships have been sent to this place every year to trade with the natives." Cadamosto (Engl. 1811 trans., [https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA220 p. 220]) The identification of Lourenço Dias as the opener of Portuguese trade on the Senegal River is suggested in a 1489 document. See Russell (2000:p.97n14).</ref> Historian Gomes Eanes de Zurara, wey write for 1453, still call di river "Nile River". But Alvise Cadamosto, wey write during di 1460s, call am "Senega", and many Portuguese maps after dat also label am as Rio do Çanagà.<ref>Cadamosto (Engl. 1811 trans., ([https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA213 p. 213]). Giovanni Battista Ramusio, publisher of the 1550 Italian edition of Cadamosto's memoir, refers to the gold from the Senegal as oro tiber ([https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA107 p. 107]), thus leading some to imagine it was also customary to call the Senegal the Tiber River! In all likelihood, "Tiber Gold" was just a generic Italian reference to river-dug gold.</ref> Cadamosto also write say people believe both Senegal River and Egyptian Nile be branches of di Biblical Gihon River wey flow from Garden of Eden through Ethiopia.<ref>Cadamosto ([https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA220 p. 220]; Ital: [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA111 p. 111]).</ref> E also mention say ancient people call Senegal River "Niger", probably because of Ptolemy ein legendary Nigir River.<ref>Geographia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4ksBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA222 Book IV, Chapter 6, Section 14].</ref> Later, Leo Africanus identify dat legendary river with today's Niger River.<ref>By confounding the Ptolemy's Greek 'Nigir' with the Latin word for "black", Leo Africanus assumed the "Nile of the Blacks" (i.e. Senegal-Niger of the Arab traders) must be the Nigir of the ancients. See Leo Africanus, (Ital: [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=PA7 p. 7], Eng: [https://books.google.com/books?id=rmcMAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Leo%20Africanus%22%20Niger&pg=PA124 p. 124]</ref> Luis del Marmol Carvajal repeat almost di same story for 1573 and add say both Senegal River and Gambia River be tributaries of Niger River.<ref>Luis del Marmol Carvajal (1573) ([https://books.google.com/books?id=1WVevz1cDnwC&q=Zenega&pg=PT23 ch. 17])</ref> [[File:Guillaume Delisle Senegambia 1707.jpg|thumb|Senegambia region, detail from the map of Guillaume Delisle (1707), wey still show Senegal connected to Niger; later editions (1722 and 1727) correct dat mistake.]] Portuguese historian João de Barros, wey write for 1552, say di original Wolof name for di river be ''Ovedech'', wey one source explain as "vi-dekh", meaning "this river".<ref>Barros, Décadas da Ásia ([https://books.google.com/books?id=Epo2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA109 p. 109]). See also Bailot (1853: p.199).</ref> Damião de Góis later record di name as ''Sonedech'', from "sunu dekh", meaning "our river".<ref>See also A.M. de Castilho (1866) Descripção e roteiro da costa occidental de Africa, vol. 1, [https://books.google.com/books?id=8ikiSWPVYDUC&dq=editions%3ASTANFORD36105015335362&pg=PA92 p. 92].</ref> For 1573, Luis del Marmol Carvajal record different local names wey different ethnic groups use for di river. According to am, Portuguese call am ''Zenega'', Zenaga Berbers call am ''Zenedec'', Wolof people call am ''Dengueh'', Toucouleur people call am ''Mayo'', Soninke people of Ngalam call am ''Colle'', Bambara people call am ''Zimbala'', while people for Timbuktu call am ''Yça''.<ref>Luis del Marmol Carvajal (1573), Lib. VIII, [https://books.google.com/books?id=hwtxRhuIkIoC&pg=PA3 ch.3]. See also Phérotée de La Croix (1688: Ch. 2 [https://books.google.com/books?id=JaUBAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA406 p. 406]) and Cooley (1841: [https://books.google.com/books?id=380NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA38 p. 38])</ref> == Etymology == 16th-century Portuguese historian João de Barros talk say na Portuguese traders give di river di name "Senegal" because one local Wolof chief wey dem dey trade with get dat personal name.<ref>Barros, p. 109. This is reiterated in Marmol, Ch.8.3.</ref> But many historians no agree with dis explanation. For example, di ruler of Waalo dey use di title ''Brak'', while Alvise Cadamosto write say di chief wey Portuguese traders dey meet for Senegal River be person wey dem call "Zucholin".<ref>Cadamosto (Ital: p. 110; Eng: p.220).</ref> Di confusion fit come because Cadamosto also mention one Wolof chief south of di river wey e call ''Budomel''.<ref>Cadamosto (Ital: [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA113 p. 113]; Eng., [https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA225 p. 225] )</ref> Most researchers believe say "Budomel" come from di title ''Damel'', wey get di Wolof word ''bor'' ("lord") join am.<ref>Russell (2000: p.298)</ref> Interestingly, di name ''Budomel'' resemble di older Genoese name ''Vedamel'', wey already appear for 14th-century records as another name for Senegal River.<ref>e.g. in a Genoese note about Jaume Ferrer's 1346 trip to the River Gold, "Istud flumen vocatur Vedamel similiter vocatur riu Auri". See G. Gråberg (1802) Annali di geografia e di statistica, Genoa, vol. II, p. 290</ref> Many scholars believe say di Genoese name ''Vedamel'' come from Arabic words like ''Wad al-mal'' ("River of Treasure"), ''Wad al-Melli'' ("River of Mali"), or maybe ''Wad al-Nill'' ("River of Nile").<ref>The "River of Treasure" interpretation of Vedamel can be found in J.G.H. "'Histoire du commerce entre le Levant et l'Europe' in 1831, Antologia; giornale di scienze, lettere e arti, Vol. 3 (Aug.) [https://books.google.com/books?id=lFtKAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA26 p. 27]. R.H. Major (p.113) proposes the "Nile" interpretation.</ref> [[File:FleuveSénégal1889.jpg|thumb|Route of the Senegal River, map from 1889]] Another popular explanation come from Fr. David Boilat for 1853. E suggest say "Senegal" come from di Wolof words ''sunu gaal'', wey mean "our canoe" or "our pirogue".<ref>Fr. David Boilat (1853) Esquisses sénégalaises [https://books.google.com/books?id=qfsRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA199 p. 199]</ref> According to Bailot, one Portuguese captain ask some Wolof fishermen di name of di river, but dem think say e dey ask who own dia canoe. Dem answer, "sunu gaal" ("our canoe"), and Portuguese mistakenly take dat as di river's name.<ref>Bailot, p. 199</ref> Today, plenty people for Senegal still like dis story because e represent unity, as if everybody dey inside one canoe together. Some modern historians instead believe say "Senegal" come from ''Azenegue'', di Portuguese name for di Zenaga Berber people wey dey live north of di river.<ref>Monod & Mauny, in the French translation of Zurara, although it is already noted by editor Kerr in the 1811 English translation of Cadamosto.</ref> Another strong theory be say di name "Senegal" old pass all dese explanations. E fit come from "Sanghana" (also written as Isenghan, Asengan or Singhanah), one town wey Arab historian al-Bakri describe for 1068 as di capital of one kingdom near di mouth of Senegal River.<ref>Al Bakri ([https://books.google.com/books?id=L3tNlgQmT9wC&pg=PA77 p. 77]). Monteil (1964: p. 91; 1968). Cooley (1841: [https://books.google.com/books?id=380NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA50 p. 50], p.55) believes that al-Idrisi, contrarily to al-Bakri, might have confused Sanghana with Ganah/Awkat, the capital of the Ghana empire.</ref> Di place ''Senegany'' also appear for one Genoese map from 1351 known as di Medici Atlas.<ref>Delafosse "Senegal River", in First encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936, Leiden: E.J. Brill. vol. 7 ([https://books.google.com/books?id=sP_hVmik-QYC&pg=PA223 pp. 223–24])</ref> Later, Majorcan cartographer Mecia de Viladestes include di same town ("Isingan") for ein famous 1413 map.<ref name="Monteil, 1964: p.91">Monteil, 1964: p. 91</ref> Some researchers think say di name fit get Zenaga Berber origin, connected to ''Ismegh'' ("black slave") or ''sagui nughal'' ("border").<ref name="Monteil, 1964: p.91"/> Other sources also say ''Isinghan'' continue be di common Berber name for di Wolof Kingdom of Cayor.<ref name="Monteil, 1964: p.91"/> Some Serer people from southern Senegal also claim say di river's name come from joining two Serer words: "Sene", from Rog Sene (di Supreme Deity for Serer religion), and "O Gal", wey mean "body of water". == Economic Importance == Senegal River be one of di most important economic resources for West Africa, especially for di four countries wey share am: Guinea, Mali, Mauritania and Senegal. Di river support both traditional livelihoods and modern industries.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=The World Bank |title=Senegal River Valley Development and Resilience Project |journal=World Bank Report |date=28 November 2023 |page=4 |url=chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099112823230029545/pdf/P1794490e9e591020802b03680fe96c805.pdf |access-date=16 June 2026}}</ref> === Hydropower generation === Senegal River be major source of electricity for di region. Di biggest facilities include di 1,460-metre-long Manantali Dam, wey get power generation capacity of 200 MW.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Case Study on the Manantali Dam Project (Mali, Mauritania, Senegal) |url=https://riverresourcehub.org/resources/a-case-study-on-the-manantali-dam-project-mali-mauritania-senegal-2011/ |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=International Rivers Resource Hub |language=en-GB}}</ref> Other important hydropower stations include Gouina Hydroelectric Plant for Mali, wey generate 140 MW,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cities |first=Green Building Africa-Net Carbon Zero Buildings and |date=2022-12-11 |title=Construction of 140MW Gouina Hydroelectric Plant in Mali Complete |url=https://www.greenbuildingafrica.co.za/construction-of-140mw-gouina-hydroelectric-plant-in-mali-complete/ |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=Green Building Africa}}</ref> and Félou Hydroelectric Plant, wey produce 62 MW.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mali: Félou Regional Hydropower Project {{!}} KYOTO |url=https://www.wbkyotofunds.org/projects/mali-felou-regional-hydropower-project |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.wbkyotofunds.org}}</ref> Di electricity wey dese dams produce dey support industries, businesses and homes across di region. More hydropower projects still dey under development, including Koukoutamba (294 MW),<ref>{{Cite web |last=kgi-admin |date=2023-04-18 |title=Power plant profile: Koukoutamba, Guinea |url=https://www.power-technology.com/marketdata/power-plant-profile-koukoutamba-guinea/ |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=Power Technology |language=en-US}}</ref> Boureya (161 MW),<ref>{{Cite web |last=kgi-admin |date=2023-04-22 |title=Power plant profile: Boureya Hydro Power Plant, Guinea |url=https://www.power-technology.com/marketdata/power-plant-profile-boureya-hydro-power-plant-guinea/ |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=Power Technology |language=en-US}}</ref> and Gourbassi Hydroelectric Plant (18 MW).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Senegal/Mali: CMEC to build Gourbassi hydroelectric dam {{!}} African Energy |url=https://www.africa-energy.com/news-centre/article/senegalmali-cmec-build-gourbassi-hydroelectric-dam |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.africa-energy.com}}</ref> == See also == * Futa Toro == References == {{Reflist|30em}} == Sources == *{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Senegal (river)|volume=24 |page=639}} * João de Barros (1552–59) ''Décadas da Ásia: Dos feitos, que os Portuguezes fizeram no descubrimento, e conquista, dos mares, e terras do Oriente.''. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Epo2AAAAMAAJ&dq=editions%3AUOM39015057112644&pg=PP35 Vol. 1 (Dec I, Lib.1-5)]. * Beazley, C.R. (1899) "Introduction" to vol. 2 of C.R. Beazley and E. Prestage, editors, Zurara's ''The Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea''. London: Haklyut. * {{cite book |last1=Boilat |first1=Fr. David |author1-link=David Boilat |title=Esquisses sénégalaises: physionomie du pays, peuplades, commerce, religions, passé et avenir, récits et légendes |date=1853 |publisher=P. Bertrand |location=Paris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qfsRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA491 |language=fr }} * Alvise Cadamosto (1460s) "Il Libro di Messer Alvise Ca da Mosto Gentilhuomo Venetiano" & "Navigatione del Capitano Pietro di Sintra Portoghese scritta per il medesimo M. Alvise da Ca da Mosto", as printed in Venice (1550), by Giovanni Battista Ramusio, ed., ''Primo volume delle navigationi et viaggi nel qua si contine la descrittione dell'Africa, et del paese del Prete Ianni, on varii viaggi, dal mar Rosso a Calicut,& infin all'isole Molucche, dove nascono le Spetierie et la navigatione attorno il mondo.'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA106-IA1 online]. (English translation: "Original Journals of the Voyages of Cada Mosto and Piedro de Cintra to the Coast of Africa, the former in the years 1455 and 1456, and the latter soon afterwards", in R. Kerr, 1811, ''A General History of Voyages and Travels to the end of the 18th century'', vol. 2, Edinburgh: Blackwood. [https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA200 online]) * {{cite book |last1=Cooley |first1=W. D. |author1-link=William Desborough Cooley |title=The Negroland of the Arabs examined and explained; or, An inquiry into the early history and geography of Central Africa |date=1841 |publisher=Arrowsmith |location=London |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=380NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR3 |language=en }} * Delafosse, M. (1912). ''Haut-Sénégal-Niger''. 3 vols. Paris: Emil Larose. * Hrbek, I. (1992). ''Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century''. University of California Press. * Levtzion, N. (1973). ''Ancient Ghana and Mali''. London: Methuen. * Levtzion, N. and J.F.P. Hopkins, editors (2000). ''Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History''. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener. * Leo Africanus (1526). ''Descrittione dell'Africa, & delle cose notabili che lui sono'', printed in Venice (1550) by Giovanni Battista Ramusio, ed., ''Primo volume delle navigationi et viaggi...''. English translation (1896): ''The History and Description of Africa, and of the Notable Things Therein Contained''. London: Haklyut. [https://books.google.com/books?id=rmcMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PP7 vol. 1] * {{cite book |last1=Major |first1=Richard Henry |title=The Discoveries of Prince Henry the Navigator: and Their Results |date=1868 |edition=1877 |publisher=S. Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington |location=London |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VrkEAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR3 |language=en }} * Luis de Marmol Carvajal (1573). ''Primera Parte de la Descripción General de Áffrica...''. Granada: Rabut. * {{cite journal |last1=Mauny |first1=R. |title=Tableau géographique de l'ouest africain au moyen-âge d'après les sources écrites, la tradition et l'archéologie |journal=Mémoire de l'Institut Fondamental d'Afrique Noire |date=1961 |volume=61 |location=Dakar }} * {{cite journal |last1=McIntosh |first1=Susan Keech |title=A Reconsideration of the Wangara/Palolus Island of Gold |journal=Journal of African History |date=April 1981 |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=145–158 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001937X |s2cid=162961695 }} * {{cite book |last1=Monteil |first1=Vincent |title=L'Islam Noir |date=1964 |publisher=Edit. du Seuil |location=Paris |isbn=978-2020024624 |language=fr }} * {{cite journal |last1=Monteil |first1=Vincent |title=al-Bakri (Cordoue, 1068) - Routier de l'Afrique blanche et noire du Nord-Ouest |journal=Bulletin de l'Ifan |date=1968 |volume=30 |pages=39–116 }} * Phérotée de La Croix (1688). ''Relation universelle de l'Afrique, ancienne et moderne''. Alyon: Amaulry. * Pliny the Elder (c. 30 AD). ''Naturalis Historiae''. 1855 edition translated by John Bostock and Henry Thomas Riley as ''The Natural History of Pliny''. London: H.G. Bohn. * {{cite book |last1=Russell |first1=P. E. |title=Prince Henry 'the Navigator': A Life |date=2000 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, Conn. |isbn=9780300091304 |url=https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300091304/prince-henry-navigator/ }} * Livio Sanuto (1588). ''Geografia di M. Livio Sanvto distinta in XII libri...''. Venice: Damiano Zenaro. * {{cite journal |last1=Winter |first1=Heinrich |title=The Fra Mauro Portolan Chart in the Vatican |journal=Imago Mundi |date=1962 |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=17–28 |doi=10.1080/03085696208592198 |jstor=1150299 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1150299 }} * Gomes Eanes de Zurara (1453). ''Crónica dos feitos notáveis que se passaram na Conquista da Guiné''. English translation by C.R. Beazley and E. Prestage (1896–99), ''The Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea''. London: Haklyut. * {{cite book |author=Villalón, Leonardo A. |title=Islamic Society and State Power in Senegal: Disciples and Citizens in Fatick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xFC1KUbXJ6gC&pg=PA54 |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-03232-2 |pages=54–55 }} * Galvan, Dennis Charles (2004). ''The State Must Be Our Master of Fire: How Peasants Craft Culturally Sustainable Development in Senegal''. Berkeley: University of California Press. * Berg, Elizabeth; Wan, Ruth; and Lau, Ruth (2009). ''Senegal''. Marshall Cavendish. {{ISBN|9780761444817}}. * Page, Willie F. (2001). ''Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African Kingdoms (500 to 1500)'', Vol. 2. Facts on File. {{ISBN|0-8160-4472-4}}. * Streissguth, Thomas (2009). ''Senegal in Pictures, Visual Geography''. Twenty-First Century Books. {{ISBN|1-57505-951-7}}. * Oliver, Roland Anthony & Fage, J. D. (1969). ''Journal of African History'', Volume 10. Cambridge University Press. * Mwakikagile, Godfrey (2010). ''Ethnic Diversity and Integration in The Gambia: The Land, The People and The Culture''. {{ISBN|9987-9322-2-3}}. == Further reading == * {{cite book |last=Betz |first=R. L. |year=2007 |title=The Mapping of Africa: a cartobibliography of printed maps of the African continent to 1700 |publisher=Hes & de Graaf |isbn=978-90-6194-489-8 }} * {{cite book |last=Davidson |first=Basil |year=1998 |title=West Africa Before the Colonial Era: a history to 1850 |location=London |publisher=Longman |isbn=0-582-31852-1 }} * {{cite book |last=De la Roncière |first=Charles |year=1925 |title=La découverte de l'Afrique au moyen âge |others=2 volumes |location=Cairo |publisher=Société Royale de Géographie d'Égypte }} == External links == {{Commons category}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070629065341/http://zope0.itcilo.org/delta/lmdd2003/news/1067611432/1068825691/presentation%20ressources%20en%20eau%20senegal.ppt The Hydrology of Senegal] (PowerPoint presentation) {{Coord|15|47|17|N|16|31|44|W|display=title}} {{Authority control}} {{Serer topics|state=collapsed}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Senegal River}} [[Category:Senegal River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Senegal]] [[Category:Rivers of Mauritania]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Mauritania–Senegal border]] [[Category:Rivers of Mali]] [[Category:Lowest points of countries]] [[Category:Serer history]] == References == <references /> == Read further == * {{cite book |last=Betz |first=R. L. |title=The Mapping of Africa: a cartobibliography of printed maps of the African continent to 1700 |publisher=Hes & de Graaf |year=2007 |isbn=978-90-6194-489-8}} * {{cite book |last=Davidson |first=Basil |title=West Africa Before the Colonial Era: a history to 1850 |publisher=Longman |year=1998 |isbn=0-582-31852-1 |location=London}} * {{cite book |last=De la Roncière |first=Charles |title=La découverte de l'Afrique au moyen âge |publisher=Société Royale de Géographie d'Égypte |others=2 volumes |year=1925 |location=Cairo}} == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070629065341/http://zope0.itcilo.org/delta/lmdd2003/news/1067611432/1068825691/presentation%20ressources%20en%20eau%20senegal.ppt The Hydrology of Senegal] (PowerPoint presentation) {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Senegal River}} [[Category:Senegal River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Senegal]] [[Category:Rivers of Mauritania]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Mauritania–Senegal border]] [[Category:Rivers of Mali]] [[Category:Lowest points of countries]] [[Category:Serer history]] jm0vnwfujalmqkaingtga46wutkskub 103596 103595 2026-06-17T22:06:52Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 /* References */ 103596 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Senegal River''' (Serer: ''"Seen O Gal"'' anaa "Senegal" - compound of de&nbsp;Serer term "Seen" anaa "Sene" anaa "Sen" (from&nbsp;Roog Seen, Supreme Deity insyd&nbsp;Serer religion) den "O Gal" (wey dey mean "body of water")); Wolof: ''Dexug Senegaal'', Arabic: نهر السنغال, romanized: ''Nahr as-Siniġāl'', French: ''Fleuve Sénégal'') be a 1086-kilometre-long (675 mi) river insyd [[West Africa]]; much of ein length dey mark part of de border between [[Senegal]] den [[Mauritania]]. E get a drainage basin of 270000 km2 (100000 sq mi), a mean flow of 680 m3/s (24,000 cu ft/s), den an annual discharge of 21.5 km3 (5.2 cu mi). Important tributaries be de Falémé River, Karakoro River, den de Gorgol River. De river dey divide into two branches once e pass Kaédi. De left branch, dem call de Doué, dey run parallel to de main river to de north. After 200 km (120 mi) de two branches rejoin a few kilometers downstream of Podor. Insyd 1972 [[Mali]], Mauritania den Senegal found de Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Sénégal (OMVS) to manage de river basin. [[Guinea]] join insyd 2005. As of 2012, na only very limited use be made of de river for de transportation of goods den passengers. Na de OMVS look at de feasibility of creating a navigable channel 55 m (180 ft) in width between de small town of Ambidédi insyd [[Mali]] den Saint-Louis, a distance of 905 km (562 mi).E go give landlocked Mali a direct route to de [[Atlantic Ocean]]. De aquatic fauna insyd de Senegal River basin be closely associated plus dat of de [[Gambia River]] basin, wey de two be usually combined under a single ecoregion dem know as de Senegal-Gambia Catchments. Only three species of frogs den one fish be endemic to dis ecoregion. De river get two large dams along ein course, de Manantali Dam insyd [[Mali]] den de Maka-Diama Dam downstream on de Mauritania-Senegal border. In between be de Félou Hydroelectric Plant, dem build insyd 1927, buh dem replace insyd 2014. De construction of de Gouina Hydroelectric Plant upstream of Felou at Gouina Falls begin insyd 2013. == Geography == [[File:Senegal River Saint Louis.jpg|thumb|Fishermen for Senegal River estuary bank near Saint-Louis, Senegal]] Senegal River source na Semefé (Bakoye) River plus Bafing River. Both rivers start from Guinea. Dem join small for Guinea-Mali border before dem meet for Bafoulabé inside Mali. From there, Senegal River dey flow go west den north through Talari Gorges near Galougo, pass Gouina Falls, before e continue gently pass Kayes, where Kolimbiné River join am. After Karakoro River join am, the river continue along Mali-Mauritania border for some kilometres reach Bakel, where Falémé River join am. Falémé River too start from Guinea and pass part of Guinea-Mali border before e form most of Senegal-Mali border till Bakel. From there, Senegal River continue through dry northern Senegal, dey form border between Senegal and Mauritania before e enter Atlantic Ocean. For Kaedi, Gorgol River from Mauritania join am. The river pass Boghé, reach Richard Toll where Ferlo River from Lac de Guiers side join am. After that e pass Rosso and reach Saint-Louis. Before e empty inside Atlantic Ocean, one narrow sand strip wey dem dey call Langue de Barbarie separate the river from the ocean. The river get two big dams. One be Manantali Dam for Mali wey dem use am for different purposes, and the other one be Maka-Diama Dam near Mauritania-Senegal border close to where the river enter the sea. This dam stop salt water from the Atlantic make e no enter upstream. Between Manantali Dam and Maka-Diama Dam dey Félou Hydroelectric Plant. Dem first complete am for 1927 and e dey use weir. Dem replace the old power station for 2014. For 2013 too, construction start for Gouina Hydroelectric Plant upstream from Félou near Gouina Falls. Senegal River drainage basin cover {{Convert|270,000|km2|abbr=on|comma=gaps}}, with average flow of {{Convert|680|m3/s|abbr=on|comma=gaps}} and yearly discharge of {{Convert|21.5|km3|abbr=on}}.<ref name=whycos>{{citation | title=SENEGAL-HYCOS: Renforcement des capacités nationales et régionales d'observation, transmission et traitement de données pour contribuer au développement durable du bassin du Fleuve Sénégal (Document de projet préliminaire) | publisher=Système Mondial d’Observation du Cycle Hydrologique (WHYCOS) | url=http://www.whycos.org/IMG/pdf/Senegal_HYCOS_september_2007.pdf | year=2007 | language=fr | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131228165424/http://www.whycos.org/IMG/pdf/Senegal_HYCOS_september_2007.pdf | archive-date=28 December 2013 | df=dmy-all }}.</ref><!--actually p3--><ref name=":0">[http://www.grdc.sr.unh.edu/html/Polygons/P1812100.html UNH/GRDC Composite Runoff Fields V 1.0 data for Dagana].</ref> Important tributaries be Falémé River, Karakoro River and Gorgol River. Downstream from Kaédi, the river divide into two branches. The left branch wey dem dey call Doué River dey run side by side with the main river for north. After {{Convert|200|km|abbr=on}}, the two branches join again small distance after Pondor. The long land between the two branches na Île á Morfil.<ref name=whycos/><!--actually p5--> For 1972, Mali, Mauritania and Senegal create Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Sénégal (OMVS) make dem manage the whole river basin together. Guinea join the organisation for 2005. As e be now, people no dey use the river plenty for transport of goods and passengers. OMVS don study whether dem fit create navigable channel wey go be {{Convert|55|m|abbr=on}} wide from Ambidédi for Mali reach Saint-Louis, distance of {{Convert|905|km|abbr=on}}. If dem build am, e go give Mali direct route go Atlantic Ocean.<ref name=whycos/><!--page 20--> Animals wey dey inside Senegal River basin dey closely relate to those for Gambia River basin, so scientists dey group the two together under one freshwater ecoregion wey dem dey call Senegal-Gambia Catchments. Even though the area get moderate species diversity, only three frog species and one fish species na endemic to this ecoregion.<ref>Freshwater Ecoregions of the World (2008). ''[http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=509 Senegal-Gambia.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005204342/http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=509 |date=5 October 2011 }}'' Accessed 2 May 2011.</ref> == History == De area be previously occupied by de Serer people, wey dey follow dema religious den ethnic persecution by Islamic forces insyd de 11th century, result in de Serer exodus to de south.<ref name="Villalón2006p54">{{cite book |author=Villalón, Leonardo A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xFC1KUbXJ6gC&pg=PA54 |title=Islamic Society and State Power in Senegal: Disciples and Citizens in Fatick |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-03232-2 |pages=54–55}}, Quote: "Serer oral tradition recounts the group's origins in the Senegal River valley, where it was part of, or closely related to, the same group as the ancestors of today's [[Toucouleur people|Tukulor]]."</ref><ref name=":1">Galvan, Dennis Charles,&nbsp;''The State Must Be Our Master of Fire: How Peasants Craft Culturally Sustainable Development in Senegal,'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004, p.&nbsp;51</ref><ref name=":2">Berg, Elizabeth; Wan, Ruth; and Lau, Ruth (2009).&nbsp;''Senegal''. Marshall Cavendish. {{ISBN|9780761444817}}, p. 63</ref><ref name=":3">Page, Willie F., ''Encyclopedia of African history and culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500)'', pp. 209, 676. Vol.2, Facts on File (2001), {{ISBN|0-8160-4472-4}}</ref><ref name=":4">Streissguth, Thomas, "Senegal in Pictures, Visual Geography", Second Series, p. 23, Twenty-First Century Books (2009), {{ISBN|1-57505-951-7}}</ref><ref name=":5">Oliver, Roland Anthony; & Fage, J. D.,; "Journal of African history", Volume 10, p. 367. Cambridge University Press (1969)</ref><ref name=":6">Mwakikagile, Godfrey, "Ethnic Diversity and Integration in The Gambia: The Land, The People and The Culture," (2010), p. 11, {{ISBN|9987-9322-2-3}}</ref> {{See also|Serer history|Serer ancient history|Timeline of Serer history|Takrur#Serer Exodus}} People from early Mediterranean civilizations already know about Senegal River. Pliny the Elder call am ''Bambotus'' (maybe from Phoenician word for hippopotamus), while Claudius Ptolemy call am ''Nias''.<ref>Pliny, ''Natural History'', Lib. 5, Ch.1 ([https://books.google.com/books?id=VzwZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA380 p. 380])</ref> Around 450 BCE, Hanno the Carthaginian pass the river during him sea journey from Carthage through the Pillars of Herakles to Theon Ochema (possibly Mount Cameroon) inside Gulf of Guinea. Trade continue between this area and the Mediterranean world until Carthage destroy for 146 BCE together with ein West African trade network. === Arab sources === For Early Middle Ages (around 800 CE), Senegal River connect West Africa and Mediterranean again through the Trans-Saharan trade route between Morocco and Ghana Empire. Arab geographers like al-Masudi of Baghdad (957), al-Bakri of Spain (1068), and al-Idrisi of Sicily (1154) write some of the earliest detailed descriptions of the Senegal River.<ref>A translation of al-Bakri's 1068 account is found in Levtzion & Hopkins, (2000, ''Corpus'': ([https://books.google.com/books?id=L3tNlgQmT9wC&pg=PA77 p. 77]). In French, see Monteil (1968). For an attempt to reconstruct the Senegal river's course from the accounts of al-Bakri and al-Idrisi, see Cooley (1841: [https://books.google.com/books?id=380NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA52 p. 52]).</ref> Early Arab geographers believe say upper Senegal River and upper Niger River connect together and form one big river wey dey flow from east go west. Dem call am "Western Nile".<ref>The term "Nile" seems to have been applied quite early to the Senegal. During the Arab conquest of North Africa in the 8th century, Ifriqiyan commanders launched several expeditionary raids from the Sous valley against the desert-dwelling nomadic Berbers of Western Sahara. There is a report from an Arab commander from the 750s who claims to have reached as far south as "the Nile" (i.e. the Senegal). See Hrbek (1992: p.308).</ref> Some people believe say the river be western branch of the Egyptian Nile or both rivers come from the same source, like the Mountains of the Moon, Ptolemy's Gir, or the Biblical Gihon stream.<ref>Geographia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4ksBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA222 Book IV, Chapter 6, Section 13].</ref><ref>e.g. Leo Africanus, [https://books.google.com/books?id=rmcMAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Leo%20Africanus%22%20Niger&pg=PA124 p. 124]</ref> [[File:Senegal River according to al-Bakri.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Western Nile (Senegal-Niger River) according to al-Bakri (1068)]] Arab geographers Abd al-Hassan Ali ibn Omar (1230), Ibn Said al-Maghribi (1274), and Abulfeda (1331) call Senegal River the "Nile of Ghana" (Nil Gana or Nili Ganah).<ref>See R.H. Major (1868) ''Life of Prince Henry'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=UfE5AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA114 p. 114]</ref> Because Senegal River enter the heart of the gold-producing Ghana Empire and later Mali Empire, Trans-Saharan traders give am the famous nickname "River of Gold". Stories about this River of Gold spread reach European merchants wey dey trade for Morocco ports. Arab historians even record at least three different Arab sea expeditions, including one by eight ''mughrarin'' ("wanderers") from Lisbon before 1147, wey try sail down the Atlantic coast to look for the mouth of the Senegal River.<ref>See Beazley (1899: p. xliv, lxxv)</ref> === Cartographic representation === [[File:Senegal River according to al-Idrisi.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Western Nile (Senegal-Niger River) according to Muhammad al-Idrisi (1154)]] Based on Classical stories and Arab writings, the "River of Gold" begin show for European maps from the 14th century. For the Hereford Mappa Mundi (around 1300), one river wey dem label ''Nilus Fluvius'' show parallel to Africa coast, although e no connect to the Atlantic Ocean because e end inside one lake. The map also show giant ants wey dey dig gold from the river sand, with the note "''Hic grandes formice auream serican [or servant] arenas''".<ref>Bevan and Phillott (1873: [https://books.google.com/books?id=u_oHAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA105 p. 105].</ref> For Pietro Vesconte map wey e prepare for Marino Sanuto around 1320, one unnamed river dey flow from inside Africa into the Atlantic Ocean. The 1351 Medici-Laurentian Atlas show both the Egyptian Nile and the Western Nile say dem come from the same mountain range inside Africa, together with the note "''Ilic coligitur aureaum''".<ref>See João de Andrade Corvo (1882) ''Roteiro de Lisboa a Goa por D. João de Castro'', Lisbon. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Q8M5AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA68 p.68n.]</ref> The portolan chart by Giovanni da Carignano (1310s–1320s) also label the river as ''iste fluuis exit de nilo ubi multum aurum repperitur''.<ref>Winter (1962: p. 18)</ref> Later portolan charts, beginning with the 1367 chart by Domenico and Francesco Pizzigano and continuing with the 1375 Catalan Atlas and the 1413 chart by Mecia de Viladestes, show the "River of Gold" flowing into the Atlantic Ocean somewhere south of Cape Bojador. Around this same period, many Europeans believe say Cape Bojador be dangerous place wey sailors no fit pass, maybe because Trans-Saharan traders no want sea trade replace their land trade. Many maps show one big island inside the middle of the river wey dem call the "Island of Gold". Al-Masudi first mention am, al-Idrisi call am ''Wangara'', while the Pizzigani brothers call am ''Palolus''. Many researchers believe say this "island" actually represent the Bambuk-Buré goldfields wey rivers surround on almost every side.<ref>Delafosse (1912: v.1,p.55), Crone (1937: p.xv), Mauny (1961: p.302), Levtzion (1973: p.155). However, McIntosh (1981) suggests an alternative identification of this riverine "island" to be the Djenné area, around the bend of the Niger.</ref> [[Image:Palolus river (Senegal-Niger) in 1413 Mecia de Viladestes map.jpg|thumb|1000px|center|Course of the "River of Gold" (Senegal-Niger) in the 1413 portolan chart of Mecia de Viladestes.]] The 1413 portolan chart by Mecia de Viladestes give one of the most detailed European pictures of the Senegal River before Portuguese explorers reach the area during the 1440s. The map label the river as "''riu del or''" ("River of Gold") and place am well south of Cape Bojador. The map also include many notes about the plenty gold and ivory wey dey the area. {{Quote|"This river is called Wad al-Nil and also is called the River of Gold, for one can here obtain the gold of Palolus. And know that the greater part of those that live here occupy themselves collecting gold on the shores of the river which, at its mouth, is a league wide, and deep enough for the largest ship of the world."<ref>"Aquest flum es apelat ued anil axi matex es apelat riu de lor per tal com si requyl lor de palola. Et scire debeatis quod major pars gentium in partibus istis habitantium sunt electi ad colligendum aurum ipso flumine, qui habet latitudinem unius legue et fondum pro majori nave mundi"</ref>}} [[File:VillageCayor-1821.jpg|thumb|Slave trade along the Senegal River, kingdom of Cayor]] The map also show the galley of Jaume Ferrer close to the coast, referring to ein 1346 voyage. One golden island at the river mouth probably represent Langue de Barbarie or Saint-Louis Island. The first town for the river mouth dey labelled "isingan", which some historians believe fit be where the name "Senegal" come from. Farther inland, the map show Takrur, Emperor Mansa Musa of Mali holding one gold nugget, and the capital of Mali Empire beside the river. The map also show the famous "Island of Gold", believed by many scholars to represent the Bambuk-Buré goldfields, together with towns like Timbuktu and Gao connected by one continuous river system. North of the Senegal-Niger system, the map show different oases and stations along the Trans-Saharan trade routes leading to the Mediterranean. It also show rulers from Nubia, Ethiopia and other kingdoms according to European geographical knowledge at that time. One unique feature of the Viladestes map be another river south of the Senegal wey dem label "''flumen gelica''", which some historians believe fit represent the Gambia River. Later, the 1459 Fra Mauro world map show two separate rivers flowing westward from the same inland lake, one labelled "Mas River" and the other "Channel of Gold". Fra Mauro also note say people dey collect gold from the sands of both rivers.<ref>João de Andrade Corvo (1882: p.70)</ref> === European contact === Christian Europeans begin look for sea route wey go lead dem to the mouth of Senegal River. The first known attempt fit be by the Genoese brothers Vandino and Ugolino Vivaldi. Dem sail along the African coast for 1291 with two ships, but nobody hear anything about dem again. For 1346, Majorcan sailor Jaume Ferrer sail with one galley because e want find the famous "River of Gold" (''Riu de l'Or''). E hear say people wey dey live along the river dey collect gold from the river banks and say the river deep enough for even the biggest ships. After the journey, nobody hear from am again. For 1402, after French adventurers Jean de Béthencourt and Gadifer de la Salle establish the first European settlement for the Canary Islands, dem begin explore the African coast to search for the mouth of Senegal River. [[File:Bababé.jpg|thumb|Boat on Senegal River]] For the 1420s, Portuguese prince Henry the Navigator continue the search and spend plenty resources on the project. For 1434, one of ein captains, Gil Eanes, become the first European to sail beyond Cape Bojador and return safely. The following year, Henry send another expedition under Gil Eanes and Afonso Gonçalves Baldaia. Dem reach one inlet near Dakhla for Western Sahara and mistakenly believe say na the mouth of Senegal River. Because of that mistake, dem call the place "Rio do Ouro", a name wey remain there for many centuries. After Henry realize say the inlet no be Senegal River, e continue send more expeditions farther south. For 1445, Portuguese captain Nuno Tristão finally reach Langue de Barbarie. There e notice say the desert begin end, trees begin appear, and the people change from Sanhaja Berbers to black Wolof people. Because of bad weather or lack of supplies, Tristão no enter the river but e return Portugal convinced say e don reach the "Land of the Blacks" and say the Nile dey nearby. Not long after, another Portuguese captain, Dinis Dias, become the first known European since ancient times wey reach the mouth of Senegal River. Instead of sailing inside the river, e continue along the Grande Côte to Dakar Bay. The next year, for 1446, Portuguese slave-raiding fleet under Lançarote de Freitas arrive the river mouth. One captain, Estêvão Afonso, volunteer make e enter the river with one small launch to explore the area. E become the first European wey actually sail inside Senegal River. The journey no last long. After Afonso try kidnap two Wolof children from one hut near the river bank, their father chase the Portuguese men back to their boat and beat dem well. Because of that, the explorers stop the journey and return to their ships.<ref>Zurara (p.178-83), Barros (p.110-12)</ref> [[File:RiverSenegalNearKanel.jpg|thumb|Young boys swimming in the Senegal River]] Between 1448 and 1455, Portuguese captain Lourenço Dias establish regular trade with the Wolof states of Waalo and Cayor along the Senegal River. The Portuguese exchange Mediterranean goods, especially horses, for gold and slaves.<ref>Cadamosto suggest this was begun in 1450: "Five years before I went on this voyage, this river was discovered by three caravels belonging to Don Henry, which entered it, and their commanders settled peace and trade with the Moors; since which time ships have been sent to this place every year to trade with the natives." Cadamosto (Engl. 1811 trans., [https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA220 p. 220]) The identification of Lourenço Dias as the opener of Portuguese trade on the Senegal River is suggested in a 1489 document. See Russell (2000:p.97n14).</ref> Historian Gomes Eanes de Zurara, writing for 1453, still call the river the "Nile River". But by the 1460s, Alvise Cadamosto dey call am "Senega", and most Portuguese maps after that period label am as ''Rio do Çanagà''.<ref>Cadamosto (Engl. 1811 trans., ([https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA213 p. 213]). Giovanni Battista Ramusio, publisher of the 1550 Italian edition of Cadamosto's memoir, refers to the gold from the Senegal as ''oro tiber'' ([https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA107 p. 107]), thus leading some to imagine it was also customary to call the Senegal the Tiber River. In all likelihood, "Tiber Gold" was just a generic Italian reference to river-dug gold.</ref> Cadamosto also record the old belief say both Senegal River and the Egyptian Nile be branches of the Biblical Gihon River wey flow from the Garden of Eden through Ethiopia.<ref>Cadamosto ([https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA220 p. 220]; Ital: [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA111 p. 111]).</ref> E also write say ancient people call Senegal River "the Niger", probably because of Ptolemy's legendary Nigir River.<ref>Geographia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4ksBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA222 Book IV, Chapter 6, Section 14].</ref> Later, Leo Africanus identify this legendary river with the modern Niger River.<ref>By confounding the Ptolemy's Greek 'Nigir' with the Latin word for "black", Leo Africanus assumed the "Nile of the Blacks" (i.e. Senegal-Niger of the Arab traders) must be the Nigir of the ancients. See Leo Africanus, (Ital: [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=PA7 p. 7], Eng: [https://books.google.com/books?id=rmcMAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Leo%20Africanus%22%20Niger&pg=PA124 p. 124]</ref> Luis del Marmol Carvajal repeat similar story for 1573 and add say both Senegal River and Gambia River be tributaries of the Niger River.<ref>Luis del Marmol Carvajal (1573) ([https://books.google.com/books?id=1WVevz1cDnwC&q=Zenega&pg=PT23 ch. 17])</ref> [[File:Guillaume Delisle Senegambia 1707.jpg|thumb|Senegambia region, detail from Guillaume Delisle's 1707 map, still showing Senegal River connected to the Niger. Later editions corrected this mistake.]] Portuguese historian João de Barros write for 1552 say the original Wolof name of the river be ''Ovedech'', believed to come from the Wolof words meaning "this river".<ref>Barros, ''Décadas da Ásia'' ([https://books.google.com/books?id=Epo2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA109 p. 109]). See also Bailot (1853: p.199).</ref> Damião de Góis later record the name as ''Sonedech'', meaning "our river".<ref>See also A.M. de Castilho (1866) ''Descripção e roteiro da costa occidental de Africa'', vol. 1, [https://books.google.com/books?id=8ikiSWPVYDUC&dq=editions%3ASTANFORD36105015335362&pg=PA92 p. 92].</ref> For 1573, Luis del Marmol Carvajal write say different ethnic groups call the river by different names. According to am, the Portuguese call am ''Zenega'', the Zenaga Berbers call am ''Zenedec'', the Wolof call am ''Dengueh'', the Toucouleur call am ''Mayo'', the Soninke call am ''Colle'', while people from other areas get different local names too.<ref>Luis del Marmol Carvajal (1573), Lib. VIII, [https://books.google.com/books?id=hwtxRhuIkIoC&pg=PA3 ch.3]. See also Phérotée de La Croix (1688: Ch. 2 [https://books.google.com/books?id=JaUBAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA406 p. 406]) and Cooley (1841: [https://books.google.com/books?id=380NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA38 p. 38])</ref> === European contact === Christian Europe people later start try find sea route wey go carry dem reach mouth of Senegal River. Di first known attempt fit be di one wey two Genoa brothers, Vandino and Ugolino Vivaldi, do for 1291, as dem sail go south along di coast with two ships, but nobody hear from dem again. For 1346, Majorca sailor Jaume Ferrer take one galley ship go search di famous "River of Gold" (Riu de l'Or). E hear say plenty people wey dey stay near di river dey gather gold from di riverbanks and say di river big enough for very large ships. Nobody hear from am again after dat. For 1402, after dem establish di first European settlement for Canary Islands, two French Norman adventurers, Jean de Béthencourt and Gadifer de la Salle, begin explore di West African coast to look for di mouth of Senegal River. [[File:Bababé.jpg|thumb|Boat on Senegal River]] For 1420s, Portuguese prince Henry the Navigator continue invest plenty money make dem find di Senegal River. For 1434, one of ein captains, Gil Eanes, finally cross Cape Bojador and return safely. Di next year, Henry send another expedition under Gil Eanes and Afonso Gonçalves Baldaia. Dem reach one inlet for Western Sahara and mistakenly believe say e be di mouth of Senegal River. Because of dat mistake, dem call am "Rio do Ouro", and dat name remain for many centuries. After Henry realize say dem make mistake, e continue send more expeditions. For 1445, Portuguese captain Nuno Tristão reach Langue de Barbarie. E notice say di desert finish and greener land begin. E also notice say di people no be Sanhaja Berbers again but Wolof people. Because of bad weather or lack of supplies, e no enter di river but return Portugal to report say e don find "Land of the Blacks" (Terra dos Negros) and believe say di Nile River dey nearby. Soon after, maybe dat same year, another Portuguese captain, Dinis Dias, become di first known European since ancient times wey actually reach di mouth of Senegal River. However, instead of sailing inside di river, e continue along di Grande Côte to Dakar Bay. For 1446, Portuguese slave-raiding fleet under Lançarote de Freitas arrive for di river mouth. One captain, Estêvão Afonso, volunteer make e explore di river by boat. E become di first European wey enter inside Senegal River. During di journey, e try kidnap two Wolof children from one woodsman's house. Di children's father chase dem go back to dia boat and beat dem well well, so dem stop di exploration and return to dia ships.<ref>Zurara (p.178-83), Barros (p.110-12)</ref> [[File:RiverSenegalNearKanel.jpg|thumb|Young boys swimming in the Senegal River]] Between 1448 and 1455, Portuguese captain Lourenço Dias establish regular trade with di Wolof states of Waalo and Cayor. Dem exchange Mediterranean goods, especially horses, for gold and slaves.<ref>Cadamosto suggest this was begun in 1450: "Five years before I went on this voyage, this river was discovered by three caravels belonging to Don Henry, which entered it, and their commanders settled peace and trade with the Moors; since which time ships have been sent to this place every year to trade with the natives." Cadamosto (Engl. 1811 trans., [https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA220 p. 220]) The identification of Lourenço Dias as the opener of Portuguese trade on the Senegal River is suggested in a 1489 document. See Russell (2000:p.97n14).</ref> Historian Gomes Eanes de Zurara, wey write for 1453, still call di river "Nile River". But Alvise Cadamosto, wey write during di 1460s, call am "Senega", and many Portuguese maps after dat also label am as Rio do Çanagà.<ref>Cadamosto (Engl. 1811 trans., ([https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA213 p. 213]). Giovanni Battista Ramusio, publisher of the 1550 Italian edition of Cadamosto's memoir, refers to the gold from the Senegal as oro tiber ([https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA107 p. 107]), thus leading some to imagine it was also customary to call the Senegal the Tiber River! In all likelihood, "Tiber Gold" was just a generic Italian reference to river-dug gold.</ref> Cadamosto also write say people believe both Senegal River and Egyptian Nile be branches of di Biblical Gihon River wey flow from Garden of Eden through Ethiopia.<ref>Cadamosto ([https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA220 p. 220]; Ital: [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA111 p. 111]).</ref> E also mention say ancient people call Senegal River "Niger", probably because of Ptolemy ein legendary Nigir River.<ref>Geographia, [https://books.google.com/books?id=4ksBAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA222 Book IV, Chapter 6, Section 14].</ref> Later, Leo Africanus identify dat legendary river with today's Niger River.<ref>By confounding the Ptolemy's Greek 'Nigir' with the Latin word for "black", Leo Africanus assumed the "Nile of the Blacks" (i.e. Senegal-Niger of the Arab traders) must be the Nigir of the ancients. See Leo Africanus, (Ital: [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=PA7 p. 7], Eng: [https://books.google.com/books?id=rmcMAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Leo%20Africanus%22%20Niger&pg=PA124 p. 124]</ref> Luis del Marmol Carvajal repeat almost di same story for 1573 and add say both Senegal River and Gambia River be tributaries of Niger River.<ref>Luis del Marmol Carvajal (1573) ([https://books.google.com/books?id=1WVevz1cDnwC&q=Zenega&pg=PT23 ch. 17])</ref> [[File:Guillaume Delisle Senegambia 1707.jpg|thumb|Senegambia region, detail from the map of Guillaume Delisle (1707), wey still show Senegal connected to Niger; later editions (1722 and 1727) correct dat mistake.]] Portuguese historian João de Barros, wey write for 1552, say di original Wolof name for di river be ''Ovedech'', wey one source explain as "vi-dekh", meaning "this river".<ref>Barros, Décadas da Ásia ([https://books.google.com/books?id=Epo2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA109 p. 109]). See also Bailot (1853: p.199).</ref> Damião de Góis later record di name as ''Sonedech'', from "sunu dekh", meaning "our river".<ref>See also A.M. de Castilho (1866) Descripção e roteiro da costa occidental de Africa, vol. 1, [https://books.google.com/books?id=8ikiSWPVYDUC&dq=editions%3ASTANFORD36105015335362&pg=PA92 p. 92].</ref> For 1573, Luis del Marmol Carvajal record different local names wey different ethnic groups use for di river. According to am, Portuguese call am ''Zenega'', Zenaga Berbers call am ''Zenedec'', Wolof people call am ''Dengueh'', Toucouleur people call am ''Mayo'', Soninke people of Ngalam call am ''Colle'', Bambara people call am ''Zimbala'', while people for Timbuktu call am ''Yça''.<ref>Luis del Marmol Carvajal (1573), Lib. VIII, [https://books.google.com/books?id=hwtxRhuIkIoC&pg=PA3 ch.3]. See also Phérotée de La Croix (1688: Ch. 2 [https://books.google.com/books?id=JaUBAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA406 p. 406]) and Cooley (1841: [https://books.google.com/books?id=380NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA38 p. 38])</ref> == Etymology == 16th-century Portuguese historian João de Barros talk say na Portuguese traders give di river di name "Senegal" because one local Wolof chief wey dem dey trade with get dat personal name.<ref>Barros, p. 109. This is reiterated in Marmol, Ch.8.3.</ref> But many historians no agree with dis explanation. For example, di ruler of Waalo dey use di title ''Brak'', while Alvise Cadamosto write say di chief wey Portuguese traders dey meet for Senegal River be person wey dem call "Zucholin".<ref>Cadamosto (Ital: p. 110; Eng: p.220).</ref> Di confusion fit come because Cadamosto also mention one Wolof chief south of di river wey e call ''Budomel''.<ref>Cadamosto (Ital: [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA113 p. 113]; Eng., [https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA225 p. 225] )</ref> Most researchers believe say "Budomel" come from di title ''Damel'', wey get di Wolof word ''bor'' ("lord") join am.<ref>Russell (2000: p.298)</ref> Interestingly, di name ''Budomel'' resemble di older Genoese name ''Vedamel'', wey already appear for 14th-century records as another name for Senegal River.<ref>e.g. in a Genoese note about Jaume Ferrer's 1346 trip to the River Gold, "Istud flumen vocatur Vedamel similiter vocatur riu Auri". See G. Gråberg (1802) Annali di geografia e di statistica, Genoa, vol. II, p. 290</ref> Many scholars believe say di Genoese name ''Vedamel'' come from Arabic words like ''Wad al-mal'' ("River of Treasure"), ''Wad al-Melli'' ("River of Mali"), or maybe ''Wad al-Nill'' ("River of Nile").<ref>The "River of Treasure" interpretation of Vedamel can be found in J.G.H. "'Histoire du commerce entre le Levant et l'Europe' in 1831, Antologia; giornale di scienze, lettere e arti, Vol. 3 (Aug.) [https://books.google.com/books?id=lFtKAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA26 p. 27]. R.H. Major (p.113) proposes the "Nile" interpretation.</ref> [[File:FleuveSénégal1889.jpg|thumb|Route of the Senegal River, map from 1889]] Another popular explanation come from Fr. David Boilat for 1853. E suggest say "Senegal" come from di Wolof words ''sunu gaal'', wey mean "our canoe" or "our pirogue".<ref>Fr. David Boilat (1853) Esquisses sénégalaises [https://books.google.com/books?id=qfsRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA199 p. 199]</ref> According to Bailot, one Portuguese captain ask some Wolof fishermen di name of di river, but dem think say e dey ask who own dia canoe. Dem answer, "sunu gaal" ("our canoe"), and Portuguese mistakenly take dat as di river's name.<ref>Bailot, p. 199</ref> Today, plenty people for Senegal still like dis story because e represent unity, as if everybody dey inside one canoe together. Some modern historians instead believe say "Senegal" come from ''Azenegue'', di Portuguese name for di Zenaga Berber people wey dey live north of di river.<ref>Monod & Mauny, in the French translation of Zurara, although it is already noted by editor Kerr in the 1811 English translation of Cadamosto.</ref> Another strong theory be say di name "Senegal" old pass all dese explanations. E fit come from "Sanghana" (also written as Isenghan, Asengan or Singhanah), one town wey Arab historian al-Bakri describe for 1068 as di capital of one kingdom near di mouth of Senegal River.<ref>Al Bakri ([https://books.google.com/books?id=L3tNlgQmT9wC&pg=PA77 p. 77]). Monteil (1964: p. 91; 1968). Cooley (1841: [https://books.google.com/books?id=380NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA50 p. 50], p.55) believes that al-Idrisi, contrarily to al-Bakri, might have confused Sanghana with Ganah/Awkat, the capital of the Ghana empire.</ref> Di place ''Senegany'' also appear for one Genoese map from 1351 known as di Medici Atlas.<ref>Delafosse "Senegal River", in First encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936, Leiden: E.J. Brill. vol. 7 ([https://books.google.com/books?id=sP_hVmik-QYC&pg=PA223 pp. 223–24])</ref> Later, Majorcan cartographer Mecia de Viladestes include di same town ("Isingan") for ein famous 1413 map.<ref name="Monteil, 1964: p.91">Monteil, 1964: p. 91</ref> Some researchers think say di name fit get Zenaga Berber origin, connected to ''Ismegh'' ("black slave") or ''sagui nughal'' ("border").<ref name="Monteil, 1964: p.91"/> Other sources also say ''Isinghan'' continue be di common Berber name for di Wolof Kingdom of Cayor.<ref name="Monteil, 1964: p.91"/> Some Serer people from southern Senegal also claim say di river's name come from joining two Serer words: "Sene", from Rog Sene (di Supreme Deity for Serer religion), and "O Gal", wey mean "body of water". == Economic Importance == Senegal River be one of di most important economic resources for West Africa, especially for di four countries wey share am: Guinea, Mali, Mauritania and Senegal. Di river support both traditional livelihoods and modern industries.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=The World Bank |title=Senegal River Valley Development and Resilience Project |journal=World Bank Report |date=28 November 2023 |page=4 |url=chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099112823230029545/pdf/P1794490e9e591020802b03680fe96c805.pdf |access-date=16 June 2026}}</ref> === Hydropower generation === Senegal River be major source of electricity for di region. Di biggest facilities include di 1,460-metre-long Manantali Dam, wey get power generation capacity of 200 MW.<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Case Study on the Manantali Dam Project (Mali, Mauritania, Senegal) |url=https://riverresourcehub.org/resources/a-case-study-on-the-manantali-dam-project-mali-mauritania-senegal-2011/ |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=International Rivers Resource Hub |language=en-GB}}</ref> Other important hydropower stations include Gouina Hydroelectric Plant for Mali, wey generate 140 MW,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cities |first=Green Building Africa-Net Carbon Zero Buildings and |date=2022-12-11 |title=Construction of 140MW Gouina Hydroelectric Plant in Mali Complete |url=https://www.greenbuildingafrica.co.za/construction-of-140mw-gouina-hydroelectric-plant-in-mali-complete/ |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=Green Building Africa}}</ref> and Félou Hydroelectric Plant, wey produce 62 MW.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mali: Félou Regional Hydropower Project {{!}} KYOTO |url=https://www.wbkyotofunds.org/projects/mali-felou-regional-hydropower-project |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.wbkyotofunds.org}}</ref> Di electricity wey dese dams produce dey support industries, businesses and homes across di region. More hydropower projects still dey under development, including Koukoutamba (294 MW),<ref>{{Cite web |last=kgi-admin |date=2023-04-18 |title=Power plant profile: Koukoutamba, Guinea |url=https://www.power-technology.com/marketdata/power-plant-profile-koukoutamba-guinea/ |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=Power Technology |language=en-US}}</ref> Boureya (161 MW),<ref>{{Cite web |last=kgi-admin |date=2023-04-22 |title=Power plant profile: Boureya Hydro Power Plant, Guinea |url=https://www.power-technology.com/marketdata/power-plant-profile-boureya-hydro-power-plant-guinea/ |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=Power Technology |language=en-US}}</ref> and Gourbassi Hydroelectric Plant (18 MW).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Senegal/Mali: CMEC to build Gourbassi hydroelectric dam {{!}} African Energy |url=https://www.africa-energy.com/news-centre/article/senegalmali-cmec-build-gourbassi-hydroelectric-dam |access-date=2026-06-03 |website=www.africa-energy.com}}</ref> == See also == * Futa Toro == Sources == *{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Senegal (river)|volume=24 |page=639}} * João de Barros (1552–59) ''Décadas da Ásia: Dos feitos, que os Portuguezes fizeram no descubrimento, e conquista, dos mares, e terras do Oriente.''. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Epo2AAAAMAAJ&dq=editions%3AUOM39015057112644&pg=PP35 Vol. 1 (Dec I, Lib.1-5)]. * Beazley, C.R. (1899) "Introduction" to vol. 2 of C.R. Beazley and E. Prestage, editors, Zurara's ''The Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea''. London: Haklyut. * {{cite book |last1=Boilat |first1=Fr. David |author1-link=David Boilat |title=Esquisses sénégalaises: physionomie du pays, peuplades, commerce, religions, passé et avenir, récits et légendes |date=1853 |publisher=P. Bertrand |location=Paris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qfsRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA491 |language=fr }} * Alvise Cadamosto (1460s) "Il Libro di Messer Alvise Ca da Mosto Gentilhuomo Venetiano" & "Navigatione del Capitano Pietro di Sintra Portoghese scritta per il medesimo M. Alvise da Ca da Mosto", as printed in Venice (1550), by Giovanni Battista Ramusio, ed., ''Primo volume delle navigationi et viaggi nel qua si contine la descrittione dell'Africa, et del paese del Prete Ianni, on varii viaggi, dal mar Rosso a Calicut,& infin all'isole Molucche, dove nascono le Spetierie et la navigatione attorno il mondo.'' [https://books.google.com/books?id=iZ5TZHXOnYcC&pg=RA2-PA106-IA1 online]. (English translation: "Original Journals of the Voyages of Cada Mosto and Piedro de Cintra to the Coast of Africa, the former in the years 1455 and 1456, and the latter soon afterwards", in R. Kerr, 1811, ''A General History of Voyages and Travels to the end of the 18th century'', vol. 2, Edinburgh: Blackwood. [https://books.google.com/books?id=YVjm2VmuOlgC&pg=PA200 online]) * {{cite book |last1=Cooley |first1=W. D. |author1-link=William Desborough Cooley |title=The Negroland of the Arabs examined and explained; or, An inquiry into the early history and geography of Central Africa |date=1841 |publisher=Arrowsmith |location=London |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=380NAAAAQAAJ&pg=PR3 |language=en }} * Delafosse, M. (1912). ''Haut-Sénégal-Niger''. 3 vols. Paris: Emil Larose. * Hrbek, I. (1992). ''Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century''. University of California Press. * Levtzion, N. (1973). ''Ancient Ghana and Mali''. London: Methuen. * Levtzion, N. and J.F.P. Hopkins, editors (2000). ''Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History''. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener. * Leo Africanus (1526). ''Descrittione dell'Africa, & delle cose notabili che lui sono'', printed in Venice (1550) by Giovanni Battista Ramusio, ed., ''Primo volume delle navigationi et viaggi...''. English translation (1896): ''The History and Description of Africa, and of the Notable Things Therein Contained''. London: Haklyut. [https://books.google.com/books?id=rmcMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PP7 vol. 1] * {{cite book |last1=Major |first1=Richard Henry |title=The Discoveries of Prince Henry the Navigator: and Their Results |date=1868 |edition=1877 |publisher=S. Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington |location=London |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VrkEAAAAMAAJ&pg=PR3 |language=en }} * Luis de Marmol Carvajal (1573). ''Primera Parte de la Descripción General de Áffrica...''. Granada: Rabut. * {{cite journal |last1=Mauny |first1=R. |title=Tableau géographique de l'ouest africain au moyen-âge d'après les sources écrites, la tradition et l'archéologie |journal=Mémoire de l'Institut Fondamental d'Afrique Noire |date=1961 |volume=61 |location=Dakar }} * {{cite journal |last1=McIntosh |first1=Susan Keech |title=A Reconsideration of the Wangara/Palolus Island of Gold |journal=Journal of African History |date=April 1981 |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=145–158 |doi=10.1017/S002185370001937X |s2cid=162961695 }} * {{cite book |last1=Monteil |first1=Vincent |title=L'Islam Noir |date=1964 |publisher=Edit. du Seuil |location=Paris |isbn=978-2020024624 |language=fr }} * {{cite journal |last1=Monteil |first1=Vincent |title=al-Bakri (Cordoue, 1068) - Routier de l'Afrique blanche et noire du Nord-Ouest |journal=Bulletin de l'Ifan |date=1968 |volume=30 |pages=39–116 }} * Phérotée de La Croix (1688). ''Relation universelle de l'Afrique, ancienne et moderne''. Alyon: Amaulry. * Pliny the Elder (c. 30 AD). ''Naturalis Historiae''. 1855 edition translated by John Bostock and Henry Thomas Riley as ''The Natural History of Pliny''. London: H.G. Bohn. * {{cite book |last1=Russell |first1=P. E. |title=Prince Henry 'the Navigator': A Life |date=2000 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, Conn. |isbn=9780300091304 |url=https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300091304/prince-henry-navigator/ }} * Livio Sanuto (1588). ''Geografia di M. Livio Sanvto distinta in XII libri...''. Venice: Damiano Zenaro. * {{cite journal |last1=Winter |first1=Heinrich |title=The Fra Mauro Portolan Chart in the Vatican |journal=Imago Mundi |date=1962 |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=17–28 |doi=10.1080/03085696208592198 |jstor=1150299 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1150299 }} * Gomes Eanes de Zurara (1453). ''Crónica dos feitos notáveis que se passaram na Conquista da Guiné''. English translation by C.R. Beazley and E. Prestage (1896–99), ''The Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea''. London: Haklyut. * {{cite book |author=Villalón, Leonardo A. |title=Islamic Society and State Power in Senegal: Disciples and Citizens in Fatick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xFC1KUbXJ6gC&pg=PA54 |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-03232-2 |pages=54–55 }} * Galvan, Dennis Charles (2004). ''The State Must Be Our Master of Fire: How Peasants Craft Culturally Sustainable Development in Senegal''. Berkeley: University of California Press. * Berg, Elizabeth; Wan, Ruth; and Lau, Ruth (2009). ''Senegal''. Marshall Cavendish. {{ISBN|9780761444817}}. * Page, Willie F. (2001). ''Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: African Kingdoms (500 to 1500)'', Vol. 2. Facts on File. {{ISBN|0-8160-4472-4}}. * Streissguth, Thomas (2009). ''Senegal in Pictures, Visual Geography''. Twenty-First Century Books. {{ISBN|1-57505-951-7}}. * Oliver, Roland Anthony & Fage, J. D. (1969). ''Journal of African History'', Volume 10. Cambridge University Press. * Mwakikagile, Godfrey (2010). ''Ethnic Diversity and Integration in The Gambia: The Land, The People and The Culture''. {{ISBN|9987-9322-2-3}}. == Further reading == * {{cite book |last=Betz |first=R. L. |year=2007 |title=The Mapping of Africa: a cartobibliography of printed maps of the African continent to 1700 |publisher=Hes & de Graaf |isbn=978-90-6194-489-8 }} * {{cite book |last=Davidson |first=Basil |year=1998 |title=West Africa Before the Colonial Era: a history to 1850 |location=London |publisher=Longman |isbn=0-582-31852-1 }} * {{cite book |last=De la Roncière |first=Charles |year=1925 |title=La découverte de l'Afrique au moyen âge |others=2 volumes |location=Cairo |publisher=Société Royale de Géographie d'Égypte }} == External links == {{Commons category}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070629065341/http://zope0.itcilo.org/delta/lmdd2003/news/1067611432/1068825691/presentation%20ressources%20en%20eau%20senegal.ppt The Hydrology of Senegal] (PowerPoint presentation) {{Coord|15|47|17|N|16|31|44|W|display=title}} {{Authority control}} {{Serer topics|state=collapsed}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Senegal River}} [[Category:Senegal River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Senegal]] [[Category:Rivers of Mauritania]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Mauritania–Senegal border]] [[Category:Rivers of Mali]] [[Category:Lowest points of countries]] [[Category:Serer history]] == References == <references /> == Read further == * {{cite book |last=Betz |first=R. L. |title=The Mapping of Africa: a cartobibliography of printed maps of the African continent to 1700 |publisher=Hes & de Graaf |year=2007 |isbn=978-90-6194-489-8}} * {{cite book |last=Davidson |first=Basil |title=West Africa Before the Colonial Era: a history to 1850 |publisher=Longman |year=1998 |isbn=0-582-31852-1 |location=London}} * {{cite book |last=De la Roncière |first=Charles |title=La découverte de l'Afrique au moyen âge |publisher=Société Royale de Géographie d'Égypte |others=2 volumes |year=1925 |location=Cairo}} == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070629065341/http://zope0.itcilo.org/delta/lmdd2003/news/1067611432/1068825691/presentation%20ressources%20en%20eau%20senegal.ppt The Hydrology of Senegal] (PowerPoint presentation) {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Senegal River}} [[Category:Senegal River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Senegal]] [[Category:Rivers of Mauritania]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Mauritania–Senegal border]] [[Category:Rivers of Mali]] [[Category:Lowest points of countries]] [[Category:Serer history]] mrndcqacmpurifsmf87r0p24i1x7a64 0 27375 103540 102827 2026-06-17T17:32:28Z DaSupremo 9 Article contains Nigerian Pidgin words so I rewrote it in Ghanaian Pidgin 103540 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Sahel rainfall timeseries en.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|More dan 100 years of rainfall data for Sahel show say from 1950 reach 1970, rain fall plenty pass normal (positive index values). After that, from 1970 reach 1991, the area face very serious dry years (negative index values). From 1990 come reach now, rainfall return close to de average level wey dey between 1898 den 1993, buh de amount of rain dey change plenty from year to year.]] [[File:Map of the Sahel.png|thumb|Map wey show de size den location of de Sahel region]] De Sahel region of [[Africa]] get long experienced a series of historic droughts, wey dey date back to at least de 17th century. De Sahel region be a climate zone dem sandwich between de Sudanian Savanna to de south den de Sahara desert to de north, across [[West Africa|West]] den Central Africa. While de frequency of drought insyd de region be thought e increase from de end of de 19th century, na three long droughts get dramatic environmental den societal effects upon de Sahel nations. Famine follow severe droughts insyd de 1910s, de 1940s, den de 1960s, 1970s den 1980s, although a partial recovery occur from 1975-80. De most recent drought occur insyd 2012. While at least one particularly severe drought be confirmed each century since de 17th century, de frequency den severity of recent Sahelian droughts dey stand out. Famine den dislocation on a massive scale—from 1968 to 1974 den again insyd de early den mid-1980s—be blamed on two spikes insyd de severity of de 1960-1980s drought period.<ref name=Batterbury2001>[http://www.simonbatterbury.net/pubs/geogmag.html The Sahel region; assessing progress twenty-five years after the great drought]. Simon Batterbury, republished paper from 1998 RGS-IBG conference. Global Environmental Change (2001) v11, no 1, 1-95.</ref> From de late 1960s to early 1980s famine kill 100,000 people, e lef 750,000 dependent on food aid, wey e affect chaw of de Sahel ein 50&nbsp;million people.<ref>[http://www.unep.org/dewa/Africa/publications/AEO-1/056.htm AFRICA ENVIRONMENT OUTLOOK. Past, present and future perspectives] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130416015442/http://www.unep.org/dewa/Africa/publications/AEO-1/056.htm |date=2013-04-16 }}. United Nations Environmental Programme (2002). Retrieved 2009-02-13.</ref> De economies, agriculture, livestock den human populations of much of [[Mauritania]], [[Mali]], [[Chad]], [[Niger]] den [[Burkina Faso]] (dem know as Upper Volta during de time of de drought) be severely impacted. As disruptive as de droughts of de late 20th century be, evidence of past droughts dem record insyd Ghanaian lake sediments suggest say multi-decadal megadroughts be common insyd West Africa over de past 3,000 years den dat several droughts last far longer wey be far more severe.<ref name="shanahan"/><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20091107172707/http://www.jsg.utexas.edu/news/rels/041609.html Severity, Length of Past Megadroughts Dwarf Recent Drought in West Africa]. Jackson School of Geosciences Online, April 16, 2009.</ref> Since de 1980s, summer rainfall insyd de Sahel be increasing; na dis be associated plus an increase insyd vegetation, wey dey form wat be called a 'greening' of de Sahel. De observed increase insyd rainfall be accounted for by enhancements insyd de African easterly jet, wich be known to induce wet anomalies. Na a 2011 study find say de positional shifts insyd de African easterly jet den African easterly waves accompany de northward migration of de Sahel rainband.<ref name="hindawi.com">[http://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijge/2011/259529/abs/ Wang and Gillies (2011)]</ref> == References == lorg7mgrnrgapjtlwb48unily0plslb 103541 103540 2026-06-17T17:35:15Z DaSupremo 9 Fix reference 103541 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Sahel rainfall timeseries en.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|More dan 100 years of rainfall data for Sahel show say from 1950 reach 1970, rain fall plenty pass normal (positive index values). After that, from 1970 reach 1991, the area face very serious dry years (negative index values). From 1990 come reach now, rainfall return close to de average level wey dey between 1898 den 1993, buh de amount of rain dey change plenty from year to year.]] [[File:Map of the Sahel.png|thumb|Map wey show de size den location of de Sahel region]] De Sahel region of [[Africa]] get long experienced a series of historic droughts, wey dey date back to at least de 17th century. De Sahel region be a climate zone dem sandwich between de Sudanian Savanna to de south den de Sahara desert to de north, across [[West Africa|West]] den Central Africa. While de frequency of drought insyd de region be thought e increase from de end of de 19th century, na three long droughts get dramatic environmental den societal effects upon de Sahel nations. Famine follow severe droughts insyd de 1910s, de 1940s, den de 1960s, 1970s den 1980s, although a partial recovery occur from 1975-80. De most recent drought occur insyd 2012. While at least one particularly severe drought be confirmed each century since de 17th century, de frequency den severity of recent Sahelian droughts dey stand out. Famine den dislocation on a massive scale—from 1968 to 1974 den again insyd de early den mid-1980s—be blamed on two spikes insyd de severity of de 1960-1980s drought period.<ref name=Batterbury2001>[http://www.simonbatterbury.net/pubs/geogmag.html The Sahel region; assessing progress twenty-five years after the great drought]. Simon Batterbury, republished paper from 1998 RGS-IBG conference. Global Environmental Change (2001) v11, no 1, 1-95.</ref> From de late 1960s to early 1980s famine kill 100,000 people, e lef 750,000 dependent on food aid, wey e affect chaw of de Sahel ein 50&nbsp;million people.<ref>[http://www.unep.org/dewa/Africa/publications/AEO-1/056.htm AFRICA ENVIRONMENT OUTLOOK. Past, present and future perspectives] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130416015442/http://www.unep.org/dewa/Africa/publications/AEO-1/056.htm |date=2013-04-16 }}. United Nations Environmental Programme (2002). Retrieved 2009-02-13.</ref> De economies, agriculture, livestock den human populations of much of [[Mauritania]], [[Mali]], [[Chad]], [[Niger]] den [[Burkina Faso]] (dem know as Upper Volta during de time of de drought) be severely impacted. As disruptive as de droughts of de late 20th century be, evidence of past droughts dem record insyd Ghanaian lake sediments suggest say multi-decadal megadroughts be common insyd West Africa over de past 3,000 years den dat several droughts last far longer wey be far more severe.<ref name="shanahan2">{{Cite journal |last1=Shanahan |first1=T. M. |last2=Overpeck |first2=J. T. |last3=Anchukaitis |first3=K. J. |last4=Beck |first4=JW |last5=Cole |first5=JE |last6=Dettman |first6=DL |last7=Peck |first7=JA |last8=Scholz |first8=CA |last9=King |first9=JW |year=2009 |title=Atlantic Forcing of Persistent Drought in West Africa |journal=Science |volume=324 |issue=5925 |pages=377–380 |bibcode=2009Sci...324..377S |citeseerx=10.1.1.366.1394 |doi=10.1126/science.1166352 |pmid=19372429 |s2cid=2679216}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20091107172707/http://www.jsg.utexas.edu/news/rels/041609.html Severity, Length of Past Megadroughts Dwarf Recent Drought in West Africa]. Jackson School of Geosciences Online, April 16, 2009.</ref> Since de 1980s, summer rainfall insyd de Sahel be increasing; na dis be associated plus an increase insyd vegetation, wey dey form wat be called a 'greening' of de Sahel. De observed increase insyd rainfall be accounted for by enhancements insyd de African easterly jet, wich be known to induce wet anomalies. Na a 2011 study find say de positional shifts insyd de African easterly jet den African easterly waves accompany de northward migration of de Sahel rainband.<ref name="hindawi.com">[http://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijge/2011/259529/abs/ Wang and Gillies (2011)]</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == fiseusw1bbspb2d49saqzv006ze5nf8 103542 103541 2026-06-17T17:36:49Z DaSupremo 9 /* Read further */ Improve article 103542 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Sahel rainfall timeseries en.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|More dan 100 years of rainfall data for Sahel show say from 1950 reach 1970, rain fall plenty pass normal (positive index values). After that, from 1970 reach 1991, the area face very serious dry years (negative index values). From 1990 come reach now, rainfall return close to de average level wey dey between 1898 den 1993, buh de amount of rain dey change plenty from year to year.]] [[File:Map of the Sahel.png|thumb|Map wey show de size den location of de Sahel region]] De Sahel region of [[Africa]] get long experienced a series of historic droughts, wey dey date back to at least de 17th century. De Sahel region be a climate zone dem sandwich between de Sudanian Savanna to de south den de Sahara desert to de north, across [[West Africa|West]] den Central Africa. While de frequency of drought insyd de region be thought e increase from de end of de 19th century, na three long droughts get dramatic environmental den societal effects upon de Sahel nations. Famine follow severe droughts insyd de 1910s, de 1940s, den de 1960s, 1970s den 1980s, although a partial recovery occur from 1975-80. De most recent drought occur insyd 2012. While at least one particularly severe drought be confirmed each century since de 17th century, de frequency den severity of recent Sahelian droughts dey stand out. Famine den dislocation on a massive scale—from 1968 to 1974 den again insyd de early den mid-1980s—be blamed on two spikes insyd de severity of de 1960-1980s drought period.<ref name=Batterbury2001>[http://www.simonbatterbury.net/pubs/geogmag.html The Sahel region; assessing progress twenty-five years after the great drought]. Simon Batterbury, republished paper from 1998 RGS-IBG conference. Global Environmental Change (2001) v11, no 1, 1-95.</ref> From de late 1960s to early 1980s famine kill 100,000 people, e lef 750,000 dependent on food aid, wey e affect chaw of de Sahel ein 50&nbsp;million people.<ref>[http://www.unep.org/dewa/Africa/publications/AEO-1/056.htm AFRICA ENVIRONMENT OUTLOOK. Past, present and future perspectives] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130416015442/http://www.unep.org/dewa/Africa/publications/AEO-1/056.htm |date=2013-04-16 }}. United Nations Environmental Programme (2002). Retrieved 2009-02-13.</ref> De economies, agriculture, livestock den human populations of much of [[Mauritania]], [[Mali]], [[Chad]], [[Niger]] den [[Burkina Faso]] (dem know as Upper Volta during de time of de drought) be severely impacted. As disruptive as de droughts of de late 20th century be, evidence of past droughts dem record insyd Ghanaian lake sediments suggest say multi-decadal megadroughts be common insyd West Africa over de past 3,000 years den dat several droughts last far longer wey be far more severe.<ref name="shanahan2">{{Cite journal |last1=Shanahan |first1=T. M. |last2=Overpeck |first2=J. T. |last3=Anchukaitis |first3=K. J. |last4=Beck |first4=JW |last5=Cole |first5=JE |last6=Dettman |first6=DL |last7=Peck |first7=JA |last8=Scholz |first8=CA |last9=King |first9=JW |year=2009 |title=Atlantic Forcing of Persistent Drought in West Africa |journal=Science |volume=324 |issue=5925 |pages=377–380 |bibcode=2009Sci...324..377S |citeseerx=10.1.1.366.1394 |doi=10.1126/science.1166352 |pmid=19372429 |s2cid=2679216}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20091107172707/http://www.jsg.utexas.edu/news/rels/041609.html Severity, Length of Past Megadroughts Dwarf Recent Drought in West Africa]. Jackson School of Geosciences Online, April 16, 2009.</ref> Since de 1980s, summer rainfall insyd de Sahel be increasing; na dis be associated plus an increase insyd vegetation, wey dey form wat be called a 'greening' of de Sahel. De observed increase insyd rainfall be accounted for by enhancements insyd de African easterly jet, wich be known to induce wet anomalies. Na a 2011 study find say de positional shifts insyd de African easterly jet den African easterly waves accompany de northward migration of de Sahel rainband.<ref name="hindawi.com">[http://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijge/2011/259529/abs/ Wang and Gillies (2011)]</ref> == References == <references /> ==Read further== * {{Cite journal | last1=Dai | first1=A. | last2=Lamb | first2=P.J. | last3=Trenberth | first3=K.E. | last4=Hulme | first4=M. | last5=Jones | first5=P.D. | last6=Xie | first6=P. | year=2004 | title=The recent Sahel drought is real | journal=International Journal of Climatology | volume=24 | issue=11 | pages=1323–1331 | url= http://www.mikehulme.org/wp-content/uploads/2007/04/2004-dai-et-al-sahel.pdf | doi= 10.1002/joc.1083 |bibcode = 2004IJCli..24.1323D | s2cid=6955930 }}. * {{Cite journal |last1=Folland |first1=C. K. |last2=Palmer |first2=T. N. |last3=Parker |first3=D. E. |year=1986 |title=Sahel rainfall and worldwide sea temperatures, 1901−85 |journal=Nature |volume=320 |issue=6063 |pages=602&ndash;607 |doi=10.1038/320602a0 |bibcode = 1986Natur.320..602F |s2cid=4231823 }} * {{Cite journal |last1=Giannini |first1=A. |last2=Saravanan |first2=R. |last3=Chang |first3=P. |year=2003 |title=Oceanic Forcing of Sahel Rainfall on Interannual to Interdecadal Time Scales |journal=Science |volume=302 |issue=5647 |pages=1027&ndash;1030 |doi=10.1126/science.1089357 |pmid=14551320 |bibcode = 2003Sci...302.1027G |s2cid=25009125 }} * {{Cite book |editor-first=Michael H. |editor-last=Glantz |title=The Politics of Natural Disasters: The Case of the Sahel Drought |location=New York |publisher=Praeger |year=1976 }} == External links == 3v6zqqp8nqi16x6j4zfzr73yqg88qsr 103543 103542 2026-06-17T17:39:48Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 103543 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Sahel rainfall timeseries en.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|More dan 100 years of rainfall data for Sahel show say from 1950 reach 1970, rain fall plenty pass normal (positive index values). After that, from 1970 reach 1991, the area face very serious dry years (negative index values). From 1990 come reach now, rainfall return close to de average level wey dey between 1898 den 1993, buh de amount of rain dey change plenty from year to year.]] [[File:Map of the Sahel.png|thumb|Map wey show de size den location of de Sahel region]] De Sahel region of [[Africa]] get long experienced a series of historic droughts, wey dey date back to at least de 17th century. De Sahel region be a climate zone dem sandwich between de Sudanian Savanna to de south den de Sahara desert to de north, across [[West Africa|West]] den Central Africa. While de frequency of drought insyd de region be thought e increase from de end of de 19th century, na three long droughts get dramatic environmental den societal effects upon de Sahel nations. Famine follow severe droughts insyd de 1910s, de 1940s, den de 1960s, 1970s den 1980s, although a partial recovery occur from 1975-80. De most recent drought occur insyd 2012. While at least one particularly severe drought be confirmed each century since de 17th century, de frequency den severity of recent Sahelian droughts dey stand out. Famine den dislocation on a massive scale—from 1968 to 1974 den again insyd de early den mid-1980s—be blamed on two spikes insyd de severity of de 1960-1980s drought period.<ref name=Batterbury2001>[http://www.simonbatterbury.net/pubs/geogmag.html The Sahel region; assessing progress twenty-five years after the great drought]. Simon Batterbury, republished paper from 1998 RGS-IBG conference. Global Environmental Change (2001) v11, no 1, 1-95.</ref> From de late 1960s to early 1980s famine kill 100,000 people, e lef 750,000 dependent on food aid, wey e affect chaw of de Sahel ein 50&nbsp;million people.<ref>[http://www.unep.org/dewa/Africa/publications/AEO-1/056.htm AFRICA ENVIRONMENT OUTLOOK. Past, present and future perspectives] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130416015442/http://www.unep.org/dewa/Africa/publications/AEO-1/056.htm |date=2013-04-16 }}. United Nations Environmental Programme (2002). Retrieved 2009-02-13.</ref> De economies, agriculture, livestock den human populations of much of [[Mauritania]], [[Mali]], [[Chad]], [[Niger]] den [[Burkina Faso]] (dem know as Upper Volta during de time of de drought) be severely impacted. As disruptive as de droughts of de late 20th century be, evidence of past droughts dem record insyd Ghanaian lake sediments suggest say multi-decadal megadroughts be common insyd West Africa over de past 3,000 years den dat several droughts last far longer wey be far more severe.<ref name="shanahan2">{{Cite journal |last1=Shanahan |first1=T. M. |last2=Overpeck |first2=J. T. |last3=Anchukaitis |first3=K. J. |last4=Beck |first4=JW |last5=Cole |first5=JE |last6=Dettman |first6=DL |last7=Peck |first7=JA |last8=Scholz |first8=CA |last9=King |first9=JW |year=2009 |title=Atlantic Forcing of Persistent Drought in West Africa |journal=Science |volume=324 |issue=5925 |pages=377–380 |bibcode=2009Sci...324..377S |citeseerx=10.1.1.366.1394 |doi=10.1126/science.1166352 |pmid=19372429 |s2cid=2679216}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20091107172707/http://www.jsg.utexas.edu/news/rels/041609.html Severity, Length of Past Megadroughts Dwarf Recent Drought in West Africa]. Jackson School of Geosciences Online, April 16, 2009.</ref> Since de 1980s, summer rainfall insyd de Sahel be increasing; na dis be associated plus an increase insyd vegetation, wey dey form wat be called a 'greening' of de Sahel. De observed increase insyd rainfall be accounted for by enhancements insyd de African easterly jet, wich be known to induce wet anomalies. Na a 2011 study find say de positional shifts insyd de African easterly jet den African easterly waves accompany de northward migration of de Sahel rainband.<ref name="hindawi.com">[http://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijge/2011/259529/abs/ Wang and Gillies (2011)]</ref> == References == <references /> ==Read further== * {{Cite journal | last1=Dai | first1=A. | last2=Lamb | first2=P.J. | last3=Trenberth | first3=K.E. | last4=Hulme | first4=M. | last5=Jones | first5=P.D. | last6=Xie | first6=P. | year=2004 | title=The recent Sahel drought is real | journal=International Journal of Climatology | volume=24 | issue=11 | pages=1323–1331 | url= http://www.mikehulme.org/wp-content/uploads/2007/04/2004-dai-et-al-sahel.pdf | doi= 10.1002/joc.1083 |bibcode = 2004IJCli..24.1323D | s2cid=6955930 }}. * {{Cite journal |last1=Folland |first1=C. K. |last2=Palmer |first2=T. N. |last3=Parker |first3=D. E. |year=1986 |title=Sahel rainfall and worldwide sea temperatures, 1901−85 |journal=Nature |volume=320 |issue=6063 |pages=602&ndash;607 |doi=10.1038/320602a0 |bibcode = 1986Natur.320..602F |s2cid=4231823 }} * {{Cite journal |last1=Giannini |first1=A. |last2=Saravanan |first2=R. |last3=Chang |first3=P. |year=2003 |title=Oceanic Forcing of Sahel Rainfall on Interannual to Interdecadal Time Scales |journal=Science |volume=302 |issue=5647 |pages=1027&ndash;1030 |doi=10.1126/science.1089357 |pmid=14551320 |bibcode = 2003Sci...302.1027G |s2cid=25009125 }} * {{Cite book |editor-first=Michael H. |editor-last=Glantz |title=The Politics of Natural Disasters: The Case of the Sahel Drought |location=New York |publisher=Praeger |year=1976 }} == External links == * [http://www.unccd.int/ United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification home page] * Climate research summary -[http://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/research/climate/highlights/index.html#sahel Sahel drought: past problems, an uncertain future] Text, graphics and [http://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/research/climate/highlights/images/ani/SahelPR_ANN5yr_CM2Q_h1_A1B_6fps_720x480.mov animations] from NOAA / Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory {{Authority control}} [[Category:1820s famines]] [[Category:1830s famines]] [[Category:1910s famines]] [[Category:1960s famines]] [[Category:1970s famines]] [[Category:2010s famines]] [[Category:18th-century droughts]] [[Category:19th-century droughts]] [[Category:20th-century droughts]] [[Category:21st-century droughts]] [[Category:Droughts insyd Africa]] [[Category:Economic history of Africa]] [[Category:Sahel]] lr8122t82bpeackc6aebct7lazl95jy 0 27376 103585 101212 2026-06-17T21:35:51Z DaSupremo 9 Article contains Nigerian Pidgin words so I rewrote it in Ghanaian Pidgin 103585 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Irrigation''' be de practice of applying controlled amounts of [[water]] to land to help grow crops, landscape plants, den lawns. Irrigation be a key aspect of agriculture for over 5,000 years wey e be developed by chaw cultures worldwide. Irrigation dey help to grow crops, maintain landscapes, den revegetate disturb soils insyd dry areas den during times of below-average rainfall. In addition to dese uses, irrigation sanso be employed to protect crops from frost,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Snyder |first1=R. L. |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/y7223e/y7223e00.htm |title=Frost protection: fundamentals, practice, and economics |last2=Melo-Abreu |first2=J. P. |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2005 |isbn=978-92-5-105328-7 |volume=1 |issn=1684-8241}}</ref> suppress weed growth insyd grain fields, den prevent soil consolidation. E sanso be used to cool livestock, reduce dust, dispose of sewage, den support mining operations. Drainage, wich dey involve de removal of surface den sub-surface water from a given location, often be studied in conjunction plus irrigation. Several irrigation methods dey differ insyd how water be supplied to plants. Surface irrigation, dem sanso know as gravity irrigation, be de oldest form of irrigation wey e be in use for thousands of years. Insyd sprinkler irrigation, water be piped to one anaa more central locations within de field den distributed by overhead high-pressure water devices. Micro-irrigation be a system wey distribute water under low pressure thru a piped network den dey apply am as a small discharge to each plant. Micro-irrigation dey use less pressure den water flow dan sprinkler irrigation. Drip irrigation dey deliver water directly to de root zone of plants. Subirrigation be used insyd field crops insyd areas plus high water tables for chaw years. E dey involve artificially raising de water table to moisten de soil below de root zone of plants. Irrigation water fi cam from groundwater (dem extract from springs anaa by using wells), from surface water (dem withdraw from rivers, lakes anaa reservoirs) anaa from non-conventional sources like treated wastewater, desalinated water, drainage water, anaa fog collection. Irrigation fi be supplementary to rainfall, wich be common insyd chaw parts of de world as rainfed agriculture, anaa e fi be full irrigation, wer crops dey rarely rely on any contribution from rainfall. Full irrigation be less common den dey occur only insyd arid landscapes plus very low rainfall anaa wen crops be grown insyd semi-arid areas outsyd de rainy season. De environmental effects of irrigation dey relate to de changes insyd quantity den quality of soil den [[water]] as a result of irrigation den de subsequent effects on natural den social conditions insyd river basins den downstream of an irrigation scheme. De effects stem from altered hydrological conditions wey dey result from de installation den operation of de irrigation scheme. Amongst dese problems be de depletion of underground aquifers thru overdrafting. Soil fi be over-irrigated secof poor distribution uniformity anaa management wastes water, chemicals, wey fi lead to [[water pollution]]. Over-irrigation fi cause deep drainage from rising water tables, wich fi lead to irrigation salinity problems, wey dey require watertable control thru sam form of subsurface land drainage. == References == 0foe0ku8m6mtg2vv0b47xezb4hlgwc5 103597 103585 2026-06-17T22:38:24Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 103597 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Irrigation''' be de practice of applying controlled amounts of [[water]] to land to help grow crops, landscape plants, den lawns. Irrigation be a key aspect of agriculture for over 5,000 years wey e be developed by chaw cultures worldwide. Irrigation dey help to grow crops, maintain landscapes, den revegetate disturb soils insyd dry areas den during times of below-average rainfall. In addition to dese uses, irrigation sanso be employed to protect crops from frost,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Snyder |first1=R. L. |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/y7223e/y7223e00.htm |title=Frost protection: fundamentals, practice, and economics |last2=Melo-Abreu |first2=J. P. |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2005 |isbn=978-92-5-105328-7 |volume=1 |issn=1684-8241}}</ref> suppress weed growth insyd grain fields, den prevent soil consolidation. E sanso be used to cool livestock, reduce dust, dispose of sewage, den support mining operations. Drainage, wich dey involve de removal of surface den sub-surface water from a given location, often be studied in conjunction plus irrigation. Several irrigation methods dey differ insyd how water be supplied to plants. Surface irrigation, dem sanso know as gravity irrigation, be de oldest form of irrigation wey e be in use for thousands of years. Insyd sprinkler irrigation, water be piped to one anaa more central locations within de field den distributed by overhead high-pressure water devices. Micro-irrigation be a system wey distribute water under low pressure thru a piped network den dey apply am as a small discharge to each plant. Micro-irrigation dey use less pressure den water flow dan sprinkler irrigation. Drip irrigation dey deliver water directly to de root zone of plants. Subirrigation be used insyd field crops insyd areas plus high water tables for chaw years. E dey involve artificially raising de water table to moisten de soil below de root zone of plants. Irrigation water fi cam from groundwater (dem extract from springs anaa by using wells), from surface water (dem withdraw from rivers, lakes anaa reservoirs) anaa from non-conventional sources like treated wastewater, desalinated water, drainage water, anaa fog collection. Irrigation fi be supplementary to rainfall, wich be common insyd chaw parts of de world as rainfed agriculture, anaa e fi be full irrigation, wer crops dey rarely rely on any contribution from rainfall. Full irrigation be less common den dey occur only insyd arid landscapes plus very low rainfall anaa wen crops be grown insyd semi-arid areas outsyd de rainy season. De environmental effects of irrigation dey relate to de changes insyd quantity den quality of soil den [[water]] as a result of irrigation den de subsequent effects on natural den social conditions insyd river basins den downstream of an irrigation scheme. De effects stem from altered hydrological conditions wey dey result from de installation den operation of de irrigation scheme. Amongst dese problems be de depletion of underground aquifers thru overdrafting. Soil fi be over-irrigated secof poor distribution uniformity anaa management wastes water, chemicals, wey fi lead to [[water pollution]]. Over-irrigation fi cause deep drainage from rising water tables, wich fi lead to irrigation salinity problems, wey dey require watertable control thru sam form of subsurface land drainage. ==Extent== === Example values for crops === {| class="wikitable" |+Approximate values of seasonal crop water needs<ref>{{cite web |last=Natural Resource Management and Environmental Dept |title=Crops Need Water |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/S2022E/s2022e02.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120116073927/http://www.fao.org/docrep/S2022E/s2022e02.htm |archive-date=16 January 2012 |access-date=17 March 2012 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> !Crop !Crop water dey hia mm / total growing period |- |Sugarcane |1500–2500 |- |Banana |1200–2200 |- |Citrus |900–1200 |- |Potato |500–700 |- |Tomato |400–800 |- |Barley/oats/wheat |450–650 |- |Cabbage |350–500 |- |Onions |350–550 |- |Pea |350–500 |} == Gallery == <gallery> File:Center-pivot_irrigation.jpg|De hub of a center-pivot irrigation system File:Irrigation_drip_leaks.jpg|Leaks insyd micro-irrigation drip lines File:Irrigated_blueberries4046.jpg|Sprinkler irrigation of blueberries insyd Plainville, New York, United States File:Peanuts_irrigation.jpg|Irrigation insyd Tamil Nadu, India File:Irrigation_ditch_in_Montour_County,_Pennsylvania.JPG|Irrigation ditch insyd Montour County, Pennsylvania, USA File:Sigiriya_WaterGardens.JPG|Water gardens insyd Sigiriya, Sri Lanka File:Sprinkler_Irrigation_-_Sprinkler_head.JPG|Micro-sprinkler </gallery> == References == <references /> == External links == d184xcc2bbfwacsjiz5aokwyuewl9vd 103598 103597 2026-06-17T22:43:43Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 103598 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Irrigation''' be de practice of applying controlled amounts of [[water]] to land to help grow crops, landscape plants, den lawns. Irrigation be a key aspect of agriculture for over 5,000 years wey e be developed by chaw cultures worldwide. Irrigation dey help to grow crops, maintain landscapes, den revegetate disturb soils insyd dry areas den during times of below-average rainfall. In addition to dese uses, irrigation sanso be employed to protect crops from frost,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Snyder |first1=R. L. |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/y7223e/y7223e00.htm |title=Frost protection: fundamentals, practice, and economics |last2=Melo-Abreu |first2=J. P. |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2005 |isbn=978-92-5-105328-7 |volume=1 |issn=1684-8241}}</ref> suppress weed growth insyd grain fields, den prevent soil consolidation. E sanso be used to cool livestock, reduce dust, dispose of sewage, den support mining operations. Drainage, wich dey involve de removal of surface den sub-surface water from a given location, often be studied in conjunction plus irrigation. Several irrigation methods dey differ insyd how water be supplied to plants. Surface irrigation, dem sanso know as gravity irrigation, be de oldest form of irrigation wey e be in use for thousands of years. Insyd sprinkler irrigation, water be piped to one anaa more central locations within de field den distributed by overhead high-pressure water devices. Micro-irrigation be a system wey distribute water under low pressure thru a piped network den dey apply am as a small discharge to each plant. Micro-irrigation dey use less pressure den water flow dan sprinkler irrigation. Drip irrigation dey deliver water directly to de root zone of plants. Subirrigation be used insyd field crops insyd areas plus high water tables for chaw years. E dey involve artificially raising de water table to moisten de soil below de root zone of plants. Irrigation water fi cam from groundwater (dem extract from springs anaa by using wells), from surface water (dem withdraw from rivers, lakes anaa reservoirs) anaa from non-conventional sources like treated wastewater, desalinated water, drainage water, anaa fog collection. Irrigation fi be supplementary to rainfall, wich be common insyd chaw parts of de world as rainfed agriculture, anaa e fi be full irrigation, wer crops dey rarely rely on any contribution from rainfall. Full irrigation be less common den dey occur only insyd arid landscapes plus very low rainfall anaa wen crops be grown insyd semi-arid areas outsyd de rainy season. De environmental effects of irrigation dey relate to de changes insyd quantity den quality of soil den [[water]] as a result of irrigation den de subsequent effects on natural den social conditions insyd river basins den downstream of an irrigation scheme. De effects stem from altered hydrological conditions wey dey result from de installation den operation of de irrigation scheme. Amongst dese problems be de depletion of underground aquifers thru overdrafting. Soil fi be over-irrigated secof poor distribution uniformity anaa management wastes water, chemicals, wey fi lead to [[water pollution]]. Over-irrigation fi cause deep drainage from rising water tables, wich fi lead to irrigation salinity problems, wey dey require watertable control thru sam form of subsurface land drainage. ==Extent== === Example values for crops === {| class="wikitable" |+Approximate values of seasonal crop water needs<ref>{{cite web |last=Natural Resource Management and Environmental Dept |title=Crops Need Water |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/S2022E/s2022e02.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120116073927/http://www.fao.org/docrep/S2022E/s2022e02.htm |archive-date=16 January 2012 |access-date=17 March 2012 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> !Crop !Crop water dey hia mm / total growing period |- |Sugarcane |1500–2500 |- |Banana |1200–2200 |- |Citrus |900–1200 |- |Potato |500–700 |- |Tomato |400–800 |- |Barley/oats/wheat |450–650 |- |Cabbage |350–500 |- |Onions |350–550 |- |Pea |350–500 |} == Gallery == <gallery> File:Center-pivot_irrigation.jpg|De hub of a center-pivot irrigation system File:Irrigation_drip_leaks.jpg|Leaks insyd micro-irrigation drip lines File:Irrigated_blueberries4046.jpg|Sprinkler irrigation of blueberries insyd Plainville, New York, United States File:Peanuts_irrigation.jpg|Irrigation insyd Tamil Nadu, India File:Irrigation_ditch_in_Montour_County,_Pennsylvania.JPG|Irrigation ditch insyd Montour County, Pennsylvania, USA File:Sigiriya_WaterGardens.JPG|Water gardens insyd Sigiriya, Sri Lanka File:Sprinkler_Irrigation_-_Sprinkler_head.JPG|Micro-sprinkler </gallery> == References == <references /> == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q11453|c=Category:Irrigation|n=no|b=no|q=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=Irrigation|species=no}} * [http://www.icid.org/ International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160722103109/http://wqic.nal.usda.gov/irrigation-1 Irrigation] at the Water Quality Information Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture * [http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/aquastat/main/index.stm AQUASTAT]: FAO's global information system on water and agriculture {{Authority control}} [[Category:Irrigation| ]] [[Category:Agricultural soil science]] [[Category:Agronomy]] [[Category:Environmental issues plus water]] [[Category:Land management]] [[Category:Water management]] dh700oux2mg4dlwi9ydmspbb73x2to0 0 27377 103558 101009 2026-06-17T18:02:34Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 103558 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Ayensu River''' be one river wey dey Ghana.<ref>[http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/economy/artikel.php?ID=42788 "DCE launches River Basin Afforestation to sustain water".] ''www.ghanaweb.com''. Retrieved 2015-05-28.</ref> E dey pour enter Ouiba Lagoon, plus Winneba Wetlands dey surround am.<ref>Hughes, R. H.; Hughes, J. S.; Bernacsek, G. M. (1992). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=VLjafeXa3gMC&pg=PA365 A Directory of African Wetlands]''. IUCN. p. 365. ISBN <bdi>978-2-88032-949-5</bdi>.</ref> Since 1939 dem dey plan say bridge go dey near Jahadzi.<ref>Ghana Geological Survey (1939). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=CZURAAAAIAAJ Report of the Director]''. p. 41.</ref> For ground matter, Ayensuadzi-Brusheng Quartz Schists dey de river side.<ref>Ghana Geological Survey (1958). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=NJQRAAAAIAAJ Bulletin]''. p. 8.</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} [[Category:Rivers insyd Ghana]] smgona6esu6odxhi5ey3fxzp5eldttq 0 27378 103586 101018 2026-06-17T21:36:49Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 103586 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} Ankobra River dey southwest Ghana. E start for northeast Wiawso, then e flow like 190 kilometre go south till e reach Gulf of Guinea. E enter sea about 60 kilometre west of Takoradi city.<ref name=":0">[http://www.countrystudies.us/ghana/30.htm Rivers and Lakes]</ref> Near where e dey enter sea, you go see remains of Fort Elize Carthago. Na Dutch trading post wey dem abandon since 1711. Ankobra River dey chop water from Nini River. Small ships fit waka like 80 kilometre inside, but up side get rapids. Dem don propose plenty hydro electric plans for the upper side.<ref name=":0" /> For 2003, dem report say mercury plus arsenic dey the gold mining area for Ankobra River Basin.<ref>Bannerman, W.; Potin-Gautier, M.; Amoureux, D.; Tellier, S.; Rambaud, A.; Babut, M.; Adimado, A.; Beinhoff, C. (2003). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/215898701 "Mercury and arsenic in the gold mining regions of the Ankobra River basin in Ghana"]. Journal de Physique IV (Proceedings). 107: 107–110. doi:10.1051/jp4:20030255.</ref><ref>Asare-Donkor, Noah Kyame; Adimado, Anthony Apeke (2016). [[doi:10.1186/s40068-016-0055-4|"Influence of mining related activities on levels of mercury in water, sediment and fish from the Ankobra and Tano River basins in South Western Ghana"]]. ''Environmental Systems Research''. '''5'''. doi:10.1186/s40068-016-0055-4.</ref> {| |[[File:Fort Ruijghaver 010.svg|thumb|upright|The course of Ankobra River]] |[[File:Ankobra River, Ghana.JPG|thumb|upright|Looking north from the southern end of the Ankobra River]] |[[File:Fishing boats, Ghana.JPG|thumb|upright|Fishing boats at Ankobra River]] |[[File:Fishing boats at Ankobra River, Ghana.JPG|thumb|Fishing boats at the estuary of Ankobra River]] |} == References == cc3jvmgpthfsmu60yuwn8z2grcem4c7 103603 103586 2026-06-17T22:55:01Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 103603 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Ankobra River''' dey situate insyd southwest [[Ghana]]. De river dey originate from northeast of [[Wiawso]] insyd de Western North Region of Ghana. E dey flow about {{convert|190|km}} south to de [[Gulf of Guinea]], den dey enter de ocean about 60&nbsp;km to de west of de city of Takoradi.<ref name="Rivers and Lakes">[http://www.countrystudies.us/ghana/30.htm Rivers and Lakes]</ref> Near ein mouth be de remains of Fort Elize Carthago, a Dutch trading post dem abandon insyd 1711. De Ankobra River be fed by de Nini River. Small ships fi navigate {{convert|80|km|nmi mi|sigfig=1}} inland, whilst de upper reaches dey contain rapids. Several hydro electric schemes be proposed give de upper reaches.<ref name="Rivers and Lakes"/> E be one of Ghana ein largest water basins. Insyd 2003, mercury den arsenic be reported insyd de gold mining area of de Ankobra River Basin.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/215898701 |doi=10.1051/jp4:20030255|title=Mercury and arsenic in the gold mining regions of the Ankobra River basin in Ghana |year=2003 |last1=Bannerman |first1=W. |last2=Potin-Gautier |first2=M. |last3=Amoureux |first3=D. |last4=Tellier |first4=S. |last5=Rambaud |first5=A. |last6=Babut |first6=M. |last7=Adimado |first7=A. |last8=Beinhoff |first8=C. |journal=Journal de Physique IV (Proceedings) |volume=107 |pages=107–110 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1186/s40068-016-0055-4|title=Influence of mining related activities on levels of mercury in water, sediment and fish from the Ankobra and Tano River basins in South Western Ghana|year=2016|last1=Asare-Donkor|first1=Noah Kyame|last2=Adimado|first2=Anthony Apeke|journal=Environmental Systems Research|volume=5|doi-access=free}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == exy9ajrlfnqbjmlpvimhkg8te09q73p 103604 103603 2026-06-17T22:59:27Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 103604 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Ankobra River''' dey situate insyd southwest [[Ghana]]. De river dey originate from northeast of [[Wiawso]] insyd de Western North Region of Ghana. E dey flow about {{convert|190|km}} south to de [[Gulf of Guinea]], den dey enter de ocean about 60&nbsp;km to de west of de city of Takoradi.<ref name="Rivers and Lakes">[http://www.countrystudies.us/ghana/30.htm Rivers and Lakes]</ref> Near ein mouth be de remains of Fort Elize Carthago, a Dutch trading post dem abandon insyd 1711. De Ankobra River be fed by de Nini River. Small ships fi navigate {{convert|80|km|nmi mi|sigfig=1}} inland, whilst de upper reaches dey contain rapids. Several hydro electric schemes be proposed give de upper reaches.<ref name="Rivers and Lakes"/> E be one of Ghana ein largest water basins. Insyd 2003, mercury den arsenic be reported insyd de gold mining area of de Ankobra River Basin.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/215898701 |doi=10.1051/jp4:20030255|title=Mercury and arsenic in the gold mining regions of the Ankobra River basin in Ghana |year=2003 |last1=Bannerman |first1=W. |last2=Potin-Gautier |first2=M. |last3=Amoureux |first3=D. |last4=Tellier |first4=S. |last5=Rambaud |first5=A. |last6=Babut |first6=M. |last7=Adimado |first7=A. |last8=Beinhoff |first8=C. |journal=Journal de Physique IV (Proceedings) |volume=107 |pages=107–110 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1186/s40068-016-0055-4|title=Influence of mining related activities on levels of mercury in water, sediment and fish from the Ankobra and Tano River basins in South Western Ghana|year=2016|last1=Asare-Donkor|first1=Noah Kyame|last2=Adimado|first2=Anthony Apeke|journal=Environmental Systems Research|volume=5|doi-access=free}}</ref> == Gallery == <gallery> File:Fort Ruijghaver 010.svg|thumb|upright|De course of Ankobra River File:Ankobra River, Ghana.JPG|thumb|upright|Dey look north from de southern end of de Ankobra River File:Fishing boats, Ghana.JPG|thumb|upright|Fishing boats at Ankobra River File:Fishing boats at Ankobra River, Ghana.JPG|thumb|Fishing boats at de estuary of Ankobra River </gallery> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} * [http://countrystudies.us/ghana/30.htm Ghana: Rivers and Lakes] [[Category:Rivers insyd Ghana]] nws4x0cttn28m65r8g5x930uk14ws1p 0 27379 103611 101223 2026-06-18T00:10:50Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 103611 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Tana''' (Amharic: ጣና ሐይቅ, romanized: T’ana ḥāyik’i; previously dem transcribe as '''Tsana{{sfn|Garstin|Cana|1911}}''') be de largest [[:en:Lake|lake]] for [[Ethiopia]] insyd den a source of de [[Blue Nile]]. Wey dem locate am for Amhara Region insyd for de north-western Ethiopian Highlands insyd, de lake be approximately {{convert|84|km|mi|abbr=off}} long den {{convert|66|km|mi|abbr=off}} wide, plus a maximum depth of {{convert|15|m|ft|abbr=off}},<ref>{{cite book |title=Statistical Abstract of Ethiopia |year=1967–1968}}</ref> den an elevation of {{convert|1788|m|ft|abbr=off}}.<ref>{{cite web |date=5 November 2004 |title=Lake Tana, source of the Blue Nile |url=http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Observing_the_Earth/Lake_Tana_source_of_the_Blue_Nile |access-date=4 November 2013 |work=Observing the Earth |publisher=European Space Agency}}</ref> De Gilgel Abay, Reb den Gumara rivers feed Lake Tana. Ein surface area dey range from {{convert|3000|to|3500|km2|mi2|abbr=off}}, wey dey depend for season den rainfall top. Dem regulate de lake level since de construction of de control [[:en:Weir|weir]] wey de lake dey discharge into de Blue Nile. Dis dey control de flow to de Blue Nile Falls (Tis Abbai) den hydro-power station. For 2015 insyd, dem nominate Lake Tana region as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve wey dey recognize ein national den international natural den cultural importance.<ref>[http://www.laketana-biosphere.com/ Homepage of Lake Tana Biosphere Reserve]</ref> == Ovaview == [[File:Lake Tana, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|Views ova Lake Tana]] [[File:Island Church (2401612298).jpg|thumb|De Island Church for Lake Tana top]] [[File:Zege Peninsula Tour Guide.jpg|thumb|A local tour guide dey demonstrate how a stone dey struck to signal meal times at a monastery for Zege Peninsula top]] [[File:Blue Nile.jpg|thumb|left|Beginning of de [[Blue Nile]] river by ein outlet from Lake Tana]] [[File:BahirDarResort.jpg|thumb|A resort hotel for Lake Tana top for [[:en:Bahir_Dar|Bahir Dar]] insyd]] Volcanic activity form Lake Tana, wey block de flow of rivers wey dey inflow for de early Pleistocene insyd, about 5 million years ago.<ref name="springer">{{Cite book |last1=Vijverberg |first1=Jacobus |title=The Nile |last2=Sibbing |first2=Ferdinand A. |last3=Dejen |first3=Eshete |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=163–192 |chapter=Lake Tana: Source of the Blue Nile |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-9726-3_9}}</ref> De lake be originally much larger dan e dey today. Seven large permanent rivers dey feed de lake as well as 40 small seasonal rivers. De main tributaries to de lake be Gilgel Abbay (Little Nile River), den de Megech, Gumara, den Rib rivers.<ref name="springer" /> Lake Tana get a number of islands, wey number dey vary plus de lake ein level. E fell about {{convert|6|ft|m}} for de last 400 years insyd. According to Manuel de Almeida, a [[Portugal|Portuguese]] missionary for de early 17th century insyd, der be 21 islands, seven anaa eight of wey get monasteries for dem top "formerly large, but rydee diminish much.<ref name="Beckham">{{cite book |last1=Beckham |first1=C. F. |title=Some Records of Ethiopia, 1593-1646 |last2=Huntingford |first2=G. W. B. |publisher=[[Hakluyt Society]] |year=1954 |series=Series 2 |location=London |page=35 and note |number=107}}</ref> "Wen James Bruce visit de area for 1771 insyd, he note dat de locals wey dem count 45 islands wey dem inhabit, but state he believe dat "de number go fi be about eleven."<ref name="Beckham" /> Anton Stecker, for 1881 insyd, make a detailed examination of de lake, wey e enable substantially accurate maps,{{sfn|Garstin|Cana|1911}} den dem count 44 islands.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hayes |first=A.J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h742AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA73 |title=The Source of the Blue Nile: A Record of a Journey Through the Soudan to Lake Tsana in Western Abyssinia, and of the Return to Egypt by the Valley of the Atbara |publisher=Smith, Elder & Company |year=1905 |page=73 |access-date=28 May 2021}}</ref> A 20th-century geographer name 37 islands, of wey he believe 19 have anaa had monasteries anaa churches for dem top.<ref name="Beckham" /> Dem keep remains of ancient Ethiopian emperors den treasures of Ethiopic Christianity for de isolated island monasteries (wey dey include Kebran Gabriel, Ura Kidane Mehret, Narga Selassie, Daga Estifanos, Medhane Alem of Rema Island, Kota Maryam, den Mertola Maryam). For de island of Tana Qirqos top be a rock wey dem show to Paul B. Henze, for wey dem tell am Mary, mother of Jesus rest for ein journey back from [[Egypt]]; dem sanso tell am say Frumentius, wey introduce Christianity to Ethiopia, be "allegedly buried for Tana Cherqos top."<ref>{{cite book |last=Henze |first=Paul B. |author-link=Paul B. Henze |title=Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia |publisher=Palgrave |year=2000 |isbn=978-0312227197 |location=New York |page=73}}</ref> Dem inter de body of Yekuno Amlak for de monastery of St. Stephen insyd for Daga Island top. Emperors wey tombs sanso be for Daga top dey include Dawit I, Zara Yaqob, Za Dengel, den Fasilides. Oda important islands for Lake Tana insyd dey include Dek, Mitraha, Gelila Zakarias, Halimun den Briguida. Dem believe dem already build monasteries during de Middle Ages ova earlier religious sites. Dem dey include de fourteenth-century Debre Maryam, den de eighteenth-century Narga Selassie, Tana Qirqos, wey dem say dem already house de Ark of de Covenant before dem move am to Axum, den Ura Kidane Mehret, wey dem know give ein regalia. A ferry service dey link Bahir Dar plus Gorgora via Dek den various lakeshore villages. Der sanso be Zege Peninsula for de southwest portion of de lake top. Zege be de site of de Azwa Maryam monastery. Lake Tana sanso be a central location of de Beta Israel, wey dey complete plus de only Jewish monasteries for de world insyd,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kribus |first1=Bar |last2=Krebs |first2=Verena |date=2018 |title=Beta Israel (Ethiopian Jewish) Monastic Sites North of Lake Tana Preliminary Results of an Exploratory Field Trip to Ethiopia in December 2015 |journal=Entangled Religion |volume=6 |pages=309–344 |doi=10.13154/er.v6.2018.309-344}}</ref> before demma immigration to Israel. == Water characteristics den floods == Wey dem compare to oda tropical lakes, de waters for Lake Tana insyd dey relatively cold, wey e typically range from about 20 to 27 °C (68–81 °F). De water get a pH wey be neutral to samwat alkaline den ein transparency be quite low.<ref name="Vijverberg2009">{{cite book |author1=Vijverberg, J. |title=The Nile |author2=F.A. Sibbing |author3=E. Dejen |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=163–193 |chapter=Lake Tana: Source of the Blue Nile}}</ref> Sekof de large seasonal variations for de inflow of ein tributaries, rain den evaporation insyd, de water levels of Lake Tana dey typically vary by 2–2.5 m (6.6–8.2 ft) for a year insyd, wey dey peak for September–October insyd just after de main wet season. Wen de water levels dey high, de plains around de lake often flood den dem connect oda permanent swamps for de region insyd to de lake.<ref name="Vijverberg2009" /> == Fauna == [[File:Lily pads, Lake Tana.jpg|thumb|Lily pads dey float near de shore for Lake Tana top]]Since der dey no inflows dat dey link de lake to oda large waterways den de main outflow, de Blue Nile, de Blue Nile Falls obstruct am, de lake dey support a highly distinctive aquatic fauna, wey generally dem relate am to species from de Nile Basin.<ref name="FEOW">{{cite web |year=2008 |title=Lake Tana |url=http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=526 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005203717/http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=526 |archive-date=5 October 2011 |access-date=24 January 2012 |website=Freshwater Ecoregions of the World}}</ref> De lake ein nutrient levels dey low.<ref name="Vijverberg2009" /> === Fish === Der be 27 fish species for Lake Tana insyd den 20 of dem be endemic.<ref name="Vijverberg2009" /> Dis dey include one of only two cyprinid species flocks wey dem know (de oda, from Lake Lanao for de Philippines insyd, introduced species already decimate am). E dey consist of 15 relatively large, up to {{convert|1|m|abbr=on}} long, ''Labeobarbus'' barbs dat dem formerly include for ''Barbus'' insyd instead.<ref name="FEOW" /><ref name="barbs1">{{cite journal |last1=de Graaf |first1=Martin |last2=Dejen |first2=Eshete |last3=Sibbing |first3=Ferdinand A. |last4=Osse |first4=Jan W. M. |year=2000 |title=''Barbus tanapelagius'', A New Species from Lake Tana (Ethiopia): its Morphology and Ecology |journal=Environmental Biology of Fishes |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=1–9 |bibcode=2000EnvBF..59....1D |doi=10.1023/A:1007608208630}}</ref> Among dem, ''L. acutirostris'', ''L. longissimus'', ''L. megastoma'' den ''L. truttiformis'' dey strictly piscivorous, den ''L. dainellii'', ''L. gorguari'', ''L. macrophtalmus'' den ''L. platydorsus'' dey mostly piscivorous.<ref name="Vijverberg2009" /> Demma most important prey be de small ''Enteromius'' den ''Garra'' species.<ref name="Vijverberg2009" /><ref name="barbs1" /><ref name="barbs2">{{cite journal |last1=de Graaf |first1=Martin |last2=Megens |first2=Hendrik-Jan |last3=Samallo |first3=Johannis |last4=Sibbing |first4=Ferdinand |year=2007 |title=Evolutionary origin of Lake Tana's (Ethiopia) small Barbus species: indications of rapid ecological divergence and speciation |journal=Animal Biology |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=39–48 |doi=10.1163/157075607780002069}}</ref> De remaining ''Labeobarbus'' for Lake Tana insyd get oda specialized feeding habits: ''L. beso'' (non-endemic den dem no closely relate am to de odas) dey feed for algae top, ''L. surkis'' mostly for macrophytes top, ''L. gorgorensis'' for macrophytes top den molluscs, ''L. brevicephalus'' for zooplankton top (howeva, juveniles of all members of de species flock dey feed for zooplankton top), ''L. osseensis'' for macrophytes top den adults insects, den ''L. crassibarbis'', ''L. intermedius'' (non-endemic buh dem closely relate am to de odas), ''L. nedgia'' den ''L. tsanensis'' for benthic invertebrates like chironomid larvae top. Among de endemic ''Labeobarbus'', eight species spawn for de lake ein wetlands insyd den de remaining move seasonally into ein tributaries wey dem spawn.<ref name="Vijverberg2009" /> For addition to de ''Labeobarbus'' species flock insyd, de endemic species be ''Enteromius pleurogramma'', ''E. tanapelagius'', ''Garra regressus'' den ''Afronemacheilus abyssinicus'' (one of only two African stone loaches). De remaining non-endemic species be Nile tilapia (widespread for Africa insyd, buh plus de endemic subspecies ''tana'' for de lake insyd), ''E. humilis'', ''G. dembecha'', ''G. dembeensis'' den de large African sharptooth catfish.<ref name="Vijverberg2009" /><ref name="FEOW" /> === Fishing den threats === [[File:ET Amhara asv2018-02 img063 Lake Tana at Gorgora.jpg|thumb|Various ''[[:en:Labeobarbus|Labeobarbus]]'' barbs den [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] wey dem catch for de lake insyd]]Lake Tana dey support a large fishing industry, wey mainly dey base for de ''Labeobarbus'' barbs top, Nile tilapia den sharptooth catfish. According to de Ethiopian Department of Fisheries den Aquaculture, dem land 1,454 tons of fish for 2011 insyd at Bahir Dar, wey de department dem estimate am be 15% of ein sustainable amount.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080228033847/http://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/ETH/body.htm "Information on Fisheries Management in the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228033847/http://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/ETH/body.htm|date=28 February 2008}}, Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), January 2003</ref> Nevertheless, for a review insyd dat compare catches for 2001 insyd to dem ten years earlier, dem find dat typical sizes of both de tilapia den de catfish significantly decrease, den populations of de ''Labeobarbus'' barbs dat dey breed for de tributaries insyd decline significantly.<ref name="Vijverberg2009" /> Among de endemic fish, dem consider most threatened (endangered anaa vulnerable) anaa data deficient (available data insufficient give evaluating a status) by de IUCN.<ref>{{cite web |year=2019 |title=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species |url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/ |access-date=18 November 2019 |publisher=IUCN}}<!-- search the individual species name to get the status of each species --></ref> For de early 2000s insyd, de local government give de first time introduce a fisheries legislation den dem hope dis go get a positive effect for de fish populations top.<ref name="Vijverberg2009" /> Oda serious threats be habitat destruction den pollution. Bahir Dar becam a large city den e dey rapidly grow; dem generally release ein wastewater directly into de lake.<ref name="Vijverberg2009" /> De vegetation for de lake ein wetlands insyd, wey be an important nursery give de ''Labeobarbus'' den oda fish, dem already clear am at a fast pace. A potentially serious threat to de unique ecosystem go be an introduction of a large den efficient predatory species like de Nile perch, wey dem implicate am for numerous extinctions insyd for [[Lake Victoria]] insyd. De piscivorous ''Labeobarbus'' of Lake Tana be relatively inefficient predators dat only fi take fish up to about 15% of de length of de predator einself.<ref name="Vijverberg2009" /> === Oda fauna === [[File:Pelicans on the lake Tana, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Great_white_pelican|Great white pelicans]] for Lake Tana top]]Among oda fauna, de lake dey support relatively few invertebrates: Der be fifteen species of mollusks, wey dey include one endemic, den sanso an endemic freshwater sponge.<ref name="FEOW" /> About 230 species of birds, wey dey include more dan 80 wetland birds such as de great white pelican, African darter, hamerkop, storks, African spoonbill, ibis, ducks, kingfishers den African fish eagle, dem know dem from Lake Tana.<ref name="Vijverberg2009" /> E be an important resting den feeding ground give many Palearctic migrant waterbirds.<ref name="FEOW" /> Der dey no crocodiles, buh de African softshell turtle den Nile monitor dem already record dem near de Blue Nile outflow from de lake.<ref>Largen and Spawls (2010). ''The Amphibians and Reptiles of Ethiopia and Eritrea.'' {{ISBN|978-3-89973-466-9}}</ref> Hippos dey present, mostly near de Blue Nile outflow.<ref name="Vijverberg2009" /> == References == <references /> === Works cited === * Garstin, William Edmund; Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Tsana|"Tsana"]] . In [[:en:Hugh_Chisholm|Chisholm, Hugh]] (ed.). ''[[:en:Encyclopædia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. Vol. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 347–348. == External links == * [http://www.laketana-biosphere.com/ Homepage of Lake Tana Biosphere Reserve] * [https://en.nabu.de/projects/ethiopia/tana/index.html Lake Tana project webpage of De Nature and Biodiversity Conservation Union (NABU e.V.)] * [https://www.aber.ac.uk/en/iges/research-groups/quaternary/palaeoecology-laboratory/lake-tana/ Lake Tana project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223747/http://www.aber.ac.uk/en/iges/research-groups/quaternary/palaeoecology-laboratory/lake-tana/|date=3 March 2016}} at [[:en:Aberystwyth_University|Aberystwyth University]] * [http://www.galenfrysinger.com/blue_nile_ethiopia.htm Photographs of de lake] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040913205524/http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D2511%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html Unesco plan give Lake T'ana] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20031127223905/http://www.worldlakes.org/lakedetails.asp?lakeid=8568 LakeNet Profile] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090701031152/http://www.impetusinmundum.de/documentation/Album.html?Bildliste=5a0c198f-5a0c19cc&Region=Lake+Tana Pictures from Lake Tana den de Monasteries] 4xq4k8z8d0xa1jp7czad7gmiyjnrgj5 103612 103611 2026-06-18T00:12:06Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 103612 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lake Tana''' (Amharic: ጣና ሐይቅ, romanized: T’ana ḥāyik’i; previously dem transcribe as '''Tsana{{sfn|Garstin|Cana|1911}}''') be de largest [[:en:Lake|lake]] for [[Ethiopia]] insyd den a source of de [[Blue Nile]]. Wey dem locate am for Amhara Region insyd for de north-western Ethiopian Highlands insyd, de lake be approximately {{convert|84|km|mi|abbr=off}} long den {{convert|66|km|mi|abbr=off}} wide, plus a maximum depth of {{convert|15|m|ft|abbr=off}},<ref>{{cite book |title=Statistical Abstract of Ethiopia |year=1967–1968}}</ref> den an elevation of {{convert|1788|m|ft|abbr=off}}.<ref>{{cite web |date=5 November 2004 |title=Lake Tana, source of the Blue Nile |url=http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Observing_the_Earth/Lake_Tana_source_of_the_Blue_Nile |access-date=4 November 2013 |work=Observing the Earth |publisher=European Space Agency}}</ref> De Gilgel Abay, Reb den Gumara rivers feed Lake Tana. Ein surface area dey range from {{convert|3000|to|3500|km2|mi2|abbr=off}}, wey dey depend for season den rainfall top. Dem regulate de lake level since de construction of de control [[:en:Weir|weir]] wey de lake dey discharge into de Blue Nile. Dis dey control de flow to de Blue Nile Falls (Tis Abbai) den hydro-power station. For 2015 insyd, dem nominate Lake Tana region as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve wey dey recognize ein national den international natural den cultural importance.<ref>[http://www.laketana-biosphere.com/ Homepage of Lake Tana Biosphere Reserve]</ref> == Ovaview == [[File:Lake Tana, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|Views ova Lake Tana]] [[File:Island Church (2401612298).jpg|thumb|De Island Church for Lake Tana top]] [[File:Zege Peninsula Tour Guide.jpg|thumb|A local tour guide dey demonstrate how a stone dey struck to signal meal times at a monastery for Zege Peninsula top]] [[File:Blue Nile.jpg|thumb|left|Beginning of de [[Blue Nile]] river by ein outlet from Lake Tana]] [[File:BahirDarResort.jpg|thumb|A resort hotel for Lake Tana top for [[:en:Bahir_Dar|Bahir Dar]] insyd]] Volcanic activity form Lake Tana, wey block de flow of rivers wey dey inflow for de early Pleistocene insyd, about 5 million years ago.<ref name="springer">{{Cite book |last1=Vijverberg |first1=Jacobus |title=The Nile |last2=Sibbing |first2=Ferdinand A. |last3=Dejen |first3=Eshete |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=163–192 |chapter=Lake Tana: Source of the Blue Nile |doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-9726-3_9}}</ref> De lake be originally much larger dan e dey today. Seven large permanent rivers dey feed de lake as well as 40 small seasonal rivers. De main tributaries to de lake be Gilgel Abbay (Little Nile River), den de Megech, Gumara, den Rib rivers.<ref name="springer" /> Lake Tana get a number of islands, wey number dey vary plus de lake ein level. E fell about {{convert|6|ft|m}} for de last 400 years insyd. According to Manuel de Almeida, a [[Portugal|Portuguese]] missionary for de early 17th century insyd, der be 21 islands, seven anaa eight of wey get monasteries for dem top "formerly large, but rydee diminish much.<ref name="Beckham">{{cite book |last1=Beckham |first1=C. F. |title=Some Records of Ethiopia, 1593-1646 |last2=Huntingford |first2=G. W. B. |publisher=[[Hakluyt Society]] |year=1954 |series=Series 2 |location=London |page=35 and note |number=107}}</ref> "Wen James Bruce visit de area for 1771 insyd, he note dat de locals wey dem count 45 islands wey dem inhabit, but state he believe dat "de number go fi be about eleven."<ref name="Beckham" /> Anton Stecker, for 1881 insyd, make a detailed examination of de lake, wey e enable substantially accurate maps,{{sfn|Garstin|Cana|1911}} den dem count 44 islands.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hayes |first=A.J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h742AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA73 |title=The Source of the Blue Nile: A Record of a Journey Through the Soudan to Lake Tsana in Western Abyssinia, and of the Return to Egypt by the Valley of the Atbara |publisher=Smith, Elder & Company |year=1905 |page=73 |access-date=28 May 2021}}</ref> A 20th-century geographer name 37 islands, of wey he believe 19 have anaa had monasteries anaa churches for dem top.<ref name="Beckham" /> Dem keep remains of ancient Ethiopian emperors den treasures of Ethiopic Christianity for de isolated island monasteries (wey dey include Kebran Gabriel, Ura Kidane Mehret, Narga Selassie, Daga Estifanos, Medhane Alem of Rema Island, Kota Maryam, den Mertola Maryam). For de island of Tana Qirqos top be a rock wey dem show to Paul B. Henze, for wey dem tell am Mary, mother of Jesus rest for ein journey back from [[Egypt]]; dem sanso tell am say Frumentius, wey introduce Christianity to Ethiopia, be "allegedly buried for Tana Cherqos top."<ref>{{cite book |last=Henze |first=Paul B. |author-link=Paul B. Henze |title=Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia |publisher=Palgrave |year=2000 |isbn=978-0312227197 |location=New York |page=73}}</ref> Dem inter de body of Yekuno Amlak for de monastery of St. Stephen insyd for Daga Island top. Emperors wey tombs sanso be for Daga top dey include Dawit I, Zara Yaqob, Za Dengel, den Fasilides. Oda important islands for Lake Tana insyd dey include Dek, Mitraha, Gelila Zakarias, Halimun den Briguida. Dem believe dem already build monasteries during de Middle Ages ova earlier religious sites. Dem dey include de fourteenth-century Debre Maryam, den de eighteenth-century Narga Selassie, Tana Qirqos, wey dem say dem already house de Ark of de Covenant before dem move am to Axum, den Ura Kidane Mehret, wey dem know give ein regalia. A ferry service dey link Bahir Dar plus Gorgora via Dek den various lakeshore villages. Der sanso be Zege Peninsula for de southwest portion of de lake top. Zege be de site of de Azwa Maryam monastery. Lake Tana sanso be a central location of de Beta Israel, wey dey complete plus de only Jewish monasteries for de world insyd,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kribus |first1=Bar |last2=Krebs |first2=Verena |date=2018 |title=Beta Israel (Ethiopian Jewish) Monastic Sites North of Lake Tana Preliminary Results of an Exploratory Field Trip to Ethiopia in December 2015 |journal=Entangled Religion |volume=6 |pages=309–344 |doi=10.13154/er.v6.2018.309-344}}</ref> before demma immigration to Israel. == Water characteristics den floods == Wey dem compare to oda tropical lakes, de waters for Lake Tana insyd dey relatively cold, wey e typically range from about 20 to 27 °C (68–81 °F). De water get a pH wey be neutral to samwat alkaline den ein transparency be quite low.<ref name="Vijverberg2009">{{cite book |author1=Vijverberg, J. |title=The Nile |author2=F.A. Sibbing |author3=E. Dejen |publisher=Springer Science + Business Media B.V |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4020-9725-6 |editor=H.J. Dumont |series=Monographiae Biologicae |volume=89 |pages=163–193 |chapter=Lake Tana: Source of the Blue Nile}}</ref> Sekof de large seasonal variations for de inflow of ein tributaries, rain den evaporation insyd, de water levels of Lake Tana dey typically vary by 2–2.5 m (6.6–8.2 ft) for a year insyd, wey dey peak for September–October insyd just after de main wet season. Wen de water levels dey high, de plains around de lake often flood den dem connect oda permanent swamps for de region insyd to de lake.<ref name="Vijverberg2009" /> == Fauna == [[File:Lily pads, Lake Tana.jpg|thumb|Lily pads dey float near de shore for Lake Tana top]]Since der dey no inflows dat dey link de lake to oda large waterways den de main outflow, de Blue Nile, de Blue Nile Falls obstruct am, de lake dey support a highly distinctive aquatic fauna, wey generally dem relate am to species from de Nile Basin.<ref name="FEOW">{{cite web |year=2008 |title=Lake Tana |url=http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=526 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005203717/http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.php?eco=526 |archive-date=5 October 2011 |access-date=24 January 2012 |website=Freshwater Ecoregions of the World}}</ref> De lake ein nutrient levels dey low.<ref name="Vijverberg2009" /> === Fish === Der be 27 fish species for Lake Tana insyd den 20 of dem be endemic.<ref name="Vijverberg2009" /> Dis dey include one of only two cyprinid species flocks wey dem know (de oda, from Lake Lanao for de Philippines insyd, introduced species already decimate am). E dey consist of 15 relatively large, up to {{convert|1|m|abbr=on}} long, ''Labeobarbus'' barbs dat dem formerly include for ''Barbus'' insyd instead.<ref name="FEOW" /><ref name="barbs1">{{cite journal |last1=de Graaf |first1=Martin |last2=Dejen |first2=Eshete |last3=Sibbing |first3=Ferdinand A. |last4=Osse |first4=Jan W. M. |year=2000 |title=''Barbus tanapelagius'', A New Species from Lake Tana (Ethiopia): its Morphology and Ecology |journal=Environmental Biology of Fishes |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=1–9 |bibcode=2000EnvBF..59....1D |doi=10.1023/A:1007608208630}}</ref> Among dem, ''L. acutirostris'', ''L. longissimus'', ''L. megastoma'' den ''L. truttiformis'' dey strictly piscivorous, den ''L. dainellii'', ''L. gorguari'', ''L. macrophtalmus'' den ''L. platydorsus'' dey mostly piscivorous.<ref name="Vijverberg2009" /> Demma most important prey be de small ''Enteromius'' den ''Garra'' species.<ref name="Vijverberg2009" /><ref name="barbs1" /><ref name="barbs2">{{cite journal |last1=de Graaf |first1=Martin |last2=Megens |first2=Hendrik-Jan |last3=Samallo |first3=Johannis |last4=Sibbing |first4=Ferdinand |year=2007 |title=Evolutionary origin of Lake Tana's (Ethiopia) small Barbus species: indications of rapid ecological divergence and speciation |journal=Animal Biology |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=39–48 |doi=10.1163/157075607780002069}}</ref> De remaining ''Labeobarbus'' for Lake Tana insyd get oda specialized feeding habits: ''L. beso'' (non-endemic den dem no closely relate am to de odas) dey feed for algae top, ''L. surkis'' mostly for macrophytes top, ''L. gorgorensis'' for macrophytes top den molluscs, ''L. brevicephalus'' for zooplankton top (howeva, juveniles of all members of de species flock dey feed for zooplankton top), ''L. osseensis'' for macrophytes top den adults insects, den ''L. crassibarbis'', ''L. intermedius'' (non-endemic buh dem closely relate am to de odas), ''L. nedgia'' den ''L. tsanensis'' for benthic invertebrates like chironomid larvae top. Among de endemic ''Labeobarbus'', eight species spawn for de lake ein wetlands insyd den de remaining move seasonally into ein tributaries wey dem spawn.<ref name="Vijverberg2009" /> For addition to de ''Labeobarbus'' species flock insyd, de endemic species be ''Enteromius pleurogramma'', ''E. tanapelagius'', ''Garra regressus'' den ''Afronemacheilus abyssinicus'' (one of only two African stone loaches). De remaining non-endemic species be Nile tilapia (widespread for Africa insyd, buh plus de endemic subspecies ''tana'' for de lake insyd), ''E. humilis'', ''G. dembecha'', ''G. dembeensis'' den de large African sharptooth catfish.<ref name="Vijverberg2009" /><ref name="FEOW" /> === Fishing den threats === [[File:ET Amhara asv2018-02 img063 Lake Tana at Gorgora.jpg|thumb|Various ''[[:en:Labeobarbus|Labeobarbus]]'' barbs den [[:en:African_sharptooth_catfish|African sharptooth catfish]] wey dem catch for de lake insyd]]Lake Tana dey support a large fishing industry, wey mainly dey base for de ''Labeobarbus'' barbs top, Nile tilapia den sharptooth catfish. According to de Ethiopian Department of Fisheries den Aquaculture, dem land 1,454 tons of fish for 2011 insyd at Bahir Dar, wey de department dem estimate am be 15% of ein sustainable amount.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080228033847/http://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/ETH/body.htm "Information on Fisheries Management in the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228033847/http://www.fao.org/fi/fcp/en/ETH/body.htm|date=28 February 2008}}, Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), January 2003</ref> Nevertheless, for a review insyd dat compare catches for 2001 insyd to dem ten years earlier, dem find dat typical sizes of both de tilapia den de catfish significantly decrease, den populations of de ''Labeobarbus'' barbs dat dey breed for de tributaries insyd decline significantly.<ref name="Vijverberg2009" /> Among de endemic fish, dem consider most threatened (endangered anaa vulnerable) anaa data deficient (available data insufficient give evaluating a status) by de IUCN.<ref>{{cite web |year=2019 |title=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species |url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/ |access-date=18 November 2019 |publisher=IUCN}}<!-- search the individual species name to get the status of each species --></ref> For de early 2000s insyd, de local government give de first time introduce a fisheries legislation den dem hope dis go get a positive effect for de fish populations top.<ref name="Vijverberg2009" /> Oda serious threats be habitat destruction den pollution. Bahir Dar becam a large city den e dey rapidly grow; dem generally release ein wastewater directly into de lake.<ref name="Vijverberg2009" /> De vegetation for de lake ein wetlands insyd, wey be an important nursery give de ''Labeobarbus'' den oda fish, dem already clear am at a fast pace. A potentially serious threat to de unique ecosystem go be an introduction of a large den efficient predatory species like de Nile perch, wey dem implicate am for numerous extinctions insyd for [[Lake Victoria]] insyd. De piscivorous ''Labeobarbus'' of Lake Tana be relatively inefficient predators dat only fi take fish up to about 15% of de length of de predator einself.<ref name="Vijverberg2009" /> === Oda fauna === [[File:Pelicans on the lake Tana, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|[[:en:Great_white_pelican|Great white pelicans]] for Lake Tana top]]Among oda fauna, de lake dey support relatively few invertebrates: Der be fifteen species of mollusks, wey dey include one endemic, den sanso an endemic freshwater sponge.<ref name="FEOW" /> About 230 species of birds, wey dey include more dan 80 wetland birds such as de great white pelican, African darter, hamerkop, storks, African spoonbill, ibis, ducks, kingfishers den African fish eagle, dem know dem from Lake Tana.<ref name="Vijverberg2009" /> E be an important resting den feeding ground give many Palearctic migrant waterbirds.<ref name="FEOW" /> Der dey no crocodiles, buh de African softshell turtle den Nile monitor dem already record dem near de Blue Nile outflow from de lake.<ref>Largen and Spawls (2010). ''The Amphibians and Reptiles of Ethiopia and Eritrea.'' {{ISBN|978-3-89973-466-9}}</ref> Hippos dey present, mostly near de Blue Nile outflow.<ref name="Vijverberg2009" /> == References == <references /> === Works cited === * Garstin, William Edmund; Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Tsana|"Tsana"]] . In [[:en:Hugh_Chisholm|Chisholm, Hugh]] (ed.). ''[[:en:Encyclopædia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica]]''. Vol. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 347–348. == External links == {{Commons}} *[http://www.laketana-biosphere.com/ Homepage of Lake Tana Biosphere Reserve] *[https://en.nabu.de/projects/ethiopia/tana/index.html Lake Tana project webpage of The Nature and Biodiversity Conservation Union (NABU e.V.)] *[http://www.aber.ac.uk/en/iges/research-groups/quaternary/palaeoecology-laboratory/lake-tana/ Lake Tana project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303223747/http://www.aber.ac.uk/en/iges/research-groups/quaternary/palaeoecology-laboratory/lake-tana/ |date=3 March 2016 }} at Aberystwyth University *[http://www.galenfrysinger.com/blue_nile_ethiopia.htm Photographs of the lake] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20040913205524/http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D2511%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html Unesco plan for Lake T'ana] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20090701031152/http://www.impetusinmundum.de/documentation/Album.html?Bildliste=5a0c198f-5a0c19cc&Region=Lake+Tana Pictures from Lake Tana and the Monasteries] {{Authority control}} [[Category:Lake Tana| ]] [[Category:Lakes of Ethiopia|Tana]] [[Category:Amhara Region]] [[Category:Blue Nile]] [[Category:Ethiopian Highlands]] [[Category:Mountain lakes|Tana]] [[Category:Nile basin]] [[Category:Biosphere reserves of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Freshwater ecoregions of Africa]] [[Category:Important Bird Areas of Ethiopia]] ta54g8m6emtxp72q12w28aedkwwoj53 0 27385 103621 101275 2026-06-18T11:54:53Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 103621 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Zambezi Watercourse Commission''' (ZAMCOM) be a water management organization wey establish by member states of de [[Southern African Development Community]] (SADC) whose territory dey contain de [[Zambezi]] river basin.{{sfn|Zambezi Watercourse Commission - SADC}} ==Zambezi River== [[File:Zambezi river basin cropped.jpg|thumb|240px|Zambezi River Basin]] De Zambezi dey originate insyd northwestern Zambia, den dey run west den then southwest thru [[Angola]] before reentering Zambia. E dey flow south den dey form part of de border between Zambia den [[Namibia]]. After picking up de waters of de Chobe River at de quadripoint wey Zambia, Namibia, [[Botswana]] den Zimbabwe meet, de river dey flow east along de border between Zambia den Zimbabwe, powering de shared Kariba Dam hydroelectric station, before entering [[Mozambique]] den flowing to de Indian Ocean.{{sfn|Basin Map and Description}} De Zambezi basin sanso dey include parts of Malawi den Tanzania. De Zambezi be de fourth largest river insyd Africa after de [[Nile]], [[Congo River|Congo]] den [[Niger River|Niger]].{{sfn|Moran|2011|p=244}} ==Organisation== De eight Zambezi Basin riparian states dat participate insyd ZAMCOM be [[Angola]], [[Botswana]], [[Malawi]], [[Mozambique]], [[Namibia]], [[Tanzania]], [[Zambia]] den [[Zimbabwe]]. ZAMCOM operations dey insyd line plus de revised SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourses.{{sfn|Zambezi Watercourse Commission - SADC}} De SADC Protocol be adopted insyd 1995 den by SADC member states, wey dey include all Zambezi riparian states, wey cam into force insyd 1998.<ref>{{cite web|title=SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourses (original 1995)|url=http://www.icp-confluence-sadc.org/documents/sadc-protocol-shared-watercourses-original-1995|publisher=SADC Water Sector ICP Collaboration Portal|access-date=16 July 2013|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304051555/http://www.icp-confluence-sadc.org/documents/sadc-protocol-shared-watercourses-original-1995|url-status=dead}}</ref> Seven of de riparian states sign de ZAMCOM Agreement on 13 July 2004 at Kasane insyd Botswana.{{sfn|Zambezi Watercourse Commission - SADC}} Zambia commit to signing after further national consultation before de August 2004 SADC Summit,{{sfn|SADC TODAY|2004}} buh na e no sign de agreement. De agreement cam into force insyd June 2011 widout Zambia having signed den widout key institutions such as de Council of Ministers den a Permanent Secretariat dem set up.<ref>{{cite web|last=Stuurman|first=Siphosethu|title=Zambezi Commission Comes of Age|url=http://africa.ipsterraviva.net/2012/06/07/zambezi-commission-comes-of-age/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618025730/http://africa.ipsterraviva.net/2012/06/07/zambezi-commission-comes-of-age/|url-status=usurped|archive-date=June 18, 2012|publisher=IPS Africa Terra Viva|access-date=16 July 2013|date=7 June 2012}}</ref> De Interim ZAMCOM Secretariat (IZS) base insyd [[Gaborone]], Botswana, na dem establish insyd May 2011. De IZS, wey dey head by an Executive Secretary, be financially supported by de Norwegian Government, wey e get de objective of making de ZAMCOM Agreement operational den establishing ein Permanent Secretariat. E be given strategic guidance den oversight by de Ministers responsible for Water insyd de member countries.{{sfn|Zambezi Watercourse Commission - SADC}} Insyd May 2013 at a meeting of SADC Water Ministers insyd Luanda, Angola, de ZAMCOM Council of Ministers dem establish wey na Zimbabwe be designed to host de Commission ein headquarters, de permanent Secretariat. De Ministerial Council elect Angola to serve as a chair for one year. Zambia announce at de meeting dat e be "ready to join de commission".<ref>{{cite web|title=ZAMCOM Press release|url=http://www.zambezicommission.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=42:press-release&catid=14&Itemid=118|access-date=16 July 2013|date=31 May 2013}}</ref> ==Objectives den activities== Na de purpose of ZAMCOM be "to promote de equitable den reasonable utilization of de water resources of de Zambezi Watercourse as well as de efficient management den sustainable development thereof".{{sfn|Zambezi Watercourse Commission - SADC}} Poverty reduction be de first priority of SADC, den ZAMCOM get a primary goal of poverty reduction thru de shared water resource.{{sfn|SADC TODAY|2004}} ZAMCOM for address de concerns of downstream users over extraction of water upstream. Thus [[Mozambique]] be concerned dat ein prawn industry insyd de Zambezi delta no be affect by reduced flows, den dat de Cahora Bassa hydroelectric plant dey receive sufficient water.{{sfn|Valy|2004}} Planned upstream water abstractions include de Matabeleland Zambezi Water Project insyd Zimbabwe dat fit bring water from de Zambezi to Bulawayo den ein surrounding areas, as well as a proposed extension of de existing North-South Carrier insyd Botswana wey go connect de carrier to de Zambezi River. Zambia den Namibia both get plans to expand irrigation insyd de upper river basin. South Africa, although no be a riparian to de Zambezi river, sanso get plans to draw substantial amounts of water from de Zambezi River once de Lesotho Highlands Water Project be "fully developed".<ref>{{cite web|last=Mutembwa|first=Ammon|title=Water and the Potential for Resource Conflicts in Southern Africa|url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~gsfi/gsfiweb/htmls/papers/text3.htm|publisher=University of Cambridge, Global Security Fellows Initiative, Occasional Paper No. 3|access-date=16 July 2013|year=1998|archive-date=25 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725114626/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~gsfi/gsfiweb/htmls/papers/text3.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> == References == <references /> [[Category:Zambezi basin]] [[Category:Zambezi River]] [[Category:Organizations established insyd 2004]] [[Category:2004 establishment insyd Africa]] [[Category:Southern African Development Community]] [[Category:AWC2026]] 6mixte6xx5ttp9nc7uwp0teohi2xezp 103623 103621 2026-06-18T11:56:55Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 103623 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Zambezi Watercourse Commission''' (ZAMCOM) be a water management organization wey establish by member states of de [[Southern African Development Community]] (SADC) whose territory dey contain de [[Zambezi]] river basin.{{sfn|Zambezi Watercourse Commission - SADC}} ==Zambezi River== [[File:Zambezi river basin cropped.jpg|thumb|240px|Zambezi River Basin]] De Zambezi dey originate insyd northwestern Zambia, den dey run west den then southwest thru [[Angola]] before reentering Zambia. E dey flow south den dey form part of de border between Zambia den [[Namibia]]. After picking up de waters of de Chobe River at de quadripoint wey Zambia, Namibia, [[Botswana]] den Zimbabwe meet, de river dey flow east along de border between Zambia den Zimbabwe, powering de shared Kariba Dam hydroelectric station, before entering [[Mozambique]] den flowing to de Indian Ocean.{{sfn|Basin Map and Description}} De Zambezi basin sanso dey include parts of Malawi den Tanzania. De Zambezi be de fourth largest river insyd Africa after de [[Nile]], [[Congo River|Congo]] den [[Niger River|Niger]].{{sfn|Moran|2011|p=244}} ==Organisation== De eight Zambezi Basin riparian states dat participate insyd ZAMCOM be [[Angola]], [[Botswana]], [[Malawi]], [[Mozambique]], [[Namibia]], [[Tanzania]], [[Zambia]] den [[Zimbabwe]]. ZAMCOM operations dey insyd line plus de revised SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourses.{{sfn|Zambezi Watercourse Commission - SADC}} De SADC Protocol be adopted insyd 1995 den by SADC member states, wey dey include all Zambezi riparian states, wey cam into force insyd 1998.<ref>{{cite web|title=SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourses (original 1995)|url=http://www.icp-confluence-sadc.org/documents/sadc-protocol-shared-watercourses-original-1995|publisher=SADC Water Sector ICP Collaboration Portal|access-date=16 July 2013|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304051555/http://www.icp-confluence-sadc.org/documents/sadc-protocol-shared-watercourses-original-1995|url-status=dead}}</ref> Seven of de riparian states sign de ZAMCOM Agreement on 13 July 2004 at Kasane insyd Botswana.{{sfn|Zambezi Watercourse Commission - SADC}} Zambia commit to signing after further national consultation before de August 2004 SADC Summit,{{sfn|SADC TODAY|2004}} buh na e no sign de agreement. De agreement cam into force insyd June 2011 widout Zambia having signed den widout key institutions such as de Council of Ministers den a Permanent Secretariat dem set up.<ref>{{cite web|last=Stuurman|first=Siphosethu|title=Zambezi Commission Comes of Age|url=http://africa.ipsterraviva.net/2012/06/07/zambezi-commission-comes-of-age/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618025730/http://africa.ipsterraviva.net/2012/06/07/zambezi-commission-comes-of-age/|url-status=usurped|archive-date=June 18, 2012|publisher=IPS Africa Terra Viva|access-date=16 July 2013|date=7 June 2012}}</ref> De Interim ZAMCOM Secretariat (IZS) base insyd [[Gaborone]], Botswana, na dem establish insyd May 2011. De IZS, wey dey head by an Executive Secretary, be financially supported by de Norwegian Government, wey e get de objective of making de ZAMCOM Agreement operational den establishing ein Permanent Secretariat. E be given strategic guidance den oversight by de Ministers responsible for Water insyd de member countries.{{sfn|Zambezi Watercourse Commission - SADC}} Insyd May 2013 at a meeting of SADC Water Ministers insyd Luanda, Angola, de ZAMCOM Council of Ministers dem establish wey na Zimbabwe be designed to host de Commission ein headquarters, de permanent Secretariat. De Ministerial Council elect Angola to serve as a chair for one year. Zambia announce at de meeting dat e be "ready to join de commission".<ref>{{cite web|title=ZAMCOM Press release|url=http://www.zambezicommission.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=42:press-release&catid=14&Itemid=118|access-date=16 July 2013|date=31 May 2013}}</ref> ==Objectives den activities== Na de purpose of ZAMCOM be "to promote de equitable den reasonable utilization of de water resources of de Zambezi Watercourse as well as de efficient management den sustainable development thereof".{{sfn|Zambezi Watercourse Commission - SADC}} Poverty reduction be de first priority of SADC, den ZAMCOM get a primary goal of poverty reduction thru de shared water resource.{{sfn|SADC TODAY|2004}} ZAMCOM for address de concerns of downstream users over extraction of water upstream. Thus [[Mozambique]] be concerned dat ein prawn industry insyd de Zambezi delta no be affect by reduced flows, den dat de Cahora Bassa hydroelectric plant dey receive sufficient water.{{sfn|Valy|2004}} Planned upstream water abstractions include de Matabeleland Zambezi Water Project insyd Zimbabwe dat fit bring water from de Zambezi to Bulawayo den ein surrounding areas, as well as a proposed extension of de existing North-South Carrier insyd Botswana wey go connect de carrier to de Zambezi River. Zambia den Namibia both get plans to expand irrigation insyd de upper river basin. South Africa, although no be a riparian to de Zambezi river, sanso get plans to draw substantial amounts of water from de Zambezi River once de Lesotho Highlands Water Project be "fully developed".<ref>{{cite web|last=Mutembwa|first=Ammon|title=Water and the Potential for Resource Conflicts in Southern Africa|url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~gsfi/gsfiweb/htmls/papers/text3.htm|publisher=University of Cambridge, Global Security Fellows Initiative, Occasional Paper No. 3|access-date=16 July 2013|year=1998|archive-date=25 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725114626/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~gsfi/gsfiweb/htmls/papers/text3.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> == References == '''Citations''' <references /> '''Sources''' *{{cite web |ref={{harvid|Basin Map and Description}} |url=http://www.zaraho.org.zm/bmd.html |title=Basin Map and Description |publisher=Zambezi River Authority |access-date=2012-09-23 |archive-date=2013-02-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130211032248/http://www.zaraho.org.zm/bmd.html |url-status=dead }} *{{cite book|last=Moran|first=Daniel|title=Climate Change and National Security: A Country-Level Analysis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3B0kph7i_XYC&pg=PA239|access-date=2012-09-22|date=2011-04-15|publisher=Georgetown University Press|isbn=978-1-58901-741-2}} *{{cite journal |url=http://www.sardc.net/editorial/sadctoday/v7-3-8-04/zambezi.htm |title=Zambezi Watercourse Commission: The origins and purpose |author=SADC TODAY |journal=SADC Today |volume=7 |issue=2 |date=August 2004 |access-date=2012-09-24 |archive-date=2005-02-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050228160952/http://www.sardc.net/Editorial/sadctoday/v7-3-8-04/zambezi.htm |url-status=dead }} *{{cite web |ref={{harvid|Zambezi Watercourse Commission - SADC}} |url=http://www.icp-confluence-sadc.org/rbo/66 |title=Zambezi Watercourse Commission (ZAMCOM) |publisher=SADC |access-date=2012-09-24 }} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Zambezi basin]] [[Category:Zambezi River]] [[Category:Southern African Development Community]] [[Category:Organizations dem establish insyd 2004]] [[Category:2004 establishments insyd Africa]] 4b7wl5l9nrr51qzqu95ryz9gnn7el5k 0 27595 103395 103218 2026-06-17T12:45:32Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103395 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. == Reference == co0birlaogb1g4et4e42s3nm9u8sr74 103397 103395 2026-06-17T12:48:24Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103397 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>.Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian Central Statistical Agency, di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles) == Reference == qkvgk50r0o2s0x2kj46apwcke6o41rb 103398 103397 2026-06-17T12:49:09Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103398 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian Central Statistical Agency, di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles). == Reference == 11xlfkp0iwhxxjne05en42j5qrsbfi2 103399 103398 2026-06-17T12:50:45Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103399 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian Central Statistical Agency, di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles). Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di Gregory Rift lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for white-water rafting around September and October, when rain season still make di water high. Di most important tributary na di Gibe River; smaller tributaries na Wabi, Denchya, Gojeb, Mui and Usno rivers. == Reference == tm4agbauxcq4vg4170jih7ay34co0jb 103400 103399 2026-06-17T12:51:30Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103400 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles). Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di Gregory Rift lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for white-water rafting around September and October, when rain season still make di water high. Di most important tributary na di Gibe River; smaller tributaries na Wabi, Denchya, Gojeb, Mui and Usno rivers. == Reference == irl8pnzr9zaz56e5auovi67a9e9v20j 103403 103400 2026-06-17T12:52:39Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103403 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di Gregory Rift lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for white-water rafting around September and October, when rain season still make di water high. Di most important tributary na di Gibe River; smaller tributaries na Wabi, Denchya, Gojeb, Mui and Usno rivers. == Reference == 4brjogk4pwqv4r43621nua8hm6iaggn 103405 103403 2026-06-17T12:53:24Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103405 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for white-water rafting around September and October, when rain season still make di water high. Di most important tributary na di Gibe River; smaller tributaries na Wabi, Denchya, Gojeb, Mui and Usno rivers. == Reference == cjoh6h7xcq2xcsvxdisokss9t4ezitc 103407 103405 2026-06-17T12:54:04Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103407 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high. Di most important tributary na di Gibe River; smaller tributaries na Wabi, Denchya, Gojeb, Mui and Usno rivers. == Reference == jir9tno6hc2pl2gmbgnt5zsbg1adw35 103414 103407 2026-06-17T12:59:16Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103414 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high. Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na Wabi, Denchya, Gojeb, Mui and Usno rivers. == Reference == ag9sek6ets76hlh9y1sfqw5kv1i7osm 103415 103414 2026-06-17T12:59:53Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103415 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high. Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], Denchya, Gojeb, Mui and Usno rivers. == Reference == rgre5otdskc2sie5i5ja9hnbr9qzg5j 103416 103415 2026-06-17T13:00:28Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103416 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high. Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], Gojeb, Mui and Usno rivers. == Reference == la0dwfoqpmvp7orwd7h5cwi9bfz12uz 103417 103416 2026-06-17T13:00:56Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103417 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high. Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], Mui and Usno rivers. == Reference == r965odfnejl0g4vsrdbljyldgkn1sju 103418 103417 2026-06-17T13:01:31Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103418 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high. Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and Usno rivers. == Reference == alcnpe0nszf6lfd36qmpgx8shifnc9m 103419 103418 2026-06-17T13:02:09Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103419 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high. Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. == Reference == pvhpwuvtpgzdjbr3z9rrydwoxccf8j0 103420 103419 2026-06-17T13:03:14Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103420 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high. Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of Janjero and Garo. Di river also dey pass near Mago and Omo National Parks wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like hippopotamus, crocodile and puff adder snake. == Reference == dluntaau3aui5g1ayg4s8hw4kp0r770 103421 103420 2026-06-17T13:04:27Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103421 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high. Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of Janjero and Garo. Di river also dey pass near Mago and Omo National Parks wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like hippopotamus, crocodile and puff adder snake. Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di Pliocene and Pleistocene times. Fossils from Australopithecus and Homo genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from quartzite. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for Olduvai Gorge. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di Oldowan industry. == Reference == ahu854ea3kzr9yu06kkjwy6pvn5gi14 103423 103421 2026-06-17T13:04:54Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103423 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high. Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of Janjero and Garo. Di river also dey pass near Mago and Omo National Parks wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like hippopotamus, crocodile and puff adder snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di Pliocene and Pleistocene times. Fossils from Australopithecus and Homo genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from quartzite. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for Olduvai Gorge. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di Oldowan industry. == Reference == gz6u9g8w1b4akos7vgs0n8dr08dls06 103425 103423 2026-06-17T13:05:58Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103425 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high. Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of Janjero and Garo. Di river also dey pass near Mago and Omo National Parks wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like hippopotamus, crocodile and puff adder snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di Pliocene and Pleistocene times. Fossils from Australopithecus and Homo genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from quartzite. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for Olduvai Gorge. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di Oldowan industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds. Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one Australopithecus man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old. Archeologists also find fossil fragments of Oldowan hominids from early Pleistocene era reach back to Pliocene era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later Homo sapiens remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks. Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team. Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal fossils and fish fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Reference == i3hbkxx4rn71j0qr5cex35vx7os7507 103426 103425 2026-06-17T13:06:49Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103426 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high. Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and Garo. Di river also dey pass near Mago and Omo National Parks wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like hippopotamus, crocodile and puff adder snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di Pliocene and Pleistocene times. Fossils from Australopithecus and Homo genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from quartzite. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for Olduvai Gorge. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di Oldowan industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds. Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one Australopithecus man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old. Archeologists also find fossil fragments of Oldowan hominids from early Pleistocene era reach back to Pliocene era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later Homo sapiens remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks. Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team. Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal fossils and fish fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Reference == 0xc95cn2kf6lqvevu5wnyijxmwuyfj6 103429 103426 2026-06-17T13:07:33Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103429 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high. Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near Mago and Omo National Parks wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like hippopotamus, crocodile and puff adder snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di Pliocene and Pleistocene times. Fossils from Australopithecus and Homo genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from quartzite. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for Olduvai Gorge. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di Oldowan industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds. Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one Australopithecus man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old. Archeologists also find fossil fragments of Oldowan hominids from early Pleistocene era reach back to Pliocene era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later Homo sapiens remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks. Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team. Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal fossils and fish fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Reference == 8ppftr0zilgd5jm91ukw7385r4tnhwi 103430 103429 2026-06-17T13:08:07Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103430 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high. Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and Omo National Parks wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like hippopotamus, crocodile and puff adder snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di Pliocene and Pleistocene times. Fossils from Australopithecus and Homo genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from quartzite. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for Olduvai Gorge. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di Oldowan industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds. Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one Australopithecus man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old. Archeologists also find fossil fragments of Oldowan hominids from early Pleistocene era reach back to Pliocene era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later Homo sapiens remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks. Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team. Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal fossils and fish fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Reference == izr3c7btatshk0fmfoevb7b0hhweftj 103431 103430 2026-06-17T13:08:41Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103431 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high. Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and [[:en:Omo_National_Park|Omo National Parks]] wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like hippopotamus, crocodile and puff adder snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di Pliocene and Pleistocene times. Fossils from Australopithecus and Homo genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from quartzite. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for Olduvai Gorge. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di Oldowan industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds. Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one Australopithecus man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old. Archeologists also find fossil fragments of Oldowan hominids from early Pleistocene era reach back to Pliocene era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later Homo sapiens remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks. Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team. Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal fossils and fish fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Reference == nsneusbdx2ft4f7l85plqb10djlhm2m 103432 103431 2026-06-17T13:09:13Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103432 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high. Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and [[:en:Omo_National_Park|Omo National Parks]] wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]], crocodile and puff adder snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di Pliocene and Pleistocene times. Fossils from Australopithecus and Homo genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from quartzite. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for Olduvai Gorge. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di Oldowan industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds. Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one Australopithecus man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old. Archeologists also find fossil fragments of Oldowan hominids from early Pleistocene era reach back to Pliocene era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later Homo sapiens remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks. Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team. Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal fossils and fish fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Reference == nbd0n6islszghmh1tdwgpiych140bax 103434 103432 2026-06-17T13:09:52Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103434 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high. Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and [[:en:Omo_National_Park|Omo National Parks]] wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]], [[:en:Crocodile|crocodile]] and puff adder snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di Pliocene and Pleistocene times. Fossils from Australopithecus and Homo genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from quartzite. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for Olduvai Gorge. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di Oldowan industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds. Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one Australopithecus man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old. Archeologists also find fossil fragments of Oldowan hominids from early Pleistocene era reach back to Pliocene era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later Homo sapiens remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks. Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team. Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal fossils and fish fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Reference == ic12n65figkwwh3iarz7r5mywgvfysp 103435 103434 2026-06-17T13:10:27Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103435 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high. Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and [[:en:Omo_National_Park|Omo National Parks]] wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]], [[:en:Crocodile|crocodile]] and [[:en:Bitis_arietans|puff adder]] snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di Pliocene and Pleistocene times. Fossils from Australopithecus and Homo genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from quartzite. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for Olduvai Gorge. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di Oldowan industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds. Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one Australopithecus man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old. Archeologists also find fossil fragments of Oldowan hominids from early Pleistocene era reach back to Pliocene era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later Homo sapiens remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks. Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team. Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal fossils and fish fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Reference == 5wxvi4muiwrgz73korc8o15mgggmepd 103436 103435 2026-06-17T13:11:17Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103436 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high.<ref>Camerapix (2000), p. 262</ref> Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and [[:en:Omo_National_Park|Omo National Parks]] wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]], [[:en:Crocodile|crocodile]] and [[:en:Bitis_arietans|puff adder]] snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di Pliocene and Pleistocene times. Fossils from Australopithecus and Homo genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from quartzite. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for Olduvai Gorge. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di Oldowan industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds. Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one Australopithecus man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old. Archeologists also find fossil fragments of Oldowan hominids from early Pleistocene era reach back to Pliocene era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later Homo sapiens remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks. Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team. Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal fossils and fish fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Reference == 0k5azahhz9b4h502utk27upsl3ieohc 103438 103436 2026-06-17T13:12:49Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103438 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high.<ref>Camerapix (2000), p. 262</ref> Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and [[:en:Omo_National_Park|Omo National Parks]] wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref>. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]], [[:en:Crocodile|crocodile]] and [[:en:Bitis_arietans|puff adder]] snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di Pliocene and Pleistocene times. Fossils from Australopithecus and Homo genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from quartzite. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for Olduvai Gorge. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di Oldowan industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds. Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one Australopithecus man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old. Archeologists also find fossil fragments of Oldowan hominids from early Pleistocene era reach back to Pliocene era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later Homo sapiens remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks. Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team. Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal fossils and fish fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Reference == jcncnpq9193scofm0az9vdx7y94gi9p 103439 103438 2026-06-17T13:14:00Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103439 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high.<ref>Camerapix (2000), p. 262</ref> Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and [[:en:Omo_National_Park|Omo National Parks]] wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref>. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]], [[:en:Crocodile|crocodile]] and [[:en:Bitis_arietans|puff adder]] snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] and [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] times. Fossils from Australopithecus and Homo genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from quartzite. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for Olduvai Gorge. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di Oldowan industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds. Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one Australopithecus man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old. Archeologists also find fossil fragments of Oldowan hominids from early Pleistocene era reach back to Pliocene era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later Homo sapiens remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks. Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team. Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal fossils and fish fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Reference == mvrjdrsp73ga4hpfy5hty7avyfh3v4a 103440 103439 2026-06-17T13:18:57Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103440 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high.<ref>Camerapix (2000), p. 262</ref> Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and [[:en:Omo_National_Park|Omo National Parks]] wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref>. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]], [[:en:Crocodile|crocodile]] and [[:en:Bitis_arietans|puff adder]] snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] and [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] times. Fossils from [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] and [[:en:Homo_(genus)|Homo]] genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from [[:en:Quartzite|quartzite]]. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for [[:en:Olduvai_Gorge|Olduvai Gorge]]. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di [[:en:Oldowan|Oldowan]] industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds. Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old. Archeologists also find [[:en:Omo_remains|fossil fragments]] of [[:en:Olduwan|Oldowan]] [[:en:Hominid|hominids]] from early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] era reach back to [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later [[:en:Homo_sapiens|Homo sapiens]] remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks. Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team. Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal fossils and fish fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Reference == ke8wp6iaaj3s0pgcki3i6ywrul4tw59 103442 103440 2026-06-17T13:22:57Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103442 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high.<ref>Camerapix (2000), p. 262</ref> Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and [[:en:Omo_National_Park|Omo National Parks]] wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref>. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]], [[:en:Crocodile|crocodile]] and [[:en:Bitis_arietans|puff adder]] snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] and [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] times.<ref>Alemseged, Z (April 2003). "An integrated approach to taphonomy and faunal change in the Shungura Formation (Ethiopia) and its implication for hominid evolution". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''44''' (4): 451–478. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5|10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5.]] [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12727463 12727463]</ref> Fossils from [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] and [[:en:Homo_(genus)|Homo]] genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from [[:en:Quartzite|quartzite]]. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for [[:en:Olduvai_Gorge|Olduvai Gorge]]. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di [[:en:Oldowan|Oldowan]] industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds. Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old. Archeologists also find [[:en:Omo_remains|fossil fragments]] of [[:en:Olduwan|Oldowan]] [[:en:Hominid|hominids]] from early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] era reach back to [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later [[:en:Homo_sapiens|Homo sapiens]] remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks. Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team. Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal fossils and fish fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Reference == b42hf0vbkzvkguhfgqak7j73vfdxv4e 103444 103442 2026-06-17T13:25:57Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103444 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high.<ref>Camerapix (2000), p. 262</ref> Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and [[:en:Omo_National_Park|Omo National Parks]] wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref>. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]], [[:en:Crocodile|crocodile]] and [[:en:Bitis_arietans|puff adder]] snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] and [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] times.<ref>Alemseged, Z (April 2003). "An integrated approach to taphonomy and faunal change in the Shungura Formation (Ethiopia) and its implication for hominid evolution". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''44''' (4): 451–478. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5|10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5.]] [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12727463 12727463]</ref> Fossils from [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] and [[:en:Homo_(genus)|Homo]] genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from [[:en:Quartzite|quartzite]]. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo"]. ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref>. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for [[:en:Olduvai_Gorge|Olduvai Gorge]]. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di [[:en:Oldowan|Oldowan]] industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds. Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old. Archeologists also find [[:en:Omo_remains|fossil fragments]] of [[:en:Olduwan|Oldowan]] [[:en:Hominid|hominids]] from early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] era reach back to [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later [[:en:Homo_sapiens|Homo sapiens]] remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks. Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team. Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal fossils and fish fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Reference == 1r4fta2pd1esdkjkapxl2eztv6to05z 103447 103444 2026-06-17T13:34:25Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103447 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high.<ref>Camerapix (2000), p. 262</ref> Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and [[:en:Omo_National_Park|Omo National Parks]] wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref>. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]], [[:en:Crocodile|crocodile]] and [[:en:Bitis_arietans|puff adder]] snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] and [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] times.<ref>Alemseged, Z (April 2003). "An integrated approach to taphonomy and faunal change in the Shungura Formation (Ethiopia) and its implication for hominid evolution". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''44''' (4): 451–478. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5|10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5.]] [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12727463 12727463]</ref> Fossils from [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] and [[:en:Homo_(genus)|Homo]] genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from [[:en:Quartzite|quartzite]]. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo"]. ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref>. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for [[:en:Olduvai_Gorge|Olduvai Gorge]]. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di [[:en:Oldowan|Oldowan]] industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old<ref>Crandall (2007)</ref><ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. ISBN 0-89577-087-3</ref>. Archeologists also find [[:en:Omo_remains|fossil fragments]] of [[:en:Olduwan|Oldowan]] [[:en:Hominid|hominids]] from early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] era reach back to [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later [[:en:Homo_sapiens|Homo sapiens]] remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team.<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). "[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia"]]. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal fossils and fish fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Reference == bqstdxnlaxb2qrcfbns5pkwb8q7rhch 103449 103447 2026-06-17T13:37:00Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103449 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high.<ref>Camerapix (2000), p. 262</ref> Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and [[:en:Omo_National_Park|Omo National Parks]] wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref>. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]], [[:en:Crocodile|crocodile]] and [[:en:Bitis_arietans|puff adder]] snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] and [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] times.<ref>Alemseged, Z (April 2003). "An integrated approach to taphonomy and faunal change in the Shungura Formation (Ethiopia) and its implication for hominid evolution". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''44''' (4): 451–478. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5|10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5.]] [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12727463 12727463]</ref> Fossils from [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] and [[:en:Homo_(genus)|Homo]] genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from [[:en:Quartzite|quartzite]]. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo"]. ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref>. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for [[:en:Olduvai_Gorge|Olduvai Gorge]]. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di [[:en:Oldowan|Oldowan]] industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old<ref>Crandall (2007)</ref><ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. ISBN 0-89577-087-3</ref>. Archeologists also find [[:en:Omo_remains|fossil fragments]] of [[:en:Olduwan|Oldowan]] [[:en:Hominid|hominids]] from early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] era reach back to [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later [[:en:Homo_sapiens|Homo sapiens]] remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team.<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). "[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia"]]. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal fossils and fish<ref>Trapani, Josh (September 2008). "Quaternary fossil fish from the Kibish Formation, Omo Valley, Ethiopia". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''55''' (3): 521–530. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017|10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18691738 18691738]</ref> fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Reference == 929fxp1bi46wkuecvg4t89ulxrgo2u1 103450 103449 2026-06-17T13:40:09Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103450 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high.<ref>Camerapix (2000), p. 262</ref> Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and [[:en:Omo_National_Park|Omo National Parks]] wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref>. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]], [[:en:Crocodile|crocodile]] and [[:en:Bitis_arietans|puff adder]] snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] and [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] times.<ref>Alemseged, Z (April 2003). "An integrated approach to taphonomy and faunal change in the Shungura Formation (Ethiopia) and its implication for hominid evolution". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''44''' (4): 451–478. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5|10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5.]] [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12727463 12727463]</ref> Fossils from [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] and [[:en:Homo_(genus)|Homo]] genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from [[:en:Quartzite|quartzite]]. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo"]. ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref>. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for [[:en:Olduvai_Gorge|Olduvai Gorge]]. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di [[:en:Oldowan|Oldowan]] industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old<ref>Crandall (2007)</ref><ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. ISBN 0-89577-087-3</ref>. Archeologists also find [[:en:Omo_remains|fossil fragments]] of [[:en:Olduwan|Oldowan]] [[:en:Hominid|hominids]] from early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] era reach back to [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later [[:en:Homo_sapiens|Homo sapiens]] remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team.<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). "[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia"]]. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). [[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|"Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia]]". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> fossils and fish<ref>Trapani, Josh (September 2008). "Quaternary fossil fish from the Kibish Formation, Omo Valley, Ethiopia". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''55''' (3): 521–530. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017|10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18691738 18691738]</ref> fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Reference == tmflw6lebsr8ntqgggnsq3s2difb6zl 103453 103450 2026-06-17T13:43:39Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103453 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high.<ref>Camerapix (2000), p. 262</ref> Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and [[:en:Omo_National_Park|Omo National Parks]] wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref>. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]], [[:en:Crocodile|crocodile]] and [[:en:Bitis_arietans|puff adder]] snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] and [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] times.<ref>Alemseged, Z (April 2003). "An integrated approach to taphonomy and faunal change in the Shungura Formation (Ethiopia) and its implication for hominid evolution". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''44''' (4): 451–478. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5|10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5.]] [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12727463 12727463]</ref> Fossils from [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] and [[:en:Homo_(genus)|Homo]] genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from [[:en:Quartzite|quartzite]]. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo"]. ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref>. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for [[:en:Olduvai_Gorge|Olduvai Gorge]]. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di [[:en:Oldowan|Oldowan]] industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old<ref>Crandall (2007)</ref><ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. ISBN 0-89577-087-3</ref>. Archeologists also find [[:en:Omo_remains|fossil fragments]] of [[:en:Olduwan|Oldowan]] [[:en:Hominid|hominids]] from early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] era reach back to [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later [[:en:Homo_sapiens|Homo sapiens]] remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team.<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). "[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia"]]. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). [[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|"Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia]]". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> fossils and fish<ref>Trapani, Josh (September 2008). "Quaternary fossil fish from the Kibish Formation, Omo Valley, Ethiopia". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''55''' (3): 521–530. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017|10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18691738 18691738]</ref> fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Human impact == Di lower valley of di Omo today dey believed by some people say e don be crossroads for thousands of years, as different cultures and ethnic groups dey migrate around di region. Na why dem find plenty hominid fossils for dere. Up till now, di people wey dey live for di Lower Valley of Omo like di Mursi, Suri, Nyangatom, Dizi and Me'en dey studied because of their diversity. == Reference == 4xfwvzbz6l8jaw5kznmws4lc48rav95 103454 103453 2026-06-17T13:45:04Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103454 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high.<ref>Camerapix (2000), p. 262</ref> Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and [[:en:Omo_National_Park|Omo National Parks]] wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref>. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]], [[:en:Crocodile|crocodile]] and [[:en:Bitis_arietans|puff adder]] snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] and [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] times.<ref>Alemseged, Z (April 2003). "An integrated approach to taphonomy and faunal change in the Shungura Formation (Ethiopia) and its implication for hominid evolution". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''44''' (4): 451–478. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5|10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5.]] [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12727463 12727463]</ref> Fossils from [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] and [[:en:Homo_(genus)|Homo]] genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from [[:en:Quartzite|quartzite]]. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo"]. ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref>. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for [[:en:Olduvai_Gorge|Olduvai Gorge]]. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di [[:en:Oldowan|Oldowan]] industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old<ref>Crandall (2007)</ref><ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. ISBN 0-89577-087-3</ref>. Archeologists also find [[:en:Omo_remains|fossil fragments]] of [[:en:Olduwan|Oldowan]] [[:en:Hominid|hominids]] from early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] era reach back to [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later [[:en:Homo_sapiens|Homo sapiens]] remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team.<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). "[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia"]]. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). [[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|"Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia]]". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> fossils and fish<ref>Trapani, Josh (September 2008). "Quaternary fossil fish from the Kibish Formation, Omo Valley, Ethiopia". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''55''' (3): 521–530. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017|10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18691738 18691738]</ref> fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Human impact == Di lower valley of di Omo today dey believed by some people say e don be crossroads for thousands of years, as different cultures and ethnic groups dey migrate around di region. Na why dem find plenty hominid fossils for dere. Up till now, di people wey dey live for di Lower Valley of Omo like di Mursi, Suri, Nyangatom, Dizi and Me'en dey studied because of their diversity. Italian explorer Vittorio Bottego first reach di Omo River on 29 June 1896 during im second African expedition (1895–97), but he die for dat same expedition on 17 March 1897. Na in honour of am dem rename di river Omo-Bottego. Herbert Henry Austin and im men later reach di Omo delta on 12 September 1898, and dem discover say Ethiopian expedition led by Ras Wolda Giyorgis don already plant Ethiopian flags for di northern shore of Lake Turkana on 7 April. Lieutenant Alexander Bulatovich lead another Ethiopian expedition wey reach di lake on 21 August 1899, and e also cause destruction. Even with all dis, di Frenchmen inside di group manage map many of di Omo River delta bends for di first time. Dat version of di river map dey used until 1930s when Italian colonial cartographers draw new and more correct map of di river and im delta. == Reference == 1lo2hw1njhshcpagvil5tt4d157oyzp 103455 103454 2026-06-17T13:49:03Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103455 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high.<ref>Camerapix (2000), p. 262</ref> Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and [[:en:Omo_National_Park|Omo National Parks]] wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref>. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]], [[:en:Crocodile|crocodile]] and [[:en:Bitis_arietans|puff adder]] snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] and [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] times.<ref>Alemseged, Z (April 2003). "An integrated approach to taphonomy and faunal change in the Shungura Formation (Ethiopia) and its implication for hominid evolution". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''44''' (4): 451–478. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5|10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5.]] [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12727463 12727463]</ref> Fossils from [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] and [[:en:Homo_(genus)|Homo]] genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from [[:en:Quartzite|quartzite]]. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo"]. ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref>. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for [[:en:Olduvai_Gorge|Olduvai Gorge]]. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di [[:en:Oldowan|Oldowan]] industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old<ref>Crandall (2007)</ref><ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. ISBN 0-89577-087-3</ref>. Archeologists also find [[:en:Omo_remains|fossil fragments]] of [[:en:Olduwan|Oldowan]] [[:en:Hominid|hominids]] from early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] era reach back to [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later [[:en:Homo_sapiens|Homo sapiens]] remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team.<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). "[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia"]]. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). [[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|"Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia]]". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> fossils and fish<ref>Trapani, Josh (September 2008). "Quaternary fossil fish from the Kibish Formation, Omo Valley, Ethiopia". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''55''' (3): 521–530. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017|10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18691738 18691738]</ref> fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Human impact == Di lower valley of di Omo today dey believed by some people say e don be crossroads for thousands of years, as different cultures and ethnic groups dey migrate around di region. Na why dem find plenty [[:en:Hominidae|hominid]] fossils for dere. Up till now, di people wey dey live for di Lower Valley of Omo like di [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], [[:en:Surma_people|Suri]], [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]], [[:en:Dizi_people|Dizi]] and [[:en:Surma_people|Me'en]] dey studied because of their [[:en:Multiculturalism|diversity]]. Italian explorer [[:en:Vittorio_Bottego|Vittorio Bottego]] first reach di Omo River on 29 June 1896 during im second African expedition (1895–97), but he die for dat same expedition on 17 March 1897. Na in honour of am dem rename di river Omo-Bottego. [[:en:Herbert_Henry_Austin|Herbert Henry Austin]] and im men later reach di Omo delta on 12 September 1898, and dem discover say Ethiopian expedition led by Ras Wolda Giyorgis don already plant Ethiopian flags for di northern shore of Lake Turkana on 7 April. Lieutenant [[:en:Alexander_Bulatovich|Alexander Bulatovich]] lead another Ethiopian expedition wey reach di lake on 21 August 1899, and e also cause destruction. Even with all dis, di Frenchmen inside di group manage map many of di Omo River delta bends for di first time. Dat version of di river map dey used until 1930s when Italian colonial cartographers draw new and more correct map of di river and im delta. == Reference == o9vienvnr5cd0q85ykfgwif6cjwfgzc 103456 103455 2026-06-17T13:54:18Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103456 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high.<ref>Camerapix (2000), p. 262</ref> Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and [[:en:Omo_National_Park|Omo National Parks]] wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref>. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]], [[:en:Crocodile|crocodile]] and [[:en:Bitis_arietans|puff adder]] snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] and [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] times.<ref>Alemseged, Z (April 2003). "An integrated approach to taphonomy and faunal change in the Shungura Formation (Ethiopia) and its implication for hominid evolution". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''44''' (4): 451–478. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5|10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5.]] [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12727463 12727463]</ref> Fossils from [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] and [[:en:Homo_(genus)|Homo]] genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from [[:en:Quartzite|quartzite]]. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo"]. ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref>. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for [[:en:Olduvai_Gorge|Olduvai Gorge]]. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di [[:en:Oldowan|Oldowan]] industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old<ref>Crandall (2007)</ref><ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. ISBN 0-89577-087-3</ref>. Archeologists also find [[:en:Omo_remains|fossil fragments]] of [[:en:Olduwan|Oldowan]] [[:en:Hominid|hominids]] from early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] era reach back to [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later [[:en:Homo_sapiens|Homo sapiens]] remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team.<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). "[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia"]]. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). [[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|"Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia]]". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> fossils and fish<ref>Trapani, Josh (September 2008). "Quaternary fossil fish from the Kibish Formation, Omo Valley, Ethiopia". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''55''' (3): 521–530. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017|10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18691738 18691738]</ref> fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Human impact == Di lower valley of di Omo today dey believed by some people say e don be crossroads for thousands of years, as different cultures and ethnic groups dey migrate around di region. Na why dem find plenty [[:en:Hominidae|hominid]] fossils for dere<ref>Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17/ Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. Retrieved 2025-01-06.</ref>. Up till now, di people wey dey live for di Lower Valley of Omo like di [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], [[:en:Surma_people|Suri]], [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]], [[:en:Dizi_people|Dizi]] and [[:en:Surma_people|Me'en]] dey studied because of their [[:en:Multiculturalism|diversity]].<ref>Hurd (2006)</ref> Italian explorer [[:en:Vittorio_Bottego|Vittorio Bottego]] first reach di Omo River on 29 June 1896 during im second African expedition (1895–97), but he die for dat same expedition on 17 March 1897. Na in honour of am dem rename di river Omo-Bottego. [[:en:Herbert_Henry_Austin|Herbert Henry Austin]] and im men later reach di Omo delta on 12 September 1898, and dem discover say Ethiopian expedition led by Ras Wolda Giyorgis don already plant Ethiopian flags for di northern shore of Lake Turkana on 7 April. Lieutenant [[:en:Alexander_Bulatovich|Alexander Bulatovich]] lead another Ethiopian expedition wey reach di lake on 21 August 1899, and e also cause destruction. Even with all dis, di Frenchmen inside di group manage map many of di Omo River delta bends for di first time. Dat version of di river map dey used until 1930s when Italian colonial cartographers draw new and more correct map of di river and im delta.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110612210605/http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf "Local History in Ethiopia]" (PDF). Archived from [http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf the original] (PDF) on 2011-06-12. Retrieved 2016-05-02. The Nordic Africa Institute website (accessed 1 May 2016)</ref> == Reference == n2emf8kiepfeifmkfwvro6r5wxc5lob 103457 103456 2026-06-17T13:56:08Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103457 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' (Amharic: ኦሞ ወንዝ, romanized: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high.<ref>Camerapix (2000), p. 262</ref> Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and [[:en:Omo_National_Park|Omo National Parks]] wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref>. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]], [[:en:Crocodile|crocodile]] and [[:en:Bitis_arietans|puff adder]] snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] and [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] times.<ref>Alemseged, Z (April 2003). "An integrated approach to taphonomy and faunal change in the Shungura Formation (Ethiopia) and its implication for hominid evolution". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''44''' (4): 451–478. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5|10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5.]] [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12727463 12727463]</ref> Fossils from [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] and [[:en:Homo_(genus)|Homo]] genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from [[:en:Quartzite|quartzite]]. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo"]. ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref>. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for [[:en:Olduvai_Gorge|Olduvai Gorge]]. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di [[:en:Oldowan|Oldowan]] industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old<ref>Crandall (2007)</ref><ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. ISBN 0-89577-087-3</ref>. Archeologists also find [[:en:Omo_remains|fossil fragments]] of [[:en:Olduwan|Oldowan]] [[:en:Hominid|hominids]] from early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] era reach back to [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later [[:en:Homo_sapiens|Homo sapiens]] remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team.<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). "[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia"]]. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). [[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|"Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia]]". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> fossils and fish<ref>Trapani, Josh (September 2008). "Quaternary fossil fish from the Kibish Formation, Omo Valley, Ethiopia". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''55''' (3): 521–530. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017|10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18691738 18691738]</ref> fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Human impact == Di lower valley of di Omo today dey believed by some people say e don be crossroads for thousands of years, as different cultures and ethnic groups dey migrate around di region. Na why dem find plenty [[:en:Hominidae|hominid]] fossils for dere<ref>Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17/ Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. Retrieved 2025-01-06.</ref>. Up till now, di people wey dey live for di Lower Valley of Omo like di [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], [[:en:Surma_people|Suri]], [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]], [[:en:Dizi_people|Dizi]] and [[:en:Surma_people|Me'en]] dey studied because of their [[:en:Multiculturalism|diversity]].<ref>Hurd (2006)</ref> Italian explorer [[:en:Vittorio_Bottego|Vittorio Bottego]] first reach di Omo River on 29 June 1896 during im second African expedition (1895–97), but he die for dat same expedition on 17 March 1897. Na in honour of am dem rename di river Omo-Bottego. [[:en:Herbert_Henry_Austin|Herbert Henry Austin]] and im men later reach di Omo delta on 12 September 1898, and dem discover say Ethiopian expedition led by Ras Wolda Giyorgis don already plant Ethiopian flags for di northern shore of Lake Turkana on 7 April. Lieutenant [[:en:Alexander_Bulatovich|Alexander Bulatovich]] lead another Ethiopian expedition wey reach di lake on 21 August 1899, and e also cause destruction. Even with all dis, di Frenchmen inside di group manage map many of di Omo River delta bends for di first time. Dat version of di river map dey used until 1930s when Italian colonial cartographers draw new and more correct map of di river and im delta.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110612210605/http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf "Local History in Ethiopia]" (PDF). Archived from [http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf the original] (PDF) on 2011-06-12. Retrieved 2016-05-02. The Nordic Africa Institute website (accessed 1 May 2016)</ref> == Hydroelectric power stations == For di Omo River basin, e get several power stations and dams wey dem name after di Gilgel Gibe River and Gibe River, wey be tributaries of di Omo River. Even though di names fit confuse person, all di stations and dams dey actually sit down for di Omo River itself. == Reference == 9swwgx2dbzmkxdaqikmcvc7mp3cre4e 103458 103457 2026-06-17T13:58:27Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103458 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Omo River''' ([[:en:Amharic_language|Amharic]]: ኦሞ ወንዝ, [[:en:Romanization_of_Amharic|romanized]]: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high.<ref>Camerapix (2000), p. 262</ref> Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and [[:en:Omo_National_Park|Omo National Parks]] wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref>. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]], [[:en:Crocodile|crocodile]] and [[:en:Bitis_arietans|puff adder]] snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] and [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] times.<ref>Alemseged, Z (April 2003). "An integrated approach to taphonomy and faunal change in the Shungura Formation (Ethiopia) and its implication for hominid evolution". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''44''' (4): 451–478. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5|10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5.]] [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12727463 12727463]</ref> Fossils from [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] and [[:en:Homo_(genus)|Homo]] genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from [[:en:Quartzite|quartzite]]. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo"]. ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref>. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for [[:en:Olduvai_Gorge|Olduvai Gorge]]. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di [[:en:Oldowan|Oldowan]] industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old<ref>Crandall (2007)</ref><ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. ISBN 0-89577-087-3</ref>. Archeologists also find [[:en:Omo_remains|fossil fragments]] of [[:en:Olduwan|Oldowan]] [[:en:Hominid|hominids]] from early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] era reach back to [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later [[:en:Homo_sapiens|Homo sapiens]] remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team.<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). "[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia"]]. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). [[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|"Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia]]". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> fossils and fish<ref>Trapani, Josh (September 2008). "Quaternary fossil fish from the Kibish Formation, Omo Valley, Ethiopia". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''55''' (3): 521–530. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017|10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18691738 18691738]</ref> fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Human impact == Di lower valley of di Omo today dey believed by some people say e don be crossroads for thousands of years, as different cultures and ethnic groups dey migrate around di region. Na why dem find plenty [[:en:Hominidae|hominid]] fossils for dere<ref>Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17/ Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. Retrieved 2025-01-06.</ref>. Up till now, di people wey dey live for di Lower Valley of Omo like di [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], [[:en:Surma_people|Suri]], [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]], [[:en:Dizi_people|Dizi]] and [[:en:Surma_people|Me'en]] dey studied because of their [[:en:Multiculturalism|diversity]].<ref>Hurd (2006)</ref> Italian explorer [[:en:Vittorio_Bottego|Vittorio Bottego]] first reach di Omo River on 29 June 1896 during im second African expedition (1895–97), but he die for dat same expedition on 17 March 1897. Na in honour of am dem rename di river Omo-Bottego. [[:en:Herbert_Henry_Austin|Herbert Henry Austin]] and im men later reach di Omo delta on 12 September 1898, and dem discover say Ethiopian expedition led by Ras Wolda Giyorgis don already plant Ethiopian flags for di northern shore of Lake Turkana on 7 April. Lieutenant [[:en:Alexander_Bulatovich|Alexander Bulatovich]] lead another Ethiopian expedition wey reach di lake on 21 August 1899, and e also cause destruction. Even with all dis, di Frenchmen inside di group manage map many of di Omo River delta bends for di first time. Dat version of di river map dey used until 1930s when Italian colonial cartographers draw new and more correct map of di river and im delta.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110612210605/http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf "Local History in Ethiopia]" (PDF). Archived from [http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf the original] (PDF) on 2011-06-12. Retrieved 2016-05-02. The Nordic Africa Institute website (accessed 1 May 2016)</ref> == Hydroelectric power stations == For di Omo River basin, e get several power stations and dams wey dem name after di [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_River|Gilgel Gibe River]] and [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]], wey be tributaries of di Omo River. Even though di names fit confuse person, all di stations and dams dey actually sit down for di Omo River itself. == Reference == rpfpt3b8ytpprf4nv5sn0q6m5ep38z2 103459 103458 2026-06-17T14:00:45Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103459 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} Di '''Omo River''' ([[:en:Amharic_language|Amharic]]: ኦሞ ወንዝ, [[:en:Romanization_of_Amharic|romanized]]: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high.<ref>Camerapix (2000), p. 262</ref> Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and [[:en:Omo_National_Park|Omo National Parks]] wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref>. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]], [[:en:Crocodile|crocodile]] and [[:en:Bitis_arietans|puff adder]] snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] and [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] times.<ref>Alemseged, Z (April 2003). "An integrated approach to taphonomy and faunal change in the Shungura Formation (Ethiopia) and its implication for hominid evolution". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''44''' (4): 451–478. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5|10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5.]] [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12727463 12727463]</ref> Fossils from [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] and [[:en:Homo_(genus)|Homo]] genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from [[:en:Quartzite|quartzite]]. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo"]. ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref>. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for [[:en:Olduvai_Gorge|Olduvai Gorge]]. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di [[:en:Oldowan|Oldowan]] industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old<ref>Crandall (2007)</ref><ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. ISBN 0-89577-087-3</ref>. Archeologists also find [[:en:Omo_remains|fossil fragments]] of [[:en:Olduwan|Oldowan]] [[:en:Hominid|hominids]] from early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] era reach back to [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later [[:en:Homo_sapiens|Homo sapiens]] remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team.<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). "[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia"]]. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). [[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|"Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia]]". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> fossils and fish<ref>Trapani, Josh (September 2008). "Quaternary fossil fish from the Kibish Formation, Omo Valley, Ethiopia". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''55''' (3): 521–530. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017|10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18691738 18691738]</ref> fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Human impact == Di lower valley of di Omo today dey believed by some people say e don be crossroads for thousands of years, as different cultures and ethnic groups dey migrate around di region. Na why dem find plenty [[:en:Hominidae|hominid]] fossils for dere<ref>Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17/ Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. Retrieved 2025-01-06.</ref>. Up till now, di people wey dey live for di Lower Valley of Omo like di [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], [[:en:Surma_people|Suri]], [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]], [[:en:Dizi_people|Dizi]] and [[:en:Surma_people|Me'en]] dey studied because of their [[:en:Multiculturalism|diversity]].<ref>Hurd (2006)</ref> Italian explorer [[:en:Vittorio_Bottego|Vittorio Bottego]] first reach di Omo River on 29 June 1896 during im second African expedition (1895–97), but he die for dat same expedition on 17 March 1897. Na in honour of am dem rename di river Omo-Bottego. [[:en:Herbert_Henry_Austin|Herbert Henry Austin]] and im men later reach di Omo delta on 12 September 1898, and dem discover say Ethiopian expedition led by Ras Wolda Giyorgis don already plant Ethiopian flags for di northern shore of Lake Turkana on 7 April. Lieutenant [[:en:Alexander_Bulatovich|Alexander Bulatovich]] lead another Ethiopian expedition wey reach di lake on 21 August 1899, and e also cause destruction. Even with all dis, di Frenchmen inside di group manage map many of di Omo River delta bends for di first time. Dat version of di river map dey used until 1930s when Italian colonial cartographers draw new and more correct map of di river and im delta.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110612210605/http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf "Local History in Ethiopia]" (PDF). Archived from [http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf the original] (PDF) on 2011-06-12. Retrieved 2016-05-02. The Nordic Africa Institute website (accessed 1 May 2016)</ref> == Hydroelectric power stations == For di Omo River basin, e get several power stations and dams wey dem name after di [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_River|Gilgel Gibe River]] and [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]], wey be tributaries of di Omo River. Even though di names fit confuse person, all di stations and dams dey actually sit down for di Omo River itself. == Reference == 7ofzcic3f6j2lirsjr1cce6c0mskmyn 103460 103459 2026-06-17T14:02:41Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103460 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} [[File:Omo river delta.jpg|thumb|310x310px|Omo River Delta]] Di '''Omo River''' ([[:en:Amharic_language|Amharic]]: ኦሞ ወንዝ, [[:en:Romanization_of_Amharic|romanized]]: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high.<ref>Camerapix (2000), p. 262</ref> Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and [[:en:Omo_National_Park|Omo National Parks]] wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref>. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]], [[:en:Crocodile|crocodile]] and [[:en:Bitis_arietans|puff adder]] snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] and [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] times.<ref>Alemseged, Z (April 2003). "An integrated approach to taphonomy and faunal change in the Shungura Formation (Ethiopia) and its implication for hominid evolution". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''44''' (4): 451–478. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5|10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5.]] [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12727463 12727463]</ref> Fossils from [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] and [[:en:Homo_(genus)|Homo]] genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from [[:en:Quartzite|quartzite]]. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo"]. ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref>. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for [[:en:Olduvai_Gorge|Olduvai Gorge]]. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di [[:en:Oldowan|Oldowan]] industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old<ref>Crandall (2007)</ref><ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. ISBN 0-89577-087-3</ref>. Archeologists also find [[:en:Omo_remains|fossil fragments]] of [[:en:Olduwan|Oldowan]] [[:en:Hominid|hominids]] from early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] era reach back to [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later [[:en:Homo_sapiens|Homo sapiens]] remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team.<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). "[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia"]]. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). [[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|"Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia]]". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> fossils and fish<ref>Trapani, Josh (September 2008). "Quaternary fossil fish from the Kibish Formation, Omo Valley, Ethiopia". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''55''' (3): 521–530. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017|10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18691738 18691738]</ref> fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Human impact == Di lower valley of di Omo today dey believed by some people say e don be crossroads for thousands of years, as different cultures and ethnic groups dey migrate around di region. Na why dem find plenty [[:en:Hominidae|hominid]] fossils for dere<ref>Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17/ Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. Retrieved 2025-01-06.</ref>. Up till now, di people wey dey live for di Lower Valley of Omo like di [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], [[:en:Surma_people|Suri]], [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]], [[:en:Dizi_people|Dizi]] and [[:en:Surma_people|Me'en]] dey studied because of their [[:en:Multiculturalism|diversity]].<ref>Hurd (2006)</ref> Italian explorer [[:en:Vittorio_Bottego|Vittorio Bottego]] first reach di Omo River on 29 June 1896 during im second African expedition (1895–97), but he die for dat same expedition on 17 March 1897. Na in honour of am dem rename di river Omo-Bottego. [[:en:Herbert_Henry_Austin|Herbert Henry Austin]] and im men later reach di Omo delta on 12 September 1898, and dem discover say Ethiopian expedition led by Ras Wolda Giyorgis don already plant Ethiopian flags for di northern shore of Lake Turkana on 7 April. Lieutenant [[:en:Alexander_Bulatovich|Alexander Bulatovich]] lead another Ethiopian expedition wey reach di lake on 21 August 1899, and e also cause destruction. Even with all dis, di Frenchmen inside di group manage map many of di Omo River delta bends for di first time. Dat version of di river map dey used until 1930s when Italian colonial cartographers draw new and more correct map of di river and im delta.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110612210605/http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf "Local History in Ethiopia]" (PDF). Archived from [http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf the original] (PDF) on 2011-06-12. Retrieved 2016-05-02. The Nordic Africa Institute website (accessed 1 May 2016)</ref> == Hydroelectric power stations == For di Omo River basin, e get several power stations and dams wey dem name after di [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_River|Gilgel Gibe River]] and [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]], wey be tributaries of di Omo River. Even though di names fit confuse person, all di stations and dams dey actually sit down for di Omo River itself. == Reference == 5n52mbucar2yhfq3geq0hx5fk6uz1xc 103461 103460 2026-06-17T14:05:17Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103461 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} [[File:Omo river delta.jpg|thumb|310x310px|Omo River Delta]] [[File:Lower Valley of the Omo-138523.jpg|thumb|301x301px|Omo river crossing]] Di '''Omo River''' ([[:en:Amharic_language|Amharic]]: ኦሞ ወንዝ, [[:en:Romanization_of_Amharic|romanized]]: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high.<ref>Camerapix (2000), p. 262</ref> Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and [[:en:Omo_National_Park|Omo National Parks]] wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref>. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]], [[:en:Crocodile|crocodile]] and [[:en:Bitis_arietans|puff adder]] snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] and [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] times.<ref>Alemseged, Z (April 2003). "An integrated approach to taphonomy and faunal change in the Shungura Formation (Ethiopia) and its implication for hominid evolution". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''44''' (4): 451–478. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5|10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5.]] [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12727463 12727463]</ref> Fossils from [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] and [[:en:Homo_(genus)|Homo]] genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from [[:en:Quartzite|quartzite]]. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo"]. ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref>. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for [[:en:Olduvai_Gorge|Olduvai Gorge]]. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di [[:en:Oldowan|Oldowan]] industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old<ref>Crandall (2007)</ref><ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. ISBN 0-89577-087-3</ref>. Archeologists also find [[:en:Omo_remains|fossil fragments]] of [[:en:Olduwan|Oldowan]] [[:en:Hominid|hominids]] from early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] era reach back to [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later [[:en:Homo_sapiens|Homo sapiens]] remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team.<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). "[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia"]]. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). [[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|"Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia]]". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> fossils and fish<ref>Trapani, Josh (September 2008). "Quaternary fossil fish from the Kibish Formation, Omo Valley, Ethiopia". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''55''' (3): 521–530. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017|10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18691738 18691738]</ref> fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Human impact == Di lower valley of di Omo today dey believed by some people say e don be crossroads for thousands of years, as different cultures and ethnic groups dey migrate around di region. Na why dem find plenty [[:en:Hominidae|hominid]] fossils for dere<ref>Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17/ Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. Retrieved 2025-01-06.</ref>. Up till now, di people wey dey live for di Lower Valley of Omo like di [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], [[:en:Surma_people|Suri]], [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]], [[:en:Dizi_people|Dizi]] and [[:en:Surma_people|Me'en]] dey studied because of their [[:en:Multiculturalism|diversity]].<ref>Hurd (2006)</ref> Italian explorer [[:en:Vittorio_Bottego|Vittorio Bottego]] first reach di Omo River on 29 June 1896 during im second African expedition (1895–97), but he die for dat same expedition on 17 March 1897. Na in honour of am dem rename di river Omo-Bottego. [[:en:Herbert_Henry_Austin|Herbert Henry Austin]] and im men later reach di Omo delta on 12 September 1898, and dem discover say Ethiopian expedition led by Ras Wolda Giyorgis don already plant Ethiopian flags for di northern shore of Lake Turkana on 7 April. Lieutenant [[:en:Alexander_Bulatovich|Alexander Bulatovich]] lead another Ethiopian expedition wey reach di lake on 21 August 1899, and e also cause destruction. Even with all dis, di Frenchmen inside di group manage map many of di Omo River delta bends for di first time. Dat version of di river map dey used until 1930s when Italian colonial cartographers draw new and more correct map of di river and im delta.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110612210605/http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf "Local History in Ethiopia]" (PDF). Archived from [http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf the original] (PDF) on 2011-06-12. Retrieved 2016-05-02. The Nordic Africa Institute website (accessed 1 May 2016)</ref> == Hydroelectric power stations == For di Omo River basin, e get several power stations and dams wey dem name after di [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_River|Gilgel Gibe River]] and [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]], wey be tributaries of di Omo River. Even though di names fit confuse person, all di stations and dams dey actually sit down for di Omo River itself. == Reference == 39u9uszpgb5q3wcehk2tuwxgjpzqbvb 103462 103461 2026-06-17T14:06:59Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103462 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} [[File:Omo river delta.jpg|thumb|310x310px|Omo River Delta]] [[File:Lower Valley of the Omo-138523.jpg|thumb|301x301px|Omo river crossing]] [[File:Omo River Valley IMG 9888.jpg|thumb|305x305px|Omo River Valley]] Di '''Omo River''' ([[:en:Amharic_language|Amharic]]: ኦሞ ወንዝ, [[:en:Romanization_of_Amharic|romanized]]: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high.<ref>Camerapix (2000), p. 262</ref> Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and [[:en:Omo_National_Park|Omo National Parks]] wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref>. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]], [[:en:Crocodile|crocodile]] and [[:en:Bitis_arietans|puff adder]] snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] and [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] times.<ref>Alemseged, Z (April 2003). "An integrated approach to taphonomy and faunal change in the Shungura Formation (Ethiopia) and its implication for hominid evolution". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''44''' (4): 451–478. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5|10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5.]] [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12727463 12727463]</ref> Fossils from [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] and [[:en:Homo_(genus)|Homo]] genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from [[:en:Quartzite|quartzite]]. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo"]. ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref>. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for [[:en:Olduvai_Gorge|Olduvai Gorge]]. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di [[:en:Oldowan|Oldowan]] industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old<ref>Crandall (2007)</ref><ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. ISBN 0-89577-087-3</ref>. Archeologists also find [[:en:Omo_remains|fossil fragments]] of [[:en:Olduwan|Oldowan]] [[:en:Hominid|hominids]] from early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] era reach back to [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later [[:en:Homo_sapiens|Homo sapiens]] remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team.<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). "[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia"]]. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). [[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|"Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia]]". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> fossils and fish<ref>Trapani, Josh (September 2008). "Quaternary fossil fish from the Kibish Formation, Omo Valley, Ethiopia". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''55''' (3): 521–530. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017|10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18691738 18691738]</ref> fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Human impact == Di lower valley of di Omo today dey believed by some people say e don be crossroads for thousands of years, as different cultures and ethnic groups dey migrate around di region. Na why dem find plenty [[:en:Hominidae|hominid]] fossils for dere<ref>Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17/ Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. Retrieved 2025-01-06.</ref>. Up till now, di people wey dey live for di Lower Valley of Omo like di [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], [[:en:Surma_people|Suri]], [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]], [[:en:Dizi_people|Dizi]] and [[:en:Surma_people|Me'en]] dey studied because of their [[:en:Multiculturalism|diversity]].<ref>Hurd (2006)</ref> Italian explorer [[:en:Vittorio_Bottego|Vittorio Bottego]] first reach di Omo River on 29 June 1896 during im second African expedition (1895–97), but he die for dat same expedition on 17 March 1897. Na in honour of am dem rename di river Omo-Bottego. [[:en:Herbert_Henry_Austin|Herbert Henry Austin]] and im men later reach di Omo delta on 12 September 1898, and dem discover say Ethiopian expedition led by Ras Wolda Giyorgis don already plant Ethiopian flags for di northern shore of Lake Turkana on 7 April. Lieutenant [[:en:Alexander_Bulatovich|Alexander Bulatovich]] lead another Ethiopian expedition wey reach di lake on 21 August 1899, and e also cause destruction. Even with all dis, di Frenchmen inside di group manage map many of di Omo River delta bends for di first time. Dat version of di river map dey used until 1930s when Italian colonial cartographers draw new and more correct map of di river and im delta.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110612210605/http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf "Local History in Ethiopia]" (PDF). Archived from [http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf the original] (PDF) on 2011-06-12. Retrieved 2016-05-02. The Nordic Africa Institute website (accessed 1 May 2016)</ref> == Hydroelectric power stations == For di Omo River basin, e get several power stations and dams wey dem name after di [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_River|Gilgel Gibe River]] and [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]], wey be tributaries of di Omo River. Even though di names fit confuse person, all di stations and dams dey actually sit down for di Omo River itself. == Reference == kbimwdy8qiu5vb83bkfjpb2rxpcltg3 103463 103462 2026-06-17T14:11:07Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103463 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} [[File:Omo river delta.jpg|thumb|310x310px|Omo River Delta]] [[File:Lower Valley of the Omo-138523.jpg|thumb|301x301px|Omo river crossing]] [[File:Omo River Valley IMG 9888.jpg|thumb|305x305px|Omo River Valley]] Di '''Omo River''' ([[:en:Amharic_language|Amharic]]: ኦሞ ወንዝ, [[:en:Romanization_of_Amharic|romanized]]: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high.<ref>Camerapix (2000), p. 262</ref> Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and [[:en:Omo_National_Park|Omo National Parks]] wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref>. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]], [[:en:Crocodile|crocodile]] and [[:en:Bitis_arietans|puff adder]] snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] and [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] times.<ref>Alemseged, Z (April 2003). "An integrated approach to taphonomy and faunal change in the Shungura Formation (Ethiopia) and its implication for hominid evolution". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''44''' (4): 451–478. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5|10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5.]] [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12727463 12727463]</ref> Fossils from [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] and [[:en:Homo_(genus)|Homo]] genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from [[:en:Quartzite|quartzite]]. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo"]. ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref>. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for [[:en:Olduvai_Gorge|Olduvai Gorge]]. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di [[:en:Oldowan|Oldowan]] industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old<ref>Crandall (2007)</ref><ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. ISBN 0-89577-087-3</ref>. Archeologists also find [[:en:Omo_remains|fossil fragments]] of [[:en:Olduwan|Oldowan]] [[:en:Hominid|hominids]] from early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] era reach back to [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later [[:en:Homo_sapiens|Homo sapiens]] remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team.<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). "[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia"]]. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). [[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|"Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia]]". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> fossils and fish<ref>Trapani, Josh (September 2008). "Quaternary fossil fish from the Kibish Formation, Omo Valley, Ethiopia". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''55''' (3): 521–530. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017|10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18691738 18691738]</ref> fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Human impact == Di lower valley of di Omo today dey believed by some people say e don be crossroads for thousands of years, as different cultures and ethnic groups dey migrate around di region. Na why dem find plenty [[:en:Hominidae|hominid]] fossils for dere<ref>Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17/ Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. Retrieved 2025-01-06.</ref>. Up till now, di people wey dey live for di Lower Valley of Omo like di [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], [[:en:Surma_people|Suri]], [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]], [[:en:Dizi_people|Dizi]] and [[:en:Surma_people|Me'en]] dey studied because of their [[:en:Multiculturalism|diversity]].<ref>Hurd (2006)</ref> Italian explorer [[:en:Vittorio_Bottego|Vittorio Bottego]] first reach di Omo River on 29 June 1896 during im second African expedition (1895–97), but he die for dat same expedition on 17 March 1897. Na in honour of am dem rename di river Omo-Bottego. [[:en:Herbert_Henry_Austin|Herbert Henry Austin]] and im men later reach di Omo delta on 12 September 1898, and dem discover say Ethiopian expedition led by Ras Wolda Giyorgis don already plant Ethiopian flags for di northern shore of Lake Turkana on 7 April. Lieutenant [[:en:Alexander_Bulatovich|Alexander Bulatovich]] lead another Ethiopian expedition wey reach di lake on 21 August 1899, and e also cause destruction. Even with all dis, di Frenchmen inside di group manage map many of di Omo River delta bends for di first time. Dat version of di river map dey used until 1930s when Italian colonial cartographers draw new and more correct map of di river and im delta.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110612210605/http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf "Local History in Ethiopia]" (PDF). Archived from [http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf the original] (PDF) on 2011-06-12. Retrieved 2016-05-02. The Nordic Africa Institute website (accessed 1 May 2016)</ref> == Hydroelectric power stations == For di Omo River basin, e get several power stations and dams wey dem name after di [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_River|Gilgel Gibe River]] and [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]], wey be tributaries of di Omo River. Even though di names fit confuse person, all di stations and dams dey actually sit down for di Omo River itself. == 2006 floods == For 2006, heavy rain fall cause di Omo River to flood im lower course. Di flood drown at least 456 people and leave more than 20,000 people stranded for five days wey end on 16 August. Even though heavy rain dey normal for dat area, people blame overgrazing and deforestation for di tragedy. World Food Programme spokeswoman Paulette Jones talk say: “Di rivers for Ethiopia no fit hold water like before, because silt don dey fill dem. So e no need heavy rain again before river overflow.” Di seasonal flood of Omo River dey very important for di indigenous groups wey dey live along am. Di flood dey bring fertile silt and water wey make river bank farming possible. Di diverse peoples for di lower Omo like Turkana, Dassanach, Hamer, Nyangatom, Karo, Kwegu, Mursi, Bodi, and Me’en dey get plenty of their food supply from flood retreat cultivation. Di big destructive flood of 2006 na di only one wey don happen for di past fifty years. But di recent drop in Lake Turkana water level wey dey get about 90% of im water from Omo River inflow don already cause salinity level to rise == Reference == 7iggyxohge2o7m3i3tp2fd3bxfg7atx 103464 103463 2026-06-17T14:18:17Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103464 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} [[File:Omo river delta.jpg|thumb|310x310px|Omo River Delta]] [[File:Lower Valley of the Omo-138523.jpg|thumb|301x301px|Omo river crossing]] [[File:Omo River Valley IMG 9888.jpg|thumb|305x305px|Omo River Valley]] Di '''Omo River''' ([[:en:Amharic_language|Amharic]]: ኦሞ ወንዝ, [[:en:Romanization_of_Amharic|romanized]]: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high.<ref>Camerapix (2000), p. 262</ref> Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and [[:en:Omo_National_Park|Omo National Parks]] wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref>. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]], [[:en:Crocodile|crocodile]] and [[:en:Bitis_arietans|puff adder]] snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] and [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] times.<ref>Alemseged, Z (April 2003). "An integrated approach to taphonomy and faunal change in the Shungura Formation (Ethiopia) and its implication for hominid evolution". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''44''' (4): 451–478. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5|10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5.]] [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12727463 12727463]</ref> Fossils from [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] and [[:en:Homo_(genus)|Homo]] genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from [[:en:Quartzite|quartzite]]. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo"]. ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref>. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for [[:en:Olduvai_Gorge|Olduvai Gorge]]. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di [[:en:Oldowan|Oldowan]] industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old<ref>Crandall (2007)</ref><ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. ISBN 0-89577-087-3</ref>. Archeologists also find [[:en:Omo_remains|fossil fragments]] of [[:en:Olduwan|Oldowan]] [[:en:Hominid|hominids]] from early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] era reach back to [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later [[:en:Homo_sapiens|Homo sapiens]] remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team.<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). "[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia"]]. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). [[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|"Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia]]". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> fossils and fish<ref>Trapani, Josh (September 2008). "Quaternary fossil fish from the Kibish Formation, Omo Valley, Ethiopia". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''55''' (3): 521–530. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017|10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18691738 18691738]</ref> fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Human impact == Di lower valley of di Omo today dey believed by some people say e don be crossroads for thousands of years, as different cultures and ethnic groups dey migrate around di region. Na why dem find plenty [[:en:Hominidae|hominid]] fossils for dere<ref>Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17/ Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. Retrieved 2025-01-06.</ref>. Up till now, di people wey dey live for di Lower Valley of Omo like di [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], [[:en:Surma_people|Suri]], [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]], [[:en:Dizi_people|Dizi]] and [[:en:Surma_people|Me'en]] dey studied because of their [[:en:Multiculturalism|diversity]].<ref>Hurd (2006)</ref> Italian explorer [[:en:Vittorio_Bottego|Vittorio Bottego]] first reach di Omo River on 29 June 1896 during im second African expedition (1895–97), but he die for dat same expedition on 17 March 1897. Na in honour of am dem rename di river Omo-Bottego. [[:en:Herbert_Henry_Austin|Herbert Henry Austin]] and im men later reach di Omo delta on 12 September 1898, and dem discover say Ethiopian expedition led by Ras Wolda Giyorgis don already plant Ethiopian flags for di northern shore of Lake Turkana on 7 April. Lieutenant [[:en:Alexander_Bulatovich|Alexander Bulatovich]] lead another Ethiopian expedition wey reach di lake on 21 August 1899, and e also cause destruction. Even with all dis, di Frenchmen inside di group manage map many of di Omo River delta bends for di first time. Dat version of di river map dey used until 1930s when Italian colonial cartographers draw new and more correct map of di river and im delta.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110612210605/http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf "Local History in Ethiopia]" (PDF). Archived from [http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf the original] (PDF) on 2011-06-12. Retrieved 2016-05-02. The Nordic Africa Institute website (accessed 1 May 2016)</ref> == Hydroelectric power stations == For di Omo River basin, e get several power stations and dams wey dem name after di [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_River|Gilgel Gibe River]] and [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]], wey be tributaries of di Omo River. Even though di names fit confuse person, all di stations and dams dey actually sit down for di Omo River itself. == 2006 floods == For 2006, heavy rain fall cause di Omo River to flood im lower course. Di flood drown at least 456 people and leave more than 20,000 people stranded for five days wey end on 16 August. Even though heavy rain dey normal for dat area, people blame [[:en:Overgrazing|overgrazing]] and deforestation for di tragedy. [[:en:World_Food_Programme|World Food Programme]] spokeswoman Paulette Jones talk say: “Di rivers for Ethiopia no fit hold water like before, because silt don dey fill dem. So e no need heavy rain again before river overflow.” Di seasonal flood of Omo River dey very important for di indigenous groups wey dey live along am. Di flood dey bring fertile silt and water wey make river bank farming possible. Di diverse peoples for di lower Omo like [[:en:Turkana_people|Turkana]], [[:en:Daasanach_people|Dassanach]], [[:en:Hamar_people|Hamer]], [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]], Karo, [[:en:Kwegu_people|Kwegu]], [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], [[:en:Bodi_people|Bodi]], and [[:en:Me'en_people|Me’en]] dey get plenty of their food supply from flood retreat cultivation. Di big destructive flood of 2006 na di only one wey don happen for di past fifty years. But di recent drop in Lake Turkana water level wey dey get about 90% of im water from Omo River inflow don already cause salinity level to rise == Reference == 18eqrv7qhnl0yjqop63z0kx6zmagdtj 103465 103464 2026-06-17T14:22:20Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103465 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} [[File:Omo river delta.jpg|thumb|310x310px|Omo River Delta]] [[File:Lower Valley of the Omo-138523.jpg|thumb|301x301px|Omo river crossing]] [[File:Omo River Valley IMG 9888.jpg|thumb|305x305px|Omo River Valley]] Di '''Omo River''' ([[:en:Amharic_language|Amharic]]: ኦሞ ወንዝ, [[:en:Romanization_of_Amharic|romanized]]: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high.<ref>Camerapix (2000), p. 262</ref> Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and [[:en:Omo_National_Park|Omo National Parks]] wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref>. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]], [[:en:Crocodile|crocodile]] and [[:en:Bitis_arietans|puff adder]] snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] and [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] times.<ref>Alemseged, Z (April 2003). "An integrated approach to taphonomy and faunal change in the Shungura Formation (Ethiopia) and its implication for hominid evolution". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''44''' (4): 451–478. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5|10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5.]] [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12727463 12727463]</ref> Fossils from [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] and [[:en:Homo_(genus)|Homo]] genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from [[:en:Quartzite|quartzite]]. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo"]. ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref>. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for [[:en:Olduvai_Gorge|Olduvai Gorge]]. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di [[:en:Oldowan|Oldowan]] industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old<ref>Crandall (2007)</ref><ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. ISBN 0-89577-087-3</ref>. Archeologists also find [[:en:Omo_remains|fossil fragments]] of [[:en:Olduwan|Oldowan]] [[:en:Hominid|hominids]] from early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] era reach back to [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later [[:en:Homo_sapiens|Homo sapiens]] remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team.<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). "[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia"]]. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). [[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|"Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia]]". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> fossils and fish<ref>Trapani, Josh (September 2008). "Quaternary fossil fish from the Kibish Formation, Omo Valley, Ethiopia". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''55''' (3): 521–530. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017|10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18691738 18691738]</ref> fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Human impact == Di lower valley of di Omo today dey believed by some people say e don be crossroads for thousands of years, as different cultures and ethnic groups dey migrate around di region. Na why dem find plenty [[:en:Hominidae|hominid]] fossils for dere<ref>Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17/ Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. Retrieved 2025-01-06.</ref>. Up till now, di people wey dey live for di Lower Valley of Omo like di [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], [[:en:Surma_people|Suri]], [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]], [[:en:Dizi_people|Dizi]] and [[:en:Surma_people|Me'en]] dey studied because of their [[:en:Multiculturalism|diversity]].<ref>Hurd (2006)</ref> Italian explorer [[:en:Vittorio_Bottego|Vittorio Bottego]] first reach di Omo River on 29 June 1896 during im second African expedition (1895–97), but he die for dat same expedition on 17 March 1897. Na in honour of am dem rename di river Omo-Bottego. [[:en:Herbert_Henry_Austin|Herbert Henry Austin]] and im men later reach di Omo delta on 12 September 1898, and dem discover say Ethiopian expedition led by Ras Wolda Giyorgis don already plant Ethiopian flags for di northern shore of Lake Turkana on 7 April. Lieutenant [[:en:Alexander_Bulatovich|Alexander Bulatovich]] lead another Ethiopian expedition wey reach di lake on 21 August 1899, and e also cause destruction. Even with all dis, di Frenchmen inside di group manage map many of di Omo River delta bends for di first time. Dat version of di river map dey used until 1930s when Italian colonial cartographers draw new and more correct map of di river and im delta.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110612210605/http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf "Local History in Ethiopia]" (PDF). Archived from [http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf the original] (PDF) on 2011-06-12. Retrieved 2016-05-02. The Nordic Africa Institute website (accessed 1 May 2016)</ref> == Hydroelectric power stations == For di Omo River basin, e get several power stations and dams wey dem name after di [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_River|Gilgel Gibe River]] and [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]], wey be tributaries of di Omo River. Even though di names fit confuse person, all di stations and dams dey actually sit down for di Omo River itself. == 2006 floods == For 2006, heavy rain fall cause di Omo River to flood im lower course. Di flood drown at least 456 people and leave more than 20,000 people stranded for five days wey end on 16 August. Even though heavy rain dey normal for dat area, people blame [[:en:Overgrazing|overgrazing]] and deforestation for di tragedy. [[:en:World_Food_Programme|World Food Programme]] spokeswoman Paulette Jones talk say: “Di rivers for Ethiopia no fit hold water like before, because silt don dey fill dem. So e no need heavy rain again before river overflow.”<ref>"[http://www.zeenews.com/znnew/articles.asp?rep=2&aid=315920&sid=wor More than 700 killed or missing in Ethiopian floods",] Zeenews.com 16 August 2006; [http://home.eircom.net/content/reuters/worldnews/8695698?view=Eircomnet "Ethiopian floods feared to have killed 870" by Tsegaye Tadesse] [https://web.archive.org/web/20070312013509/http://home.eircom.net/content/reuters/worldnews/8695698?view=Eircomnet Archived] 2007-03-12 at the [[:en:Wayback_Machine|Wayback Machine]], Eircom net, 16 August 2006</ref> Di seasonal flood of Omo River dey very important for di indigenous groups wey dey live along am. Di flood dey bring fertile silt and water wey make river bank farming possible. Di diverse peoples for di lower Omo like [[:en:Turkana_people|Turkana]], [[:en:Daasanach_people|Dassanach]], [[:en:Hamar_people|Hamer]], [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]], Karo, [[:en:Kwegu_people|Kwegu]], [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], [[:en:Bodi_people|Bodi]], and [[:en:Me'en_people|Me’en]] dey get plenty of their food supply from flood retreat cultivation.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf "Ethiopia's Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict"] (PDF). Archived from [http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf the original] (PDF) on 2009-09-02. Retrieved 2009-10-17</ref> Di big destructive flood of 2006 na di only one wey don happen for di past fifty years. But di recent drop in Lake Turkana water level wey dey get about 90% of im water from Omo River inflow don already cause salinity level to rise == Reference == lvgmzyn2vxyd26x97n2sdb5y2r136yq 103466 103465 2026-06-17T14:24:14Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103466 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} [[File:Omo river delta.jpg|thumb|310x310px|Omo River Delta]] [[File:Lower Valley of the Omo-138523.jpg|thumb|301x301px|Omo river crossing]] [[File:Omo River Valley IMG 9888.jpg|thumb|305x305px|Omo River Valley]] [[File:Karo woman and child.jpg|thumb|402x402px|Karo woman and child near Omo River]] Di '''Omo River''' ([[:en:Amharic_language|Amharic]]: ኦሞ ወንዝ, [[:en:Romanization_of_Amharic|romanized]]: Omo Wenz; dem dey also call am Omo-Bottego) wey dey southern Ethiopia na di biggest Ethiopian river wey no dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile Basin]]. Di river dey flow only inside Ethiopia, and e dey empty for [[:en:Lake_Turkana|Lake Turkana]] wey dey [[:en:Ethiopia–Kenya_border|border wit Kenya]]. Na di main stream for one [[:en:Endorheic|endorheic]] [[:en:Drainage_basin|drainage basin]] wey dem dey call [[:en:Turkana_Basin|Turkana Basin]]. Di river basin dey popular because e get plenty early [[:en:Hominid|hominid]] fossils and archeological findings like early stone tools. Na dis kain discovery make [[:en:UNESCO|UNESCO]] put am for [[:en:World_Heritage_List|World Heritage List]] since 1980.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref> == Geography == Di Omo River dey form when di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]] wey be di biggest tributary join wit di [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb River]], one large right-bank tributary.<ref>[https://etd.aau.edu.et/server/api/core/bitstreams/97c95d07-ed80-460f-bcfc-167ddfd78fe6/content "Impact of Land use Land cover change on Stream flow (Case Study Gilgel Gibe III)"]. ''Addis Abeba University''. Addis Abeba University - Institute of Technology School of Garaduate Studies Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 9 November 2025.</ref> Because of di size, length and di way dem dey flow, some people dey see Omo and Gibe rivers as di same river but wit different names. Na why sometimes dem dey call di whole basin di Omo-Gibe River Basin. Dis basin cover part of western [[:en:Oromia_Region|Oromia Region]] and middle of di [[:en:Southern_Nations,_Nationalities,_and_People's_Region|Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region]]<ref>Lehner, Bernhard; Verdin, Kristine; Jarvis, Andy (2008-03-04). [https://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008eo100001 "New Global Hydrography Derived From Spaceborne Elevation Data"]. ''Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union''. '''89''' (10): 93–94. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1029/2008eo100001|10.1029/2008eo100001]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0096-3941 0096-3941]</ref>. Di Omo River dey flow mostly go south. But e get one big bend wey turn am go west around 7° N 37° 30' E until about 36° E, before e turn back south again reach 5° 30' N. From dere e make one big S-bend, then continue im southern course until e reach Lake Turkana. According to Ethiopian [[:en:Central_Statistical_Agency_(Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]], di Omo-Bottego River length na about 760 kilometres (470 miles)<ref>"[http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=184&format=raw&Itemid=466 Climate, 2008 National Statistics (Abstract)",] Table A.1. Central Statistical Agency website (accessed 26 December 2009)</ref>. Di Omo-Bottego River dey drop about 700 metres (2,300 ft) from where Gibe and Wabe rivers join at 1,060 metres (3,480 ft) down to 360 metres (1,180 ft) wey be lake level. Because of dis fall, di river dey rush fast for di upper side, wit Kokobi and other waterfalls break am. E fit carry boat only for small distance before e enter Lake Turkana, one of di [[:en:Gregory_Rift|Gregory Rift]] lakes. Spectrum Guide to Ethiopia talk say di river dey popular for [[:en:White-water_rafting|white-water rafting]] around September and October, when rain season still make di water high.<ref>Camerapix (2000), p. 262</ref> Di most important tributary na di [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]]; smaller tributaries na [[:en:Wabe_River|Wabi]], [[:en:Denchya_River|Denchya]], [[:en:Gojeb_River|Gojeb]], [[:en:Mui_River|Mui]] and [[:en:Usno_River|Usno]] rivers. Di Omo-Bottego River bin form di eastern boundary for di old kingdoms of [[:en:Kingdom_of_Janjero|Janjero]] and [[:en:Kingdom_of_Garo|Garo]]. Di river also passes near [[:en:Mago_National_Park|Mago]] and [[:en:Omo_National_Park|Omo National Parks]] wey people sabi because of di plenty wildlife<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref>. Many animals dey live for di river side and inside am, like [[:en:Hippopotamus|hippopotamus]], [[:en:Crocodile|crocodile]] and [[:en:Bitis_arietans|puff adder]] snake. == Archaeological findings == Di whole Omo River basin dey very important for geology and archaeology. Dem don identify over 50,000 fossils from di lower valley, and inside dem about 230 na hominid fossils wey date back to di [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] and [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] times.<ref>Alemseged, Z (April 2003). "An integrated approach to taphonomy and faunal change in the Shungura Formation (Ethiopia) and its implication for hominid evolution". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''44''' (4): 451–478. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5|10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00012-5.]] [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12727463 12727463]</ref> Fossils from [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] and [[:en:Homo_(genus)|Homo]] genera don show for different archaeological sites, plus tools wey dem make from [[:en:Quartzite|quartzite]]. Di oldest of dis tools dey about 2.4 million years old<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17 "Lower Valley of the Omo"]. ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</ref>. When dem first discover am, people think say na part of one pre-Oldowan industry, wey dey even more primitive than wetin dem find for [[:en:Olduvai_Gorge|Olduvai Gorge]]. But later research show say di rough look of di tools na because di raw materials no good, and di techniques plus di shapes fit make dem belong to di [[:en:Oldowan|Oldowan]] industry. Di first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one FrenchDi first archaeological discoveries for di area happen for 1901 by one French expedition. Later between 1967 and 1975, one international archaeological team make di most important finds.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Dem locate different items, including jawbone of one [[:en:Australopithecus|Australopithecus]] man wey dem estimate say e be about 2.5 million years old<ref>Crandall (2007)</ref><ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. ISBN 0-89577-087-3</ref>. Archeologists also find [[:en:Omo_remains|fossil fragments]] of [[:en:Olduwan|Oldowan]] [[:en:Hominid|hominids]] from early [[:en:Pleistocene|Pleistocene]] era reach back to [[:en:Pliocene|Pliocene]] era. Quartz tools dey together wit some later [[:en:Homo_sapiens|Homo sapiens]] remains wey dem discover for di riverbanks.<ref>Scheffel, Richard L.; Wernet, Susan J., eds. (1980). ''Natural Wonders of the World''. United States of America: Reader's Digest Association, Inc. p. 281. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-89577-087-3|0-89577-087-3]]</bdi>.</ref> Since dat time, excavation dey continue by joint French and American team.<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). "[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia"]]. ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> Apart from early hominid fossils, dem also find plenty mammal<ref>Plummer, Thomas W.; Ferraro, Joseph V.; Louys, Julien; Hertel, Fritz; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Bishop, L.C. (November 2015). [[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|"Bovid ecomorphology and hominin paleoenvironments of the Shungura Formation, lower Omo River Valley, Ethiopia]]". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''88''': 108–126. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006|10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.006]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:10211.3/198525|10211.3/198525]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26208956 26208956]</ref> fossils and fish<ref>Trapani, Josh (September 2008). "Quaternary fossil fish from the Kibish Formation, Omo Valley, Ethiopia". ''Journal of Human Evolution''. '''55''' (3): 521–530. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017|10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.05.017]]. [[:en:PMID_(identifier)|PMID]] [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18691738 18691738]</ref> fossils inside di Omo Valley. == Human impact == Di lower valley of di Omo today dey believed by some people say e don be crossroads for thousands of years, as different cultures and ethnic groups dey migrate around di region. Na why dem find plenty [[:en:Hominidae|hominid]] fossils for dere<ref>Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/17/ Lower Valley of the Omo]". ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. Retrieved 2025-01-06.</ref>. Up till now, di people wey dey live for di Lower Valley of Omo like di [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], [[:en:Surma_people|Suri]], [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]], [[:en:Dizi_people|Dizi]] and [[:en:Surma_people|Me'en]] dey studied because of their [[:en:Multiculturalism|diversity]].<ref>Hurd (2006)</ref> Italian explorer [[:en:Vittorio_Bottego|Vittorio Bottego]] first reach di Omo River on 29 June 1896 during im second African expedition (1895–97), but he die for dat same expedition on 17 March 1897. Na in honour of am dem rename di river Omo-Bottego. [[:en:Herbert_Henry_Austin|Herbert Henry Austin]] and im men later reach di Omo delta on 12 September 1898, and dem discover say Ethiopian expedition led by Ras Wolda Giyorgis don already plant Ethiopian flags for di northern shore of Lake Turkana on 7 April. Lieutenant [[:en:Alexander_Bulatovich|Alexander Bulatovich]] lead another Ethiopian expedition wey reach di lake on 21 August 1899, and e also cause destruction. Even with all dis, di Frenchmen inside di group manage map many of di Omo River delta bends for di first time. Dat version of di river map dey used until 1930s when Italian colonial cartographers draw new and more correct map of di river and im delta.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110612210605/http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf "Local History in Ethiopia]" (PDF). Archived from [http://www.nai.uu.se/library/resources/dossiers/local_history_of_ethiopia/o/ORTO.pdf the original] (PDF) on 2011-06-12. Retrieved 2016-05-02. The Nordic Africa Institute website (accessed 1 May 2016)</ref> == Hydroelectric power stations == For di Omo River basin, e get several power stations and dams wey dem name after di [[:en:Gilgel_Gibe_River|Gilgel Gibe River]] and [[:en:Gibe_River|Gibe River]], wey be tributaries of di Omo River. Even though di names fit confuse person, all di stations and dams dey actually sit down for di Omo River itself. == 2006 floods == For 2006, heavy rain fall cause di Omo River to flood im lower course. Di flood drown at least 456 people and leave more than 20,000 people stranded for five days wey end on 16 August. Even though heavy rain dey normal for dat area, people blame [[:en:Overgrazing|overgrazing]] and deforestation for di tragedy. [[:en:World_Food_Programme|World Food Programme]] spokeswoman Paulette Jones talk say: “Di rivers for Ethiopia no fit hold water like before, because silt don dey fill dem. So e no need heavy rain again before river overflow.”<ref>"[http://www.zeenews.com/znnew/articles.asp?rep=2&aid=315920&sid=wor More than 700 killed or missing in Ethiopian floods",] Zeenews.com 16 August 2006; [http://home.eircom.net/content/reuters/worldnews/8695698?view=Eircomnet "Ethiopian floods feared to have killed 870" by Tsegaye Tadesse] [https://web.archive.org/web/20070312013509/http://home.eircom.net/content/reuters/worldnews/8695698?view=Eircomnet Archived] 2007-03-12 at the [[:en:Wayback_Machine|Wayback Machine]], Eircom net, 16 August 2006</ref> Di seasonal flood of Omo River dey very important for di indigenous groups wey dey live along am. Di flood dey bring fertile silt and water wey make river bank farming possible. Di diverse peoples for di lower Omo like [[:en:Turkana_people|Turkana]], [[:en:Daasanach_people|Dassanach]], [[:en:Hamar_people|Hamer]], [[:en:Nyangatom_people|Nyangatom]], Karo, [[:en:Kwegu_people|Kwegu]], [[:en:Mursi_people|Mursi]], [[:en:Bodi_people|Bodi]], and [[:en:Me'en_people|Me’en]] dey get plenty of their food supply from flood retreat cultivation.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090902191939/http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf "Ethiopia's Gibe 3 Dam: Sowing Hunger and Conflict"] (PDF). Archived from [http://www.internationalrivers.org/files/Gibe3FS_051509final.pdf the original] (PDF) on 2009-09-02. Retrieved 2009-10-17</ref> Di big destructive flood of 2006 na di only one wey don happen for di past fifty years. But di recent drop in Lake Turkana water level wey dey get about 90% of im water from Omo River inflow don already cause salinity level to rise == Reference == iuaht9lswurdepuh08s0lgdlr6ymgz4 0 27612 103388 2026-06-17T12:40:54Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103388 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. lwnzmptdp075wa8jat9uh8zucy1z5cz 103389 103388 2026-06-17T12:41:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103389 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. swlakuy6oupxx61r6oazuxqjouj3a84 103390 103389 2026-06-17T12:42:33Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103390 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. bd425uzww0sx9mc27s98932ra8ymj5k 103391 103390 2026-06-17T12:43:08Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103391 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: jryf1jb5prxlbk2zdclgumts2xgtmrr 103392 103391 2026-06-17T12:43:39Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103392 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010. s6efg1q6fqlwajqk9tj1fsjjy7hs0wo 103393 103392 2026-06-17T12:44:18Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103393 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010. == References == cywy0wzqn1ybl0msroow78lldkiw7tr 103394 103393 2026-06-17T12:44:57Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103394 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[WHO]]/[[UNICEF]]:[[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> == References == dxr3uukm0lezhbo1693f1rwia8s7vo9 103396 103394 2026-06-17T12:46:50Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103396 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> == References == fidi3ftgw1als54fp6q7iikggxeuxhp 103401 103396 2026-06-17T12:51:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103401 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. == References == hhm919b2uxei33q5if9u52bjrwiv6tf 103402 103401 2026-06-17T12:52:12Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103402 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: == References == omzemmaehtappzmjc9es21m4dtysvxt 103404 103402 2026-06-17T12:52:52Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103404 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period. == References == mu3yk79ies80lxsi6mnt162re7ak6kd 103406 103404 2026-06-17T12:53:27Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103406 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> == References == 3ba6tfkurfkbyxd4wu6b603um2bh7ly 103408 103406 2026-06-17T12:54:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103408 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. == References == ij41hwwntomne6hninetld2rrym8a07 103409 103408 2026-06-17T12:55:10Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103409 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. == References == m7hu67wdupw1lhqmzqtbgt3bhjl7dmj 103410 103409 2026-06-17T12:55:58Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103410 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. == References == ru698as25fb91ilnalkf9hcb741v1ep 103411 103410 2026-06-17T12:57:32Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103411 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd". == References == ko7puyx6sr14nipfjjr26cwk1kqi7rn 103412 103411 2026-06-17T12:58:16Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103412 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> == References == tffoc74d9gyj530n76w08r5gjsfhxpf 103413 103412 2026-06-17T12:59:11Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103413 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. == References == bo6n05nbzf4ia3m9c3rv54evj6l39bs 103422 103413 2026-06-17T13:04:32Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103422 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. == References == taj3w38m97urb3l5jf0ahpk302sdmwf 103424 103422 2026-06-17T13:04:59Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103424 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. == References == 5p9zr05ktan2jre19u5v3gpkpk4vlwi 103446 103424 2026-06-17T13:28:45Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103446 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. == References == rqv9ehkfo44p92ibdcdk2ivloc61f6q 103448 103446 2026-06-17T13:35:45Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103448 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. == References == bw0712h4glnu2h1fu6hj51ye1kn4ius 103452 103448 2026-06-17T13:42:40Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103452 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. == References == 0l86qns7enco5lp7atc3f3deg9bx5x1 103467 103452 2026-06-17T14:25:57Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103467 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water. == References == 4hemupxao7zp2w8ue6yi5nkzr1xuudy 103468 103467 2026-06-17T14:30:39Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103468 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> == References == 216dptxky7fntvokm00wwbdq29k91z3 103469 103468 2026-06-17T14:31:06Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103469 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants. == References == e7i32f7ycl52dxhfqzjij827c7hpfdj 103470 103469 2026-06-17T14:31:26Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103470 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref> == References == d2pp1iliz900qz8m86z3u1xi4sdtp33 103471 103470 2026-06-17T14:31:52Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103471 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref> == References == 6n182oeqjg2lijo6zm4ghpxpv16hn76 103472 103471 2026-06-17T14:32:10Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103472 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref> == References == 2d7l9anvhonitkrex6mdpmil7psqj0q 103473 103472 2026-06-17T14:32:23Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103473 wikitext text/x-wiki Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == References == g4ynsw8tae9abk48tn232ibvkbud2h1 103474 103473 2026-06-17T14:34:14Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103474 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == References == k29ujfjnw4vgz7z2necdiuuuh5wmjb3 103475 103474 2026-06-17T15:51:44Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103475 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]] == References == 6x8hhdilly2bhxegwsv0urwx8i32msg 103476 103475 2026-06-17T16:20:15Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103476 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. == References == i8ia6mlw2jorbfzlp0sxcdqtgn9t4bn 103477 103476 2026-06-17T16:20:54Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103477 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. == References == bylyh4emyzm8v0r51jodw0zpchdggwz 103478 103477 2026-06-17T16:21:25Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103478 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top. == References == gigngui9nurvngu7bhmeiduidbtnq1l 103479 103478 2026-06-17T16:22:46Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103479 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top. Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. == References == qufzkatnnbx5nutbbiqq0wqtnklwkot 103480 103479 2026-06-17T16:23:34Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103480 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top. Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. == References == mupu67tn8qyqlf97chp4pho57t21c63 103481 103480 2026-06-17T16:24:06Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103481 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top. Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. == References == awjm1xxzv1gk5ucpxw8x5i0zlxm839s 103482 103481 2026-06-17T16:24:35Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103482 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top. Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: == References == qk1a5texu9udzbqydg5sae6kyt8qhf1 103483 103482 2026-06-17T16:25:13Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103483 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top. Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda. == References == byzu1ohlc0zbzuarrcml6rqf9xb16jw 103484 103483 2026-06-17T16:28:02Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103484 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top. Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda. De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. == References == 9x0vbn2u5gqvsdlgyy0rx8ed51vgxzm 103485 103484 2026-06-17T16:28:41Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103485 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top. Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda. De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: == References == hsmhpbxhpdojcelqinr05wilz7sdcaz 103486 103485 2026-06-17T16:29:16Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103486 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top. Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda. De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. == References == eg99hr2gq5pjju4cunvxhsewiv86nd3 103487 103486 2026-06-17T16:30:04Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103487 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top. Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda. De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. == References == 15kviaxhdnv8yg9selpsgmw67jz5sah 103488 103487 2026-06-17T16:30:50Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103488 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top. Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda. De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources. == References == cy13dy3y8p1z23xefgtt1f3yb7bk91s 103489 103488 2026-06-17T16:31:49Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103489 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top. Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda. De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources. Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. == References == sjmmjjdnfk3e1okqcegrkjpdd967w4q 103490 103489 2026-06-17T16:32:32Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103490 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top. Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda. De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources. Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use. == References == grr7y67hokfzrmjqloijvl22jb2391y 103491 103490 2026-06-17T16:33:34Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103491 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top. Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda. De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources. Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use. For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. == References == i58kowk6vrtbiy0a6i5gar48lr41hep 103492 103491 2026-06-17T16:34:06Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103492 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top. Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda. De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources. Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use. For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist. == References == s5jf9cbbd9rfrj67cbk6glovdeyrguq 103493 103492 2026-06-17T16:35:12Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103493 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top. Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda. De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources. Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use. For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist. De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]]. == References == moo2hq4f0hb8zyx1ykpr60q5ofii94g 103494 103493 2026-06-17T16:36:13Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103494 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top. Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda. De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources. Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use. For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist. De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]]. Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. == References == k5k7gr507xr625u3dkuezz96ikq6kib 103495 103494 2026-06-17T16:37:01Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103495 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top. Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda. De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources. Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use. For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist. De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]]. Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties. == References == at2734l7nq2ar84qckk3ou333y7l6hp 103496 103495 2026-06-17T16:37:42Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103496 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top. Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda. De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources. Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use. For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist. De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]]. Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties. Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. == References == qgauu7v4qip8ghfdyj44cmn8wiqntb0 103497 103496 2026-06-17T16:38:11Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103497 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top. Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda. De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources. Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use. For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist. De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]]. Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties. Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd. == References == gz8v6hrqcnxtclmxvhri4irxi9ln7x7 103498 103497 2026-06-17T16:39:02Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103498 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda. De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources. Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use. For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist. De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]]. Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties. Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd. == References == cwdqhct3ik5y01oq7f2qif1ie4fdj2y 103499 103498 2026-06-17T16:39:24Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103499 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda. De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources. Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use. For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist. De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]]. Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties. Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd. == References == i7vrg0v81lwzugc2c3j4dpz1t5tfvm6 103500 103499 2026-06-17T16:40:48Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103500 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources. Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use. For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist. De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]]. Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties. Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd. == References == 6o5og196rrt9nb05dox6ja66z7hutp0 103501 103500 2026-06-17T16:41:25Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103501 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources. Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use. For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist. De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]]. Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties. Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd. == References == 1yo2e00ju3ku7ufet6hgu52lbg5fg3k 103502 103501 2026-06-17T16:42:06Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103502 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use. For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist. De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]]. Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties. Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd. == References == fxptwildchtys962yvvh8uga4yq45tl 103503 103502 2026-06-17T16:42:36Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103503 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use. For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist. De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]]. Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties. Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd. == References == 33kag26x4lszzwmszj1bp3b83bw8crb 103504 103503 2026-06-17T16:43:50Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103504 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist. De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]]. Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties. Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd. == References == ewg1tir8finp83gwbmwydxj98116nmr 103506 103504 2026-06-17T16:44:16Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103506 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist. De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]]. Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties. Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd. == References == qarl1nxveer3ae98ojt7e1ri133cj8a 103507 103506 2026-06-17T16:44:46Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103507 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]]. Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties. Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd. == References == 6oh2xpsz11mpr2rrerxxa4dabnyaud7 103508 103507 2026-06-17T16:46:08Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103508 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties. Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd. == References == imdyxv9iik31dwcbjbjx6302179wsev 103509 103508 2026-06-17T16:48:22Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103509 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd. == References == mzefds0z4rnsnvda4sblzxqev143dh5 103510 103509 2026-06-17T16:48:50Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103510 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> == References == 7bivkwa21j2hsf7h4fv9hxe9th2q3rd 103523 103510 2026-06-17T17:12:59Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103523 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions. == References == rhu79matlezgvrxqfq1ziqvtc460pr4 103524 103523 2026-06-17T17:13:41Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103524 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions. For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day). == References == sqr3xxxt12cnq7j6vbvpkndxx8o70x4 103525 103524 2026-06-17T17:14:26Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103525 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions. For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day). De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: == References == 6jn5cl7fgojk5u877wotj1k1u5mey06 103526 103525 2026-06-17T17:15:01Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103526 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions. For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day). De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. == References == jio0hetpv58ogls94rmes9usxb8mnb8 103527 103526 2026-06-17T17:16:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103527 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions. For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day). De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. == References == dq47onno3snooaqnzohidhvmfukiv3l 103528 103527 2026-06-17T17:16:51Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103528 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions. For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day). De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. == References == 3pl80qb7kymqvzhldv4d7tflqy38eke 103529 103528 2026-06-17T17:17:21Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103529 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions. For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day). De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: == References == 02lzimx8xxfingdlpq1cc1pppd4rcwc 103530 103529 2026-06-17T17:17:47Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103530 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions. For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day). De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. == References == nhmz83qlrm3wiqt9icc581ym7isdpnu 103531 103530 2026-06-17T17:18:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103531 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions. For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day). De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier. == References == na1ci5duknf5py28lowklfh626ljy0c 103532 103531 2026-06-17T17:19:06Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103532 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions. For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day). De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier. Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. == References == o9leeln5lhzyaph1b6tjmitoxo09cg9 103533 103532 2026-06-17T17:19:45Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103533 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions. For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day). De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier. Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. == References == c5n6sugdnltl6viu4acad63yi6p67nq 103534 103533 2026-06-17T17:20:07Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103534 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions. For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day). De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier. Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system. == References == tufz6s9slkphgw6wavmx7bw9y13w4uc 103535 103534 2026-06-17T17:26:10Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103535 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day). De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier. Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system. == References == hlr9jj0d2h1p907sebrqe750gc7ovrq 103536 103535 2026-06-17T17:30:51Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103536 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier. Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system. == References == km2b140p9d3fnms612hftjf62ya6u0g 103537 103536 2026-06-17T17:31:08Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103537 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier. Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system. == References == ollesasxib0jlol7bvn9nqdjb5wod1x 103538 103537 2026-06-17T17:31:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103538 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system. == References == mqa1r9odt6nkcxwboe3aitgjernuj03 103539 103538 2026-06-17T17:32:07Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103539 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == References == 6gpijgsj0z8h6ogk923l9dflgklojgy 103559 103539 2026-06-17T18:25:42Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103559 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]] == References == fsktj46xvsicu4u7p1t9u2oq9pjt5e0 103560 103559 2026-06-17T18:33:08Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103560 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water." == References == 2cg2vaqelngfpkrp8t2iytjq15ce7m2 103561 103560 2026-06-17T18:33:38Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103561 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> == References == chclilr8w4lp5f6zbdmt1iphp8yycva 103562 103561 2026-06-17T18:34:13Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103562 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right. == References == 0thrbsfidzuy3d86c9askknhgmoczo4 103563 103562 2026-06-17T18:34:58Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103563 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> == References == ke2v94wvnbld05ixn4enc1mmfpvts7l 103564 103563 2026-06-17T18:35:43Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103564 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation. == References == ff5jfqg7jcsfjft73mta3s02a8wfjpa 103565 103564 2026-06-17T18:36:27Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103565 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> == References == h8dzwjo4sh4th77pr9l267mfamx6l51 103566 103565 2026-06-17T18:37:09Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103566 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption, provision of water den sanitation largely collapse. == References == npsydagsj6k8jwh87f8c6tzj03oa70g 103567 103566 2026-06-17T18:37:55Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103567 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption, provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref> == References == k9ifc31gbzfxl796by5li7lpose4zdv 103568 103567 2026-06-17T18:38:27Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103568 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption, provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> == References == lti4k76lq8gqkd89zy8yv771ow0cm5j 103569 103568 2026-06-17T18:39:00Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103569 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption, provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd. == References == go4nhry55ns0ayysnbphdyuo40n4g3v 103570 103569 2026-06-17T18:39:27Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103570 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption, provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == References == jmf31psldjio61ztm30vmqiqxitutl7 103571 103570 2026-06-17T18:39:53Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103571 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption, provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994. == References == lumaxe52lp6zmsrh4lymmym5za8i57y 103572 103571 2026-06-17T18:40:16Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103572 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption, provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == References == 75sy4ltj0z8vvbtb0fwziaf6wmcma06 103573 103572 2026-06-17T18:40:42Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103573 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == References == 0m5n2cgqbfsi0nrym3olt9mzmkatieg 103574 103573 2026-06-17T18:48:58Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103574 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million. == References == b7ajs9sn8u85zbdt4r0304to88cdo35 103575 103574 2026-06-17T18:49:32Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103575 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref> == References == 7e4nqk33s2fz7z1qd4jxj8jq5pwyi84 103576 103575 2026-06-17T18:50:02Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103576 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> == References == hswovhgofdm9cjqev0fgncowpc2v8re 103577 103576 2026-06-17T18:50:33Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103577 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd. == References == r4df44heymxbe72h20qv64qfwxfoos6 103578 103577 2026-06-17T18:50:59Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103578 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> == References == g88f9qamv6y2zd38c1yzu2lmdedvet7 103579 103578 2026-06-17T18:51:35Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103579 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years". == References == q7j0rsk6unq2noqxlunocxjiba4mgmq 103580 103579 2026-06-17T18:52:14Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103580 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> == References == llmvupuy9ez8pamc9r1fu9wwswfm876 103581 103580 2026-06-17T18:52:47Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103581 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. == References == akl5qu93jbo5nlw88wyw2ecmq57pfkf 103582 103581 2026-06-17T18:53:25Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103582 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells. == References == 9xv1n6aliuhiiu6idl9op2j2g5u36sr 103583 103582 2026-06-17T18:53:51Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103583 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> == References == 0cukoxfozlgep4c0nhgwrbwculogi9x 103584 103583 2026-06-17T18:54:26Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103584 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. == References == rdi5vybdud95dee6ucmcjabol5xlh60 0 27613 103427 2026-06-17T13:06:59Z Kofiarkohbaidoo 2561 translated a page #AWC2026 103427 wikitext text/x-wiki The Germama (or Kesem or Kessem) River be tributary of de Awash River for Ethiopia. De name Germama come from de [Afaan Oromoo language] word wey mean “frolicking”, “boisterous”, or “frisky”.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Local History of Ethiopia |date=2005 |publisher=Nordic Africa Institute library |year=2005 |location=https://nai.uu.se/download/18.39fca04516faedec8b248de2/1580829011745/ORTGEN05.pdf}}</ref> The Germama no be river wey boats fit travel on, den e dey flow with plenty water during de rainy season. E rise from west of Kese Koremash, then e flow east go join de Awash. Ein course dey mark some few kilometres of de northern boundary of de Awash National Park. De Kessem River pass through height drop of more than 2,000 m across flow length of about 130 km.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014JHyd..519.2049K |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=ui.adsabs.harvard.edu}}</ref> De steep gradient of de river profile be de reason why ein flow dey turbulent, wey ein name sef reflect. De lowlands of de upper Germama be de location of de former Shewan district of Bulga;<ref name=":0" /> de lower course define de northern boundary of de Shewan district of Menjar. De Ethiopian Ministry of Water Resources start construction of dam on de Germama for 2005. De dam go help irrigate areas for both sides of de river, den areas for de Dofen den Kebena Mountains.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ministry of Water & Energy of Ethiopia |url=http://www.mowr.gov.et/index.php?pagenum=4.2&pagehgt=1000px&ContentID=27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720151731/http://www.mowr.gov.et/index.php?pagenum=4.2&pagehgt=1000px&ContentID=27 |archive-date=2011-07-20 |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=www.mowr.gov.et}}</ref> Dem complete de dam, but ein water-control gates no dey fully work. Dem shut down de dam so dem go fix dis issue, den dem expect say e go return to full capacity within one year from January 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kesem Dam to Resume Operation in full Capacity Within Year |url=https://www.ena.et/web/eng/w/eng_3804241 |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=ENA English |language=en-US}}</ref> ojp3ax00d0fi5xqbj9607mq4guujtar 103428 103427 2026-06-17T13:07:27Z Kofiarkohbaidoo 2561 103428 wikitext text/x-wiki The Germama (or Kesem or Kessem) River be tributary of de Awash River for Ethiopia. De name Germama come from de [Afaan Oromoo language] word wey mean “frolicking”, “boisterous”, or “frisky”.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Local History of Ethiopia |date=2005 |publisher=Nordic Africa Institute library |year=2005 |location=https://nai.uu.se/download/18.39fca04516faedec8b248de2/1580829011745/ORTGEN05.pdf}}</ref> The Germama no be river wey boats fit travel on, den e dey flow with plenty water during de rainy season. E rise from west of Kese Koremash, then e flow east go join de Awash. Ein course dey mark some few kilometres of de northern boundary of de Awash National Park. De Kessem River pass through height drop of more than 2,000 m across flow length of about 130 km.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014JHyd..519.2049K |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=ui.adsabs.harvard.edu}}</ref> De steep gradient of de river profile be de reason why ein flow dey turbulent, wey ein name sef reflect. De lowlands of de upper Germama be de location of de former Shewan district of Bulga;<ref name=":0" /> de lower course define de northern boundary of de Shewan district of Menjar. De Ethiopian Ministry of Water Resources start construction of dam on de Germama for 2005. De dam go help irrigate areas for both sides of de river, den areas for de Dofen den Kebena Mountains.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ministry of Water & Energy of Ethiopia |url=http://www.mowr.gov.et/index.php?pagenum=4.2&pagehgt=1000px&ContentID=27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720151731/http://www.mowr.gov.et/index.php?pagenum=4.2&pagehgt=1000px&ContentID=27 |archive-date=2011-07-20 |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=www.mowr.gov.et}}</ref> Dem complete de dam, but ein water-control gates no dey fully work. Dem shut down de dam so dem go fix dis issue, den dem expect say e go return to full capacity within one year from January 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kesem Dam to Resume Operation in full Capacity Within Year |url=https://www.ena.et/web/eng/w/eng_3804241 |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=ENA English |language=en-US}}</ref> == References == 7kbqaeqo4c7z9inxyupupi1zlc3e3h2 0 27614 103433 2026-06-17T13:09:49Z Kofiarkohbaidoo 2561 translated a page #AWC2026 103433 wikitext text/x-wiki Lake Bario be one of de chain of lakes wey de Awash River dey pour ein water insyd. E dey for de eastern end of de Afar Region for Ethiopia. Lake Bario dey inside swamp, wey through am e dey receive ein inflow from Lake Afambo for de northeast. Ein outflow dey for ein southern side, wey e circle around Mount Dama Ali before e empty enter Lake Abbe.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hughes |first=R. H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VLjafeXa3gMC&pg=PP1 |title=A Directory of African Wetlands |date=1992 |publisher=IUCN |isbn=978-2-88032-949-5 |language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> bcuebph5te40thrkpsgctv5ix6lzs8x 0 27615 103437 2026-06-17T13:12:27Z Kofiarkohbaidoo 2561 translated a page #AWC2026 103437 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Borkana River]] be river for central [[Ethiopia]]. E be left-side tributary of de Awash. Johann Ludwig Krapf record say de local Oromo people dey call am “Tshaffa”.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Isenberg |first=Charles William |url=http://archive.org/details/journalsofrevmes00isen |title=Journals of the Rev. Messrs. Isenberg and Krapf, missionaries of the Church missionary society, detailing their proceedings in the kingdom of Shoa, and journeys in other parts of Abyssinia, in the years 1839, 1840, 1841, and 1842 |last2=Krapf |first2=J. L. (Johann Ludwig) |last3=MacQueen |first3=James |date=1843 |publisher=London : Seeley |others=University of California Libraries}}</ref> == References == <references /> 8zh74kegkp65wwpukiv0sxoehzxsyou 0 27616 103441 2026-06-17T13:21:01Z Kofiarkohbaidoo 2561 #AWC2026 103441 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Lake Gummare]] be one of de chain of lakes wey de [[Awash River]] dey pour ein water insyd. E dey for de eastern end of de Afar Region for [[Ethiopia]]. fkrv15b8qdm74ufhnryf2wjned6zxj0 103443 103441 2026-06-17T13:23:36Z Kofiarkohbaidoo 2561 103443 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Lake Gummare]] be one of de chain of lakes wey de [[Awash River]] dey pour ein water insyd. E dey for de eastern end of de Afar Region for [[Ethiopia]]. == Overview == De lake dey lie roughly for north–south axis. Ein length be 15 kilometers, ein width be five kilometers, den e get about 6,000 hectares of open water.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hughes |first=R. H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VLjafeXa3gMC&pg=PP1 |title=A Directory of African Wetlands |date=1992 |publisher=IUCN |isbn=978-2-88032-949-5 |language=en}}</ref> Gummare dey receive ein inflow from de Awash for ein northwestern shore, den ein outflow dey for ein southern shores, where one channel dey join de lake to [[Lake Afambo]]. == References == <references /> 45y6xlkcovuogdjf1xd8y82hsw6628m 103445 103443 2026-06-17T13:27:17Z Kofiarkohbaidoo 2561 103445 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Lake Gummare]] be one of de chain of lakes wey de [[Awash River]] dey pour ein water insyd. E dey for de eastern end of de Afar Region for [[Ethiopia]]. == Overview == De lake dey lie roughly for north–south axis. Ein length be 15 kilometers, ein width be five kilometers, den e get about 6,000 hectares of open water.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hughes |first=R. H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VLjafeXa3gMC&pg=PP1 |title=A Directory of African Wetlands |date=1992 |publisher=IUCN |isbn=978-2-88032-949-5 |language=en}}</ref> Gummare dey receive ein inflow from de Awash for ein northwestern shore, den ein outflow dey for ein southern shores, where one channel dey join de lake to [[Lake Afambo]]. De first European wey visit Lake Gummare be Wilfred Thesiger, wey explore de course of de Awash go reach ein final ending point for 1935. Thesiger, wey call dis water body Lake Adobada, meaning “The White Water”, explore ein shores. But because de local Afar people oppose am, e force am make e lead de main group of ein party no through de western side, where de main road dey pass, but rather “round de eastern shore wey almost no get path”.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thesiger |first=Wilfred |date=1935 |title=The Awash River and the Aussa Sultanate |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1787031 |journal=The Geographical Journal |volume=85 |issue=1 |pages=1–19 |doi=10.2307/1787031 |issn=0016-7398}}</ref> Dis area no see another visitor from outside Ethiopia until Pele Thompson follow Thesiger ein route again for May den June 2001.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Briggs |first=Philip |title=The Bradt Travel Guide |publisher=Chalfont St Peters: Bradt |year=2009 |edition=5th |pages=402f}}</ref> == References == <references /> ii3q4a3s06ck2qg6nfbrbb68xtd9s96 0 27617 103451 2026-06-17T13:41:16Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Create a fresh article 103451 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} p1dmeddkgdbpiycbo5lnt6v3ohq5aq0 103505 103451 2026-06-17T16:44:06Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103505 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> == References == 915im4mdyp5tcfh14fq380z2s17vkyv 103511 103505 2026-06-17T16:49:42Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103511 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. == References == i7zo4e39qy1pgy9pkvevriveypd0wdt 103512 103511 2026-06-17T16:55:40Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103512 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> == References == d14hoj7r1jttkwh27nk15yxrtow7dl8 103516 103512 2026-06-17T17:03:37Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103516 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> == References == fte0fovq9tamtw2yq0m1rwupe3f7req 14 27618 103513 2026-06-17T17:02:13Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103513 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27619 103514 2026-06-17T17:02:25Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103514 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27620 103515 2026-06-17T17:03:34Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103515 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27621 103517 2026-06-17T17:03:45Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103517 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27622 103518 2026-06-17T17:03:56Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103518 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27623 103519 2026-06-17T17:04:09Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103519 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27624 103520 2026-06-17T17:05:16Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103520 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27625 103521 2026-06-17T17:05:27Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103521 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27626 103522 2026-06-17T17:05:40Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103522 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27627 103545 2026-06-17T17:44:56Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103545 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27628 103546 2026-06-17T17:45:07Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103546 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27629 103547 2026-06-17T17:45:52Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103547 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27630 103548 2026-06-17T17:46:05Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103548 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27631 103549 2026-06-17T17:47:08Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103549 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27632 103550 2026-06-17T17:48:00Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103550 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27633 103551 2026-06-17T17:49:49Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103551 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27634 103552 2026-06-17T17:50:00Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103552 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27635 103553 2026-06-17T17:50:14Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103553 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27636 103554 2026-06-17T17:50:27Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103554 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27637 103555 2026-06-17T17:50:44Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103555 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27638 103556 2026-06-17T17:51:22Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103556 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27639 103557 2026-06-17T17:53:05Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103557 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27640 103599 2026-06-17T22:44:27Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103599 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27641 103600 2026-06-17T22:44:40Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103600 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27642 103601 2026-06-17T22:44:53Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103601 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27643 103602 2026-06-17T22:45:11Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103602 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27644 103606 2026-06-17T23:10:14Z Ibnali1 62 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1327042516|Tsiribihina River]]" 103606 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Tsiribihina |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |[[File:Tsiribihina_03.jpg|frameless]] |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |[[File:Carte_Sakay.svg|250x250px]]<div class="infobox-caption">The basin of the Tsiribihina</div> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Location |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Country | class="infobox-data" |[[Madagascar]] |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Region | class="infobox-data" |[[Bongolava]], [[Menabe]], [[Melaky]] |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Physical&nbsp;characteristics |- class="infobox-hiddenrow" style="display:none;" | colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Source | class="infobox-data" |  |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;location</span> | class="infobox-data" |Confluence of Mahajilo and Mania |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;elevation</span> | class="infobox-data" |49&nbsp;m (161&nbsp;ft) |- style="display:none" | colspan="2" | |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Mouth | class="infobox-data" |Belon'i Tsiribihina, Indian Ocean |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<div style="display:inline;font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;coordinates</div> | class="infobox-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="geo-inline"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Tsiribihina_River&params=19_42_S_44_33_E_region:MG_type:river <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">19°42′S</span> <span class="longitude">44°33′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xFEFF; / &#xFEFF;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">19.700°S 44.550°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xFEFF; / <span class="geo">-19.700; 44.550</span></span></span>]</span></span> |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<div style="display:inline;font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;elevation</div> | class="infobox-data" |0&nbsp;m (0&nbsp;ft) |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Length | class="infobox-data" |150&nbsp;km (93&nbsp;mi) |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; ">Basin size</div> | class="infobox-data" |49,800&nbsp;km² (19,200&nbsp;mi²) |- class="infobox-hiddenrow" style="display:none;" | colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Discharge | class="infobox-data" |  |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;location</span> | class="infobox-data" |Tsiribihina Delta |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;average</span> | class="infobox-data" |(Period: 1971–2000)1,027.2&nbsp;m³/s (36,280&nbsp;cu&nbsp;ft/s) |- style="display:none" | colspan="2" | |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Basin&nbsp;features |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span class="nowrap">River system</span> | class="infobox-data" |Tsiribihina River |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Tributaries | class="infobox-data" |  |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;left</span> | class="infobox-data" |Mahajilo, Andranomeno |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;right</span> | class="infobox-data" |Mania |} [[Category:Short description matches Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] 8y6q56uame77u5v1vxzfysrp6g98c29 103607 103606 2026-06-17T23:20:11Z Ibnali1 62 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1327042516|Tsiribihina River]]" 103607 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Tsiribihina |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |[[File:Tsiribihina_03.jpg|frameless]] |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |[[File:Carte_Sakay.svg|250x250px]]<div class="infobox-caption">The basin of the Tsiribihina</div> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Location |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Country | class="infobox-data" |[[Madagascar]] |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Region | class="infobox-data" |[[Bongolava]], [[Menabe]], [[Melaky]] |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Physical&nbsp;characteristics |- class="infobox-hiddenrow" style="display:none;" | colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Source | class="infobox-data" |  |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;location</span> | class="infobox-data" |Confluence of Mahajilo and Mania |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;elevation</span> | class="infobox-data" |49&nbsp;m (161&nbsp;ft) |- style="display:none" | colspan="2" | |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Mouth | class="infobox-data" |Belon'i Tsiribihina, Indian Ocean |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<div style="display:inline;font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;coordinates</div> | class="infobox-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="geo-inline"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Tsiribihina_River&params=19_42_S_44_33_E_region:MG_type:river <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">19°42′S</span> <span class="longitude">44°33′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xFEFF; / &#xFEFF;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">19.700°S 44.550°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xFEFF; / <span class="geo">-19.700; 44.550</span></span></span>]</span></span> |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<div style="display:inline;font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;elevation</div> | class="infobox-data" |0&nbsp;m (0&nbsp;ft) |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Length | class="infobox-data" |150&nbsp;km (93&nbsp;mi) |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; ">Basin size</div> | class="infobox-data" |49,800&nbsp;km² (19,200&nbsp;mi²) |- class="infobox-hiddenrow" style="display:none;" | colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Discharge | class="infobox-data" |  |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;location</span> | class="infobox-data" |Tsiribihina Delta |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;average</span> | class="infobox-data" |(Period: 1971–2000)1,027.2&nbsp;m³/s (36,280&nbsp;cu&nbsp;ft/s) |- style="display:none" | colspan="2" | |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Basin&nbsp;features |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span class="nowrap">River system</span> | class="infobox-data" |Tsiribihina River |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Tributaries | class="infobox-data" |  |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;left</span> | class="infobox-data" |Mahajilo, Andranomeno |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;right</span> | class="infobox-data" |Mania |} [[File:Tsiribihina_River.jpg|right|thumb|Pirogues on Tsiribihina river]] De '''Tsiribihina'''<ref name="AndrewBlond2008">{{Cite book |last=Andrew |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UMq-2xYmCwQC&pg=PA149 |title=Madagascar & Comoros 6 |last2=Blond |first2=Becca |last3=Parkinson |first3=Tom |last4=Anderson, Aaron |publisher=Lonely Planet |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-74104-608-3 |page=149 |access-date=8 January 2013}}</ref> be a river of western [[Madagascar]]. De main tributaries be de Mahajilo, Manandaza, Mania, den Sakeny rivers. Ein basin get an area of 49,800 km². 7,025 km² dey insyd de basin of de Sakeny River, 14,500 km² insyd dat of de Mahajilo River, den 18,565 km² insyd dat of de Mania River.<ref name="Aldegheri2">Aldegheri, M. (1972).</ref> De headwaters be on Madagascar ein Central Highlands. De tributary streams dey flow generally westwards except for de Sakeny, wich dey flow northwards. As dem leave de highlands den enter de north–south running Betsiriry Plain, de tributary rivers dey converge to form de Tsiribihina - de Mahajilo den Manandaza from de north, den de Mania den Sakeny from de south. Der be extensive seasonal wetlands den shallow lakes wer de rivers converge on de plain.<ref name="Aldegheri2" /><ref>Andriambeloson, Johary & Calmant, Stéphane & Paris, Adrien & Rakotondraompiana, Solofo.</ref> De rich alluvial soils of de Betsiriry Plain dey make am one of de most suitable regions for agriculture insyd western Madgagascar.<ref>Vololona, Mireille & Kyotalimye, Miriam & Thomas, Timothy & Waithaka, Michael.</ref> De plain ein wetlands den lakes be important habitat give waterbirds.<ref name="Birdlife2">BirdLife International (2022) [http://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/6580 Important Bird Areas factsheet: Wetlands of the Tsiribihina delta and upper Tsiribihina river].</ref> De Tsiribihina then dey flow westward, cutting a steep den winding gorge thru de Bemaraha Plateau, a limestone formation wey dey extend north den south along de western edge of de Betsiriry Plain.<ref name="Aldegheri2" /> As de river dey emerge from de Bemaraha Plateau e dey widen den dey meander.<ref name="Aldegheri2" /> Der be several shallow lakes along de lower course, wey dey include Lake Kimanomby near Ambohibary den Lake Masoarivo near Masoarivo.<ref name="Birdlife2" /> == References == [[Category:Short description matches Wikidata]] [[Category:Articles with short description]] 8cmlw9so85ez8z3k8e12clazxapkgx7 103608 103607 2026-06-17T23:27:20Z Ibnali1 62 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1327042516|Tsiribihina River]]" 103608 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" ! colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Tsiribihina |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |[[File:Tsiribihina_03.jpg|frameless]] |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image" |[[File:Carte_Sakay.svg|250x250px]]<div class="infobox-caption">The basin of the Tsiribihina</div> |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Location |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Country | class="infobox-data" |[[Madagascar]] |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Region | class="infobox-data" |[[Bongolava]], [[Menabe]], [[Melaky]] |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Physical&nbsp;characteristics |- class="infobox-hiddenrow" style="display:none;" | colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Source | class="infobox-data" |  |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;location</span> | class="infobox-data" |Confluence of Mahajilo and Mania |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;elevation</span> | class="infobox-data" |49&nbsp;m (161&nbsp;ft) |- style="display:none" | colspan="2" | |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Mouth | class="infobox-data" |Belon'i Tsiribihina, Indian Ocean |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<div style="display:inline;font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;coordinates</div> | class="infobox-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Coordinates/styles.css"></templatestyles><span class="geo-inline"><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion">[https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Tsiribihina_River&params=19_42_S_44_33_E_region:MG_type:river <span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">19°42′S</span> <span class="longitude">44°33′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct">&#xFEFF; / &#xFEFF;</span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">19.700°S 44.550°E</span><span style="display:none">&#xFEFF; / <span class="geo">-19.700; 44.550</span></span></span>]</span></span> |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<div style="display:inline;font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;elevation</div> | class="infobox-data" |0&nbsp;m (0&nbsp;ft) |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Length | class="infobox-data" |150&nbsp;km (93&nbsp;mi) |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; ">Basin size</div> | class="infobox-data" |49,800&nbsp;km² (19,200&nbsp;mi²) |- class="infobox-hiddenrow" style="display:none;" | colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" |<templatestyles src="Module:Infobox/styles.css"></templatestyles> |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Discharge | class="infobox-data" |  |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;location</span> | class="infobox-data" |Tsiribihina Delta |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;average</span> | class="infobox-data" |(Period: 1971–2000)1,027.2&nbsp;m³/s (36,280&nbsp;cu&nbsp;ft/s) |- style="display:none" | colspan="2" | |- ! colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #CEDEFF;color: #202122;" |Basin&nbsp;features |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span class="nowrap">River system</span> | class="infobox-data" |Tsiribihina River |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |Tributaries | class="infobox-data" |  |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;left</span> | class="infobox-data" |Mahajilo, Andranomeno |- style="padding: 0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em;line-height: 1.2em;" ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" |<span style="font-weight:normal">&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;right</span> | class="infobox-data" |Mania |} [[File:Tsiribihina_River.jpg|right|thumb|Pirogues on Tsiribihina river]] De '''Tsiribihina'''<ref name="AndrewBlond2008">{{Cite book |last=Andrew |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UMq-2xYmCwQC&pg=PA149 |title=Madagascar & Comoros 6 |last2=Blond |first2=Becca |last3=Parkinson |first3=Tom |last4=Anderson, Aaron |publisher=Lonely Planet |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-74104-608-3 |page=149 |access-date=8 January 2013}}</ref> be a river of western [[Madagascar]]. De main tributaries be de Mahajilo, Manandaza, Mania, den Sakeny rivers. Ein basin get an area of 49,800 km². 7,025 km² dey insyd de basin of de Sakeny River, 14,500 km² insyd dat of de Mahajilo River, den 18,565 km² insyd dat of de Mania River.<ref name="Aldegheri2">Aldegheri, M. (1972).</ref> De headwaters be on Madagascar ein Central Highlands. De tributary streams dey flow generally westwards except for de Sakeny, wich dey flow northwards. As dem leave de highlands den enter de north–south running Betsiriry Plain, de tributary rivers dey converge to form de Tsiribihina - de Mahajilo den Manandaza from de north, den de Mania den Sakeny from de south. Der be extensive seasonal wetlands den shallow lakes wer de rivers converge on de plain.<ref name="Aldegheri2" /><ref>Andriambeloson, Johary & Calmant, Stéphane & Paris, Adrien & Rakotondraompiana, Solofo.</ref> De rich alluvial soils of de Betsiriry Plain dey make am one of de most suitable regions for agriculture insyd western Madgagascar.<ref>Vololona, Mireille & Kyotalimye, Miriam & Thomas, Timothy & Waithaka, Michael.</ref> De plain ein wetlands den lakes be important habitat give waterbirds.<ref name="Birdlife2">BirdLife International (2022) [http://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/6580 Important Bird Areas factsheet: Wetlands of the Tsiribihina delta and upper Tsiribihina river].</ref> De Tsiribihina then dey flow westward, cutting a steep den winding gorge thru de Bemaraha Plateau, a limestone formation wey dey extend north den south along de western edge of de Betsiriry Plain.<ref name="Aldegheri2" /> As de river dey emerge from de Bemaraha Plateau e dey widen den dey meander.<ref name="Aldegheri2" /> Der be several shallow lakes along de lower course, wey dey include Lake Kimanomby near Ambohibary den Lake Masoarivo near Masoarivo.<ref name="Birdlife2" /> De river delta be large, wey dey extend about 35 km north to south.<ref name="Aldegheri2" /> E dey include coastal beaches den dunes, mudflats, salt flats, mangroves, den freshwater marshes. De mangroves be generally 2–4 meters high, den de predominant trees be species of ''Avicennia, Rhizophora, Ceriops, Bruguiera'', den ''Sonneratia''. De saltflats often flood during de rainy season. De freshwater marshes den lakes of de lower Tsiribihina be dominated by de sedges ''Cyperus'' spp, de reed ''Phragmites'', den non-native water-hyacinth ''Eichhornia''.<ref name="Birdlife2" /> De mouth of de river be near Belon'i Tsiribihina, wer e dey empty into de Mozambique Channel.<ref name="Bradt2011">{{Cite book |last=Bradt |first=Hilary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uTRPnMlOcwgC&pg=PA82 |title=Madagascar: The Bradt Travel Guide |date=17 May 2011 |publisher=Bradt Travel Guides |isbn=978-1-84162-341-2 |page=82 |access-date=8 January 2013}}</ref> 82 species of birds be recorded from de Tsiribihina River den ein delta, 22 of wich be endemic to Madagascar. Bernier's teal (''Anas bernieri'') dey breed insyd de mangroves. De Madagascar pratincole (''Glareola ocularis'') dey congregate in large numbers on de banks of de river, den one of Madagascar ein largest congregations of de Madagascar subspecies of white-backed duck (''Thalassornis leuconotus insularis'') dey occur at Lake Masoarivo. A few pairs of Madagascar fish eagle (''Haliaeetus vociferoides'') dey live along de river.<ref name="Birdlife2" /> De Menabe Antimena protected area dey cover de south bank of de lower Tsiribihina along plus de delta den mangroves. De Tsiribihina Delta be designated a wetland of international importance under de Ramsar Convention, den de Tsiribihina River den ein delta be designated an Important Bird Area by Birdlife International.<ref name="Birdlife2" /> == References == f9764yqnra3e7w0srfpo7ymyse2sooi 0 27645 103609 2026-06-17T23:33:22Z Ibnali1 62 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1338986390|Cavalla River]]" 103609 wikitext text/x-wiki   ebkbve5xjd1hn02x00t0zqtqmkc1hap 103610 103609 2026-06-17T23:37:29Z Ibnali1 62 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1338986390|Cavalla River]]" 103610 wikitext text/x-wiki   De '''Cavalla River''' (dem sanso know as de '''Cavally''', de '''Youbou''' den de '''Diougou''') be a river insyd [[West Africa]], wey dey rise north of Mont Nimba insyd [[Guinea]], wey dey flow thru [[Ivory Coast]] den back to de border plus Ivory Coast. E dey end insyd de [[Gulf of Guinea]], e situate 21 km (13 mi) east of Harper, Liberia. E dey form de southern two-thirds of de international boundary between Liberia den Ivory Coast. E get a length of 515 kilometers (320 mi), wey e be de longest river insyd Liberia.<ref name="eowg">{{Cite book |last=Bateman |first=Graham |title=Encyclopedia of World Geography |last2=Victoria Egan |last3=Fiona Gold |last4=Philip Gardner |publisher=Barnes & Noble Books |year=2000 |isbn=1-56619-291-9 |location=New York |page=161}}</ref> De name be derived from de cavalla horse mackerel dem find at ein mouth.<ref>{{Britannica|100547}}</ref> E be home to de endemic ''Chiloglanis normani''. == References == == External links == * Cavalla River at TLC Africa * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070714121003/http://www.sage.wisc.edu/riverdata/scripts/station_table.php?qual=32&filenum=392 World River Discharge Database] nz6xkyex3pwxksp96qdkyyxa3dvnzve 14 27646 103613 2026-06-18T00:13:30Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103613 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27647 103614 2026-06-18T00:13:41Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103614 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27648 103615 2026-06-18T00:13:53Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103615 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27649 103616 2026-06-18T11:37:06Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 Created page with "Di Kabenna na one river wey dey for central Ethiopia. E be tributary to di Awash River wey dey for west side, and e dey start from southwest of Ankobar. Scholar G.W.B. Huntingford talk say e fit be di same river wey dem dey call Kuba, wey dem mention for Futuh al-Habasha ("The Conquest of Abyssinia"), di story of Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi wen e conquer Ethiopian Empire." 103616 wikitext text/x-wiki Di Kabenna na one river wey dey for central Ethiopia. E be tributary to di Awash River wey dey for west side, and e dey start from southwest of Ankobar. Scholar G.W.B. Huntingford talk say e fit be di same river wey dem dey call Kuba, wey dem mention for Futuh al-Habasha ("The Conquest of Abyssinia"), di story of Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi wen e conquer Ethiopian Empire. k364i3hyp7qyrgm46vov67w4ampma30 103617 103616 2026-06-18T11:40:40Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103617 wikitext text/x-wiki Di Kabenna na one river wey dey for central Ethiopia. E be tributary to di Awash River wey dey for west side, and e dey start from southwest of Ankobar. Scholar G.W.B. Huntingford talk say e fit be di same river wey dem dey call Kuba, wey dem mention for Futuh al-Habasha ("The Conquest of Abyssinia"), di story of Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi wen e conquer Ethiopian Empire.<ref>Huntingford, ''The historical geography of Ethiopia from the first century AD to 1704'', (Oxford University Press: 1989), p. 123</ref> ovbb0lk2zdbue3p1v8ys14gq1mjtgiu 103618 103617 2026-06-18T11:41:20Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103618 wikitext text/x-wiki Di Kabenna na one river wey dey for central Ethiopia. E be tributary to di Awash River wey dey for west side, and e dey start from southwest of Ankobar. Scholar G.W.B. Huntingford talk say e fit be di same river wey dem dey call Kuba, wey dem mention for Futuh al-Habasha ("The Conquest of Abyssinia"), di story of Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi wen e conquer Ethiopian Empire.<ref>Huntingford, ''The historical geography of Ethiopia from the first century AD to 1704'', (Oxford University Press: 1989), p. 123</ref> == Reference == rq669vmri9dw93mzfnta7n6q41k90dm 103619 103618 2026-06-18T11:45:22Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103619 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Kabenna''' na one river wey dey for central [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]]. E be tributary to di [[:en:Awash_River|Awash River]] wey dey for west side, and e dey start from southwest of [[:en:Ankobar|Ankobar]]. Scholar [[:en:G.W.B._Huntingford|G.W.B. Huntingford]] talk say e fit be di same river wey dem dey call Kuba, wey dem mention for [[:en:Futuh_al-Habasha|Futuh al-Habasha]] ("The Conquest of Abyssinia"), di story of [[:en:Imam|Imam]] [[:en:Ahmed_ibn_Ibrahim_al-Ghazi|Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi]] wen e conquer [[:en:Ethiopian_Empire|Ethiopian Empire]].<ref>Huntingford, ''The historical geography of Ethiopia from the first century AD to 1704'', (Oxford University Press: 1989), p. 123</ref> == Reference == 4sv9aq78xz94xkcnlm9j61vt7s9x5n6 103620 103619 2026-06-18T11:48:21Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103620 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} Di '''Kabenna''' na one river wey dey for central [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]]. E be tributary to di [[:en:Awash_River|Awash River]] wey dey for west side, and e dey start from southwest of [[:en:Ankobar|Ankobar]]. Scholar [[:en:G.W.B._Huntingford|G.W.B. Huntingford]] talk say e fit be di same river wey dem dey call Kuba, wey dem mention for [[:en:Futuh_al-Habasha|Futuh al-Habasha]] ("The Conquest of Abyssinia"), di story of [[:en:Imam|Imam]] [[:en:Ahmed_ibn_Ibrahim_al-Ghazi|Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi]] wen e conquer [[:en:Ethiopian_Empire|Ethiopian Empire]].<ref>Huntingford, ''The historical geography of Ethiopia from the first century AD to 1704'', (Oxford University Press: 1989), p. 123</ref> == Reference == 2rj632nm2uh76z373hv1132vn2kkowm 0 27650 103622 2026-06-18T11:55:18Z Kwasi Rex 4961 Dis na Bia River article wey dem write am for Ghana Pidgin. 103622 wikitext text/x-wiki Bia River na river wey dey mostly for Ghana, but e flow pass Ghana wey e enter Ivory Coast too. E dey end for Aby Lagoon wey dey the border between Ghana and Ivory Coast.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ghana - Rivers and Lakes |url=https://www.countrystudies.us/ghana/30.htm |access-date=2026-06-18 |website=www.countrystudies.us}}</ref> Dem build hydroelectric dam across Bia River for Ayamé for 1959, and dat one make Lake Ayamé come form.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Seasonal distribution of phytoplankton in the Aby lagoon system, Ivory Coast, West Africa |journal=[[African Journal of Aquatic Science]]}}</ref> Bia River be one of the rivers wey Ghana and Ivory Coast dey share for West Africa. The river start from the forest highlands for Ghana near Wamfie town for Bono Region, about 306 meters above sea level.<ref>{{Cite web |title= |url= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070315160844/http://www.mnhn.fr/sfi/cybium/numeros/pdf/242pdf/05.Duponchelle.pdf |archive-date=March 15, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Different fish species wey dey insyd the Bia River and Lake system for south-eastern Ivory Coast: Study wey use computer mapping method |url=https://www.lrrd.org/lrrd25/1/kona25013.htm |access-date=2026-06-18 |website=www.lrrd.org}}</ref> Bia River dey play very important role for Africa ein environment and economy. E dey help drain plenty areas for the Bia Conservation Zone for Western Ghana, wey e include places like Sefwi, Aowin, and Suaman. The river dey support farming, fishing, wildlife and the livelihoods of many people wey dey live around am.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.fao.org/4/t0360e/T0360E05.htm |title=Country's File}}</ref> 7o3mu8zw6rqbity2k3mg3qsiv1fz52n 0 27651 103624 2026-06-18T11:57:59Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 Created page with "Di Kidane Mihret na wan riva wey dey insai Nile basin. E dey start for di mountains of Dogu’a Tembien for north Ethiopia, e dey flow go north until e join di Wari an Tekezé Riva." 103624 wikitext text/x-wiki Di Kidane Mihret na wan riva wey dey insai Nile basin. E dey start for di mountains of Dogu’a Tembien for north Ethiopia, e dey flow go north until e join di Wari an Tekezé Riva. fpp8mtf91lcra3i04sr3h46yl63cysu 14 27652 103625 2026-06-18T11:58:00Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103625 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1