Wikipedia gpewiki https://gpe.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.7 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 1175 103835 103094 2026-06-18T20:04:21Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103835 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q50828855}} De '''African Continental Free Trade Area''' ('''AfCFTA''')<ref>Loes Witschge (March 20, 2018). [https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/03/african-continental-free-trade-area-afcfta-180317191954318.html "African Continental Free Trade Area: What you need to know"]. ''Al Jazeera''.</ref> be free trade area wey edey encompass most of Africa.<ref name=":7">[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-43489255 "African states agree massive trade bloc"]. ''BBC News''. March 21, 2018. Retrieved March 21, 2018.</ref><ref>[https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-03-21/africa-set-to-agree-3-trillion-trade-bloc-without-key-economy "Africa Set to Agree $3 Trillion Trade Bloc, Without Key Economy"]. ''Bloomberg.com''. March 21, 2018. Retrieved March 21, 2018.</ref><ref>AfricaNews. [http://www.africanews.com/2018/03/21/forty-four-countries-sign-historic-africa-union-free-trade-agreement/ "Forty-four countries sign historic African Union free trade agreement | Africanews"]. ''Africanews''. Retrieved March 21, 2018</ref> Dem establish am insyd 2018 by de '''African Continental Free Trade Agreement''', wey get 43 parties den another 11 signatories, wey emake am de largest free-trade area plus ein number of member states, after de World Trade Organization,<ref>Justina Crabtree (March 20, 2018). [https://www.cnbc.com/2018/03/20/africa-leaders-to-form-largest-free-trade-area-since-the-wto.html "Africa is on the verge of forming the largest free trade area since the World Trade Organization"]. ''CNBC''.</ref> den de largest as we dey talk for population den geographic size wey edey span 1.3 billion manners across de worlds second largest continent. De agreement wey come found AfCFTA dem broke am by de African Union (AU) den sign am by 44 of ein 55 member states for Kigali, Rwanda on 21 March 2018.<ref name=":0">[https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21739224-nigeria-among-protectionist-holdouts-forty-four-african-countries-sign "Forty-four African countries sign a free-trade deal"]. ''The Economist''. March 22, 2018.</ref><ref>[http://www.arabnews.com/node/1270936/business-economy "44 African nations sign pact establishing free trade area"]. ''Arab News''. March 21, 2018. Retrieved April 7, 2019.</ref> Dema proposal come into after 30 days of ratification by 22 of de signatory states.<ref name=":0" /> Insyd 29 April 2019,<ref>Abdi Latif Dahir (April 3, 2019). [https://qz.com/africa/1586526/africa-free-trade-deal-gets-gambia-signature-to-go-into-force/ "Africa's historic free trade deal now has enough countries signed up to go into force"]. ''Quartz Africa''.</ref> de Saharawi Republic make de 22 deposit for instruments of ratification, wey dem carry de agreement into effect for May 30; ego enter ein operational phase as edey follow a summit for 7 July 2019,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20190602063054/https://au.int/en/pressreleases/20190429/afcfta-agreement-secures-minimum-threshold-22-ratification-sierra-leone-and "AfCFTA Agreement secures minimum threshold of 22 ratification as Sierra Leone and the Saharawi Republic deposit instruments"]. African Union. April 29, 2019.</ref> den officially dem start am for 1 January 2021. AfCFTA ein negotiations den implementation dem oversee am by a permanent secretariat wey dey insyd Accra, Ghana.<ref name=":1">[https://www.trade.gov/market-intelligence/african-continental-free-trade-area U.S. International Trade Administration, African Continental Free Trade Area] (3 January 2022).</ref><ref>[https://www.myjoyonline.com/news/akufo-addo-commissions-and-hands-over-afcfta-secretariat-to-au-commission/ "Akufo-Addo commissions and hands-over AfCFTA secretariat to AU commission"]. ''Joy online''. Retrieved December 2, 2020.</ref> Under dema agreement, AfCFTA members be commit say dem go eliminate tariffs for most goods den services for a period of 5, 10, or 13 years, wey edey depend on de country ein level of development or ein nature of products.<ref name=":1" /> Dema general long-term objectives dey include creating a single, liberalized market; reduce barriers give dema capital and labour wey ego facilitate investment; develop regional infrastructure; den establish continental customs union.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230520213136/https://www.tralac.org/documents/resources/african-union/2162-afcfta-agreement-legally-scrubbed-version-signed-16-may-2018/file.html "Agreement Establishing the African Continental Free Trade Area"]</ref> De overall aims wey AfCFTA dey carry be increase for socioeconomic development, reduce poverty, den make Africa more competitive for de global economy. Insyd January 13, 2022, AfCFTA dey take a major step towards ein objective plus de establishment of de Pan-African Payment and Settlement System (PAPSS) wey dey allow payment plus companies wey dey insyd Africa gonna be done for ein local currency.<ref name=":1" /> == Dema History == === Dema Background === For 1963 insyd, de Organization of Africa Unity dem establish am by de independent state for Africa. De OAU dey aim say ego promote cooperation give African states. De 1980 Lagos Plan of Action wey dem adopt am by de organization. De plan dem suggest be say Africa go minimize ein reliance for de West as dem dey promote intra-African trade. Dis dem start as dem dey create number of regional cooperation organization give different regions for Africa, wey de Southern African Development Coordination Conference. Dis lead am go Abuja Treaty insyd 1991, wey dem create de African Economic Community, ebe organization wey dey promote development for free trade areas, customs unions, African Central Bank den African common currency union.<ref name=":2">[https://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/webditc2016d7_en.pdf "African Continental Free Trade Area: Policy and Negotiation Options for Trade in Goods"] (PDF). ''unctad.org''. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. 2016. Retrieved July 8, 2019.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230423210920/https://au.int/en/pressreleases/20190704/african-union-will-launch-operational-phase-afcfta-summit-niger "African Union will launch operational phase of the AfCFTA at Summit in Niger"]. ''African Union''. July 4, 2019. Retrieved July 8, 2019.</ref> Insyd 2002, de OAU dem change am wey e cam turn African Union (AU) wey eget one of ein goals be say ego accelerate de "economic integration for de continent".<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20200415235637/https://au.int/sites/default/files/pages/34873-file-constitutiveact_en.pdf "Constitutive Act of the African Union"] (PDF). ''au.int''. African Union. Retrieved July 8, 2019. <q>Article 3c: "accelerate the political and socio-economic integration of the continent;"</q></ref> Dema second goal be "coordinate den harmonise de policies between dema existing den future Regional Economic Communities for de gradual attainment give objective for de Union."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20200415235637/https://au.int/sites/default/files/pages/34873-file-constitutiveact_en.pdf "Constitutive Act of the African Union"] (PDF). ''au.int''. African Union. Retrieved July 8, 2019. <q>Article 3 (l): "coordinate and harmonize the policies between the existing and future Regional Economic Communities for the gradual attainment of the objectives of the Union;"</q></ref> === Dema Negotiations === For de 2012 African Union summit for Addis Ababa, leaders for Africa agree say dem go create a new Continental Free Trade Area by 2017. At de 2015 AU summit for Johannesburg, de summit agree say edey start ein negotiations. Dis come start plenty of ein ten negotiating sessions wey etake place for over ein next three years.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3">Signé, Landry; van der Ven, Colette (May 2019). [https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Keys_to_success_for_AfCFTA.pdf "Keys to success for the AfCFTA negotiations"] (PDF). ''Brookings''. Retrieved July 8, 2019.</ref> Dema first negotiation forum dem do am insyd February 2016 den do dema eight meetings wey until de Summit insyd March 2018 for Kigali. From February 2017, de technical working groups go organize four meetings, wey de technical issues wey dem discuss den implement insyd de draft. On March 8-9, 2018 de African Union Ministers of Trade Union Ministers of Trade approved de draft.<ref>tralac, trade law centre. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190507061138/https://www.tralac.org/resources/by-region/cfta.html "African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) Legal Texts and Policy Documents"]. ''tralac.org''. Retrieved March 28, 2018.</ref> === 2018 Kigali Summit === Insyd March 2018, insyd dema 10th Extraordinary Session for de African Union on AfCFTA, three separate agreements wey dey signed: de African Continental Free Trade Agreement, de Kigali Declaration; den de Protocol on Free Movement of Persons. De Protocol give de Free Movement for Persons wey dey seek say dem go establish visa-free zone within de AfCFTA countries, den support de creation for African Union Passport.<ref>Gwatiwa, Tshepo T.; Sam, Michael Noel (March 14, 2018). [https://theconversation.com/how-the-free-movement-of-people-could-benefit-africa-92057 "How the free movement of people could benefit Africa"]. ''The Conversation''. Retrieved July 7, 2019.</ref> At de summit insyd Kigali on 21 March 2018, 44 countries go sign de AfCFTA , 47 sign de Kigali Declaration, den 30 sign de Protocol for Free Movement for People. While emake successful, wey two notable holdout: Nigeria den South Africa, de two largest economies insyd Africa.<ref>Shaban, Abdur Rahman Alfa (March 21, 2018). [https://web.archive.org/web/20230604203539/https://www.africanews.com/2018/03/21/forty-four-countries-sign-historic-africa-union-free-trade-agreement/ "Forty-four countries sign historic African Union free trade agreement"]. ''AfricaNews''. Retrieved July 7, 2019.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230604073152/https://www.tralac.org/resources/our-resources/6730-continental-free-trade-area-cfta.html "African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) Legal Texts and Policy Documents"]. ''Tralac''. Tralac Trade Law Centre. Retrieved July 7, 2019.</ref><ref name=":8">[https://web.archive.org/web/20230520052416/https://www.tralac.org/resources/by-region/african-union-resources.html "African Union Legal Resources and Policy Documents"]. ''Tralac''. Retrieved July 8, 2019.</ref> One complicating factor insyd de negotiations be dat Africa gey already dem divide am into eight separate free trade areas den/or customs unions, each plus different regulations. Dese regional bodies wey continue go exist; de African Continental Free Trade Agreement initially dey seek say ego reduce trade barriers between de different pillars wey African Economic Community, den eventually use regional organisation as dema building blocks for de ultimate goal for an Africa-wide customs union.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":8" /><ref>Balima, Boureima (July 8, 2019). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-africa-trade/economic-game-changer-african-leaders-launch-free-trade-zone-idUSKCN1U20BX "Economic 'game changer'? African leaders launch free-trade zone"]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved July 8, 2019.</ref><ref name=":4">Erasmus, Gerhard (March 22, 2018). [https://web.archive.org/web/20191214041329/https://www.tralac.org/discussions/article/12869-how-will-the-afcfta-be-established-and-its-legal-instruments-be-implemented.html "How will the AfCFTA be established and its Legal Instruments be implemented?"]. ''Tralac''. Retrieved July 8, 2019.</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+Declaration signed at de 2018 Kigali Summit<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20240419022613/https://www.tralac.org/documents/resources/african-union/1831-legal-instruments-signed-at-10th-extraordinary-summit-on-afcfta-21-march-2018/file.html "INDICATION OF LEGAL INSTRUMENTS SIGNED AT THE 10TH EXTRAORDINARY SESSION OF THE ASSEMBLY ON THE LAUNCH OF THE AFCFTA"]. ''Tralac''. Retrieved July 8, 2019.</ref> !Country !Signed By !AfCFTA Consolidated Text (signature) !Kigali Declaration !Free Movement Protocol |- |[[Algeria]] |Prime Minister Ahmed Ouyahia |Yes |Yes |No |- |[[Angola]] |President João Lourenço |Yes |Yes |Yes |- |[[Central African Republic]] |President Faustin Archange Touadéra |Yes |Yes |Yes |- |[[Chad]] |President Idriss Déby |Yes |Yes |Yes |- |[[Comoros]] |President Azali Assoumani |Yes |Yes |Yes |- |[[Djibouti]] |President Ismaïl Omar Guelleh |Yes |Yes |No |- |[[Equatorial Guinea]] |Prime Minister Francisco Pascual Obama Asue |Yes |Yes |Yes |- |[[Eswatini]] |Prime Minister Barnabas Sibusiso Dlamini |Yes |Yes |No |- |[[Gabon]] |President Ali Bongo Ondimba |Yes |Yes |Yes |- |[[Gambia]] |President Adama Barrow |Yes |Yes |Yes |- |[[Ghana]] |President [[Nana Akufo-Addo]] |Yes |Yes |Yes |- |[[Ivory Coast]] |Vice President Daniel Kablan Duncan |Yes |No |No |- |[[Kenya]] |President Uhuru Kenyatta |Yes |Yes |Yes |- |[[Lesotho]] |Prime Minister Tom Thabane |No |Yes |Yes |- |[[Mauritania]] |President Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz |Yes |Yes |Yes |- |[[Morocco]] |Prime Minister Saadeddine Othmani |Yes |No |No |- |[[Mozambique]] |President Filipe Nyusi |Yes |Yes |Yes |- |[[Niger]] |President Mahamadou Issoufou |Yes |Yes |Yes |- |[[Republic of the Congo]] |President Denis Sassou Nguesso |Yes |Yes |Yes |- |[[Rwanda]] |President Paul Kagame |Yes |Yes |Yes |- |Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic |President Brahim Ghali |Yes |Yes |No |- |[[Senegal]] |President Macky Sall |Yes |Yes |Yes |- |[[Seychelles]] |Vice President Vincent Meriton |Yes |Yes |No |- |[[South Africa]] |President Cyril Ramaphosa |No |Yes |No |- |[[Sudan]] |Prime Minister Abdalla Hamdok |Yes |Yes |Yes |- |[[Tanzania]] |Prime Minister Kassim Majaliwa |No |Yes |No |- |[[Uganda]] |President Yoweri Museveni |Yes |Yes |Yes |- |[[Zimbabwe]] |President Emmerson Mnangagwa |Yes |Yes |No |} === Drafting of further protocols === Negotiations go continue for insyd 2018 plus Phase II, wey edey include policies for investment, competition den intellectual property rights.<ref name=":5">[https://web.archive.org/web/20190403214541/https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/33984-doc-qa_cfta_en_rev15march.pdf "African Continental Free Trade Area - Questions & Answers"] (PDF). ''au.int''. African Union. March 15, 2018. Archived from [https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/33984-doc-qa_cfta_en_rev15march.pdf the original] (PDF) on April 3, 2019. Retrieved March 28, 2018.</ref> Insyd January 2020, AU Assembly negotiations dem see am as dem conclude am.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180629105428/https://au.int/sites/default/files/decisions/34055-ext_assembly_dec_1x_e26_march.pdf "Decision on the draft agreement establishing the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA)"] (PDF). ''au.int''. African Union. March 21, 2018.</ref> Dem expect de draft for January 2020 AU Assembly.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180629105428/https://au.int/sites/default/files/decisions/34055-ext_assembly_dec_1x_e26_march.pdf "Decision on the draft agreement establishing the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA)"] (PDF). ''au.int''. African Union. March 21, 2018.</ref> == Dema Institutions == Dem establish de following institutions say ego facilitate de implementation of de free trade area. For ein Phase II negotiations, dem go establish plenty committees as dem dey use dema protocols.<ref>Erasmus, Gerhard (March 22, 2018). [https://web.archive.org/web/20191214041329/https://www.tralac.org/discussions/article/12869-how-will-the-afcfta-be-established-and-its-legal-instruments-be-implemented.html "How will the AfCFTA be established and its Legal Instruments be implemented?"]. ''tralac Discussion''. trade law centre. Retrieved March 28, 2018.</ref> De AfCFTA Secretariat go be responsible for dema coordination for de implementation give de agreement den dem go be autonomous body wey dey insyd de AU system. Ego gey independent legal personality buh ego work plus de AU Commission den esan go receive ein budget from de AU. De Council of Ministers go be responsible for trade wey dem go decide de location for ein headquarters, ein structure, ein role den ein responsibilities.<ref name=":5" /> De Assembly of de African Union Heads of State den Government be ein highest decision-making body. Ebe likely say dem go meet during de AU Summits.<ref name=":6">Chidede, Talkmore (March 15, 2018). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190531234057/https://www.tralac.org/discussions/article/12838-the-legal-and-institutional-architecture-of-the-agreement-establishing-the-african-continental-free-trade-area.html "The legal and institutional architecture of the Agreement Establishing the African Continental Free Trade Area"]. ''tralac Discussion''. trade law centre. Retrieved March 28, 2018.</ref> De Council of Ministers who be responsible for Trade de provide strategic trade policy oversight den esan dey ensure say dem implement den enforce de AfCFTA Agreement.<ref name=":6" /> Dem establish plenty committees for trade insyd goods, trade insyd services, rules of origin, trade remedies, non-tariff barriers, technical barriers to trade den on sanitary den phytosanitary measures. Dispute resolution rules den procedures dem still dey negotiate am, buh dem go add designation for de dispute resolution body. De Committee for Senior Trade Officials dey implement de Council's decisions. De Committee be responsible for ein development for de programs den action plans wey dem implement am for de AfCFTA Agreement.<ref name=":6" /> == Dema Implementation == De AfCFTA see say dem go implement am in phases, den some of de future phases still dey under negotiation.<ref name=":4" /> Phase I dey cover trade insyd goods den trade for services. Phase II dey cover intellectual property rights, investment den competition policy. Phase III dey cover E-Commerce. At de 2018 Kigali summit, areas of agreement wey dey find be trade protocols, dispute settlement procedures, customs cooperation, trade facilitation, den rules of origin. Dem san gey agreement say dem go reduce tariff for 90% for all goods. Each nation dey permit 3% goods from dis agreement.<ref name=":3" /> Dis be part of de Phase I of de agreement, wey dey cover goods den services liberalization. Some of de Phase I dey issues dey remain as dem dey negotiate say ego include de schedule de tariff concessions den other specific commitments.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /> De 12th Extraordinary Session for de African Union on AfCFTA be call am to launch de new agreement as dem come operate de phase, wey dem host am for Niamey on 7 July 2019.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20190602063054/https://au.int/en/pressreleases/20190429/afcfta-agreement-secures-minimum-threshold-22-ratification-sierra-leone-and "AfCFTA Agreement secures minimum threshold of 22 ratification as Sierra Leone and the Saharawi Republic deposit instruments"]. ''African Union''. April 29, 2019. Retrieved July 7, 2019.</ref><ref name=":9">Meldrum, Andrew (July 7, 2019). [https://www.apnews.com/e5ab779ada5e40c2a2ae782f844e519a "African leaders to launch continent-wide free trade zone"]. ''AP News''. Associated Press. Retrieved July 7, 2019.</ref> For de launch, five operational instruments wey dey govern de AfCFTA wey dem activate am: "de rules of origin; de online negotiating forum; de monitoring den elimination of non-tariff barriers; a digital payment system; den de African Trade Observatory."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230609151728/https://au.int/en/pressreleases/20190707/operational-phase-african-continental-free-trade-area-launched-niger-summit "Operational phase of the African Continental Free Trade Area is launched at Niger Summit of the African Union"]. ''African Union''. July 7, 2019. Retrieved July 8, 2019.</ref> Phase II den III negotiations dem expect am to be initiate am by all AU member countries den hold am in successive rounds. Insyd February 2020, de AU Assembly of Heads of State den Government decide say de Phase III dem go begin am immediately de conclusion of Phase II negotiations, wey dem initially schedule am to conclude insyd December 2020.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /> Buh, dema deadline delay sake of de COVID-19 pandemic in Africa, den new date be (December 31, 2021) be de new set deadline for de conclusion for Phase II den III negotiations. De AfCFTA officially buh largely symbolically launch am for January 1, 2021.<ref>[https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2021/1/1/after-months-of-covid-delays-african-free-trade-bloc-launches "After months of COVID delays, African free trade bloc launches"]. ''aljazeera.com''. Al Jazeera English. January 1, 2021. Retrieved January 2, 2021.</ref> == Dema Membership == Among de 55 AU member states, 44 sign de African Continental Free Trade Agreement (wey dem consolidate text), 47 sign de Kigali Declaration den 30 sign de Protocol on Free Movement of People for de end of de 2018 Kigali Summit. Benin, Botswana, Eritrea, Guinea-Bissau, Nigeria den Zambia be among de 11 countries wey no sign dema initial agreement.<ref>Uwiringiyimana, Clement (March 21, 2018). [https://www.reuters.com/article/us-africa-trade/nigeria-keen-to-ensure-africa-trade-bloc-good-for-itself-president-idUSKBN1GX29V "Nigeria keen to ensure Africa trade bloc good for itself: president"]. Reuters.</ref> After de 2018 Kigali Summit insyd Nouakchott on 1 July 2018, South Africa (de second largest economy of Africa), Sierra Leone, Namibia, Lesotho den Burundi join de agreement.<ref>[https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/business/African-free-trade-area-agreement-signing/2560-4644458-nutmsnz/index.html "More countries sign the African free trade area agreement"]. ''The East African''. Retrieved April 7, 2019.</ref> Insyd February 2019, Guinea-Bissau, Zambia den Botswana san join. Kenya den Ghana be de first nations wey ratify de agreement, depositing dema ratification on 10 May 2018.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180511144610/https://au.int/en/newsevents/20180510/kenya-and-ghana-ratify-instruments-african-continental-free-trade-area "Kenya and Ghana to ratify instruments of African Continental Free Trade Area | African Union"]. ''au.int''. Archived from [https://au.int/en/newsevents/20180510/kenya-and-ghana-ratify-instruments-african-continental-free-trade-area the original] on May 11, 2018. Retrieved May 11, 2018.</ref> Of de signatories, 22 need am to deposit de instrument of ratification for de agreement for am to come into effect, den dis occur am 29 April 2019 wen both Sierra Leone den de Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic de agreement.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20190507061138/https://www.tralac.org/resources/by-region/cfta.html "African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) Legal Texts and Policy Documents"]. Retrieved October 30, 2019.</ref> As a result, de agreement come into force 30 days later on 30 May 2019. At dis point, only Nigeria (de continent ein largest economy), Eritrea den Benin no sign de agreement. President of Nigeria Muhammadu Buhari no dey feel say he go join de AfCFTA, he dey fear say ego hurt de Nigerian entrepreneurship den local industries,<ref>Giles, Chris (March 22, 2018). [https://www.cnn.com/2018/03/22/africa/african-trade-agreement-world/index.html "44 African countries agree free trade agreement, Nigeria yet to sign"]. CNN.</ref> den ein decision dem no praise by ein local groups wey edey include de Manufacturers Association of Nigeria<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20190705085802/https://www.africanews.com/2018/03/23/nigeria-s-buhari-explains-failure-to-sign-continental-free-trade-agreement/ "Nigeria's Buhari explains failure to sign continental free trade agreement"]. Retrieved December 24, 2018.</ref> den de Nigeria Labour Congress.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20190624221812/https://www.pulse.ng/bi/strategy/strategy-why-nigeria-south-africa-did-not-join-other-nations-to-sign-continental-free/1sfvms6 "Why Nigeria, South Africa did not join other Nations to sign Continental Free Trade agreement"]. Retrieved December 24, 2018.</ref> De Nigerian government make dema mind say dem go talk plus de private sector if dem go agree,<ref>[https://theconversation.com/why-nigeria-had-good-reasons-to-delay-signing-africas-free-trade-deal-100203 "Why Nigeria had good reasons to delay signing Africa's free trade deal"]. Retrieved December 24, 2018.</ref> sake of de key concern say dem go agree or dem go prevent am sake of anti-competitive practices lyk dumping.<ref>[https://allafrica.com/stories/201811080199.html "Nigeria: Why We Are Worried Over African Free Trade Agreement - Dangote, MAN, LCCI"]. Retrieved December 24, 2018.</ref> Insyd July 2019, just months afta dem re-elect am into ein new term, Buhari agree say he go adhere to de Africa free trade at dema 12th extraordinary session of de assembly of de union on AfCFTA.<ref>Kazeem, Yomi (July 3, 2019). [https://qz.com/africa/1657861/nigeria-to-sign-africa-free-trade-agreement-afcfta/ "Africa's largest economy is finally backing the continent's plans for a single free trade market"]. ''Quartz Africa''.</ref> At de same meeting, Benin san commit wey dem come sign de agreement, leaving Eritrea as de only of de 55 African Union Member States wey no sign up to de deal.<ref name=":9" /><ref>AfricaNews (July 6, 2019). [https://www.africanews.com/2019/07/06/eritrea-now-sole-outsiders-of-free-trade-deal-as-nigeria-benin-sign-up/ "Eritrea now sole outsiders of free trade deal as Nigeria, Benin sign up"]. ''Africanews''. Retrieved July 7, 2019.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20250703072308/https://www.thesouthafrican.com/news/nigeria-finally-commits-to-signing-the-africa-free-trade-agreement/ "Nigeria finally commits to signing the Africa free trade agreement"]. ''The South African''. July 3, 2019. Retrieved July 7, 2019.</ref> Formally, Eritrea no be part of de initial agreement sake of de ongoing state of war, buh de 2018 peace agreement between Ethiopia den Eritrea come end de conflict den de barrier for Eritrean participation insyd de free trade agreement.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":10">[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-48899701 "Nigeria signs African free trade area agreement"]. BBC. July 7, 2019. Retrieved July 7, 2019.</ref><ref>Jones, Mayeni (July 7, 2019). [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-48899701 "Nigeria signs African free trade area agreement"]. ''BBC News''. BBC. Retrieved July 8, 2019.</ref><ref>Ighobor, Kingsley (August–November 2018). [https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/august-november-2018/africa-set-massive-free-trade-area "Africa set for a massive free trade area"]. ''Africa Renewal''. United Nations. Retrieved July 8, 2019.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20240714192856/https://www.tralac.org/resources/infographics/13795-status-of-afcfta-ratification.html "Status of AfCFTA Ratification"]. ''Tralac''. Retrieved July 8, 2019.</ref> As of May 2022, dem gey 54 signatories wey 43 (80%) gey deposite for dema ratification instruments.<ref>Ndlovu, Sitshengisiwe (July 23, 2020). [https://www.herald.co.zw/afcfta-establishment-pushed-to-2021-by-covid-19/ "AfCFTA establishment pushed to 2021 by Covid-19"]. ''The Herald''. Retrieved August 21, 2020.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20220715192327/https://au.int/en/speeches/20200319/statement-he-mr-wamkele-mene-occasion-swearing-secretary-general-afcfta "Statement of H.E. Mr. Wamkele Mene on the Occasion of Swearing-in as the Secretary General of the AfCFTA Secretariat"]. African Union. March 19, 2020. Retrieved August 21, 2020.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230603150556/https://www.tralac.org/resources/infographic/13795-status-of-afcfta-ratification.html "AfCFTA: Towards the African Continental Free Trade Area"]. ''Tralac''. May 6, 2020. Retrieved August 21, 2020.</ref> Additionally, one country (Somalia) plete ein domestic ratification, buh no get dema deposit ratification plus de depository by May 2020.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230603150556/https://www.tralac.org/resources/infographic/13795-status-of-afcfta-ratification.html "AfCFTA: Towards the African Continental Free Trade Area"]. ''Tralac''. May 6, 2020. Retrieved August 21, 2020.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230520211205/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-08/14/c_139291333.htm "Somalia approves Africa free trade area treaty for ratification - Xinhua &#x7C; English.news.cn"]. ''www.xinhuanet.com''.</ref> Eritrea be de only AU member state wey no gey sign de agreement by 2019.<ref name=":10" /> {| class="wikitable" |+Ratification Status of African Nations<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20190417104917/https://au.int/en/treaties/agreement-establishing-african-continental-free-trade-area "Agreement Establishing the African Continental Free Trade Area"]. ''African Union''. October 8, 2019. Retrieved October 14, 2019.</ref> !Country !Signed !Date of Signing !Ratified !Date of Ratification !Deposited !Date of Deposit |- |Algeria |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |June 7, 2021 |Yes |June 23, 2021<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20231008162033/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/africa/2021-06/25/c_1310026264.htm "UNECA announces initiative to spur role of AfCFTA in Africa's post-COVID-19 economic recovery"]. June 25, 2021.</ref> |- |Angola |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |October 6, 2020 |Yes |November 4, 2020<ref>Abdulrahman Olagunju (November 4, 2020). [https://www.africannewspage.net/2020/11/angola-becomes-30th-state-party-to-the-afcfta-by-depositing-instruments-of-ratification/ "Angola becomes 30th state party to the AfCFTA by depositing instruments of ratification"].</ref> |- |[[Benin]] |Yes |July 7, 2019 |No | |No | |- |[[Botswana]] |Yes |February 10, 2019 |Yes | |Yes | |- |[[Burkina Faso]] |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |May 27, 2019 |Yes |May 29, 2019<ref>[http://northafricapost.com/31338-africas-free-trade-zone-kicks-off.html "Africa's Free Trade Zone Kicks-Off"]. Retrieved January 10, 2020.</ref> |- |[[Burundi]] |Yes |July 2, 2018 |Yes |June 17, 2021 |Yes |August 26, 2021 |- |[[Cameroon]] |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |January 31, 2020 |Yes |December 1, 2020 |- |Central African Republic |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |April 9, 2020 |Yes |September 22, 2020 |- |[[Cape Verde]] |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |November 13, 2020 |Yes |February 5, 2022 |- |Chad |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |June 29, 2018 |Yes |July 2, 2018<ref name=":11">[http://en.igihe.com/news/five-more-countries-sign-two-ratify-afcfta-at-au.html "Five more countries sign, two ratify AfCFTA at AU Summit"]. Retrieved January 10, 2020.</ref> |- |Ivory Coast |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |November 13, 2018 |Yes |November 23, 2018 |- |Comoros |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes | |Yes | |- |Republic of the Congo |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |February 7, 2019 |Yes |February 10, 2019 |- |[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |January 28, 2022 |Yes |February 23, 2022 |- |Djibouti |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |February 5, 2019 |Yes |February 11, 2019 |- |[[Egypt]] |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |February 27, 2019 |Yes |April 8, 2019<ref>[https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/3/68092/Egypt-is-18th-AfCFTA-ratification-instrument-depositor "Egypt is 18th AfCFTA ratification instrument depositor"]. April 8, 2019. Retrieved January 10, 2020.</ref> |- |Equatorial Guinea |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |June 28, 2022 |Yes |July 2, 2019<ref name=":12">[https://web.archive.org/web/20190707143303/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-07/07/c_138206491.htm "Gabon, Equatorial Guinea submit AfCFTA ratification to AU"]. Archived from [http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-07/07/c_138206491.htm the original] on July 7, 2019. Retrieved January 10, 2020.</ref> |- |[[Eritrea]] |No | |No | |No | |- |Eswatini |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |June 21, 2018 |Yes |July 2, 2018<ref name=":11" /> |- |[[Ethiopia]] |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |March 23, 2019 |Yes |April 10, 2019<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20240702135651/https://au.int/ar/node/36361 "Ethiopia deposits instruments of ratification of AfCFTA"]. Retrieved January 10, 2020.</ref> |- |Gabon |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |July 2, 2019 |Yes |July 7, 2019<ref name=":12" /> |- |Gambia |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |April 11, 2019 |Yes |April 16, 2019 |- |Ghana |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |May 7, 2018 |Yes |May 10, 2018<ref name=":13">[https://web.archive.org/web/20231008162812/https://www.tralac.org/news/article/13033-kenya-and-ghana-ratify-instruments-of-african-continental-free-trade-area.html "Kenya and Ghana deposit instruments of African Continental Free Trade Area ratification"]. Retrieved January 10, 2020.</ref> |- |[[Guinea]] |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |July 31, 2018 |Yes |October 16, 2018 |- |[[Guinea-Bissau]] |Yes |February 8, 2019 |Yes |August 31, 2022<ref>Lusa. [https://www.macaubusiness.com/guinea-bissau-country-is-44th-member-of-african-continental-free-trade-area/ "Guinea-Bissau: Country is 44th member of African Continental Free Trade Area"]. Macau Business. Retrieved January 24, 2023.</ref> |Yes |August 31, 2022 |- |Kenya |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |May 6, 2018 |Yes |May 10, 2018<ref name=":13" /> |- |Lesotho |Yes |July 2, 2018 |Yes |October 20, 2020 |Yes |November 27, 2020 |- |[[Liberia]] |Yes |March 21, 2018 |No | |No | |- |[[Libya]] |Yes |March 21, 2018 |No | |No | |- |[[Madagascar]] |Yes |March 21, 2018 |No | |No | |- |[[Malawi]] |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |November 1, 2020<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20231008162501/https://www.mitc.mw/index.php/media-centre/latest-news/190-free-trade-area.html "Malawi Ratifies AfCFTA after Submitting Instruments of Ratification"]. Retrieved February 22, 2021.</ref> |Yes |January 15, 2021<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20231008162449/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/africa/2021-01/15/c_139671191.htm "Malawi deposits AfCFTA ratification to AU"]. January 15, 2021. Retrieved February 22, 2021.</ref> |- |[[Mali]] |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |January 11, 2019 |Yes |February 1, 2019 |- |Mauritania |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |January 31, 2019 |Yes |February 11, 2019<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20240705024825/https://au.int/sw/node/35799 "Deposit of the instrument of Ratification of the AfCFTA Agreement by Mauritania"]. Retrieved January 10, 2020.</ref> |- |[[Mauritius]] |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |September 30, 2019 |Yes |October 7, 2019 |- |Morocco |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |February 24, 2022 |Yes |April 18, 2022 |- |Mozambique |Yes |March 21, 2018 |No | |No | |- |[[Namibia]] |Yes |July 2, 2018 |Yes |January 25, 2019 |Yes |February 1, 2019 |- |Niger |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |May 28, 2018 |Yes |June 19, 2018<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20231008162808/https://www.tralac.org/news/article/13137-niger-deposits-its-instrument-of-ratification-of-the-agreement-on-the-afcfta.html "Niger deposits its instrument of ratification of the Agreement on the AfCFTA"]. Retrieved January 10, 2020.</ref> |- |[[Nigeria]] |Yes |July 7, 2019 |Yes |December 3, 2020<ref>[https://qz.com/africa/1932390/nigeria-ratifies-afcfta-despite-closed-benin-cameroon-borders/ "Nigeria has ratified Africa's historic free trade agreement—but its land borders remain closed"]. November 12, 2020. Retrieved November 14, 2020.</ref> |Yes |December 5, 2020<ref>[https://www.uneca.org/storys/nigeria-becomes-34th-country-ratify-afcfta-agreement "Nigeria becomes 34th country to ratify AfCFTA agreement"]. December 5, 2020. Retrieved February 22, 2021.</ref> |- |Rwanda |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |May 25, 2018 |Yes |May 26, 2018<ref>[http://www.africanews.com/2018/05/27/rwanda-becomes-third-country-to-ratify-au-free-trade-pact/ "Rwanda becomes third country to ratify A.U. free trade pact"]. May 27, 2018. Retrieved January 10, 2020.</ref> |- |Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |April 27, 2019 |Yes | |- |[[São Tomé and Príncipe]] |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |May 28, 2019 |Yes |April 30, 2019<ref>[https://www.facebook.com/africanunion.ecosocc/posts/2381006718834255/ "African Union ECOSOCC"]. ''Facebook''. Retrieved January 10, 2020.</ref> |- |Senegal |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |March 12, 2019 |Yes |June 27, 2019 |- |Seychelles |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |July 8, 2021 |Yes |September 15, 2021 |- |[[Sierra Leone]] |Yes | |Yes |April 19, 2019 |Yes |April 30, 2019 |- |[[Somalia]] |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes | |No | |- |South Africa |Yes |July 2, 2018 |Yes |January 31, 2019 |Yes |February 10, 2019<ref>[https://www.sanews.gov.za/south-africa/president-deposits-sas-afcfta-instrument-ratification "President deposits SA's AfCFTA instrument of ratification"]. Retrieved January 10, 2020.</ref> |- |[[South Sudan]] |Yes |March 21, 2018 |No | |No | |- |Sudan |Yes |March 21, 2018 |No | |No | |- |Tanzania |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |January 17, 2022 |Yes |January 27, 2022<ref>Tanzania Embassy in Ethiopia [@tanzaniainaddis] (January 17, 2022). [https://twitter.com/tanzaniainaddis/status/1482988442338439168 "Ambassador deposits instrument of accession"] (Tweet). Addis Ababa. Retrieved January 26, 2022 – via Twitter.</ref> |- |[[Togo]] |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |January 9, 2019 |Yes |April 2, 2019 |- |[[Tunisia]] |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |September 7, 2020 |Yes |November 27, 2020 |- |Uganda |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |November 20, 2018 |Yes |February 9, 2019<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20231008162035/https://www.tralac.org/news/article/13750-uganda-deposits-its-instrument-of-ratification-of-the-agreement-on-the-afcfta.html "Uganda deposits its instrument of ratification of the Agreement on the AfCFTA"]. Retrieved January 10, 2020.</ref> |- |[[Zambia]] |Yes |February 10, 2019 |Yes |January 28, 2021<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230927182940/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-10/27/c_139471320.htm "Zambian cabinet approves ratification of African free trade agreement"]. October 27, 2020. Retrieved February 22, 2021.</ref> |Yes |February 5, 2021<ref>[https://www.uneca.org/stories/zambia-latest-country-ratify-african-continental-free-trade-area-afcfta-agreement "Zambia is latest country to ratify the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) agreement"]. February 8, 2021. Retrieved February 22, 2021.</ref> |- |Zimbabwe |Yes |March 21, 2018 |Yes |April 25, 2019 |Yes |May 24, 2019<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20190814122820/https://www.uneca.org/stories/zimbabwe%E2%80%99s-national-consultative-forum-african-continental-free-trade-area-slated-19-june "Zimbabwe's National Consultative Forum on the African continental free trade area slated for 19 June"]. Archived from [https://www.uneca.org/stories/zimbabwe%E2%80%99s-national-consultative-forum-african-continental-free-trade-area-slated-19-june the original] on August 14, 2019. Retrieved January 10, 2020.</ref> |} === Oda AU member states === Eritrea no sign sake of tension wey between dem den Ethiopia, buh as of 2019, as dem follow de 2018 Eritrea-Ethiopia summit, de AU Commissioner for Trade den Industry dey expect say Eritrea go eventually sign de agreement.<ref name=":10" /> == Dema Human right assessment == July 2017 United Nations Economic Commission for Africa report talk say de CFTA go help fight poverty den inequality as edey bolar for de continent top as ego change plenty insyd Africa economies. Dem san talk say ebe lyk ego help make African Union go achieve ein Agenda 2063 den de Sustainable Development Goals. De document dem target say ego tackle human rights as edey de negotiation insyd.<ref>''[https://repository.uneca.org/handle/10855/24089 Report: the Continental Free Trade Area (CFTA) in a human rights perspective]''. UN Economic Commission for Africa. July 2017. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/9783958618596|9783958618596]]</bdi>. Retrieved June 6, 2020.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180719173611/https://www.uneca.org/sites/default/files/PublicationFiles/policy_brief_building_sustainable_and_inclusive.pdf "Building a Sustainable and Inclusive Continental Free Trade Area - Nine Priority Recommendations from a Human Rights Perspective"] (PDF). UN Economic Commission for Africa. July 2017. Archived from [https://www.uneca.org/sites/default/files/PublicationFiles/policy_brief_building_sustainable_and_inclusive.pdf the original] (PDF) on July 19, 2018. Retrieved June 6, 2020.</ref> According to de Food den Agriculture Organization, dem recognize de intersection wey dey de gender, agriculture, den trade, say ebe critical say ego ensure say dem implement de AfCFTA ein address de nuance den vary de challenges dat women plenty tyms dey face.<ref name=":14">[[doi:10.4060/cb6966en|''Seizing the opportunities of the African Continental Free Trade Area for the economic empowerment of women in agriculture''.]] Accra: FAO. 2021. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.4060/cb6966en|10.4060/cb6966en]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-92-5-135021-8|978-92-5-135021-8]]</bdi>. [[:en:S2CID_(identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:244712893 244712893].</ref> Ebe vital say dem go operationlise de AfCFTA agreement wey ego ensure say de future trade policies, practices den regulation wey go promote gender equality den empower women den girls for de African continent, especially in support of women to make dem seize new opportunities as de AfCFTA present for de agriculture insyd.<ref name=":14" /> Implementation for de agreement dat no be inclusive for women wey fi result in widening gender gap by negatively affect women-led micro, small or medium-sixed enterprises den those who dey rely on de informal trade (wey dey include cross border) for dema livelihoods.<ref name=":14" /> == San see == * ASEAN Free Trade Area * Caribbean Community (CARICOM) * Central European Free Trade Agreement * Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa * Commonwealth of Independent States Free Trade Area * Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership * Council of Arab Economic Unity * Free trade agreement * Free-trade area * Free trade areas in Europe * Market access * [[Single African Air Transport Market]] * Rules of Origin * Tariffs * Tourism in Africa * [[Tripartite Free Trade Area]] == References == <references /> [[Category:African Continental Free Trade Agreement]] [[Category:African Union]] [[Category:Economy of de African Union]] [[Category:Free trade agreements]] [[Category:2018 insyd economics]] [[Category:2018 insyd international relations]] [[Category:2018 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:Trade blocs]] [[Category:Politics of Africa]] [[Category:March 2018 events insyd Africa]] rcgpw9bgvvspv24uiedojziyibuulzv 0 1257 103896 40111 2026-06-18T22:10:10Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103896 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q118}} '''April''' be de fourth month of de year wey dey Gregorian den Julian calendars. E be de first of four months wey get length of 30 days, den de second of five months wey get length of less dan 31 days. Dem commonly associate April plus de season of spring for de Northern Hemisphere insyd, den autumn for de Southern Hemisphere insyd, wey ebi de seasonal equivalent to October for de Northern Hemisphere den vice versa. == History == De Romans wey dem give dis month de Latin name ''Aprilis''<ref>"April" in ''[[:en:Chambers's_Encyclopædia|Chambers's Encyclopædia]]''. London: [[:en:George_Newnes_Ltd|George Newnes]], 1961, Vol. 1, p. 497.</ref> buh de derivation of dis name no be certain. De traditional etymology dey komot from de verb ''aperire'', "to open", for allusion for ein being de season wey trees den flowers dey begin to "open", wey de modern Greek use of άνοιξη (''ánixi'') (opening) give spring support de comparison. Since dem name sum of de Roman months in honor of demma divinities, wey as April be sacred give de goddess Venus, dem dey hold ein Veneralia for de first day, dem suggest say Aprilis be originally ein month '''Aphrilis''', from ein equivalent Greek goddess name Aphrodite (''Aphros''), or from de Etruscan name ''Apru''. Jacob Grimm dey suggest de name of hypothetical god or hero, ''Aper'' or ''Aprus''.<ref>Jacob Grim ''Geschichte der deutschen Sprache''. Cap. "Monate"</ref> == Symbols == April ein birthstone be de diamond. * Dem list de birth flower typically as either de common daisy ''(Bellis perennis)'' anaa de sweet pea.<ref>Kipfer, Barbara Ann (1997) ''The Order of Things.'' New York: Random House</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120616195310/http://www.shgresources.com/gems/birthflowers/ "U101 College Search"]. Archived from [http://www.shgresources.com/gems/birthflowers/ the original] on September 11, 2012.</ref> * De zodiac signs give de month of April be Aries (until April 19) den Taurus (April 20 onwards).<ref>The Earth passed the junction of the signs at 14:45 UT/GMT April 19, 2020, and will pass it again at 20:33 UT/GMT April 19, 2021.</ref><ref>[https://www.yourzodiacsign.com/calendar/ "Astrology Calendar"]. ''yourzodiacsign''. Signs in UT/GMT for 1950–2030.</ref> == References == [[Category:Months]] <references /> == External links == '''April''' at Wikipedia ein sisto projects * [[File:Commons-logo.svg|link=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Basshunter?uselang=gpe|16x16px]] [[commons:Category:April|Wikimedia Commons]] * [[File:Wikiquote-logo.svg|link=https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Basshunter?uselang=gpe|16x16px]] [[wikiquote:April|Wikiquote]] (en) * [[File:Wikidata-logo.svg|link=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q383541|16x16px]] [[wikidata:Q118|Wikidata]] * [[wiktionary:April|Definitions]] from Wiktionary * [[wikivoyage:April|Travel information]] from Wikivoyage * [http://www.arborday.org/ National Arbor Day Foundation] sz2folqlszqnvkzzs10o6npuyintvwt 0 1285 103922 97689 2026-06-18T22:45:31Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103922 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q122}} '''August''' be de eighth month of de year wey dey Julian den Gregorian calendars, wey ebe de fifth of seven months wey get length of 31 days.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/42820/August "August | month | Britannica"]. ''www.britannica.com''. Retrieved December 16, 2023.</ref> Ein zodiac sign be Leo wey originally dem name am ''Sextilis'' insyd Latin secof na ebi de 6th month for de original ten-month Roman calendar insyd under Romulus inyd 753 BC, wey March be de first month for de year. About 700 BC, e cam turn de eighth month wen dem add January den February to de year before March by King Numa Pompilius, wey he san so give am 29 days. Julius Caesar add two days wen he create de Julian calendar insyd 46 BC (708 AUC), he give am ein modern length of 31 days. Insyd 8 BC, dem rename am for Emperor Augustus ein honor.<ref>[https://www.livescience.com/45650-calendar-history.html "Keeping Time: Months and the Modern Calendar"]. ''Live Science''. May 16, 2014.</ref> According to Senatus consultum wey Macrobius quote am, he choose dis month secof na ebi de tym of ein chaw great triumphs, wey dey include de conquest of Egypt.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0063:id=calendarium-cn "Year of Julius Caesar, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890), William Smith, LLD, William Wayte, G. E. Marindin, Ed"].</ref> Commonly lore dem repeat claim say August get 31 days secof na Augustus want ein month make e match de length of Julius Caesar ein July, buh dis be invention for de 13th century scholar Johannes de Sacrobosco. Sextilis in fact get 31 days before dem rename am, wey dem no choose am secof ein length.<ref>Lamont, Roscoe (1919). [https://web.archive.org/web/20200723094837/http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1919PA.....27..579P/0000583.000.html "The Roman calendar and its reformation by Julius Caesar"]. ''Popular Astronomy''. Vol.&nbsp;27. pp.&nbsp;583–595, esp. 585–587. [[:en:Bibcode_(identifier)|Bibcode]]:[https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1919PA.....27..579P 1919PA.....27..579P]. Sacrobosco's theory is discussed on pages&nbsp;585–587.</ref><ref>Nothaft, C. Phillip E. (2018). ''Scandalous Error: Calendar Reform and Calendrical Astronomy in Medieval Europe''. Oxford University Press. p. 122. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198799559.001.0001. ISBN 9780198799559.</ref> == August symbols == * August ein birthstones be de peridot, sardonyx, den spinel.<ref>[https://www.americangemsociety.org/en/august-birthstones "Why the American Gem Society"]. ''American Gem Society''.</ref> * Ein birth flower be de gladiolus or poppy, wey dey mean beauty, strength of character, love, marriage den family.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120616195310/http://www.shgresources.com/gems/birthflowers/ Birth months, flowers, and gemstones], shgresources.com</ref> * De Western zodiac signs give de month of August be Leo (until August 22) den Virgo (from August 23 dey go).<ref>The Earth passes the junction of the signs at 15:44 UT/GMT August 22, 2020, and will pass it again at 21:34 UT/GMT August 22, 2021.</ref><ref>[https://www.yourzodiacsign.com/calendar/ "Astrology Calendar"]. ''yourzodiacsign''. Signs in UT/GMT for 1950–2030.</ref> == References == [[Category:Months]] <references /> == External links == '''August''' at Wikipedia ein sisto projects * [[File:Commons-logo.svg|link=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Basshunter?uselang=gpe|16x16px]] [[commons:Category:August|Wikimedia Commons]] * [[File:Wikiquote-logo.svg|link=https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Basshunter?uselang=gpe|16x16px]] [[wikiquote:August|Wikiquote]] (en) * [[File:Wikidata-logo.svg|link=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q383541|16x16px]] [[wikidata:Q122|Wikidata]] * [[wiktionary:August|Definitions]] from Wiktionary * [[wikinews:Category:August|News]] from Wikinews * [[wikisource:Encyclopædia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/August|"August"]] . ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. III (9th ed.). 1878. p. 73. tqloyp8hgrw49xkyih5z5flb0v14uun 0 1370 103931 87399 2026-06-19T00:11:47Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103931 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q967}} '''Burundi''' (/bəˈrʊndi/ (listen), /-ˈrʌn-/), alias '''Republic of Burundi''' (Kirundi: ''Repuburika y’Uburundi''<ref>[https://www.presidence.gov.bi/2018/07/03/6271/ "Constitution de la République du Burundi promulguée le 07 juin 2018"]. 3 July 2018.</ref> [u.βu.ɾǔː.ndi]; Swahili: ''Jamuhuri ya Burundi''; French: ''République du Burundi'' [buʁundi, byʁyndi]), be sam landlocked country for Great Rift Valley insyd wey dey de junction between de African Great Lakes region den East Africa. Ebe border by [[Rwanda]] to de north, [[Tanzania]] to de east den southeast, den de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] to de west; Lake Tanganyika dey lie along ein southwestern border. De capital cities be Gitega den Bujumbura, de latter be de country ein largest city.<ref>[https://www.presidence.gov.bi/2019/02/13/loi-n104-du-04-fevrier-2019-portant-fixation-de-la-capitale-politique-et-de-la-capitale-economique-du-burundi/ "Loi n°1/04 du 04 février 2019 portant Fixation de la Capitale Politique et de la Capitale Economique du Burundi"]. 13 February 2019. Retrieved 24 February 2019.</ref> Burundi remain primarily rural society, plus just 13.4% of de population dey live insyd urban areas for 2019 insyd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210122232849/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/burundi/ "Burundi"], ''The World Factbook'', Central Intelligence Agency, 31 January 2024, retrieved 5 February 2024</ref> Burundi be densely populated, den chaw young people emigrate dey search of opportunities elsewhere. Roughly 85% of de population be of Hutu ethnic origin, 15% be Tutsi, den fewer dan 1% be Twa.<ref>[[:en:Burundi#Eggers|Eggers]], p. ix.</ref> De official languages of Burundi be Kirundi, French, den English—Kirundi be officially dem recognise as de sole national language.<ref>Maurer, Sous la direction de Bruno (1 October 2016). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=2OA9DQAAQBAJ&q=langues+officielles+au+burundi+kirundi+fran%C3%A7ais+anglais&pg=PA104 Les approches bi-plurilingues d'enseignement-apprentissage: autour du programme Écoles et langues nationales en Afrique (ELAN-Afrique): Actes du colloque du 26–27 mars 2015, Université Paul-Valéry, Montpellier, France]''. Archives contemporaines. ISBN&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/9782813001955|9782813001955]]</bdi>. [https://web.archive.org/web/20180410203233/https://books.google.com/books?id=2OA9DQAAQBAJ&lpg=PA104&ots=tFzjIGhvwU&dq=langues+officielles+au+burundi+kirundi+fran%C3%A7ais+anglais&hl=ru&pg=PA104 Archived] from the original on 10 April 2018. Retrieved 10 April 2018 &#x2013; via Google Books.</ref> Na dem make English official language for 2014 insyd.<ref>[https://www.rfi.fr/fr/afrique/20140829-le-burundi-met-ordre-politique-linguistique "Burundi: l'anglais officialisé aux côtés du français et du kirundi"]. ''RFI'' (insyd French). 29 August 2014. Retrieved 14 July 2021.</ref> One of de smallest countries insyd Africa, dem dey use Burundi ein land mostly for subsistence agriculture den grazing, wey edey lead to deforestation, soil erosion, den habitat loss.<ref>Bermingham, Eldredge, Dick, Christopher W. and Moritz, Craig (2005). ''Tropical Rainforests: Past, Present, and Future''. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, p. 146. ISBN 0-226-04468-8</ref> As of 2005, na de country be almost completely deforested. Na less dan 6% of ein land be cover by trees, den ova half of dat be for commercial plantations.<ref>Butler, Rhett A. (2006). [https://rainforests.mongabay.com/20burundi.htm "Burundi"]. ''Mongabay''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20060505214856/https://rainforests.mongabay.com/20burundi.htm Archived] from the original on 5 May 2006.</ref> Burundi be de poorest country for de world insyd by nominal GDP per capita, wey ebe one of de least developed countries. Edey face widespread poverty, corruption, instability, authoritarianism, den illiteracy. De 2018 World Happiness Report rank de country as de world ein least happy plus rank of 156.<ref>Collinson, Patrick (14 March 2018). [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/14/finland-happiest-country-world-un-report "Finland is the happiest country in the world, says UN report"]. ''The Guardian''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20180314234610/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/14/finland-happiest-country-world-un-report Archived] from the original on 14 March 2018. Retrieved 15 March 2018.</ref> Burundi be member of de [[African Union]], Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, United Nations, East African Community (EAC), den de Non-Aligned Movement. === Subdivisions === {| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ !Province !Capital !Area<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150714122552/http://www.geohive.com/cntry/burundi_ext.aspx "Burundi: administrative units, extended"]. GeoHive. Archived from [http://www.geohive.com/cntry/burundi_ext.aspx the original] on 14 July 2015. Retrieved 13 July 2015.</ref> (km²) !Population<ref>Law, Gwillim. [http://www.statoids.com/ubi.html "Provinces of Burundi"]. ''Statoids''. Retrieved 13 July 2015.</ref> (2008 census) !Density (per km²) !Communes |- | colspan="5" |'''Eastern Burundi''' |- |Cankuzo |Cankuzo |1,964.54 |228,873 |116.5 |5 |- |Gitega |Gitega |1,978.96 |725,223 |366.5 |11 |- |Rutana |Rutana |1,959.45 |333,510 |170.2 |6 |- |Ruyigi |Ruyigi |2,338.88 |400,530 |171.2 |7 |- | colspan="5" |'''Northern Burundi''' |- |Karuzi |Karuzi |1,457.40 |436,443 |299.5 |7 |- |Kayanza |Kayanza |1,233.24 |585,412 |474.7 |9 |- |Kirundo |Kirundo |1,703.34 |628,256 |368.8 |7 |- |Muyinga |Muyinga |1,836.26 |632,409 |344.4 |7 |- |Ngozi |Ngozi |1,473.86 |660,717 |448.3 |9 |- | colspan="5" |'''Southern Burundi''' |- |Bururi |Bururi |1,644.68 |313,102 |190.4 |6 |- |Makamba |Makamba |1,959.60 |430,899 |219.9 |6 |- |Rumonge |Rumonge |1,079.72 |352,026 |326.0 |5 |- | colspan="5" |'''Western Burundi''' |- |Bubanza |Bubanza |1,089.04 |338,023 |310.4 |5 |- |Bujumbura Mairie |Bujumbura |86.52 |497,166 |5746.3 |13 |- |Bujumbura Rural |Isale |1,059.84 |464,818 |438.6 |9 |- |Cibitoke |Cibitoke |1,635.53 |460,435 |281.5 |6 |- |Muramvya |Muramvya |695.52 |292,589 |420.7 |5 |- |Mwaro |Mwaro |839.60 |273,143 |325.3 |6 |} |} == Demographics == {| class="wikitable" ! colspan="10" | Largest cities anaa towns insyd Burundi Source:<ref>[https://simplemaps.com/static/data/country-cities/bi/bi.xlsx "Burundi Cities by Population"].</ref> |- ! !Rank !Name !Province !Pop. ! |- | rowspan="11" | |1 |Bujumbura |Bujumbura Mairie |374,809 | rowspan="11" | |- |2 |Gitega |Gitega |135,467 |- |3 |Ngozi |Ngozi |39,884 |- |4 |Rumonge |Bururi |35,931 |- |5 |Cibitoke |Cibitoke |23,885 |- |6 |Kayanza |Kayanza |21,767 |- |7 |Bubanza |Bubanza |20,031 |- |8 |Karuzi |Karuzi |10,705 |- |9 |Kirundo |Kirundo |10,024 |- |10 |Muyinga |Muyinga |9,609 |} == References == [[Category:Burundi]] <references /> == Bibliography == * Eggers, Ellen K. (2006). ''Historical Dictionary of Burundi'' (3rd ed.). Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-8108-5302-7|0-8108-5302-7]]</bdi>. * Lemarchand, Rene (1996). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=3d_r13a3IgMC&pg=PR17 Burundi: Ethnic Conflict and Genocide]''. Cambridge University Press. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56623-0|978-0-521-56623-0]]</bdi>. == You fi read further == * Abdallah, Ahmedou Ould ''Burundi on the Brink, 1993–95: A UN Special Envoy Reflects on Preventive Diplomacy'' * Allen, J. A.; et al. (2003). ''Africa South of the Sahara 2004: South of the Sahara''. New York, New York: Taylor and Francis Group. ISBN [[:en:Special:BookSources/1-85743-183-9|<bdi>1-85743-183-9</bdi>.]] * Bentley, Kristina and Southall, Roger ''An African Peace Process: Mandela, South Africa, and Burundi'' * Chrétien, Jean-Pierre ''The Great Lakes of Africa: Two Thousand Years of History'' * Daley, Patricia ''Gender and Genocide in Burundi: The Search for Spaces of Peace in the Great Lakes Region'' * Gates, Henry Lewis; Anthony Appiah (1999). ''[[iarchive:africanaencyclop00appi|Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience]].'' New York, New York: Basic Civitas Books. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-465-00071-1|0-465-00071-1]]</bdi>. * Ewusi, Kale and Akwanga, Ebenezer ''Burundi's Negative Peace: The Shadow of a Broken Continent in the Era of Nepad'' * Jennings, Christian ''Across the Red River: Rwanda, Burundi and the Heart of Darkness'' * Kayoya, Michel ''My Father's Footsteps'' (''Sur les traces de mon père'') East African Publishing House, 1973 * Kayoya, Michel ''Entre deux mondes'' (Between two worlds) Lavigerie Éditeurs, Bujumbura: 1971. Kayoya was murdered during the 1972 genocide. * Kidder, Tracy, ''Strength in What Remains'' (A biography of a Burundian immigrant to the US) * Krueger, Robert; Kathleen Tobin Krueger (2007). ''From Bloodshed to Hope in Burundi: Our Embassy Years during Genocide''. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-292-71486-1|978-0-292-71486-1]]</bdi>. * Melady, Thomas Patrick ''Burundi: The Tragic Years'' * Nivonzima, David and Fendell, Len ''Unlocking Horns: Forgiveness and Reconciliation in Burundi'' * Uvin, Peter ''Life After Violence: A People's Story of Burundi'' * Watt, Nigel ''Burundi: The Biography of a Small African Country'' * Weinstein, Warren (2006). ''Historical Dictionary of Burundi''. Metuchen, New Jersey: Scarecrow Press. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-8108-0962-1|0-8108-0962-1]]</bdi>.1st. edition. == External links == * Records of [https://web.archive.org/web/20230808155412/https://search.archives.un.org/united-nations-international-commission-of-inquiry-for-burundi-unicib-1995-1996 the United Nations International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi (UNICIB) (1995–1996)] at the United Nations Archives * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180420053748/http://www.burundi.gov.bi/ Official Burundi government website] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121204213713/http://justice.gov.bi/ Official Website of the Ministry of Justice of Burundi] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110813050117/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/world-leaders-b/burundi.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210122232849/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/burundi/ Burundi]. ''[[:en:The_World_Factbook|The World Factbook]]''. [[:en:Central_Intelligence_Agency|Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090523153822/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/burundi.htm Burundi] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13085064 Burundi] from the [[:en:BBC_News|BBC News]] * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=BI Key Development Forecasts for Burundi] from [[:en:International_Futures|International Futures]] [[Category:Central African countries]] [[Category:East African countries]] [[Category:Countries den territories wer English be official language]] [[Category:French-speaking countries den territories]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] [[Category:Least developed countries]] [[Category:Member states of de Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]] [[Category:Member states of de United Nations]] [[Category:Member states of de African Union]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:States and territories dem establish insyd 1962]] [[Category:Swahili-speaking countries den territories]] [[Category:1962 establishments insyd Burundi]] [[Category:Countries for Africa insyd]] [[Category:Former monarchies of Africa]] 2g75rk1nph5bsv4aabqoqz2cyex43vq 0 1374 103932 87400 2026-06-19T00:15:34Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103932 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Cameroon''' (officially de '''Republic of Cameroon'''), be country wey dey Central Africa. Edey share boundaries plus [[Nigeria]] to de west den north, [[Chad]] to de northeast, de [[Central African Republic]] to de east, den [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Gabon]] den de [[Republic of the Congo]] to de south. Ein coastline dey lie for de Bight of Biafra top, part of de Gulf of Guinea den de Atlantic Ocean. Due to its strategic position for de crossroads between West Africa den Central Africa, na dem categorize am edey both camps insyd. Ein nearly 27 million people dey speak 250 native languages, for addition to de national tongues of English den French, anaa both.<ref name=":0">Pereltsvaig, Asya (16 June 2011). [https://web.archive.org/web/20120515155945/http://www.languagesoftheworld.info/geolinguistics/linguistic-diversity-in-africa-and-europe.html "Linguistic diversity in Africa and Europe – Languages Of The World"]. ''languagesoftheworld.info''. Archived from [https://www.languagesoftheworld.info/geolinguistics/linguistic-diversity-in-africa-and-europe.html the original] on 15 May 2012. Retrieved 4 July 2019.</ref><ref>Kouega, Jean-Paul. 'The Language Situation in Cameroon', Current Issues in Language Planning, vol. 8/no. 1, (2007), pp. 3–94.</ref><ref>[https://www.ethnologue.com/country/CM "Cameroon"]. ''Ethnologue''. Retrieved 1 July 2019.</ref> De official languages of Cameroon be French den English, de official languages of former French Cameroons den British Cameroons. Christianity be de majority religion insyd Cameroon, plus significant minorities wey dey practise [[Islam]] den traditional faiths. E experience tensions from de English-speaking territories, wer politicians advocate for greater decentralisation den even complete separation anaa independence (as insyd de Southern Cameroons National Council). Insyd 2017, tensions ova de creation of Ambazonian state insyd de English-speaking territories escalate into open warfare. Large numbers of Cameroonians dey live as subsistence farmers. Dem often dey refer to de country as "Africa in miniature" for ein geological, linguistic den cultural diversity.<ref name=":0" /><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20131128084534/http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/globalextremes.html Highest Average Annual Precipitation Extremes]. Global Measured Extremes of Temperature and Precipitation, National Climatic Data Center. 25 May 2012. Last accessed 1 July 2019.</ref> Ein natural features dey include beaches, deserts, mountains, rainforests, den savannas. Ein highest point, at almost 4,100 metres (13,500 ft), be Mount Cameroon for de Southwest Region insyd. Ein most populous cities be Douala for de Wouri River top, ein economic capital den main seaport; Yaoundé, ein political capital; den Garoua. Limbé for de southwest insyd get natural seaport. Cameroon be well known for ein native music styles, particularly Makossa, Njang den Bikutsi, den for ein successful national football team. Ebe member state of de African Union, de United Nations, de ''Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie'' (OIF), de Commonwealth of Nations, Non-Aligned Movement den de Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. == Etymology == Originally, na Cameroon be de exonym de Portuguese give to de Wouri River, wey na dem dey bell am ''Rio dos Camarões'' wey dey mean "river of shrimps" anaa "shrimp river", wey dey refer to de then abundant Cameroon ghost shrimp.<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/Cameroon "Cameroon | Etymology of the name Cameroon by etymonline"]. ''www.etymonline.com''. Retrieved 6 February 2024.</ref><ref>[https://veja.abril.com.br/blog/sobre-palavras/camaroes-o-que-os-crustaceos-tem-a-ver-com-o-pais/ "Camarões: o que os crustáceos têm a ver com o país? ("Cameroon: what do the crustaceans have to do with the country?")"]. Veja. Retrieved 21 November 2020.</ref> Today de country ein name for Portuguese insyd remain ''Camarões''. == Demographics == {| class="wikitable" ! colspan="10" |Largest cities anaa towns insyd Cameroon According to de 2005 Census<ref>[http://citypopulation.de/Cameroon-Cities.html "Cameroon: Regions, Major Cities & Towns"]. ''Population Statistics, Maps, Charts, Weather and Web Information'' (insyd Luxembourgish). 9 April 1976. Retrieved 9 October 2020.</ref> |- !Rank !Name !Region !Pop. |- |1 |Douala |Littoral |1,906,962 |- |2 |Yaoundé |Centre |1,817,524 |- |3 |Bafoussam |West |800,000 |- |4 |Bamenda |Northwest |269,530 |- |5 |Garoua |North |235,996 |- |6 |Maroua |Far North |201,371 |- |7 |Ngaoundéré |Adamawa |152,698 |- |8 |Kumba |Southwest |144,268 |- |9 |Nkongsamba |Littoral |104,050 |- |10 |Buea |Southwest |90,090 |} ==References== <references /> [[Category:Cameroon]] [[Category:1960 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1960 establishments insyd Cameroon]] [[Category:Central African countries]] [[Category:Countries for Africa insyd]] [[Category:Countries den territories wer English be official language]] [[Category:French-speaking countries den territories]] [[Category:Member states of de African Union]] [[Category:Member states of de Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:Member states of de United Nations]] [[Category:Member states of de Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]] [[Category:Member states of de Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Republics insyd de Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:States den territories dem establish insyd 1960]] === Sources === * DeLancey, Mark W.; DeLancey, Mark Dike (2000). ''Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Cameroon'' (3rd ed.). Lanham, Maryland: The Scarecrow Press. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0810837751|978-0810837751]]</bdi>. * Hudgens, Jim; Trillo, Richard (1999). ''West Africa: The Rough Guide'' (3rd ed.). London: Rough Guides. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1858284682|978-1858284682]]</bdi>. * Mbaku, John Mukum (2005). ''Culture and Customs of Cameroon''. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0313332319|978-0313332319]]</bdi>. * Neba, Aaron (1999). ''Modern Geography of the Republic of Cameroon'' (3rd ed.). Bamenda: Neba Publishers. * West, Ben (2004). ''Cameroon: The Bradt Travel Guide''. Guilford, Connecticut: The Globe Pequot Press. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1841620787|978-1841620787]]</bdi>. == You fi read further == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070526152356/http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=20731 "Cameroon – Annual Report 2007"]. Archived from [http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=20731 the original] on 26 May 2007. Retrieved 7 February 2007. . Reporters without Borders. Retrieved 6 April 2007. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070113020758/http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/statistics/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_CMR.html "Cameroon"]. Archived from [http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/statistics/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_CMR.html the original] on 13 January 2007. Retrieved 6 January 2007.. ''Human Development Report 2006''. United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved 6 April 2007. * Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). [[wikisource:1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Cameroon|"Cameroon"]]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). pp. 110–113. * Fonge, Fuabeh P. (1997). ''Modernization without Development in Africa: Patterns of Change and Continuity in Post-Independence Cameroonian Public Service''. Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press, Inc. * MacDonald, Brian S. (1997). "Case Study 4: Cameroon", ''Military Spending in Developing Countries: How Much Is Too Much?'' McGill-Queen's University Press. * Njeuma, Dorothy L. (no date). [https://web.archive.org/web/20070609152111/http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/inhea/profiles/Cameroon.htm "Country Profiles: Cameroon"]. The Boston College Center for International Higher Education. Retrieved 11 April 2008. * Rechniewski, Elizabeth. "1947: Decolonisation in the Shadow of the Cold War: the Case of French Cameroon." ''Australian & New Zealand Journal of European Studies'' 9.3 (2017). online * Sa'ah, Randy Joe (23 June 2006). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5107360.stm "Cameroon girls battle 'breast ironing'"]. ''BBC News''. Retrieved 6 April 2007. * Wright, Susannah, ed. (2006). ''Cameroon''. Madrid: MTH Multimedia S.L. * [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2006/02/data/index.aspx "World Economic and Financial Surveys"]. World Economic Outlook Database, International Monetary Fund. September 2006. Retrieved 6 April 2007. == External links == {{Sister project links|Cameroon|voy=Cameroon}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20210110023649/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cameroon/ Cameroon]. ''[[:en:The_World_Factbook|The World Factbook]]''. [[:en:Central_Intelligence_Agency|Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140324190641/http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/sub-saharan-africa/cameroon/business-corruption-in-cameroon.aspx Cameroon Corruption Profile] from [[:en:Business_Anti-Corruption_Portal|Business Anti-Corruption Portal]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080704153516/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/cameroon.htm Cameroon] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13146029 Cameroon profile] from the [[:en:BBC_News|BBC News]] * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=CM Key Development Forecasts for Cameroon] from [[:en:International_Futures|International Futures]] ; Government * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170529010519/http://www.presidenceducameroun.com/ Presidency of the Republic of Cameroon] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110715013604/http://www.spm.gov.cm/index.php?L=1 Prime Minister's Office] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090805071905/http://www.assemblenationale.cm/ National Assembly of Cameroon] * [http://www.globalintegrity.org/report/Cameroon/2010/ Global Integrity Report: Cameroon] has reporting on anti-corruption in Cameroon * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081210080443/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/world-leaders-c/cameroon.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members] ; Trade * [http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/CMR/Year/2012/Summary Summary Trade Statistics] from World Bank 95fam1gvsnewf5zwjwdll26xaqdd6fw 0 1375 103934 97901 2026-06-19T00:19:33Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103934 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q221283}} [[File:Mortar in Cape Coast.jpg|thumb|Mortar insyd Cape Coast]] '''Cape Coast''' be sam city, fishing port, den capital of Cape Coast Metropolitan District den Central Region of [[Ghana]]. Ebe one of de country ein most historic cities, sam World Heritage Site, home give de [[Cape Coast Castle]], plus de Gulf of Guinea wey dey ein south.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/place/Cape-Coast "Cape Coast | Historic Town, Slave Trade, Castle | Britannica"]. ''www.britannica.com''. Retrieved 12 August 2023.</ref> According to de 2010 census, Cape Coast get settlement population of 169,894 people.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20130925192147/http://www.statsghana.gov.gh/docfiles/2010phc/Census2010_Summary_report_of_final_results.pdf 2010 Population and Housing Census]" (PDF). Ghana Statistical Service. Archived from [http://www.statsghana.gov.gh/docfiles/2010phc/Census2010_Summary_report_of_final_results.pdf the original] (PDF) on 25 September 2013.</ref> De language of de people of Cape Coast be Fante.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230812113451/https://ko-sa.com/cape-coast/ "Cape Coast – Ko-Sa Beach Resort"]. Retrieved 12 August 2023.</ref> De older traditional names of de city be '''Oguaa''' den '''Kotokuraba''' (wey edey mean "River of Crabs" anaa "Village of Crabs").<ref name=":0">Briggs, Philip (2019). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=1PyhDwAAQBAJ&q=oguaa+&pg=PA203 Ghana]'' (8th ed.). [[:en:Bradt_Travel_Guides|Bradt Travel Guides]]. p. 203. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/9781784776282|9781784776282]]</bdi>.</ref> De Portuguese navigators João de Santarém den Pedro Escobar wey sail past Oguaa for 1471 insyd wey dem designate de place ''Cabo Corso'' (wey dey mean "short cape"), ein wey dem get de name Cape Coast from.<ref name=":0" /> From de 16th century go de country ein independence for 1957 insyd, de city change hands between de British, de Portuguese, de Swedish, de Danish den de Dutch. Ebe home give 32 festivals den celebrations.<ref>Banda, Rajaa. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20230204213859/https://theculturetrip.com/africa/ghana/articles/11-fascinating-things-to-know-about-ghanas-cape-coast/ 11 Fascinating things to know about Ghana's Cape Coast]". ''The Culture Trip''. Retrieved 19 April 2018.</ref> == History == Oguaa people be de founders of Cape Coast wey ebe dema paramount chief wey dey rule ova de region, anaa Omanhene, wey be known today as '''Oguaa Traditional Area'''.<ref name=":0" /> Cape Coast be one of de most historical cities for [[Ghana]] insyd.<ref>"[https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/geography/cape-coast.php Cape Coast]". Ghana Web. Retrieved 19 April 2018</ref> Portuguese colonists build sam trading fort for de area insyd. For 1650 insyd, de Swedes build sam lodge wey go later cam turn de better known [[Cape Coast Castle]], wey now ebe World Heritage Site. Chaw modern town expand around am. De Dutch take am ova for 1650 insyd wey dem expand am for 1652 insyd. De British den capture am for 1664 insyd. Na Trade be sam important motivator for de creation of fortresses den settlements top for Cape Coast insyd. Traders wey dey comot from various European countries build dese trading lodges, forts den castles along de coast of modern Ghana. Unfortunately, na de acquisition of gold, slaves, honey, den chaw oda goods wey compose de African leg of de Triangular Trade be increasingly detrimental give de inhabitants of Cape Coast.<ref>Rømer, Ludvig Ferdinand; Winsnes, Selena Axelrod (2000). ''A Reliable Account of the Coast of Guinea (1760)''. British Academy. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-19-726218-4|978-0-19-726218-4]]</bdi>.</ref> For 1874 insyd, de British dominate all European presence along de coast of modern-day Ghana wey dem use Cape Coast as dema base of operations, Gold Coast. Plus de establishment of formal colonial administration, dem relocate go Accra following opposition plus de "window tax" for 1877 insyd. [[Accra]] cam turn dema state. Na [[Cape Coast Castle]] san be wer chaw slaves dey before dema journey for de Middle Passage top. === Asafo companies === Oguaa Traditional Area get seven asafo companies – traditional warrior groups, wey dey base for lineal descent top, wey na dema historical role be defence of de state<ref>DeCorse, Christopher R.; Sam Spiers (2009). [https://web.archive.org/web/20200215081331/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/72fc/667b123a59e90491d9bb2597bdb89ee407f6.pdf "A tale of two polities: socio-political transformation on the Gold Coast in the Atlantic World"] (PDF). ''Australasian Historical Archaeology''. '''27''': 36. S2CID&nbsp;[https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:67755840 67755840]. Archived from [https://web.archive.org/web/20200215081331/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/72fc/667b123a59e90491d9bb2597bdb89ee407f6.pdf the original] (PDF) on 15 February 2020.</ref> (de word dey cam from ''sa'', wey dey mean "war", den ''fo'', wey dey mean "people") – plus sam complex social den political organization wey dey base for martial principles top,<ref>Herman du Toit (ed.), [https://books.google.com/books?id=bfUZBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA118 ''Pageants and Processions: Images and Idiom as Spectacle''], Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009, pp. 117–118.</ref> den elaborate traditions of visual art.<ref name="Casely-Hayford">Casely-Hayford, Gus (4 February 2016). [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eXZd_oDMkeI "Gus Casely-Hayford on Fante Asafo Flags – Artist & Empire"]. Tate. [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/eXZd_oDMkeI Archived] from the original on 21 December 2021 &#x2013; via YouTube.</ref><ref>''[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uh2XaqB_pl0 Asafo Flags: Stitches Through Time | HENI Talks]'', retrieved 6 February 2024</ref> De asafo companies dey feature largely for Cape Coast ein annual Fetu Afahye festival wey dey happen for first Saturday of September,<ref>David Allan Paintsil, [https://web.archive.org/web/20141006075050/http://thechronicle.com.gh/oguaa-to-showcase-potential-of-traditional-warriors-in-2012-fetu-afahye/ "Oguaa to showcase potential of traditional warriors…in 2012 Fetu Afahye"], ''The Chronicle'' (Ghana), 11 May 2012.</ref> wey each get historical established uniform colours: Esi Sutherland-Addy dey identify dese as: No. 1. ''Bentsir'' – red; No. 2. ''Anafo'' – blue den white; No. 3. ''Ntsin'' – green; No. 4. ''Nkum'' – yellow; No. 5. ''Amanful'' – wine den black; No. 6. ''Abrofomba'' (''Brofo Nkoa'') – white; No. 7. ''Ankrampa'' – white den black.<ref>Esi Sutherland-Addy, [http://archive.lib.msu.edu/DMC/African%20Journals/pdfs/Institue%20of%20African%20Studies%20Research%20Review/1998v14n2/asrv014002002.pdf "Women and Verbal Arts in the Oguaa-Edina Area"], ''Research Review (NS)'', Vol. 14, No. 2 (1998), p. 7.</ref> === 20th century === Dem dedicate de city ein St. Francis Cathedral for 1928 insyd.<ref>Sundkler, Bengt; Steed, Christopher (4 May 2000). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=y1p61xARWY4C&dq=Cape+Coast+Cathedral+1928+First&pg=PA719 A History of the Church in Africa]''. Cambridge University Press. p.&nbsp;719. ISBN&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-521-58342-8|978-0-521-58342-8]]</bdi>.</ref> De building be de first Catholic Cathedral wey dem build for Ghana insyd.<ref>[http://www.iubilaeummisericordiae.va/content/gdm/fr/mondo/porte-della-misericordia.html "St Francis de Sales Cathedral - Archdiocese of Cape Coast"]. ''Extraordinary Jubilee of Mercy''. Retrieved 17 October 2022.</ref> Dem establish one of de first Catholic schools wey dey [[Ghana]] insyd, St. Augustine College, for Cape Coast for 1936 insyd.<ref>Amoah, Francis (26 July 2022). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=m-N9EAAAQBAJ&dq=Catholicism+Cape+Coast+Ghana&pg=PT46 Leadership Styles and Spiritual Traits of Catholic Priests: A Research Exploring the Relationships between Leadership Styles and Spiritual Traits of Catholic Priests]''. Fulton Books, Inc. p.&nbsp;46. ISBN&nbsp;<bdi>978-1-63985-867-5</bdi>.</ref> De cocoa marketing boom of de 1900s wey [[Ghana]] experience, de city experience sam certain period of economic prosperity. Afta de completion of harbours den railways for oda parts of de country insyd such as Sekondi den Kumasi, cocoa cultivation den trade for [[Ghana]] cam spoil wey Cape Coast too loss sam importance.<ref name=":1">Hyland, A. D. (1995). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/41406616 "The Architectural History of Cape Coast"]. ''Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana'' (1 (Vol. 16, no. 2)): 172. ISSN&nbsp;[[issn:0855-3246|0855-3246]]. JSTOR&nbsp;[https://www.jstor.org/stable/41406616 41406616].</ref> However, afta de establishment of de Roman Catholic Archdiocese den de university of de city for 1950 den 1962 insyd respectively, Cape Coast cam turn regional educational hub for dis area of [[Ghana]].<ref name=":1" /> == Transportation == Public Transports dey Cape Coast insyd wey dey go major cities such as [[Accra]]; [[Kumasi]], [[Mim, Ahafo|Mim]], [[Ahafo Region|Ahafo]]; [[Sunyani]]; [[Tamale, Ghana|Tamale]]; Tema; [[Ho, Ghana|Ho]]; Wa; [[Bolgatanga]]; [[Elubo]]; Aflao, [[Techiman]]. == Geography == === Topography === De area be dominated by batholith rock wey ebe generally undulating plus steep slopes. Valleys of various streams dey between de hills, plus Kakum wey be de largest stream. De minor streams dey end for wetlands insyd, wey de largest dey drain go de Fosu Lagoon wey dey Bakano. For de northern part of de district insyd, however, de landscape be suitable for de cultivation of various crops.<ref name=":2">[https://web.archive.org/web/20121025110140/http://www.centralregion.gov.gh/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=43:capecoast&Itemid=135 "Cape Coast Metropolitan Assembly"]. ''centralregion.gov.gh''. Archived from [http://www.centralregion.gov.gh/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=43:capecoast&Itemid=135 the original] on 25 October 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2012.</ref> === Climate === Cape Coast get sam tropical savanna climate (Köppen: ''As'') plus two long wet seasons – sam heavier one from [[March]] go [[July]] den sam lighter one from [[September]] go [[November]] – alongsyd two short dry seasons for [[January]]/[[February]] den [[August]] insyd. Cape Coast be humid area plus mean monthly relative humidity wey dey vary between 85% den 99%. De sea breeze get moderating effect for de local climate top.<ref name=":2" /> {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" ! colspan="14" |Climate data for Cape Coast |- !Month ![[January|Jan]] ![[February|Feb]] ![[March|Mar]] ![[April|Apr]] ![[May]] ![[June|Jun]] ![[July|Jul]] ![[August|Aug]] ![[September|Sep]] ![[October|Oct]] ![[November|Nov]] ![[December|Dec]] !Year |- !Average high °C (°F) |32 (89) |31 (87) |31 (87) |31 (87) |30 (86) |29 (84) |27 (80) |27 (80) |26 (79) |28 (83) |31 (87) |30 (86) |32 (89) |- !Average low °C (°F) |24 (75) |24 (76) |24 (76) |25 (77) |24 (76) |24 (75) |23 (73) |22 (71) |21 (70) |23 (73) |24 (76) |23 (74) |23 (73) |- !Average rainfall mm (inches) |25 (1.0) |25 (1.0) |76 (3.0) |130 (5.0) |230 (9.0) |230 (9.0) |100 (4.0) |25 (1.0) |76 (3.0) |100 (4.0) |130 (5.0) |150 (6.0) |1,297 (51) |- | colspan="14" |'''Source: Myweather2.com'''<ref name=":3">[https://web.archive.org/web/20160303234949/http://www.myweather2.com/City-Town/Ghana/Cape-Coast/climate-profile.aspx "Ghana Place Names - Markets"].</ref> |} == Attractions == [[File:Ghana Cape Coast 02.jpg|thumb|right|300px|View of fishing fleet from [[Cape Coast Castle]]]] [[File:Cape Coast Castle, Ghana.jpg |thumb|right|300px|Centre of Cape Coast Castle ]] [[File:UCC Palmenallee.jpg|thumb|right|300px|University of Cape Coast dema Main street]] De crab be de city ein mascot den sam statue of one stands for de city centre. Na Fort William, wey dem build for 1820 insyd, be sam active lighthouse from 1835 go de 1970s, wey dem build Fort Victoria for 1702 insyd. De main market of Cape Coast be Kotokuraba Market.<ref name=":3" /> Oda attractions dey include sam series of Asafo shrines, Cape Coast Centre for National Culture, de Oguaa Fetu Afahye festival (wey dem dey hold for de first Saturday of September), wey since 1992 insyd, de biennial Panafest theatre festival.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20220118035305/https://www.panafestghana.org/page/?id=9376 "PANAFEST – The Impetus and Objectives of PANAFEST"]. ''PANAFEST''. Archived from [https://panafestghana.org/page/?id=9376 the original] on 18 January 2022. Retrieved 19 September 2020.</ref> De city dey 30 km south of [[Kakum National Park]], one of de most diverse den best preserved national parks for [[West Africa]] insyd. Dem dey believe say Michelle Obama, US First Lady, dey consider Cape Coast as ein ancestral home,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230814125027/http://www.businesstimesafrica.net/btm/details.cfm?prodcatID=6&tblNewsCatID=4&tblNewsID=167 "Obamas confront history inside Ghana's slave dungeon"]. businesstimesafrica.net. Archived from [http://www.businesstimesafrica.net/btm/details.cfm?prodcatID=6&tblNewsCatID=4&tblNewsID=167 the original] on 4 September 2012. Retrieved 16 March 2012.</ref> wey for 11 July 2009 insyd, she take de rest of de first family go tour [[Cape Coast Castle]] as part of ein husband ein trip for Cape Coast insyd. == Education == [[File:University_Library_complex.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:University_Library_complex.JPG|right|thumb|300x300px|University of Cape Coast Library Complex]] Cape Coast be de seat of de University of Cape Coast (UCC), Ghana ein leading university for teaching den research insyd. Cape Vars, as dem popularly dey bell am, dey lie for sam hill overlooking de Atlantic Ocean insyd. Esan get one of de best Polytechnics, de Cape Coast Polytechnic (C-POLY). De city san dey boast of some of [[Ghana]] ein finest secondary den technical schools: * [[Wesley Girls' Senior High School|Wesley Girls' High School]] * St. Augustine College * Holy Child High School, Ghana * Mfantsipim School * Adisadel College * Aggrey Memorial Senior High School * Ghana National College * Edinaman Senior High School * Cape Coast Technical Institute * Asuansi Technical Institute * Academy of Christ the King Senior High School * Cape Coast International Senior High School * University Practice Senior High School * St. Nicholas Seminary Senior High School * Efutu Senior High Technical School * Sammo Senior High School * Commercial Service Institute (CSI) * Oguaa Senior High Technical School == Notable people == Notable people wey born for anaa associated plus Cape Coast dey include: * [[John Atta Mills]]: 1944-2012 former Presido of Ghana * Frederick Acheampong: (born 1978); member of Ghana Football Association's Executive Council. * Kwesi Bekoe Amissah-Arthur:1951– 2018; former vice-pee of de Republic of Ghana. * Samuel Richard Brew Attoh-Ahuma: 1863–1921; clergyman, nationalist, pioneering Pan-Africanist. * Prince James Hutton Brew: 1844–1915; solicitor. * Kwesi Brew: 1928–2007; poet den diplomat. * Joseph Peter Brown: 1843–1932; patriot, statesman. * Margaret Busby, OBE, also titled Nana Akua Ackon I: 1944–; publisher, editor, writer den broadcaster. Enstoolment for 1999 insyd.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=oidoDQAAQBAJ&dq=Nana+Akua+Ackon+Cape+Coast&pg=PA230 ''Discourses of Empire and Commonwealth''], p. 230, Koninklijke Brill, NV, Leiden, The Netherlands, 2016, ISBN 978-90-04-32277-6</ref> * J. E. Casely Hayford: 1866–1930; author, lawyer, politician den educator. * James Cheetham: 1834–1902; merchant, member of de Legislative Council of de Gold Coast. * Ambrose Thompson Cooke: 1930–; millionaire, industrialist, textiles CEO den entrepreneur. Alumni London School of Economics den St Augustine's College Cape Coast * Sir James Henley Coussey, KBE: 1895–1958; High Court judge, chairman of de Coussey Commission, president of de West Africa Court of Appeal. * John Coleman de-Graft Johnson: 1884–1956; secretary of Native Affairs, anthropologist. * Samuel George Duker: 1905–1994; LRCP Edin, LRCS Edin, LRFPS Glasg; pioneering physician * King John Aggery Essien: 1809–1899; King of Cape Coast, pioneer Pan-Africanist. * Nana Amba Eyiaba I: 1950–; Queen mother of Effutu 16 of de Effutu Municipal District, educator den advocate for political rights of queen mothers<ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20140908153539/http://cwtlgh.org/nana-amba-eyiaba-I</ref> * Francis Chapman Grant: 1823–1889; founding member of de Fanti Confederation; cousin of Ulysses Grant. * Charles Emmanuel Graves: 1884–1929; musicologist, composer. * Mark Christian Hayford: 1863–1935; author, founder of Gold Coast Baptist Church den de Christian Army of de Gold Coast * Robert Hutchison: 1828–1863; statesman, soldier, philanthropist. * Prophet Jemisimiham Jehu-Appiah: 1892–1948; founder of Musama Disco Christo Church wey dey Africa insyd. * Thomas Frederic Edward Jones: 1850–1927; wey he petition Queen Victoria about Lands Bill. * John Mensah-Sarbah: 1864–1910; barrister, author, published Fanti Customary Laws. * Henry Mercer-Ricketts: 1895–1980; pioneering physician. * George Edward Moore: 1879–1950; recipient of de Ashanti Medal, executive member of de Aborigines' Rights Protection Society. * Hon. Ebo Barton Odro, First Deputy Speaker of de Sixth Parliament of de Fourth Republic * Andrew William Parker: 1840–1912; conscientious nationalist, he fight for de Ashanti expedition insyd. * Philip Quaque: 1741–1816; first African clergy of de Church of England wey dem ordain. * John Sarbah: 1834–1892; educationist, merchant, industrialist. * William Esuman Gwira Kobina Sekyi: 1892–1956; lawyer, politician, author. * Jacob Wilson Sey, alias Kwaa Bonyi: 1832–1902; millionaire, philanthropist, founding member of de Aborigines' Rights Protection Society. * Efua Sutherland: 1924–1996; writer, dramatist, educationalist den cultural activist * James Robert Thompson: 1810–1886; pioneering educationist. * Peter Turkson: 1948–; Cardinal-Archbishop of Cape Coast. * Herbert Taylor Ussher: 1836–1880; early administrator * Henry van Hien: 1858–1928; Presido for de Aboriginal Rights Protection Society. * Hon. William Ward-Brew, OBE: 1878–1943; lawyer, VP of Aborigines' Rights Protection Society. * Herbert Winful: 1952–; engineering professor. == Media house == * Kastle FM<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230405104321/https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/entertainment/I-don-t-entertain-men-who-want-to-sleep-with-me-Sefa-boldly-shares-1545860 "I don't entertain men who want to sleep with me - Sefa boldly shares"]. ''GhanaWeb''. 25 May 2022. Retrieved 25 May 2022.</ref> * Asaase Radio * Cape FM == Foods == De [[Fante people]] of [[Ghana]] be notable for dema way of cooking. Dem be known say dem dey chop rich cuisine, mostly plus chaw fish, meat, anaa any form of protein than necessary. People dey believe say ebe secof de number of rivers den lakes dey de town insyd. People know dem say dem be expert for fishing den fish preservation abilities insyd. Sam of de cuisines be fante fante, etew den pepper sauce anaa okro stew, fante kenkey, wey you go fi chop am plus soups, stews anaa shito. == Sisto cities == List of sister cities of Cape Coast, wey Sisto Cities International designate am: {| class="wikitable" !Country !City !County / District / Region / State !Date |- |Germany |[[File:Flagge_der_kreisfreien_Stadt_Bonn.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flagge_der_kreisfreien_Stadt_Bonn.svg|25x25px]] '''Bonn''' |[[File:Flag_of_North_Rhine-Westphalia.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_North_Rhine-Westphalia.svg|25x25px]] ''North Rhine-Westphalia'' |2012 |- |United States |[[File:Flag_of_Buffalo,_New_York.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Buffalo,_New_York.svg|25x25px]] '''Buffalo''' |[[File:Flag_of_New_York.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_New_York.svg|25x25px]] ''New York'' | |- |United States |'''Hanover Park''' |[[File:Flag_of_Illinois.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Illinois.svg|25x25px]] ''Illinois'' | |} == Make you see dis one too == * [[Cape Coast Castle]] [[Category:Regional capitals insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Towns insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Populated places for Central Region (Ghana) insyd]] [[Category:Towns insyd Central Region (Ghana)]] [[Category:1482 establishments]] [[Category:Pages plus maps]] [[Category:Ghana]] == References == snbm8phk84mp4vduagtgpyofrpl13ie 0 1448 103946 77590 2026-06-19T02:42:09Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103946 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q761559}} De '''eco''' be de name for de propose common currency of de [[Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS). Dema original plans be say na dem dey take give West African Monetary Zone (WAMZ) wey etalk say dem go introduce de currency first, wey dem eventually merge am plus de CFA franc wey dem use am by de French-speaking west African region within de West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA). Dis san go enable de UEMOA wey dem talk say we go gain complete fiscal den monetary independence from France. De UEMOA talk say dem get alternative propose plan wey ego reform de CFA franc into de eco first, wey dem go extend go all ECOWAS states. == Ten criteria == For dem go implement de Eco, ten convergence criteria, set out by de West African Monetary Institute (WAMI), dem for meet. Dese criteria dem divide am into four primary den six secondary criteria. Up to de fiscal year 2011, ebe only [[Ghana]] wey be able to meet all de primary criteria insyd any single fiscal year.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20250123174326/https://www.etvghana.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=584:ghana-meets-west-africa-monetary-zone-criteria&catid=122&Itemid=531 "Ghana meets West Africa Monetary Zone criteria"]. ''e.tv.Ghana''. Retrieved June 18, 2013.</ref> De four primary criteria wey each member country for achieve be:<ref>"Eco dream shot down". ''AU Monitor''. August 11, 2012. Retrieved June 17, 2013.</ref> * Single-digit inflation rate for de end of each year. * Fiscal deficit of no more pass 4% of the GDP. * Central bank deficit-financing of no more dan 10% for de previous year ein tax revenues. * Gross external reserves dat can give import cover for minimum of three months. De six secondary criteria for dem say dem for achieve by each member country be:<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130125075157/http://www.wami-imao.org/ecomac/english/doc/q-and-a.htm "Questions and answers on the West African Monetary Zone"]. ''WAMI''. 2002. Archived from [http://www.wami-imao.org/ecomac/english/doc/q-and-a.htm the original] on January 25, 2013. Retrieved June 18, 2013.</ref> * Prohibition of new domestic default payments den liquidation of existing ones. * Tax revenue should be equal to anaa greater pass 20 percent of the GDP. * Wage bill to tax revenue equal to anaa less dan 35 percent. * Public investment to tax revenue equal to anaa greater pass 20 percent. * Stable real exchange rate. * Positive real interest rate. == History of de currency == === Before 2019 === De main goal be common currency, first insyd West African Monetary Institute (WAMI)/West African Monetary Zone (WAMZ) countries<ref>[http://www.wami-imao.org/?q=menuhome "Welcome to WAMI"]. West African Monetary Institute.</ref>–The [[Gambia]]<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230522000054/https://ecowas.int/member-states/ "Member States"]. Economic Community of West African States(ECOWAS). Archived from [http://www.ecowas.int/member-states/ the original] on 2023-05-22. Retrieved 2017-11-22.</ref>, [[Ghana]], [[Guinea]]-Conakry (wey ebe French speaking buh dem no dey use de CFA franc), [[Liberia]], [[Nigeria]] den [[Sierra Leone]]–den later insyd de whole ECOWAS area, wey dem talk am officially insyd December 2000 plus connection plus de formal launch of WAMZ. De Eco be de first plan say dem go introduce am insyd 2003, buh dis dem postpone am plenty times, to 2005, 2010 den 2014. At meeting for de Convergence Council of Ministers den Governors for [[West Africa]] for 25 May 2009, dem start de currency reschedule for 2015 due to de international economic crisis.<ref>[http://www.modernghana.com/news/219137/1/common-west-africa-currency-eco-in-2015.html "Common West Africa currency: ECO in 2015"]. ''MC Modern Ghana''. May 29, 2009. Retrieved June 17, 2013.</ref> De December 2009 meeting dem san establish plan say dem go begin work wey merge de Eco plus de CFA franc immediately upon de launch for Eco; dis dem plan am say dem go achieve am by 2020.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090623231448/http://www.pambazuka.org/aumonitor/comments/2421/ "Revised Plan of Single Currency for West Africa"]. ''AU Monitor''. July 20, 2009. Archived from [http://www.pambazuka.org/aumonitor/comments/2421/ the original] on June 23, 2009. Retrieved June 17, 2013.</ref> Insyd 2001, de West African Monetary Institute (WAMI) dem set ein headquarters insyd [[Accra]], [[Ghana]]. Dem talk say na ebe interim organisation in preparation for de future West African Central Bank. Ein function den organisation wey dem inspire am by de European Monetary Institute. Thus, WAMI dey provide framework for central banks insyd de WAMZ go start de integration den begin preliminary preparations give de printing den minting for de physical money, just as EMI do before de Eurozone before dem introduce euro.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20250123170232/http://www.wami-imao.org/ecomac/english/roles_fichiers/roles.htm "The Role and functions of the West African Monetary Institute (WAMI)"]. ''WAMI''. Archived from [http://www.wami-imao.org/ecomac/english/roles_fichiers/roles.htm the original] on June 20, 2013. Retrieved June 17, 2013.</ref> De current director general be Dr. Olorunsola E. Olowofeso.<ref>[https://www.wami-imao.org/#:~:text=Olorunsola%20E.,West%20African%20States%20(ECOWAS). "Home | West African Monetary Institute (Institut Monétaire de l'Afrique de l'Ouest)"]. ''www.wami-imao.org''. Retrieved 2023-06-27.</ref> Recent assessments of member countries ein efforts say dem go meet de criteria be very bleak. De performance scorecard dem present for de 2012 Annual Statutory Meetings for de WAMZ dey show say de GDP growth dem project decline come 6.9% insyd 2012 from 8.7% insyd 2011. De convergence scale for de whole WAMZ area dem san project am go down from score of 79.2% insyd 2011 to 62.5% insyd 2012; as no member meet all de convergence criteria. De average annual inflation rate san increase from 11.6% insyd 2011 to 12.6% insyd 2012.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130612011659/http://africanliberty.org/content/west-africa-single-currency-how-close-take "West Africa Single Currency - How Close to Take-Off?"]. ''AfricanLiberty.org''. February 4, 2013. Archived from [http://africanliberty.org/content/west-africa-single-currency-how-close-take the original] on June 12, 2013. Retrieved June 17, 2013.</ref> De Director for Multilateral Surveillance ECOWAS Commission, Lassane Kabore, describe de performance as "dismal", buh he san affirm say de commitment of ein commission go establishment de Eco.<ref>[http://premiumtimesng.com/news/115155-ecowas-members-record-dismal-score-on-criteria-for-planned-common-economy.html "ECOWAS members record dismal score on criteria for planned common economy"]. ''Premium Times''. January 14, 2013. Retrieved June 17, 2013.</ref> Insyd February 2018, ECOWAS affirm say dema intention to restart de process plus de introduction insyd 2020, wey ebe strictly impossible: dem therefore do declaration for dema intent. For 23 February 2018, de economist Jean Joseph Boillot, talk say dem no do any serious work for de technical aspects for dis implementation wey dem say dey are yet dem go do, either for de university level anaa for de state level.<ref>[https://thenationonlineng.net/is-the-road-clear-for-eco/ "Is the road clear for Eco?"]. ''Latest Nigeria News, Nigerian Newspapers, Politics''. 2019-12-24. Retrieved 2020-05-24.</ref> === 2019 === On 29 June 2019 de leaders for de Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) formally adopt de name of "eco" for ein project say ego be single currency. De currency dem plan am say dem go introduce am insyd 2020.<ref>[https://allafrica.com/stories/201907010044.html "West Africa: ECOWAS Heads of State Name Single Currency ECO"]. ''allAfrica.com''. July 1, 2019.</ref> ECOWAS leaders meet insyd [[Abuja]] for 21 December 2019, six months after dem adopt de name "eco" for de future single currency project. Dis meeting cam after de meeting for de committee of finance ministers den governors of central banks for each community space insyd de Nigeria ein capital.<ref name=":0">[https://www.premiumtimesng.com/business/367177-ecowas-presidents-to-meet-on-single-currency-december-21.html "ECOWAS Presidents to meet on single currency December 21"]. ''Premium Times''. 2019-12-08. Retrieved 2019-12-13.</ref> Quote by de Nigerian press agency NAN, de chair for de ministerial committee talk say ebe only [[Togo]], wey dey among de ECOWAS countries, wey go fi meet dema main requirements or criteria for de adoption of a single currency.<ref name=":0" /> Dese criteria dey include convergence, de flexible exchange rate regime, de fight against insecurity den interstate collaboration. On 21 December 2019 Ivorian President Alassane Ouattara comem announce say de [[West African CFA franc]] dem go reform am, wey edey include renaming am as eco.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ivorycoast-france-macron/west-africa-renames-cfa-franc-but-keeps-it-pegged-to-euro-idUSKBN1YP0JR "West Africa renames CFA franc but keeps it pegged to euro"]. Reuters. 2019-12-21. Retrieved 2019-12-22.</ref> France no go manage dema currency, buh de Banque de France go remain de guarantor for dema convertibility wey dey between de Eco den de Euro plus dem go keep fixe parity.<ref>[https://www.archyde.com/ouattara-announces-the-replacement-of-the-cfa-franc-by-the-eco-in-west-africa/ "Ouattara announces the replacement of the CFA franc by the eco in West Africa"]. December 21, 2019.</ref> Dem dey expect say ein implementation go take place by de end of 2020. On 22 December 2019 de Managing Director for de International Monetary Fund (IMF) dey welcome de major reform for de CFA franc as dem decide say ego be eight West African countries den France. For Kristalina Georgieva, dese changes dey "constitute a key step for de modernization of long-standing arrangements wey dey between de West African Economic and Monetary Union den France".<ref>[https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2019/12/21/pr19487-md-statement-on-the-reform-of-west-africa-cfa-franc "Statement by the IMF Managing Director on the Reform of West Africa's CFA franc"]. ''International Monetary Fund''. 21 December 2019. Retrieved 11 August 2020.</ref> Insyd December 2019, de President for Equatorial Guinea, Teodoro Obiang Nguema, come visit Abidjan wey dey insyd Ivory Coast. During de press point after dis meeting wey he go do between ein colleague two heads of state, Alassane Ouattara den Teodoro Obiang Nguema, de two heads of state san discuss de reform for de West African CFA franc. De Equatorial Guinean president go like say ego see de same reform give de Central African CFA franc, wey he dey see say ebe "obsolete".<ref>Hoije, Katarina (28 December 2019). [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-12-28/equatorial-guinea-leader-says-french-backed-currency-is-outdated "Equatorial Guinea Leader Says French-Backed Currency Is Outdated"]. ''Bloomberg''. Retrieved 11 August 2020.</ref> On 29 December 2019 de president for Ghana talk say ebe ein desire say dem go adopt de new eco wey dem wan establish say ego fi replace den West African CFA franc.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-westafrica-economy/ghana-wants-to-join-new-west-african-currency-but-ditch-euro-peg-idUSKBN1YX0EH "Ghana wants to join new West African currency but ditch euro peg"]. Reuters. 2019-12-29. Retrieved 2020-01-01.</ref> === 2020 === Insyd January 2020, according to several articles citing local media, Nigeria gonna require five "non-negotiable terms" before dem join de single currency. Some particularly dey mention de deposits insyd de French Treasury as ebe part of de foreign exchange reserves for de future common currency. On dis point, de end of dis guarantee am as already dem mention insyd de reform wey dem propose on December 21. Still according to de Nigerian press, [[Abuja]] san dey require de management for de eco by de ECOWAS einself, without forgetting ein impression insyd Africa den eno be insyd France. Sierra Leone too announce on Thursday 9 January 2020 say dem go make decision on de future ECOWAS single currency, Eco, very soon. De Bank of Sierra Leone (BSL) announce for on Thursday 9 January 2020 say de country go continue plus Leone as ein legal tender until de meeting for de Board of Governors of ECOWAS as dem schedule am for 16 January 2020. For 14 January 2020 de central banks for de ECOWAS sub-region begin dema extraordinary general assembly wey dem deliberate on questions wey dey relate de introduction of de single currency, de ECO, dem schedule am for 2020. De committee for de central bank governors san dey expect day dem go discuss de implications of de recent announcement by French-speaking ECOWAS countries for de proposal say ego introduce de single currency ECO so say ego replace de CFA franc. De talks san determine de way forward give de member states for de West African Monetary Zone (WAMZ) in accordance plus de roadmap for de introduction of de single currency - de CEE. De ECOWAS technical team, however, be expect say ego present proposals make by de West African Monetary Institute regarding de CEE. De governors should san send dema recommendations give de region ein heads of state go find out say if de region make ready give de introduction for de single currency. On 16 January 2020 Nigeria den several West African countries, popular bi English-speaking ones, denounce insyd Abuja de decision go replace de CFA franc plus de Eco, saying dat ebe "not in conformity" plus de program as recently dem adopt by de entire region go establish a single currency. In all cases, de six countries for de West African Monetary Zone (WAMZ) "noted plus concern de declaration aiming say ebe unilaterally rename de CFA franc to Eco by 2020", according to a press release dem issue after dis extraordinary meeting between de various finance ministers den de governors for de central banks. WAMZ bi made up of Nigeria, Ghana, Liberia, Sierra Leone, The Gambia den Guinea (Conakry), wey eno be part of de CFA zone. Dese countries dey consider dat "dis action eno bi accordance plus de decisions" for de Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) with a view say "adopting the Eco as de name for de single currency" for de whole region. Dey "reiterate de importance for all ECOWAS members to adhere to de decisions for de authority for de Heads of State den Government of ECOWAS concerning de implementation for de revise roadmap give de single currency program". A summit dey bring together de heads of state for de WAMZ bi plan "soon" to decide for de conduct to come, specifies de final communiqué. Dema 16 January statement san bring for de light den battle for leadership wey dey between Côte d'Ivoire den Nigeria. Insyd publicly criticizing de decision for de West African Economic and Monetary Union (Uemoa) wey rename de CFA franc “eco” by 2020, de finance minister den central bank governors for De Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Nigeria den Sierra Leone get not only dey reveal de divisions for ECOWAS. On 31 January 2020 Ivorian President Alassane Ouattara come clarify say de allege rejection of de Eco by de 7 countries for de West African Monetary Zone (WAMZ). "We get only five countries wey ended up insyd Abuja out of de fifteen for de Economic Community of West African States [ECOWAS]", he bore, cutting de grass under ein feet CFA anti-Francs, many of them shouting “white cap and white cap”. "De majority for de countries wey no dey attend dis meeting. Eno be a meeting of heads of state, buh for ministers den governors," Ouattara talk say. "What we decide for de level of heads of state, wanna go bring de eco insyd 2020", for de basis, he insists, of "conditions". De first condition wey you go meet de 5 performance criteria: deficit of less dan 3%, debt wey ebe less than 70%, low inflation, etc. (...). For de moment, dem bi only four or five countries, including Côte d'Ivoire, dat meet dese criteria," he talk am, wey he dey stress dat de process should be "gradual". "Five, eight, ten countries [meeting de criteria] wey can come together," he talk am, wey edey add dat others wey dem could den join dem like de eurozone wey start am at eleven den wey edey include ten nine countries today. “We wan do am in stages. We no dey want haste am, buh we san no dey want countries dat no dey meet de convergence criteria go shake up de process", he conclude am. Insyd February 2020, de Nigerian foreign minister dey reveal dat de meeting wey dem attend by President Muhammadu Buhari den chair by de President of ECOWAS, President Mahamadou Issoufou of Niger, san discuss de new single currency for West Africa, de CEE. On dis specific point, Minister Onyeama announce say "Nothing has change plus regard go de position for Nigeria". He explain say according to Nigeria, de convergence criteria no meet by de majority for countries den dat ebe therefore necessary go extend de deadline for de launch for ECOWAS single currency. Insyd February 2020, an extraordinary summit for de Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) took place. Many points dem raise. In particular de establishment for de single currency (Eco). On de single currency, de final communiqué wey dem sanction dis meeting mentions dat de Conference of Heads of State den Government for de subregional organization bi satisfy plus de important developments initiate am by de West African Economic and Monetary Union (Uemoa) insyd de creation for de single currency. "De Conference dem inform am by Alassane Ouattara, President for de Republic for Côte d'Ivoire, President for de Conference of Heads of State of Uemoa for reform for de CFA franc. Dis reform bi a step towards achieving de establishment for de Eco as dem dey provide for insyd de road map wey dem adopt by de Conference for Heads of State of ECOWAS. De Conference dey express satisfaction plus dese important developments den de insights wey dem provide by de president for de Conference of Heads of State of Uemoa for dis issue," read de press release. On 17 February 2020, de West African Economic and Monetary Union (Uemoa, eight countries) dem publish am den ein plan extension go de entire Economic Community of African States (Cedeao, 15 countries). Entitle Entry into de Era of Eco: Implications of Reform insyd West Africa, edey aims to address de uncertainties arise from de announcement for dis substitution by Presidents Ouattara den Macron on 21 December 2019. De first conclusion bi dat de parity wey dem maintain with de euro den France ein unlimited guarantee for convertibility go maintain confidence insyd de new currency. Dis guarantee dey help go contain inflation from 2000 to 2019 for an average of 2% insyd de Uemoa region, wey dey compare am plus almost 10% insyd Cedeao den about 16% insyd sub-Saharan Africa. "No immediate effect" for de sovereign rating for de states, de end for de deposit for half dema exchange reserves for de Member States for de Union plus de French Treasury wey no dey worry S-P, sake of de fix exchange rate wey go maintain. "Dat bi why we dey believe say dis reform wey should no get immediate effect for wanna sovereign ratings," de authors conclude. In other words, investors no dey worry for de moment. De second conclusion bi dat de project go extend de eco for de fifteen members for de Cedeao seems say ebe long way off. "Material barriers remain, wey dey lead wey edey consider dis project wey unlikely insyd de medium term," de report says. Firstly sake of Nigeria ein weight, sake of Nigeria accounts for two-thirds for Cedeao ein GDP den three times more dan Uemoa ein. Buh san sake of ein protectionist policies, wey dey talk de report: "Accepting a common monetary policy wey dey between Nigeria den ein Cedeao partners sake of seems difficult, especially since Nigeria get recently dey decide say ego close ein borders plus Benin den Niger go reduce as dem dey smuggle den support local agricultural production. An extension beyond France ein Uemoa guarantee wey san require de approval of de Council for de European Union after consultation plus de European Central Bank, wey eno be automatic. Finally, de adoption for de flexible exchange rate regime desire by Cedeao wey ego increase de significant risks in terms for monetary shocks for Uemoa economies, particularly dose wey dem increase dema use of foreign currency borrowing in recent years. Years, " talk say S-P, recalling de conclusion for de one of ein 2017 reports for de dangers of devaluation: insyd de event for a currency crisis den without de French guarantee, Côte d'Ivoire, Senegal den Togo, wey dey borrow heavily, especially edey form Eurobonds, wey dem go see dema debt heavily go set up den S-P wey ego force de lower dema ratings. De report dey conclude plus de recommendation wey go sharply improve tax revenues den warning: "Whatever exchange rate regime Uemoa members go choose, whether ebe maintenance for de euro, de option for basket of currency (...) anaa floating rate for exchange rate, fiscal discipline den strong economic policy wey ebe more important for de economic stability for de monetary union. On 20 May 2020, de Council of Ministers for de French Republic wey dem adopt for bill wey according to de Central Bank of West African States, de central bank managing de currency for de eight nations for de West African Economic and Monetary Union wey dem dey use de West African CFA franc, wey eno longer dey require to deposit half for exchange reserves plus de Public Treasury of France. Furthermore, de French government go withdraw from all governing bodies for de Central Bank of West African States; until now, both de Minister of Finance of France den de governor for de Bank of France dey participate insyd de biannual meetings for de Central Bank, one wey edey take place insyd Paris. Both houses for de French legislature, de National Assembly den de Senate, must approve de bill for ein provisions wey go come into force. Subsequent ego ratification, de eco bi expect say ego come into use insyd July 2020. Edey remain for de nations wey ego get propose for de adopt de single currency, whether to continue using de name ‘eco.’ France go guarantee fix exchange rate of 1 euro to 655.96 West African CFA francs, though dis arrangement br likely go change after de introduction for de new currency.<ref>[https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2020/05/21/la-france-acte-officiellement-la-fin-du-franc-cfa-en-afrique-de-l-ouest_6040339_3212.html "La France acte officiellement la fin du franc CFA en Afrique de l'Ouest"]. ''Le Monde'' (insyd French). 2020-05-21. Retrieved 2020-05-25.</ref> De second step towards de disappearance for de CFA franc den ein replacement by a single currency wey edey call am Eco, de French Parliament wey ego adopt before de end for de third quarter de bill initial on 20 May 2020 insyd de Council of Ministers den intend gp ratify de agreement of monetary cooperation conclud insyd Abidjan on 21 December 2019 plus de governments for de member states for de West African Monetary Union (Umoa). Given dat a law for de reform for de Eco only dey pass to de French parliament until de end of September 2020, de agreement for adopt de Eco wey eno dey risk doing dis before October 2020. Insyd September 2020, Alassane Ouattara, President for Côte d'Ivoire, come announce say de decision for de 57th ordinary session for de Conference of Heads of State den Government of ECOWAS go proceed plus de implementation for de eco "within three to five years."<ref>[https://www.cnbc.com/2020/09/29/west-africas-new-currency-could-now-be-delayed-by-five-years.html "West Africa's new currency could now be delayed by five years"]. CNBC. 2020-09-29. Retrieved 2020-12-06.</ref> Insyd December 2024, ECOWAS adopt de criteria make dem dey select candidate Member States give de launch of de ECO. ECOWAS sanso mandate de ECOWAS Commission, in collaboration plus de West African Monetary Agency (WAMA), make dem integrate dese criteria into de Protocol on Monetary Union. Na dem sanso approve de proposals of de Committee give de financing of de reforms necessary give de launch of de ECO.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20241217182511/https://newscentral.africa/ecowas-pushes-forward-with-single-currency-eco-plans/ "ECOWAS Pushes Forward with Single Currency, ECO Plans"]. News Central. 2024-12-17. Retrieved 2024-12-17.</ref> == References == [[Category:Currency unions]] [[Category:Economic Community of West African States]] <references /> [[Category:Currencies dem propose]] irt8b3hw72t4icegazsug3ml5eqzqai 0 1574 103960 97504 2026-06-19T07:01:07Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103960 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q104340}} '''Harold Clayton Lloyd, Sr.''' (April 20, 1893 – March 8, 1971) be American actor, comedian, den stunt performer wey appear for chaw silent comedy films insyd.<ref>Obituary ''Variety'', March 10, 1971, page 55.</ref> == Ein early life == Dem born Lloyd for April 20, 1893, for Burchard, Nebraska insyd,<ref>Shilling, Donovan A. (September 1, 2013). ''[https://books.google.com.gh/books?id=GvPxgAi_zRoC&pg=PA284&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Rochester's Movie Mania]''. Pancoast Publishing. p. 284. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-9821090-4-5|978-0-9821090-4-5]]</bdi>.</ref> he be James Darsie Lloyd den Sarah Elisabeth Fraser dema kiddie.<ref>D'Agostino, Annette M. (2004). ''[https://books.google.com.gh/books?id=smlZAAAAMAAJ&redir_esc=y The Harold Lloyd Encyclopedia]''. McFarland. p. 190. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-1514-4|978-0-7864-1514-4]]</bdi>.</ref> Ein paternal great-grandparents be Welsh.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20191214233608/https://alphadragondesign.com/final_project/pages/others/harold.html "Comedy in the 1920s - 1950s"]. ''alphadragondesign.com''. from the original on July 24, 2012. Retrieved April 13, 2015.</ref> For 1910 insyd, after ein poppie get several business venture failures, Lloyd ein parents divorce wey ein poppie move plus ein kiddie go San Diego, California,<ref>Wishart, David J. (January 1, 2004). ''[https://books.google.com.gh/books?id=rtRFyFO4hpEC&pg=PA272&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Encyclopedia of the Great Plains]''. University of Nebraska Press. p. 272. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-4787-1|978-0-8032-4787-1]]</bdi>.</ref> wer he attend San Diego High School.<ref>Cash, John. [https://sandiegohistory.org/journal/1982/april/photographic/ "San Diego High School, 1882-1982 A Photographic Perspective"]. ''The Journal of San Diego History''. '''28''' (2): 105 – via San Diego History Center.</ref> Lloyd cam get interest for theater insyd de time he be kiddie, wey he job for repertory companies insyd.<ref>Wynn, Neil A. (July 16, 2009). ''[https://books.google.com.gh/books?id=m-ismXvbPkwC&pg=PA174&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false The A to Z from the Great War to the Great Depression]''. Scarecrow Press. p. 174. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6330-9|978-0-8108-6330-9]]</bdi>.</ref> He often experiment plus makeup, so say he go disguise ein youthful appearance. == Ein death == Lloyd die of prostate cancer for March 8, 1971, he chop 77, for ein Greenacres home insyd Beverly Hills, California insyd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130824111937/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,904932,00.html "Died"]. ''Time''. March 22, 1971. Archived from [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,904932,00.html the original] on December 21, 2008. Retrieved June 8, 2008.</ref><ref>Dick Main (March 9, 1971). [https://www.newspapers.com/clip/48893721/harold-lloyd-bespectacled-film-comic/ "Harold Lloyd, Bespectacled Film Comic, Dies of Cancer at 77"]. ''Los Angeles Times''. pp. 1, 12. Retrieved April 16, 2020.</ref><ref>Illson, Murray (March 9, 1971). [https://www.nytimes.com/1971/03/09/archives/hornrims-his-trademark-harold-lloyd-screen-comedian-dies-at-77.html "Horn-Rims His Trademark; Harold Lloyd, Screen Comedian, Dies at 77"]. ''The New York Times''. Retrieved June 8, 2008.</ref> Dem inter am for crypt insyd for de Great Mausoleum for Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery for Glendale, California insyd.<ref>Ellenberger, Allan R. (May 1, 2001). ''[https://books.google.ca/books?id=ZraJCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA59&q=harold%20lloyd%20great%20mausoleum#v=snippet&q=harold%20lloyd%20great%20mausoleum&f=false Celebrities in Los Angeles Cemeteries: A Directory]''. McFarland. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/9780786450190|9780786450190]]</bdi>. Retrieved September 8, 2023 – via Google Books.</ref> Ein former co-start Bebe Daniels die eight days after am,<ref>[https://www.newspapers.com/clip/48893947/bebe-daniels/ "Bebe Daniels, 70, Star in Silents, Early Talkies, Dies in London"]. ''Los Angeles Times''. March 16, 1971. p. 3 – via Newspapers.com.</ref> wey ein kiddie Harold Lloyd Jr. die three months after am.<ref>D'Agostino 1994. pp. 54-55.</ref><ref>[https://www.newspapers.com/clip/48894033/movie-comic-harold-lloyds-son-dies-at/ "Movie Comic Harold Lloyd's Son Dies at 40"]. ''Los Angeles Times''. June 10, 1971. p. II-3.</ref> == References == [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Film actors]] <references /> == Read further == * Agee, James (2000) [1958]. "Comedy's Greatest Era" from ''Life'' magazine (9/5/1949), reprinted in ''Agee on Film''. McDowell, Obolensky, Modern Library. * Bengtson, John (2011). ''Silent Visions: Discovering Early Hollywood and New York Through the Films of Harold Lloyd''. Santa Monica Press. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/9781595808882|9781595808882]]</bdi>. * Brownlow, Kevin (1976) [1968]. "Harold Lloyd" from ''The Parade's Gone By''. Alfred A. Knopf, University of California Press. * Byron, Stuart; Weis, Elizabeth (1977). ''The National Society of Film Critics on Movie Comedy''. Grossman/Viking. * Cahn, William (1964). ''Harold Lloyd's World of Comedy''. Duell, Sloane & Pearce. * D'Agostino, Annette M. (1994). ''[[iarchive:haroldlloydbiobi00dago|Harold Lloyd: A Bio-Bibliography]]''. Greenwood Press. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-313-28986-7|0-313-28986-7]]</bdi>. * Dale, Alan (2002). ''Comedy is a Man in Trouble: Slapstick In American Movies''. University of Minnesota Press. * Dardis, Tom (1983). ''Harold Lloyd: The Man on the Clock''. Viking. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-14-007555-0|0-14-007555-0]]</bdi>. * Durgnat, Raymond (1970). "Self-Help with a Smile" from ''The Crazy Mirror: Hollywood Comedy and the American Image''. Dell. * Everson, William K. (1978). ''American Silent Film''. Oxford University Press. * Gilliatt, Penelope (1973). "Physicists" from ''Unholy Fools: Wits, Comics, Disturbers of the Peace''. Viking. * Hayes, Suzanne Lloyd (1992). ''3-D Hollywood with Photography by Harold Lloyd''. Simon & Schuster. * Kerr, Walter (1990) [1975]. ''The Silent Clowns''. Alfred A. Knopf, Da Capo Press. * Lacourbe, Roland (1970). ''Harold Lloyd''. Paris: Editions Seghers. * Lahue, Kalton C. (1966). ''World of Laughter: The Motion Picture Comedy Short, 1910–1930''. University of Oklahoma Press. * Lloyd, Annette D'Agostino (2003). ''The Harold Lloyd Encyclopedia''. McFarland & Company. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-7864-1514-2|0-7864-1514-2]]</bdi>. * Lloyd, Annette D'Agostino (2009). ''Harold Lloyd: Magic in a Pair of Horn-Rimmed Glasses''. BearManor Media. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-59393-332-6|978-1-59393-332-6]]</bdi>. * Lloyd, Harold; Stout, W. W. (1971) [1928]. ''An American Comedy''. Dover. * Lloyd, Suzanne (2004). ''Harold Lloyd's Hollywood Nudes in 3-D''. Black Dog & Leventhal. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-57912-394-9|978-1-57912-394-9]]</bdi>. * Maltin, Leonard (1978). ''The Great Movie Comedians''. Crown Publishers. * Mast, Gerald (1979) [1973]. ''The Comic Mind: Comedy and the Movies''. University of Chicago Press. * McCaffrey, Donald W. (1968). ''4 Great Comedians: Chaplin, Lloyd, Keaton, Langdon''. A.S. Barnes. * McCaffrey, Donald W. (1976). ''[[iarchive:threeclassicsile00mcca|Three Classic Silent Screen Comedies Starring Harold Lloyd]]''. Associated University Presses. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-8386-1455-8|0-8386-1455-8]]</bdi>. * Mitchell, Glenn (2003). ''A–Z of Silent Film Comedy''. B.T. Batsford Ltd. * Reilly, Adam (1977). ''Harold Lloyd: The King of Daredevil Comedy''. Macmillan. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-02-601940-X|0-02-601940-X]]</bdi>. * Robinson, David (1969). ''The Great Funnies: A History of Film Comedy''. E.P. Dutton. * Schickel, Richard (1974). ''[[iarchive:haroldlloydshape0000schi|Harold Lloyd: The Shape of Laughter]]''. New York Graphic Society. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-8212-0595-1|0-8212-0595-1]]</bdi>. * Vance, Jeffrey; Lloyd, Suzanne (2002). ''Harold Lloyd: Master Comedian''. Harry N Abrams. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/0-8109-1674-6|0-8109-1674-6]]</bdi>. ==External links== '''Harold Lloyd''' at Wikipedia ein sisto projects: * [[File:Commons-logo.svg|link=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Basshunter?uselang=gpe|16x16px]] [[commons:Category:Harold_Lloyd|Wikimedia Commons]] * [[File:Wikiquote-logo.svg|link=https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Basshunter?uselang=gpe|16x16px]] [[wikiquote:Harold_Lloyd|Wikiquote]] (en) * [[File:Wikidata-logo.svg|link=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q383541|16x16px]] [[wikidata:Q104340|Wikidata]] * [http://haroldlloyd.com/ Official website] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20230608031825/https://haroldlloyd.us/ Harold Lloyd .us] by Annette D'Agostino Lloyd * [http://film.virtual-history.com/person.php?personid=102 Harold Lloyd] Photographs den bibliography * [https://web.archive.org/web/20200817123440/http://lloyd.comedyclassics.org/ Index of Lloyd Comedy Classics] ;Interviews * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/arts/backrow/backrow_20020525.shtml BBC Radio Interview with Suzanne Lloyd (2002)] * [http://www.oldmagazinearticles.com/article-summary/silent-film_actor_harold_lloyd_interview 1922 magazine interview] ;Media * [https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Lloyd%2C%20Harold%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Harold%20Lloyd%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Lloyd%2C%20Harold%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Harold%20Lloyd%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Lloyd%2C%20H%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Harold%20Lloyd%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Lloyd%2C%20Harold%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Harold%20Lloyd%22%29%20OR%20%28%221893-1971%22%20AND%20Lloyd%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29 Works by or about Harold Lloyd] at de Internet Archive * [https://archive.org/details/harolddiddlebock Harold Lloyd in The Sin Of Harold Diddlebock] at de Internet Archive * [https://archive.org/details/OTRR_Old_Gold_Comedy_Theater_Singles Old Gold Comedy Theater Episodes] at de Internet Archive * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060506211514/http://silentgents.com/PLloyd.html Harold Lloyd Photos] at Silent Ladies & Gents ;Data *[https://catalog.afi.com/Person/66024-Harold-Lloyd AFI|Catalog] *[http://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/person/115143%7C66024/Harold-Lloyd/ Harold Lloyd] *[https://www.allmovie.com/artist/harold-lloyd-vn15322105 Harold Lloyd | Biography, Movie Highlights and Photos] * [[imdbname:0516001|Harold Lloyd]] at IMDb [[Category:Harold Lloyd]] [[Category:1893 births]] [[Category:1971 deaths]] [[Category:20th-century American comedians]] [[Category:20th-century American male actors]] [[Category:Academy Honorary Award recipients]] [[Category:Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences founders]] [[Category:American amputees]] [[Category:American male film actors]] [[Category:American male screenwriters]] [[Category:American male silent film actors]] [[Category:American people of Welsh descent]] [[Category:American stunt performers]] [[Category:American cinema pioneers]] [[Category:Film producers wey komot California]] [[Category:Hal Roach Studios actors]] [[Category:Male actors wey komot Los Angeles]] [[Category:Male actors wey komot Nebraska]] [[Category:Male actors wey komot San Diego]] [[Category:People wey komot Beverly Hills, California]] [[Category:People wey komot Burchard, Nebraska]] [[Category:Silent film comedians]] [[Category:American silent film directors]] [[Category:Silent film producers]] [[Category:American vaudeville performers]] [[Category:Film directors wey komot California]] [[Category:Film directors wey komot Nebraska]] [[Category:Amputee actors]] [[Category:American actors plus disabilities]] [[Category:Screenwriters wey komot California]] [[Category:20th-century American male writers]] [[Category:20th-century American writers]] [[Category:20th-century American screenwriters]] [[Category:San Diego High School alumni]] [[Category:Film directors plus disabilities]] [[Category:California Republicans]] [[Category:Comedians wey komot Nebraska]] [[Category:Comedians wey komot Los Angeles]] [[Category:Comedians wey komot San Diego]] [[Category:American male comedians]] bfsvg6e5gecs7g05ks813rp669hu9ex 0 1654 104000 81040 2026-06-19T10:23:29Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 104000 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Kakum National Park''', dey de coastal area for [[Central Region (Ghana)|Central Region]]<ref>[https://touringghana.com/central-region/ "Central Region"]. ''touringghana.com''. 24 February 2016. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220320175619/https://touringghana.com/central-region/ Archived] from the original on 20 March 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20220203020435/https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/tourism/CentralRegion.php "Central Region"]. ''www.ghanaweb.com''. Archived from [https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/tourism/CentralRegion.php the original] on 3 February 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref><ref>[https://national-parks.org/ghana/kakum "Kakum National Park (Official GANP Park Page)"]. ''national-parks.org''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230926165847/https://national-parks.org/ghana/kakum Archived] from the original on 26 September 2023. Retrieved 29 July 2023.</ref> wey dey [[Ghana]].<ref>[https://ghana.travel/gtas-experience-ghana-share-ghana-campaign-to-promote-domestic-tourism-visits-central-western-regions/ "GTA's Experience Ghana, Share Ghana Campaign To Promote Domestic Tourism Visits Central & Western Regions - Ghana.Travel"]. 11 May 2023. [https://web.archive.org/web/20240618060044/https://ghana.travel/gtas-experience-ghana-share-ghana-campaign-to-promote-domestic-tourism-visits-central-western-regions/ Archived] from the original on 18 June 2024. Retrieved 11 July 2023.</ref> E bola lyk 375 square kilomètres (145 sq mi). Dem do de park for 1931 insyd so say e go check like e be reserve. dem gazette am as national park for 1992 insyd after dem do sam survey dem bell avifauna. De area be tropical forest.<ref name=":3">[https://web.archive.org/web/20140107201234/http://data.iucn.org/dbtw-wpd/edocs/2010-073.pdf "Parks and reserves of Ghana: Management Effectiveness Assessment of Protected Areas"] (PDF). IUCN. Archived from [http://data.iucn.org/dbtw-wpd/edocs/2010-073.pdf the original] (PDF) on 7 January 2014. Retrieved 12 April 2013.</ref><ref name=":0">[https://web.archive.org/web/20230711120834/https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1396 "Kakum National Park (Assin Attandanso Reserve) (#)"]. UNESCO. from the original on 2 August 2012. Retrieved 11 April 2013.</ref><ref name=":4">[http://www.microsfere.org/en/kakum-national-park/index.htm "Kakum National Park"]. Microsfere. [https://web.archive.org/web/20140107214241/http://www.microsfere.org/en/kakum-national-park/index.htm Archived] from the original on 7 January 2014. Retrieved 11 April 2013.</ref> One thing wey dey be about de park be say e be de people for de area way start am, no be de State Department of Wildlife wey dem for do am before. Ebe three location for Africa wey get canopy walkway.<ref>[https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/kakum-canopy-walk "Kakum Canopy Walk"]. ''Atlas Obscura''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230711113259/https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/kakum-canopy-walk Archived] from the original on 11 July 2023. Retrieved 11 July 2023.</ref> Wey dey lyk 350 metres (1,150 ft) long, way esan dey connect seven trees top wey you go fi enter de forest.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">[http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sitefactsheet.php?id=6324 "Kakum National Park - Assin Attandaso Resource Reserve"]. Bird Life. [https://web.archive.org/web/20150101020828/http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/sitefactsheet.php?id=6324 Archived] from the original on 1 January 2015. Retrieved 11 April 2013.</ref> De most notable endangered species of fauna for de park insyd be Diana monkey,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160130213738/https://www.britannica.com/animal/diana-monkey "Diana monkey | primate"]. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. Archived from [https://www.britannica.com/animal/diana-monkey the original] on 30 January 2016. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> giant bongo antelope,<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/animal/bongo-antelope "Bongo | antelope"]. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190419030126/https://www.britannica.com/animal/bongo-antelope Archived] from the original on 19 April 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> yellow-backed duiker<ref>[https://www.ultimateungulate.com/Artiodactyla/Cephalophus_silvicultor.html "Yellow-backed duiker (''Cephalophus silvicultor'') - Quick facts"]. ''www.ultimateungulate.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110501010415/http://www.ultimateungulate.com/Artiodactyla/Cephalophus_silvicultor.html Archived] from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> den African elephant.<ref>[https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/african-elephant "African Elephant | Species | WWF"]. ''World Wildlife Fund''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220323201916/https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/african-elephant Archived] from the original on 23 March 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> E sanso be Important Bird Area<ref>BirdLife International. [https://www.birdlife.org/projects/ibas-mapping-most-important-places/ "Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas (IBAs)"]. ''BirdLife''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220323201916/https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/african-elephant Archived] from the original on 7 January 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> wey de Bird Life International<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/BirdLife-International "BirdLife International | conservation group"]. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190518111414/https://www.britannica.com/topic/BirdLife-International Archived] from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> recognize plus de bird area fully dey overlap de park area. Dem confirm 266 species de bird inventory for de park insyd, wey dey include eight species of global conservation concern. One of dis species of concern be de white-breasted guineafowl.<ref>[https://www.iucnredlist.org/en "The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species"]. ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200304172225/https://www.iucnredlist.org/en Archived] from the original on 4 March 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> Dem record nine species of hornbill<ref>BirdLife International. [https://www.birdlife.org/asia/projects/helmeted-hornbill "The Helmeted Hornbill crisis and BirdLife's conservations efforts"]. ''BirdLife''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190518112032/https://www.birdlife.org/asia/projects/helmeted-hornbill Archived] from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> den de grey parrot.<ref>BirdLife International. [https://www.birdlife.org/africa/news/ghana%E2%80%99s-grey-parrot-population-may-soon-cease-exist "Ghana's Grey Parrot population may soon cease to exist"]. ''BirdLife''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191102212207/http://www.birdlife.org/africa/news/ghana%E2%80%99s-grey-parrot-population-may-soon-cease-exist Archived] from the original on 2 November 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> Wey e sanso get more dan 600 butterflies as well, wey na dem discover a new species insyd 1993. As of 2012, dem locate de densest population of forest elephants for Ghana for Kakum insyd.<ref>Karlya, Maria (7 March 2012). ''[https://books.google.com.gh/books?id=-Usaa39rAmwC&pg=RA1-PA120&redir_esc=y Ghana (Other Places Travel Guide)]''. Other Places Publishing. pp. 120–. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-935850-10-6|978-1-935850-10-6]]</bdi>. Retrieved 14 April 2013.</ref> De Museums and Monuments Board for de Republic of Ghana propose say UNESCO<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/UNESCO "UNESCO | Definition, History, Members, & Facts"]. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20180402163139/https://www.britannica.com/topic/UNESCO Archived] from the original on 2 April 2018. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> declare de park natural World Heritage Site under criteria vii den x. Dem make de submission for 2000 insyd wey dem list am under de tentative List of World Heritage Sites.<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1396/ "Kakum National Park (Assin Attandanso Reserve) (#)"]. ''UNESCO World Heritage Centre''. [https://archive.today/20120802093422/http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1396/ Archived] from the original on 2 August 2012. Retrieved 11 July 2023.</ref> == History == Insyd 1931, de area dey drain by de headwater wey dey de catchment of de [[Kakum River]] as dem declare am as a forest reserve den manage by de Forestry Division. During dis period, dem prevent all logging operations, particularly of de mahogany<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/mahogany-wood "Mahogany | wood"]. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190629151308/https://www.britannica.com/topic/mahogany-wood Archived] from the original on 29 June 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> (''Khaya ivorensis'') tree species. De logging operations san continue till 1989 wey de management of de reserve transfer am go de Wildlife Department.<ref name=":4" /> A Feasibility Study den Preliminary 5-year Management Plan for de development of Kakum National Park as ebi ecotourism destination dem develop am insyd 1990 under a project wey dem conduct am for de United Nations Development Program (Dudley 1990). De Feasibility Study dey include preliminary biodiversity assessments give de flora den fauna of Kakum Forest Reserve den adjoining [[Assin-Attandanso Game Production Reserve|Assin-Attandanso Forest Reserve,]] den an elephant population survey (Dudley 1990; Dudley, Mensah-Ntiamoah,& Kpelle 1992; Dudley 1995). De Feasibility Study den Preliminary 5-year Management Plan dem develop am plus a collaborative den consultative process wey edey involve a consulting biologist, forestry officials, wildlife officials, local communities, Ghanaian universities, regional government officials, den other key stakeholders (Dudley 1992). Dem for recognize say one, Mr. Ebenezer Kwasi Agbley, de den Central Regional Manager for Ghana Tourist Board carry dis dream come under a program he wey he initiate den implement am - Tourism Development Scheme for Central Region (TODSCER) wey he expand den e become CENTRAL REGION DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM under wey later dem create Commission - Central Region Development Commission(CECECOM). He showcase de TODSCER program insyd America den draw a number of sponsoring institutions both bilateral den multi-lateral from de donor community give de project to ein maturity. De project later carry Game & Wildlife to manage den maintain the Park. Insyd 1992, de Wildlife Department gazet Kakum say ebe park wey come under de Wildlife Reserves Regulations (Ll 1525) as de Kakum Conservation Area wey edey include de Assin Attandanso Forest Reserve.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20220701193626/https://fcghana.org/page.php/?page=268&section=32&typ=1&subs=271 "Kakum and the Assin Attandanso Reserves, Ghana"]. ''www.fcghana.org''. Archived from [https://web.archive.org/web/20220701193626/https://fcghana.org/page.php/?page=268&section=32&typ=1&subs=271 the original] on 1 July 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> After a survey for de faunal richness wey dey de conservation area, dem split am into de Kakum National Park den de Assin Attandanso Forest Reserve for de same year insyd. Dem justify de split as ebi argument dat Cape Coast den 33 other towns plus villages continue dey need timber from de forest den potable water wey dem fi get am from Kakum River.<ref name=":3" /> == Flora == ; Moist forests * ''Entandrophragma cylindricum'' * ''Entandrophragma angolense'' * ''Guarea cedrata'' * ''Guarea thompsonii'' * ''Piptadeniastrum africanum'' * ''Milicia excelsa (Lophira alata)'' * ''Triplochiton scleroxylon'' * ''Sterculia rhinopetalia'' * ''Sterculia oblonga'' * ''Pterygota macrocarpa'' * ''Anigeria robusta'' * ''Terminalia superba'' * ''Strombosia glaucescens'' * ''Cola gigantea'' * ''Mansonia altissima'' * ''Celtis zenkeri'' * ''Ricinodendron heudelotii'' * ''Antiaris toxicaria'' ; Swamp forests * ''Alstonia boonei'' * ''Cleistopholis patens'' * ''Carapa procera'' * ''Mitragyna stipulosa'' * ''Raphia vinifera'' * ''Scandent'' * ''Calamus deeratus'' (Palm) * ''Laccosperma secundiflorum'' * ''Laccosperma opacum'' * ''Eremospatha macrocarpa'' * ''Glyphaea brevis'' (shrub) * ''Myriathus arboreus'' * ''Paullinia pinnata'' * ''Thaumatococcus daniellii'' (Herb) * ''Sarcophrynium brachystachys'' * ''Ataenidia conferta'' ; Riverine forest (Edaphic forest) * ''Pseudospondias microcarpa''<ref>[https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Pseudospondias+microcarpa "Pseudospondias microcarpa - Useful Tropical Plants"]. ''tropical.theferns.info''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200919032314/http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Pseudospondias+microcarpa Archived] from the original on 19 September 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> * ''Ceiba pentandra''<ref>[https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Ceiba+pentandra "Ceiba pentandra - Useful Tropical Plants"]. ''tropical.theferns.info''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200514010034/http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Ceiba+pentandra Archived] from the original on 14 May 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> * ''Xylopia spp''<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20200807010250/http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Xylopia+aethiopica "Xylopia aethiopica - Useful Tropical Plants"]. ''www.tropical.theferns.info''. Archived from [http://www.tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Xylopia+aethiopica the original] on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> * ''Uapaca guineensis''<ref>[https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Uapaca+guineensis "Uapaca guineensis - Useful Tropical Plants"]. ''tropical.theferns.info''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200703020303/http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Uapaca+guineensis Archived] from the original on 3 July 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> ; Boval vegetation * ''Sansevieria liberica''<ref>[https://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/sansevieria_liberica.htm "Sansevieria liberica"]. ''keyserver.lucidcentral.org''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170619112321/http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/media/Html/sansevieria_liberica.htm Archived] from the original on 19 June 2017. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> * ''Commelina'' ''spp''<ref>[https://earthmedicineinstitute.com/more/library/medicinal-plants/commelina-spp/ "Commelina spp"]. ''earthmedicineinstitute.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190518133314/https://earthmedicineinstitute.com/more/library/medicinal-plants/commelina-spp/ Archived] from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> * ''Hildegardia barteri''<ref>[https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Hildegardia+barteri "Hildegardia barteri - Useful Tropical Plants"]. ''tropical.theferns.info''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220925014659/https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Hildegardia+barteri Archived] from the original on 25 September 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> (bloom as red flowers during Christmas) * ''Elaeophorbia grandifolia''<ref>[https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Euphorbia+grandifolia "Euphorbia grandifolia - Useful Tropical Plants"]. ''tropical.theferns.info''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220925012642/https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Euphorbia+grandifolia Archived] from the original on 25 September 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> * ''Sterculia tragacantha''<ref>[https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Sterculia+tragacantha "Sterculia tragacantha - Useful Tropical Plants"]. ''tropical.theferns.info''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220615074928/http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Sterculia+tragacantha Archived] from the original on 15 June 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> * ''Ceiba pathandra'' * ''Albizia ferruginea''<ref>[https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Albizia%20ferruginea "Albizia ferruginea - Useful Tropical Plants"]. ''tropical.theferns.info''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220925013225/https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Albizia%20ferruginea Archived] from the original on 25 September 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> * ''Ricinodendron heudelotii''<ref>[https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Ricinodendron+heudelotii "Ricinodendron heudelotii - Useful Tropical Plants"]. ''tropical.theferns.info''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20160430173918/http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Ricinodendron+heudelotii Archived] from the original on 30 April 2016. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> == Fauna == De park dey contain rare animals, dem report chaw oda fauna wey dey include forest elephants,<ref>[https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/african-forest-elephant "African Forest Elephant | Species | WWF"]. ''World Wildlife Fund''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200610162236/https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/forest-elephant Archived] from the original on 10 June 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> forest buffalo,<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/animal/forest-buffalo "Forest buffalo | mammal"]. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200926193121/https://www.britannica.com/animal/forest-buffalo Archived] from the original on 26 September 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> civet den cats.<ref name=":1" /> Two hundred forest elephants (''Loxodonta cyclotis''), potto<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/animal/potto "Potto | primate"]. ''Encyclopedia Britannica''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20201006085505/https://www.britannica.com/animal/potto Archived] from the original on 6 October 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> (''Perodicticus potto''), Demidoff's galago<ref>[https://www.wildsolutions.nl/vocal-profiles/galagoides/demidovii/ "Demidoff's dwarf galago (Galagoides demidovii)"]. ''Wildsolutions''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200814174746/http://www.wildsolutions.nl/vocal-profiles/galagoides/demidovii/ Archived] from the original on 14 August 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> (''Galago demidovii''), African civet<ref>[http://www.krugerpark.co.za/africa_civet.html "African Civet | African Mammal Guide"]. ''www.krugerpark.co.za''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190518141054/http://www.krugerpark.co.za/africa_civet.html Archived] from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> (''Viverra civetta''), two-spotted palm civet<ref>A-Z-Animals.com. [https://a-z-animals.com/animals/african-palm-civet/ "African Palm Civet"]. ''a-z-animals.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200929180214/https://a-z-animals.com/animals/african-palm-civet/ Archived] from the original on 29 September 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> (''Nandinia binotata''), leopard<ref>[https://www.krugerpark.co.za/Kruger_National_Park_Wildlife-travel/kruger-park-wildlife-leopards.html "Facts About Leopards | Kruger National Park Wildlife"]. ''www.krugerpark.co.za''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20240618055957/https://www.krugerpark.co.za/Kruger_National_Park_Wildlife-travel/kruger-park-wildlife-leopards.html Archived] from the original on 18 June 2024. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> (''Panthera pardus''), bongo (''Tragelaphus euryceros''), chaw species of duikers (small antelopes), red river hog<ref>[https://nationalzoo.si.edu/animals/red-river-hog "Red River hog"]. ''Smithsonian's National Zoo''. 25 April 2016. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190507075639/https://nationalzoo.si.edu/animals/red-river-hog Archived] from the original on 7 May 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> (''Potamochoerus porcus pictus''), giant forest hog<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170318212509/http://uwec.ug/portfolio/giant-forest-hog/ "Giant Forest Hog"]. Archived from [https://uwec.ug/portfolio/giant-forest-hog/ the original] on 18 March 2017. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> (''Hylochoerus meinertzhageni''), long-tailed pangolin<ref>Burrell, Leslie. [https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Manis_tetradactyla/ "Manis tetradactyla (long-tailed pangolin)"]. ''Animal Diversity Web''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190518142323/https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Manis_tetradactyla/ Archived] from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> (''Manis tetradactyla''), white-belied pangolin<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20190518142508/https://www.pangolinsg.org/pangolins/tree-pangolin/ "White-bellied pangolin"]. ''Pangolin Specialist Group''. Archived from [https://www.pangolinsg.org/pangolins/tree-pangolin/ the original] on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> (''Manis tricuspis''), giant pangolin<ref>[https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/facts/giant-pangolin "Giant Pangolin"]. ''Animals''. 19 December 2018. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190518142757/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/g/giant-pangolin/ Archived] from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> (''Manis gigantea''), chaw species of forest squirrels, North African crested porcupine<ref>[https://wildlifewaystation.org/animals/species/porcupine-african-crested "Porcupine, African Crested"]. ''wildlifewaystation.org''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190518143311/https://wildlifewaystation.org/animals/species/porcupine-african-crested Archived] from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> (''Hystrix cristata''), dwarf crocodile<ref>[https://sdzwildlifeexplorers.org/animals/african-dwarf-crocodile "African dwarf crocodile"]. ''San Diego Zoo Kids''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190518143444/https://kids.sandiegozoo.org/animals/african-dwarf-crocodile Archived] from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> (''Osteolamus tetraspis''), monitor lizards, Home's hinged tortoise, serrated tortoise<ref>[http://reptilesmagazine.com/homes-hingeback-tortoise/ "Home's Hingeback Tortoise"]. ''www.reptilesmagazine.com''. 29 October 2013. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190518143613/http://www.reptilesmagazine.com/Homes-Hingeback-Tortoise/ Archived] from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> from de park.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /> Primates<ref>[https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/primate.htm "Primate"]. ''ScienceDaily''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190630152528/https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/primate.htm Archived] from the original on 30 June 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> for de park insyd dey include de ''Colobus vellerosus''<ref>Walker, Shannon. [https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Colobus_vellerosus/ "Colobus vellerosus (ursine colobus)"]. ''Animal Diversity Web''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200804000004/https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Colobus_vellerosus/ Archived] from the original on 4 August 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> (VU), ''Procolobus verus''<ref>[https://animaldiversity.org/collections/contributors/Grzimek_mammals/Colobinae/Procolobus_verus/ "Procolobus verus (olive colobus)"]. ''Animal Diversity Web''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190518144355/https://animaldiversity.org/collections/contributors/Grzimek_mammals/Colobinae/Procolobus_verus/ Archived] from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> (LR/nt), den ''Cercopithecus diana roloway''<ref>Johnson, Kelsey. [https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Cercopithecus_roloway/ "Cercopithecus roloway (Roloway monkey)"]. ''Animal Diversity Web''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210618212944/http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Cercopithecus_roloway/ Archived] from the original on 18 June 2021. Retrieved 18 May 2019.</ref> (CR).<ref name=":0" /> == Tourism == Kakum be Ghana ein first protected area wey receive major support give visitor facilities. Dem open de visitor centre for Earth Day 1997 wey de park receive de Global Tourism for Tomorrow Award de year wey dey follow.<ref>Eagles, Paul Franklin John; McCool, Stephen F. (2002). ''[https://books.google.com.gh/books?id=xIWwmVUUU4wC&pg=PA207&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Tourism in national parks and protected areas: planning and management]''. CABI. pp. 207–. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-85199-759-9|978-0-85199-759-9]]</bdi>. Retrieved 14 April 2013.</ref> Tourism numbers increase ova de years: 2,000 insyd 1992; 27,000 insyd 1996; ova 70,000 tourists insyd 1999;<ref>Zeppel, Heather (2006). ''[https://books.google.com.gh/books?id=noFNSuofi6IC&pg=PA220&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Indigenous Ecotourism: Sustainable Development and Management]''. CABI. pp. 220–. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-84593-125-4|978-1-84593-125-4]]</bdi>. Retrieved 14 April 2013.</ref> wey e attract 135,870 visitors during 2009.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304041339/http://www.encapafrica.org/documents/biofor/ETOA_Ghana_FINAL.pdf "Bio diversity and Tropical Forests - Environmental Threats and Opportunities Assessment"] (PDF). USAID: Encapafrica.org. pp. 111, 115. Archived from [http://www.encapafrica.org/documents/biofor/ETOA_Ghana_FINAL.pdf the original] (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 11 April 2013.</ref> ==Gallery== <div style="max-width: 400px;"> <gallery mode=slideshow> File:KAKUM NATIONAL PARK 16.jpg|Trees File:Canopy walkway at Kakum National Park 3.jpg|The canopy walkway File:Childrens Park at Kakum National Park.jpg|Playground for kids File:Kakum 2167.jpg|Canopy walkway File:Kakum National Park entrance.jpg|Entrance File:Kakum National Park caution 03.jpg|Sign post File:Safety tips of the Kakum National Park.jpg|Safety tips </gallery> == References == <References/> == External links == '''Kakum National Park''' at Wikipedia ein sisto projects * [[File:Commons-logo.svg|link=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Basshunter?uselang=gpe|16x16px]] [[commons:Category:Kakum_National_Park|Wikimedia Commons]] * [[File:Wikivoyage-logo.svg|link=https://en.Wikivoyage.org/wiki/Basshunter?uselang=gpe|16x16px]] [[wikivoyage:Kakum_National_Park|Wikivoyage]] * [[File:Wikidata-logo.svg|link=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q383541|16x16px]] [[wikidata:Q568693|Wikidata]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180315051337/http://www.kakumpark.com.gh/ Kakum National Park Official Website] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060820003105/http://www.ecotour.org/destinations/kakum.htm Travel information from Conservation International] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928022651/http://advance05.williamhaun.com/ghana/canopywalk/index.html Photo Gallery of Kakum National Forest's Canopy Walk] [[Category:Ghana]] [[Category:IUCN Category II]] [[Category:National parks of Ghana]] [[Category:Central Region (Ghana)]] [[Category:Eastern Guinean forests]] [[Category:Protected areas dem establish insyd 1992]] [[Category:Forest reserves of Ghana]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites insyd Ghana]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites]] [[Category:World Heritage Tentative List]] [[Category:Pages plus maps]] 5q0dbr2zsxaoz55np0lay4g07vpm2kt 3 2102 103628 99773 2026-06-18T12:05:39Z MediaWiki message delivery 110 /* Thank you for organising Feminism and Folklore 2026 */ new section 103628 wikitext text/x-wiki == Welcome to the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia! == Hi DaSupremo, and also ping @[[User:Yaw tuba|Yaw tuba]], @[[User:Gyanford|Gyanford]], @[[User:Feliciopedro2|Feliciopedro2]], @[[User:Sunkanmi12|Sunkanmi12]], @[[User:NanaKojo16|NanaKojo16]], @[[User:NanaYawBotar|NanaYawBotar]], @[[User:Afimaame|Afimaame]], @[[User:Elkay20|Elkay20]] and @[[User:Ibn Dagara|Ibn Dagara]]. Welcome to the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia! You and all your co-contributors have done a great job so far in getting here, and I would like to congratulate you on finally having the newest official Wikipedia edition! Well done to all of you! For previous wikis, there have usually been some technical issues that take some time to fix, but for the first time in many years, I think all of the normal technical issues have actually already bene solved now, less than one day after the Wikipedia was created. Visual editor works like it should, the same with the DiscussionTools, Wikidata support has been enabled, and the statistics in [[Special:Statistics]] look correct. But still, if you notice any issues, or if there are things you want to do but aren't able to for some reason, please feel free to reach out to me, and I can help figure out how to solve them. Best of luck to all of you with your new Wikipedia, and happy editing! 🎉 [[User:Jon Harald Søby|Jon Harald Søby]] ([[User talk:Jon Harald Søby|talk]]) 01:07, 6 July 2023 (GMT) :Hello [[User:Jon Harald Søby|Jon Harald Søby]] ([[User talk:Jon Harald Søby|talk]]) thanks for that and we are also grateful for your continuous help and support. We would like to fix the use of bare URLS for references. Thanks [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 13:48, 6 July 2023 (GMT) :Thanks [[User:NanaKojo16|NanaKojo16]] ([[User talk:NanaKojo16|talk]]) 08:38, 7 July 2023 (GMT) ==Modifications to the home page== Hello dear [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] I've made a slight modification to the homepage, by adding the number of existing articles. And I designed and programmed a new template for the introduction of the home page. I hope you see it:[[User:Osps7/Test]] With regards--[[User:Osps7|Osps7]] ([[User talk:Osps7|talk]]) 18:26, 19 August 2023 (GMT) :Wow...thanks for that. [[User:Osps7|Osps7]] ([[User talk:Osps7|talk]]) It will help us track and remove vandalism on articles. Really grateful [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 21:38, 19 August 2023 (GMT) ==Important inquiry== Dear [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], I am trying to work on developing the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia by adding new tools and improving the work of the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia by adding software tools that contribute to increasing effectiveness and contribute to protecting the encyclopedia from vandalism. I'm trying to work on an add-on (MediaWiki:Gadget-autocomplete.js) But I need permissions, how can I request permissions? With regards--[[User:Osps7|Osps7]] ([[User talk:Osps7|talk]]) 11:42, 20 August 2023 (GMT) :I think you can propose it on [[phab:|Phabricator]] and start working on it. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 12:36, 20 August 2023 (GMT) == Suggestions == First off, congratulations on leading the creation of and becoming admin of this Wikipedia, which is still the newest AFAIK. Hope that this project continues to grow and thrive. Onto the suggestions: with regards to the references, I think if you used your admin permissions to import the CS1 citation templates from enwiki it would also take care of the dependent modules. Or maybe someone from the community should file a request on MetaWiki. Documentation templates would also be handy I also think it might be a good idea to add a system or template for handling linguistic issues: for instance, I've already seen a page copied from enwiki with no effort made to translate it (although I can't find the specific page right now). Thanks! [[User:MSG17|MSG17]] ([[User talk:MSG17|talk]]) 15:43, 24 August 2023 (GMT) :Thanks for the good wishes. I would really need help cos I am not conversant with the templates. I will ask a couple of guys around. Thanks again [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 16:34, 24 August 2023 (GMT) ==suggestion== Dear [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], What do you think of the idea of ​​adding a new section to the home page called “In the News” and updating it continuously?--[[User:Osps7|Osps7]] ([[User talk:Osps7|talk]]) 12:00, 10 September 2023 (GMT) :Sounds good. A very good idea [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 12:07, 10 September 2023 (GMT) == Note == Dear @[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], I hope you are well. Over the past few days, I have developed a bot that I will activate here soon. It will create categories and templates that will help us. [[User:Osps7|Osps7]] ([[User talk:Osps7|talk]]) 22:03, 3 November 2023 (GMT) :Hello [[User:Osps7|Osps7]] ([[User talk:Osps7|talk]]), I am good and you? Noted and thanks for the continuous support. We really appreciate it. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 22:21, 3 November 2023 (GMT) == Translation == Hi, could you please translate this to Ghanaian Pidgin? Guosa is a constructed interlanguage originally created by Alex Igbineweka in 1965. It was designed to be a combination of the indigenous languages of Nigeria and to serve as a lingua franca to West Africa. It has the following characteristics: * It is an isolating language with subject–verb–object word order. * There are no articles. * There is no grammatical gender or noun class system. * Most grammatical meaning is expressed through particles that precede the words they modify. * Adjectives follow the noun. * Guosa is generally prepositional. Thank you. --[[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|talk]]) 07:12, 16 November 2023 (GMT) :Hello [[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|talk]]), thanks for reaching out. This is the Ghanaian Pidgin translation: :Guosa be constructed interlanguage wey Alex Igbineweka originally create am for 1965 insyd. Dem design am make e be combination of de indigenous languages for Nigeria wey e go serve as lingua franca go West Africa. :E get de characteristics wey dey follow: :•E be language wey dey isolate plus subject–verb–object word order. :•No articles dey. :•No grammatical gender anaa noun class system dey. :•Dem dey express chaw grammatical meaning thru particles wey dey precede de words dem modify. :•Adjectives dey follow de noun. :•Guosa be generally prepositional. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 12:03, 16 November 2023 (GMT) ==Importing citation templates== Was looking at importing cite journal, cite book, and cite web. Best way to do this would be to use this tool and select "Include all templates and transcluded pages" https://gpe.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Import Would be happy to but only certain user groups have permission to use the tool. Best [[User:Doc James|Doc James]] ([[User talk:Doc James|talk]]) 12:30, 26 October 2024 (GMT) :By the way hope to see you do more healthcare translations. Once we get the templates imported things will come through better. Best [[User:Doc James|Doc James]] ([[User talk:Doc James|talk]]) 12:44, 26 October 2024 (GMT) ::Thanks [[User:Doc James|Doc James]] ([[User talk:Doc James|talk]]) for this information. It is valuable for us. I have checked it out and I realized it is a good tool. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 14:05, 26 October 2024 (GMT) :::Are you able to make me a member of one of these groups "Administrators or Importers" so that I can help. Looking at "Template:Cite book" and not sure it worked properly. [[User:Doc James|Doc James]] ([[User talk:Doc James|talk]]) 23:17, 26 October 2024 (GMT) ::::No please. But I think you can request for a temporal admin [[metawiki:Steward_requests/Permissions#Administrator_access|here]] to enable you carry that task. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 11:05, 27 October 2024 (GMT) == delete == Can you please delete [[Talk:Audrey Sitsofe Gadzekpo]] and [[Talk:Joseph Kwame Kumah]]? they are orphaned. Best regards, [[User:TenWhile6|TenWhile6]] ([[User talk:TenWhile6|talk]]) 17:01, 14 November 2024 (GMT) :Done [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 18:59, 14 November 2024 (GMT) == Thank you for being a medical translator! == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> {| style="background-color: #fdffe7; border: 1px solid #fceb92;" |rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 5px;" | [[File:Wiki Project Med Foundation logo.svg|100px]] |style="font-size: x-large; padding: 3px 3px 0 3px; height: 1.5em;" |'''The 2024 Cure Translators Award''' |- | style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 3px;" |In 2024 you [https://mdwiki.toolforge.org/Translation_Dashboard/leaderboard.php?camp=all&project=all&year=2024&start=Filter joined us as a medical translator]. Thank you from [[m:WikiProject_Med|Wiki Project Med]] for helping bring free, complete, accurate, up-to-date health information to the public. We look forwards to working together in 2025. |} Thanks again :-) -- [https://mdwiki.org/wiki/User:Doc_James <span style="color:#0000f1">'''Doc James'''</span>] along with the rest of the team at '''[[m:WikiProject_Med|Wiki Project Med Foundation]]''' 06:54, 26 January 2025 (GMT) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Doc James@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Top_Translators_2024&oldid=28173086 --> :I appreciate the award. Hope to do more this year [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 10:24, 26 January 2025 (GMT) == Request for help == Hello @[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], My name is [[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|Uzoma]], I am the Movement Communications Specialist supporting the [[mediawikiwiki:Wikimedia_Language_and_Product_Localization|Wikimedia Language and Product Localization]] team. I am reaching out because you [[mediawikiwiki:Translation_suggestions:_Topic-based_&_Community-defined_lists/Collaborators#User_names_and_campaigns|indicated interest]] in participating in the [[mediawikiwiki:Translation_suggestions:_Topic-based_&_Community-defined_lists|Translation suggestions: Topic-based & Community-defined lists]] project. We now have the [https://sw.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ContentTranslation&campaign=contributionsmenu&to=sw&filter-type=automatic&filter-id=collections&active-list=suggestions&from=en Community-defined list feature] in the [https://sw.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ContentTranslation&campaign=contributionsmenu&to=sw&filter-type=automatic&filter-id=previous-edits&active-list=draft&from=en Content translation tool]. We want to approach organisers of Wiki campaigns that involve translation happening now or soon to add the collection tags to their article list. So that people who use the Content translation tool can discover these campaigns and participate directly from the moment they access the tool using their mobile device. The campaign suggestions will be in the "All Collection" category of the Translation suggestion feature in the tool, as illustrated in the GIF below. [[File:How_to_select_a_specific_collection_&_all_collections_(1).gif|Screen record of how to select a specific collection and "all collections"]] '''Our request''' Please help us by providing a list of the campaigns happening in your community and the organisers we can approach to add the tag. This is important to us because we need to learn from its usage for campaigns. I would appreciate your help connecting me to the campaigns you are preparing for in your community. I look forward to your response, and please let me know if you need any clarification. Thank you so much! Best regards, [[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]] ([[User talk:UOzurumba (WMF)|talk]]) 22:28, 11 February 2025 (GMT) :Hello @[[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]] thanks for reaching out. The Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia will be participating in this year's [[metawiki:Wiki_Loves_Ramadan_2025/Participants#Participating_Communities|Wiki Loves Ramadan]]. I will keep you posted when the community participates in subsequent editathons and campaigns. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 22:43, 11 February 2025 (GMT) ::Thank you so much, @[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], for this information. I will keep in touch. ::Best regards, [[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]] ([[User talk:UOzurumba (WMF)|talk]]) 18:47, 13 February 2025 (GMT) :::Ok @[[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]] [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 22:14, 13 February 2025 (GMT) == Follow-up on Incomplete Information for Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 == Hi DaSupremo, Thank you for signing up your community for For Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025. Please provide the following missing information on the [[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Participants|participants' page of Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025]]. * Local Project Page Link * Local Organizer * Jury Tools Link * Jury Members ''For the Team'', [[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] ([[User talk:ZI Jony|talk]]) 05:49, 1 April 2025 (GMT) :Hello [[User:ZI Jony|'''ZI Jony''']] [[User talk:ZI Jony|^''(Talk)'']], thanks for the message. Please none of the information above were created because I am the only person contributing on the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia participating in the contest. Thanks [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo#top|talk]]) 11:00, 1 April 2025 (UTC) [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 11:01, 1 April 2025 (GMT) ::@[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], thank you for your efforts. Unfortunately, above requirements are mandatory. I would like to request you to create an local Wikipedia project page (you would be able to copy content from [[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Sample|here]], and then translate in your local language). Ask others to join with you as local organizer and jury members. [[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] ([[User talk:ZI Jony|talk]]) 14:23, 1 April 2025 (GMT) :::Thanks. Can I still participate as a participant because we did not apply for a grant to organise this event so we have no funds to award winners and its associated cost? [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 14:29, 1 April 2025 (GMT) ::::@[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], you still can continue as an local participant. Most of local organizers work without grant, as there are international prizes available. [[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] ([[User talk:ZI Jony|talk]]) 14:46, 1 April 2025 (GMT) :::::Oh okay...thanks. I will set up the local page then. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 15:10, 1 April 2025 (GMT) == Reminder: Submit Your Local Results for Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 by 15 May == Dear DaSupremo, Thank you for your valuable contributions to '''Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025''' in your communities! This is a kind reminder that the '''deadline to submit your local results is 15 May 2025'''. Please make sure to submit the '''complete and detailed results''' of your local contest on the following Meta-Wiki page: '''[[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Results]]''' Additionally, feel free to add a brief summary of your local event under the '''Results''' section in your country/region’s row on the participants page: '''[[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Participants]]''' If you need any assistance during this process, don’t hesitate to reach out. Thank you for your continued dedication and support! For, Wiki Loves Ramadan International Team 11:51, 2 May 2025 (GMT) <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:ZI_Jony/MassMessage/WLR/List/Local_organizers&oldid=28651179 --> ==Testing the tool== Hey DaSupremo was just testing the tool here and thus had put it in my user space. Article is not actually translated https://gpe.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rabies&action=history [[User:Doc James|Doc James]] ([[User talk:Doc James|talk]]) 15:24, 7 May 2025 (GMT) :Hello @[[User:Doc James|Doc James]], yeah I realized that and that is the reason I am moving them to mainspace and translating them. Thanks [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 16:01, 7 May 2025 (GMT) ::Excellent, and we have the disease infobox / other infoboxes formating correctly now. See [[Glioblastoma]] [[User:Doc James|Doc James]] ([[User talk:Doc James|talk]]) 15:59, 8 May 2025 (GMT) :::Great. Thank you for this. Now we can have infoboxes on the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia. Greatly appreciated [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 17:28, 8 May 2025 (GMT) == Final Reminder – Submit Full Local Results for Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 by 15 May EOD == Dear DaSupremo, This is a final reminder that the deadline to submit your '''full and detailed local results''' for '''Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025''' is '''15 May 2025''' EOD. Please ensure you complete the following as soon as possible: * Submit your full results on Meta-Wiki here: '''[[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Results]]''' * Add a brief summary of your local event under the "Results" column on: '''[[Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Participants]]''' Failure to submit by the deadline may result in exclusion from the international jury consideration. If you need help or encounter any issues, feel free to contact the international team. Thank you once again for your dedication and hard work! ''Warm regards,''<br/> '''Wiki Loves Ramadan International Team''', 02:39, 15 May 2025 (GMT) <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:ZI_Jony/MassMessage/WLR/List/Local_organizers&oldid=28651179 --> == Share Your Feedback – Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 == Dear DaSupremo Thank you for being a part of '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025|Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025]]''' — whether as a contributor, jury member, or local organizer. Your efforts helped make this campaign a meaningful celebration of culture, heritage, and community on Wikimedia platforms. To help us improve and grow this initiative in future years, we kindly ask you to complete a short '''feedback form'''. Your responses are valuable in shaping how we support contributors like you. * '''Feedback Form:''' [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdXEtaqszxcwmTJa8pGT60E7GDtpbssNadR9vZFVFbLicGFBg/viewform Submit your feedback here] * '''Deadline to submit:''' 31 May 2025 It will only take a few minutes to complete, and your input will directly impact how we plan, communicate, and collaborate in the future. Thank you again for your support. We look forward to having you with us in future campaigns! Warm regards,<br/> ''Wiki Loves Ramadan International Team'' 08:51, 19 May 2025 (GMT) <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:ZI_Jony/MassMessage/WLR/List/Participants&oldid=28751574 --> == Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 – Global Top 10 Winner: Congratulations! == '''Dear DaSupremo,''' Congratulations! You have been selected as one of the '''Top 10 Global Winners''' (ranks 4 to 10) of the '''[[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025|Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025]]''' campaign. Your contributions and participation have greatly enriched the project, and we sincerely appreciate your efforts. To send you your prize and the official campaign T-shirt, we kindly request the following details: * Full name: * Wikimedia username: * Country of residency: * Email address: * Preferred T-shirt size (M, L, XL): * Preferred T-shirt color (Black, White, Navy): '''Please send the above information within 24 hours to:''' '''support@wikilovesramadan.org''' Your prize will be delivered through the [https://www.tremendous.com/catalog/ Tremendous] platform. Also, we kindly request you to fill the '''[https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdXEtaqszxcwmTJa8pGT60E7GDtpbssNadR9vZFVFbLicGFBg/viewform Participant Feedback Form]''' at your earliest convenience. Once again, thank you for your amazing contribution. '''Best regards,''' ''Wiki Loves Ramadan International Team'', [[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] ([[User talk:ZI Jony|talk]]) 03:43, 27 May 2025 (GMT) :Hello @[[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]], Thanks for the message. I have some reservations about the Winner of the campaign. I do not understand the language but it is clear when an article is created in a particular language. Most of their contributions (from what I sampled) where actually 'discussion pages' rather than translated articles. See [[:bn:আলাপ:মরক্কোতে_আশুরা|this]], [[:bn:আলাপ:গ্রেটার_টলেডো_ইসলামিক_সেন্টার|this]], [[:bn:আলাপ:মুসলিম_আমেরিকান_সোসাইটি|this]] and most could be found on the [[xtools:pages/bn.wikipedia.org/Hasan muntaseer/1|Xtool]]. Moreover, they were not even registered on the dashboard as we were told it was a requirement. On the dashboard, only [[wmfdashboard:courses/Wiki_Loves_Ramadan/Wiki_Loves_Ramadan_2025|241 articles]] where created in the Bangla Wikipedia. I might be wrong but their results need to be reviewed to ensure fairness and transparency. Thank you. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 08:03, 27 May 2025 (GMT) ::[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], I believe that the same question you maybe asked to Dnshitobu earlier! Mostly tracking categories are used in the talk page of the articles for almost all Wikipedia, including Bangla and English Wikipedia. They use a template on the article talk page where a description also placed, instead of using on the main articles. Using dashboard were not a mandatory tool, because many wikis' developed thier own jury tools, like Bangla, Ukrainian, even English Wikipedia also used a different tool called [https://fountain.toolforge.org Fountain], it’s depend on local organizers which tool they are comfortable to use. Bangla Wikipedia was submitted 1806 articles, due to non-relevant issue they removed several articles. For you clarity, Bangla Wikipedia was looking for additional jury members to complete thier jury process in time, and I joined to help then, in the meantime I have re-reviewd several articles. So, I believe that the jury process were well strictured and trusted. I kindly request you to provide the details you have been asked at your earliest convenience. Additional inquiry, are you attending EduWiki Conference 2025? Or, someone who can receive your gift and certificate from the conference let me know in the same email. Thank you! [[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] ([[User talk:ZI Jony|talk]]) 10:51, 27 May 2025 (GMT) :::Ok...thanks for the detailed explanation. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 11:03, 27 May 2025 (GMT) == [[José Rafael Córdero Sánchez]] == Hi DaSupremo, I need your help about this article because is a crosswiki spam, for more details please check: [[:nl:Overleg Wikipedia:Checklijst langdurig structureel vandalisme/Josercs1|this report]] from Dutch Wikipedia. Thank you. [[User:Taichi|Taichi]] ([[User talk:Taichi|talk]]) 23:48, 16 October 2025 (GMT) :Hello @[[User:Taichi|Taichi]]. Thanks for reaching out and well noted. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 00:01, 17 October 2025 (GMT) == [[Samata (fashion entrepreneur)]] == Hi DaSupremo, I noticed that you expanded this article in 2023 by translating content from English Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia article was deleted earlier this year as most of the sources were found to be spam or unreliable. Other language Wikipedias like French, Arabic, Swahili and Igbo have also deleted this article on similar grounds. It seems the original English article was written by a spammer for promotional purposes, therefore the Ghanaian Pidgin article (which was primarily translated from English) should also be deleted. Let me know your thoughts. [[User:Acoustical|Acoustical]] ([[User talk:Acoustical|talk]]) 19:16, 25 November 2025 (GMT) :Hello @[[User:Acoustical|Acoustical]]. Thanks for reaching out and well noted. Since it has been deleted from other language Wikipedias, I think it should be deleted too on the Ghanaian Pidgin WIkipedia. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 22:32, 25 November 2025 (GMT) == Undeletion Request == hello @[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] I noticed that you previously improved the article about Adebayo Temitayo (Realjjfrosh). I wanted to let you know that the page was later deleted. If you have time, I would appreciate any guidance on whether the sources used (Punch, Vanguard, ThisDay, BusinessDay, Daily Trust) meet the project’s notability standards, or how the article could be reworked to comply fully with policy. Thank you for your earlier improvements and for any advice you may be able to offer. [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-74643-7|&#126;2026-74643-7]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-74643-7|talk]]) 12:13, 3 February 2026 (GMT) :It was deleted because of (Spam and it was a ([[metawiki:steward|steward]] action)) [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 12:19, 3 February 2026 (GMT) ::Ok thanks [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-74643-7|&#126;2026-74643-7]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-74643-7|talk]]) 12:39, 3 February 2026 (GMT) == Thank you for being a medical contributors! == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> {| style="background-color: #fdffe7; color: #000; border: 1px solid #fceb92;" |rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 5px;" | [[File:Wiki Project Med Foundation logo.svg|130px]] |style="font-size: x-large; padding: 3px 3px 0 3px; height: 1.5em;" |'''The 2025 Cure Award''' |- | style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 3px;" |In 2025 you '''[[mdwiki:WikiProjectMed:WikiProject_Medicine/Stats/Top_medical_editors_2025_(all)|were one of the top medical editors in your language]]'''. Thank you from [[m:WikiProject_Med|Wiki Project Med]] for helping bring free, complete, accurate, up-to-date health information to the public. We appreciate you and the vital work you do! Wiki Project Med Foundation is a [[meta:Wikimedia_thematic_organizations|thematic organization]] whose mission is to improve our health content. '''[[meta:Wiki_Project_Med#People_interested|Consider joining for 2026]]''', there are no associated costs. Additionally one of our primary efforts revolves around translating health content. We invite you to '''[https://mdwiki.toolforge.org/Translation_Dashboard/index.php try our new workflow]''' if you have not already. Our dashboard automatically [https://mdwiki.toolforge.org/Translation_Dashboard/leaderboard.php collects statistics] of your efforts and we are working on [https://mdwiki.toolforge.org/fixwikirefs.php tools to automatically improve formating]. |} Look forwards to collaborating in the year ahead. Thanks again :-) -- [[mdwiki:User:Doc_James|<span style="color:#0000f1">'''Doc James'''</span>]] along with the rest of the team at '''[[m:WikiProject_Med|Wiki Project Med Foundation]]''' 07:42, 14 February 2026 (GMT) </div> (This message was sent to [[:User:DaSupremo]] and is being posted here due to a redirect.) <!-- Message sent by User:Doc James@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Top_Other_Language_Editors_2025&oldid=30070084 --> == Thank you for being a medical translator! == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> {| style="background-color: #fdffe7; color: #000; border: 1px solid #fceb92;" |rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 5px;" | [[File:Wiki Project Med Foundation logo.svg|100px]] |style="font-size: x-large; padding: 3px 3px 0 3px; height: 1.5em;" |'''The 2025 Cure Translators Award''' |- | style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 3px;" |In 2025 you [https://mdwiki.toolforge.org/Translation_Dashboard/leaderboard.php?camp=all&user_group=all&year=2025&month=All joined us as a medical translator]. Thank you from [[m:WikiProject_Med|Wiki Project Med]] for helping bring free, complete, accurate, up-to-date health information to the public. Wiki Project Med Foundation is a [[meta:Wikimedia_thematic_organizations|thematic organization]] whose mission is to improve our health content. '''[[meta:Wiki_Project_Med#People_interested|Consider formally joining the organization for 2026]]''', there are no associated costs. |} Look forwards to collaborating further in the year ahead. Thanks again :-) -- [[mdwiki:User:Doc_James|<span style="color:#0000f1">'''Doc James'''</span>]] along with the rest of the team at '''[[m:WikiProject_Med|Wiki Project Med Foundation]]''' 07:53, 14 February 2026 (GMT) </div> (This message was sent to [[:User:DaSupremo]] and is being posted here due to a redirect.) <!-- Message sent by User:Doc James@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Top_Translators_2025&oldid=30070105 --> == Feminism and Folklore 2026 – Community Organisers & Jury == Hello {{PAGENAME}}!, Thank you for taking the lead in organising '''Feminism and Folklore 2026''' in your community. We truly appreciate your efforts! To ensure a smooth and successful campaign, please make sure you have: * Fully completed all details on the [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Project Page|Feminism and Folklore 2026 Project Page]]: * Started promoting the campaign within your community. * Requested a local administrator to place a '''sitenotice''' about the campaign so users are notified. * Used the '''[https://tools.wikilovesfolklore.org/fnf/ Article List Generator Tool]''' and shared the generated article lists with your community. === Internet & Childcare Support === Community organisers and jury members who require '''internet and childcare support''' (non-mandatory, opt-in, request-only support) should fill the support request form '''by 22 February 2026'''. '''[https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSeutXEF1yTnJfExWUYPIf6SkhcnTgul07BeI-biqT4RE_vsrA/viewform Link to the form]''' Requests submitted after this date will not be entertained. === Important Participation Guidelines === * Minimum article size: '''3000 bytes and 300 words''' (final decision may be set by local organisers). * If your country is not listed on the Article list generator tool, please contact us. === Community Engagement === * Keep your community active and motivated throughout the campaign. * Share your achievements and notable articles with us so we can highlight them globally. * In the support form, please indicate if you would like a '''quick coordination call after the campaign'''. Let’s make '''Feminism and Folklore''', under the banner of '''#WeTogether''', help bridge the '''gender gap''' and '''folklore gap''' on Wikipedia worldwide. 🌍✊ Thank you for your collaboration! ''If someone from your community organisers or jury has missed this message feel free to share this message with them.'' Feminism and Folklore International Team. –[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 05:17, 16 February 2026 (GMT) <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tiven2240/fnf26&oldid=30083330 --> == Translation request == Hello, DaSupremo. Can you translate and upload the articles [[:en:Bazardüzü]] and [[:en:Campi Flegrei]] in Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia? Yours sincerely, [[User:Kurcke|Kurcke]] ([[User talk:Kurcke|talk]]) 07:39, 15 March 2026 (GMT) :Hello @[[User:Kurcke|Kurcke]]. Noted [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 13:22, 15 March 2026 (GMT) ::Hello, DaSupremo. ::Thank you very much for the new article. ::Yours sincerely, [[User:Kurcke|Kurcke]] ([[User talk:Kurcke|talk]]) 16:43, 9 April 2026 (GMT) :::Welcome @[[User:Kurcke|Kurcke]] [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 16:47, 9 April 2026 (GMT) == Next Steps and Feedback meeting for Feminism and Folklore Organizers == <div style="border:8px maroon ridge; padding:6px;"> [[File:Feminism and Folklore 2026 logo.svg|center|550px|frameless]] <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr" style="padding: 1em 2em;"> <div style="text-align: center; width: 100%;">''{{int:please-translate}}''</div> Dear Organizer, I hope this message finds you well. First and foremost, on behalf of the International Team I want to extend my gratitude to you for your efforts in organizing the '''Feminism and Folklore 2026''' campaign on your local Wikipedia. Your contribution has been instrumental in bridging the gender and folk gap on Wikipedia, and we truly appreciate your dedication to this important cause. As the campaign has ended I wanted to inform you about the next steps. It's time to commence the jury process using the CampWiz or Fountain tool where your campaign was hosted. Please ensure that you update the details of the jury, campaign links and the names of organizers accurately on the [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Project Page|sign-up page]]. Once the jury process is completed, kindly update only the top 3 winners details on the [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Results|results page]] accordingly. The deadline for jury submission of results is '''April 30, 2026'''. However, if you find that the number of articles is high and you require more time, please don't hesitate to inform us via email or on campaign Meta Wiki talk page. We are more than willing to approve an extension if needed. Should you encounter any issues with the tools, please feel free to reach out to us on Telegram for assistance. Your feedback and progress updates are crucial for us to improve the campaign and better understand your community's insights. Therefore, we kindly ask you to spare just an hour to collectively share your progress and achievements with us during our '''[[:m:Event:Feminism and Folklore 2026 Post-Campaign Office Hour|community feedback session]]'''. Your input will greatly assist us in making the campaign more meaningful and impactful. Thank you once again for your hard work and dedication to the Feminism and Folklore campaign. Your efforts are deeply appreciated, and we look forward to hearing from you soon. Warm regards, [[User:Tiven2240|Tiven2240]] on behalf of Feminism and Folklore International Team <nowiki>#WeTogether</nowiki> </div></div> --[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 11:57, 11 April 2026 (GMT) <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tiven2240/fnf26&oldid=30391231 --> == You may be an eligible candidate for the U4C election == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> Greetings, The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C)]] seeks candidates for the 2026 election. The U4C is the global committee responsible for overseeing enforcement of the [[foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal Code of Conduct|Universal Code of Conduct]]. Elections are held annually, if elected a committee member serves for two years. This year the U4C requires candidates to hold administrator rights on at least one wiki, which is why you are being contacted as you appear to hold this right. There are other requirements, such as candidates must be at least 18 years old and may not be employed by the Wikimedia Foundation or other related chapters and affiliates. You can find more information in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026#Call_for_Candidates|call for candidates on Meta-wiki]]. Additionally, the committee's working language is English; some ability to communicate in English is required. The election opens on 18 May, if you are eligible and interested you have until 10 May to submit your candidacy. There will week between for candidates to answer questions from the community. Voting takes place privately in [[m:Special:MyLanguage/SecurePoll|SecurePoll]], successful candidates must receive at least 60% support. More information is available on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026|the 2026 Elections page]], including timelines and other candidacy information. If you read over the material and consider yourself qualified, please consider submitting your name to run for the committee. If you think someone else in your community might be interested and qualified, please encourage them to run. In partnership with the U4C -- [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User_talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 18:33, 28 April 2026 (GMT) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Keegan_(WMF)/test&oldid=30471754 --> == Ghanaian Pidgin == Hello. I'm looking for Ghanaian Pidgin translation of descriptions of a few items for Wikidata. Would you help? [[User:Eurohunter|Eurohunter]] ([[User talk:Eurohunter|talk]]) 19:45, 7 May 2026 (GMT) :Sure [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 20:07, 7 May 2026 (GMT) :: I'm looking for: : "studio album by Basshunter" : "compilation album by Basshunter" : "song by Käärijä den Basshunter" : "single by Käärijä den Basshunter" : "promotional single by Basshunter" : "music video by Basshunter" : "lyric video by Basshunter" :: [[User:Eurohunter|Eurohunter]] ([[User talk:Eurohunter|talk]]) 20:17, 7 May 2026 (GMT) :::@[[User:Eurohunter|Eurohunter]] Done [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 16:25, 8 May 2026 (GMT) :::: So they are almost like English with the only difference of "den"? [[User:Eurohunter|Eurohunter]] ([[User talk:Eurohunter|talk]]) 18:00, 8 May 2026 (GMT) :::::Ghanaian Pidgin is more of English with a bit of local Ghanaian languages [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 18:50, 8 May 2026 (GMT) :::::: Good to know. All added. Thanks a lot. [[User:Eurohunter|Eurohunter]] ([[User talk:Eurohunter|talk]]) 21:30, 8 May 2026 (GMT) == Request writing about Isabelle de Charriere (Q123386) == hi DaSupremo Would you like to write about Isabelle de Charriere (Q123386) for the GPE Wikipedia? It'll be appreciated if it 'll be done. [[User:Boss-well63|Boss-well63]] ([[User talk:Boss-well63|talk]]) 18:41, 29 May 2026 (GMT) == Final Reminder: Submission of Local Winners for Feminism and Folklore 2026 == Dear Feminism and Folklore organiser, This is a friendly reminder that the deadline for submitting the names and details of your local winners for '''Feminism and Folklore 2026''' is '''5 June 2026'''. Please ensure that your community's [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Results|winner information]] is submitted before this date. Communities that do not provide their winner data by the deadline will unfortunately not be eligible for prize distribution, and the international organizing team will not be able to accommodate late submissions received after 5 June 2026. Thank you for your prompt attention to this matter and for your participation in the campaign. Best regards, '''Feminism and Folklore International Organizing Team''' --[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 02:09, 3 June 2026 (GMT) <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tiven2240/wlf2026&oldid=30627457 --> == Thank you for organising Feminism and Folklore 2026 == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> [[File:Feminism and Folklore 2026 logo.svg|right|350px]] Dear {{PAGENAME}}, Your dedication, coordination, and hard work played a vital role in making this year's [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026|Feminism and Folklore]] campaign successful. We truly appreciate the time and effort you invested in engaging your community and supporting participants. As we have completed the jury phase and begin planning for next year's campaign, we would like to learn from your experiences. Please complete the organisers' feedback form and share your insights, challenges, and suggestions on how we can improve the campaign. '''This feedback form is mandatory for all organisers''', as it helps us evaluate the campaign and make meaningful improvements for future editions. '''Form link [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSf6IsGAsxkTEWTwueyLg-gBjRVlY3g2kTNj3xRhDiILiQnQwQ/viewform?usp=dialog here]''' Please submit your response by '''25 June 2026'''. Thank you once again for your invaluable contributions and for helping make Feminism and Folklore a global success. We look forward to working with you again in the future! Regards, '''Feminism and Folklore Team''' --[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 12:05, 18 June 2026 (GMT) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tiven2240/wlf2026&oldid=30704175 --> ortwyn7wp32r5b1dyuj0rsg0oqvjjrn 103671 103628 2026-06-18T14:31:08Z MediaWiki message delivery 110 /* Thank you for being a part of Feminism and Folklore 2026 */ new section 103671 wikitext text/x-wiki == Welcome to the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia! == Hi DaSupremo, and also ping @[[User:Yaw tuba|Yaw tuba]], @[[User:Gyanford|Gyanford]], @[[User:Feliciopedro2|Feliciopedro2]], @[[User:Sunkanmi12|Sunkanmi12]], @[[User:NanaKojo16|NanaKojo16]], @[[User:NanaYawBotar|NanaYawBotar]], @[[User:Afimaame|Afimaame]], @[[User:Elkay20|Elkay20]] and @[[User:Ibn Dagara|Ibn Dagara]]. Welcome to the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia! You and all your co-contributors have done a great job so far in getting here, and I would like to congratulate you on finally having the newest official Wikipedia edition! Well done to all of you! For previous wikis, there have usually been some technical issues that take some time to fix, but for the first time in many years, I think all of the normal technical issues have actually already bene solved now, less than one day after the Wikipedia was created. Visual editor works like it should, the same with the DiscussionTools, Wikidata support has been enabled, and the statistics in [[Special:Statistics]] look correct. But still, if you notice any issues, or if there are things you want to do but aren't able to for some reason, please feel free to reach out to me, and I can help figure out how to solve them. Best of luck to all of you with your new Wikipedia, and happy editing! 🎉 [[User:Jon Harald Søby|Jon Harald Søby]] ([[User talk:Jon Harald Søby|talk]]) 01:07, 6 July 2023 (GMT) :Hello [[User:Jon Harald Søby|Jon Harald Søby]] ([[User talk:Jon Harald Søby|talk]]) thanks for that and we are also grateful for your continuous help and support. We would like to fix the use of bare URLS for references. Thanks [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 13:48, 6 July 2023 (GMT) :Thanks [[User:NanaKojo16|NanaKojo16]] ([[User talk:NanaKojo16|talk]]) 08:38, 7 July 2023 (GMT) ==Modifications to the home page== Hello dear [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] I've made a slight modification to the homepage, by adding the number of existing articles. And I designed and programmed a new template for the introduction of the home page. I hope you see it:[[User:Osps7/Test]] With regards--[[User:Osps7|Osps7]] ([[User talk:Osps7|talk]]) 18:26, 19 August 2023 (GMT) :Wow...thanks for that. [[User:Osps7|Osps7]] ([[User talk:Osps7|talk]]) It will help us track and remove vandalism on articles. Really grateful [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 21:38, 19 August 2023 (GMT) ==Important inquiry== Dear [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], I am trying to work on developing the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia by adding new tools and improving the work of the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia by adding software tools that contribute to increasing effectiveness and contribute to protecting the encyclopedia from vandalism. I'm trying to work on an add-on (MediaWiki:Gadget-autocomplete.js) But I need permissions, how can I request permissions? With regards--[[User:Osps7|Osps7]] ([[User talk:Osps7|talk]]) 11:42, 20 August 2023 (GMT) :I think you can propose it on [[phab:|Phabricator]] and start working on it. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 12:36, 20 August 2023 (GMT) == Suggestions == First off, congratulations on leading the creation of and becoming admin of this Wikipedia, which is still the newest AFAIK. Hope that this project continues to grow and thrive. Onto the suggestions: with regards to the references, I think if you used your admin permissions to import the CS1 citation templates from enwiki it would also take care of the dependent modules. Or maybe someone from the community should file a request on MetaWiki. Documentation templates would also be handy I also think it might be a good idea to add a system or template for handling linguistic issues: for instance, I've already seen a page copied from enwiki with no effort made to translate it (although I can't find the specific page right now). Thanks! [[User:MSG17|MSG17]] ([[User talk:MSG17|talk]]) 15:43, 24 August 2023 (GMT) :Thanks for the good wishes. I would really need help cos I am not conversant with the templates. I will ask a couple of guys around. Thanks again [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 16:34, 24 August 2023 (GMT) ==suggestion== Dear [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], What do you think of the idea of ​​adding a new section to the home page called “In the News” and updating it continuously?--[[User:Osps7|Osps7]] ([[User talk:Osps7|talk]]) 12:00, 10 September 2023 (GMT) :Sounds good. A very good idea [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 12:07, 10 September 2023 (GMT) == Note == Dear @[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], I hope you are well. Over the past few days, I have developed a bot that I will activate here soon. It will create categories and templates that will help us. [[User:Osps7|Osps7]] ([[User talk:Osps7|talk]]) 22:03, 3 November 2023 (GMT) :Hello [[User:Osps7|Osps7]] ([[User talk:Osps7|talk]]), I am good and you? Noted and thanks for the continuous support. We really appreciate it. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 22:21, 3 November 2023 (GMT) == Translation == Hi, could you please translate this to Ghanaian Pidgin? Guosa is a constructed interlanguage originally created by Alex Igbineweka in 1965. It was designed to be a combination of the indigenous languages of Nigeria and to serve as a lingua franca to West Africa. It has the following characteristics: * It is an isolating language with subject–verb–object word order. * There are no articles. * There is no grammatical gender or noun class system. * Most grammatical meaning is expressed through particles that precede the words they modify. * Adjectives follow the noun. * Guosa is generally prepositional. Thank you. --[[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|talk]]) 07:12, 16 November 2023 (GMT) :Hello [[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|talk]]), thanks for reaching out. This is the Ghanaian Pidgin translation: :Guosa be constructed interlanguage wey Alex Igbineweka originally create am for 1965 insyd. Dem design am make e be combination of de indigenous languages for Nigeria wey e go serve as lingua franca go West Africa. :E get de characteristics wey dey follow: :•E be language wey dey isolate plus subject–verb–object word order. :•No articles dey. :•No grammatical gender anaa noun class system dey. :•Dem dey express chaw grammatical meaning thru particles wey dey precede de words dem modify. :•Adjectives dey follow de noun. :•Guosa be generally prepositional. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 12:03, 16 November 2023 (GMT) ==Importing citation templates== Was looking at importing cite journal, cite book, and cite web. Best way to do this would be to use this tool and select "Include all templates and transcluded pages" https://gpe.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Import Would be happy to but only certain user groups have permission to use the tool. Best [[User:Doc James|Doc James]] ([[User talk:Doc James|talk]]) 12:30, 26 October 2024 (GMT) :By the way hope to see you do more healthcare translations. Once we get the templates imported things will come through better. Best [[User:Doc James|Doc James]] ([[User talk:Doc James|talk]]) 12:44, 26 October 2024 (GMT) ::Thanks [[User:Doc James|Doc James]] ([[User talk:Doc James|talk]]) for this information. It is valuable for us. I have checked it out and I realized it is a good tool. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 14:05, 26 October 2024 (GMT) :::Are you able to make me a member of one of these groups "Administrators or Importers" so that I can help. Looking at "Template:Cite book" and not sure it worked properly. [[User:Doc James|Doc James]] ([[User talk:Doc James|talk]]) 23:17, 26 October 2024 (GMT) ::::No please. But I think you can request for a temporal admin [[metawiki:Steward_requests/Permissions#Administrator_access|here]] to enable you carry that task. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 11:05, 27 October 2024 (GMT) == delete == Can you please delete [[Talk:Audrey Sitsofe Gadzekpo]] and [[Talk:Joseph Kwame Kumah]]? they are orphaned. Best regards, [[User:TenWhile6|TenWhile6]] ([[User talk:TenWhile6|talk]]) 17:01, 14 November 2024 (GMT) :Done [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 18:59, 14 November 2024 (GMT) == Thank you for being a medical translator! == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> {| style="background-color: #fdffe7; border: 1px solid #fceb92;" |rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 5px;" | [[File:Wiki Project Med Foundation logo.svg|100px]] |style="font-size: x-large; padding: 3px 3px 0 3px; height: 1.5em;" |'''The 2024 Cure Translators Award''' |- | style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 3px;" |In 2024 you [https://mdwiki.toolforge.org/Translation_Dashboard/leaderboard.php?camp=all&project=all&year=2024&start=Filter joined us as a medical translator]. Thank you from [[m:WikiProject_Med|Wiki Project Med]] for helping bring free, complete, accurate, up-to-date health information to the public. We look forwards to working together in 2025. |} Thanks again :-) -- [https://mdwiki.org/wiki/User:Doc_James <span style="color:#0000f1">'''Doc James'''</span>] along with the rest of the team at '''[[m:WikiProject_Med|Wiki Project Med Foundation]]''' 06:54, 26 January 2025 (GMT) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Doc James@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Top_Translators_2024&oldid=28173086 --> :I appreciate the award. Hope to do more this year [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 10:24, 26 January 2025 (GMT) == Request for help == Hello @[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], My name is [[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|Uzoma]], I am the Movement Communications Specialist supporting the [[mediawikiwiki:Wikimedia_Language_and_Product_Localization|Wikimedia Language and Product Localization]] team. I am reaching out because you [[mediawikiwiki:Translation_suggestions:_Topic-based_&_Community-defined_lists/Collaborators#User_names_and_campaigns|indicated interest]] in participating in the [[mediawikiwiki:Translation_suggestions:_Topic-based_&_Community-defined_lists|Translation suggestions: Topic-based & Community-defined lists]] project. We now have the [https://sw.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ContentTranslation&campaign=contributionsmenu&to=sw&filter-type=automatic&filter-id=collections&active-list=suggestions&from=en Community-defined list feature] in the [https://sw.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ContentTranslation&campaign=contributionsmenu&to=sw&filter-type=automatic&filter-id=previous-edits&active-list=draft&from=en Content translation tool]. We want to approach organisers of Wiki campaigns that involve translation happening now or soon to add the collection tags to their article list. So that people who use the Content translation tool can discover these campaigns and participate directly from the moment they access the tool using their mobile device. The campaign suggestions will be in the "All Collection" category of the Translation suggestion feature in the tool, as illustrated in the GIF below. [[File:How_to_select_a_specific_collection_&_all_collections_(1).gif|Screen record of how to select a specific collection and "all collections"]] '''Our request''' Please help us by providing a list of the campaigns happening in your community and the organisers we can approach to add the tag. This is important to us because we need to learn from its usage for campaigns. I would appreciate your help connecting me to the campaigns you are preparing for in your community. I look forward to your response, and please let me know if you need any clarification. Thank you so much! Best regards, [[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]] ([[User talk:UOzurumba (WMF)|talk]]) 22:28, 11 February 2025 (GMT) :Hello @[[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]] thanks for reaching out. The Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia will be participating in this year's [[metawiki:Wiki_Loves_Ramadan_2025/Participants#Participating_Communities|Wiki Loves Ramadan]]. I will keep you posted when the community participates in subsequent editathons and campaigns. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 22:43, 11 February 2025 (GMT) ::Thank you so much, @[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], for this information. I will keep in touch. ::Best regards, [[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]] ([[User talk:UOzurumba (WMF)|talk]]) 18:47, 13 February 2025 (GMT) :::Ok @[[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]] [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 22:14, 13 February 2025 (GMT) == Follow-up on Incomplete Information for Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 == Hi DaSupremo, Thank you for signing up your community for For Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025. Please provide the following missing information on the [[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Participants|participants' page of Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025]]. * Local Project Page Link * Local Organizer * Jury Tools Link * Jury Members ''For the Team'', [[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] ([[User talk:ZI Jony|talk]]) 05:49, 1 April 2025 (GMT) :Hello [[User:ZI Jony|'''ZI Jony''']] [[User talk:ZI Jony|^''(Talk)'']], thanks for the message. Please none of the information above were created because I am the only person contributing on the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia participating in the contest. Thanks [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo#top|talk]]) 11:00, 1 April 2025 (UTC) [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 11:01, 1 April 2025 (GMT) ::@[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], thank you for your efforts. Unfortunately, above requirements are mandatory. I would like to request you to create an local Wikipedia project page (you would be able to copy content from [[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Sample|here]], and then translate in your local language). Ask others to join with you as local organizer and jury members. [[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] ([[User talk:ZI Jony|talk]]) 14:23, 1 April 2025 (GMT) :::Thanks. Can I still participate as a participant because we did not apply for a grant to organise this event so we have no funds to award winners and its associated cost? [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 14:29, 1 April 2025 (GMT) ::::@[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], you still can continue as an local participant. Most of local organizers work without grant, as there are international prizes available. [[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] ([[User talk:ZI Jony|talk]]) 14:46, 1 April 2025 (GMT) :::::Oh okay...thanks. I will set up the local page then. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 15:10, 1 April 2025 (GMT) == Reminder: Submit Your Local Results for Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 by 15 May == Dear DaSupremo, Thank you for your valuable contributions to '''Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025''' in your communities! This is a kind reminder that the '''deadline to submit your local results is 15 May 2025'''. Please make sure to submit the '''complete and detailed results''' of your local contest on the following Meta-Wiki page: '''[[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Results]]''' Additionally, feel free to add a brief summary of your local event under the '''Results''' section in your country/region’s row on the participants page: '''[[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Participants]]''' If you need any assistance during this process, don’t hesitate to reach out. Thank you for your continued dedication and support! For, Wiki Loves Ramadan International Team 11:51, 2 May 2025 (GMT) <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:ZI_Jony/MassMessage/WLR/List/Local_organizers&oldid=28651179 --> ==Testing the tool== Hey DaSupremo was just testing the tool here and thus had put it in my user space. Article is not actually translated https://gpe.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rabies&action=history [[User:Doc James|Doc James]] ([[User talk:Doc James|talk]]) 15:24, 7 May 2025 (GMT) :Hello @[[User:Doc James|Doc James]], yeah I realized that and that is the reason I am moving them to mainspace and translating them. Thanks [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 16:01, 7 May 2025 (GMT) ::Excellent, and we have the disease infobox / other infoboxes formating correctly now. See [[Glioblastoma]] [[User:Doc James|Doc James]] ([[User talk:Doc James|talk]]) 15:59, 8 May 2025 (GMT) :::Great. Thank you for this. Now we can have infoboxes on the Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia. Greatly appreciated [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 17:28, 8 May 2025 (GMT) == Final Reminder – Submit Full Local Results for Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 by 15 May EOD == Dear DaSupremo, This is a final reminder that the deadline to submit your '''full and detailed local results''' for '''Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025''' is '''15 May 2025''' EOD. Please ensure you complete the following as soon as possible: * Submit your full results on Meta-Wiki here: '''[[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Results]]''' * Add a brief summary of your local event under the "Results" column on: '''[[Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Participants]]''' Failure to submit by the deadline may result in exclusion from the international jury consideration. If you need help or encounter any issues, feel free to contact the international team. Thank you once again for your dedication and hard work! ''Warm regards,''<br/> '''Wiki Loves Ramadan International Team''', 02:39, 15 May 2025 (GMT) <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:ZI_Jony/MassMessage/WLR/List/Local_organizers&oldid=28651179 --> == Share Your Feedback – Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 == Dear DaSupremo Thank you for being a part of '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025|Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025]]''' — whether as a contributor, jury member, or local organizer. Your efforts helped make this campaign a meaningful celebration of culture, heritage, and community on Wikimedia platforms. To help us improve and grow this initiative in future years, we kindly ask you to complete a short '''feedback form'''. Your responses are valuable in shaping how we support contributors like you. * '''Feedback Form:''' [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdXEtaqszxcwmTJa8pGT60E7GDtpbssNadR9vZFVFbLicGFBg/viewform Submit your feedback here] * '''Deadline to submit:''' 31 May 2025 It will only take a few minutes to complete, and your input will directly impact how we plan, communicate, and collaborate in the future. Thank you again for your support. We look forward to having you with us in future campaigns! Warm regards,<br/> ''Wiki Loves Ramadan International Team'' 08:51, 19 May 2025 (GMT) <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:ZI_Jony/MassMessage/WLR/List/Participants&oldid=28751574 --> == Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 – Global Top 10 Winner: Congratulations! == '''Dear DaSupremo,''' Congratulations! You have been selected as one of the '''Top 10 Global Winners''' (ranks 4 to 10) of the '''[[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025|Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025]]''' campaign. Your contributions and participation have greatly enriched the project, and we sincerely appreciate your efforts. To send you your prize and the official campaign T-shirt, we kindly request the following details: * Full name: * Wikimedia username: * Country of residency: * Email address: * Preferred T-shirt size (M, L, XL): * Preferred T-shirt color (Black, White, Navy): '''Please send the above information within 24 hours to:''' '''support@wikilovesramadan.org''' Your prize will be delivered through the [https://www.tremendous.com/catalog/ Tremendous] platform. Also, we kindly request you to fill the '''[https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdXEtaqszxcwmTJa8pGT60E7GDtpbssNadR9vZFVFbLicGFBg/viewform Participant Feedback Form]''' at your earliest convenience. Once again, thank you for your amazing contribution. '''Best regards,''' ''Wiki Loves Ramadan International Team'', [[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] ([[User talk:ZI Jony|talk]]) 03:43, 27 May 2025 (GMT) :Hello @[[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]], Thanks for the message. I have some reservations about the Winner of the campaign. I do not understand the language but it is clear when an article is created in a particular language. Most of their contributions (from what I sampled) where actually 'discussion pages' rather than translated articles. See [[:bn:আলাপ:মরক্কোতে_আশুরা|this]], [[:bn:আলাপ:গ্রেটার_টলেডো_ইসলামিক_সেন্টার|this]], [[:bn:আলাপ:মুসলিম_আমেরিকান_সোসাইটি|this]] and most could be found on the [[xtools:pages/bn.wikipedia.org/Hasan muntaseer/1|Xtool]]. Moreover, they were not even registered on the dashboard as we were told it was a requirement. On the dashboard, only [[wmfdashboard:courses/Wiki_Loves_Ramadan/Wiki_Loves_Ramadan_2025|241 articles]] where created in the Bangla Wikipedia. I might be wrong but their results need to be reviewed to ensure fairness and transparency. Thank you. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 08:03, 27 May 2025 (GMT) ::[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]], I believe that the same question you maybe asked to Dnshitobu earlier! Mostly tracking categories are used in the talk page of the articles for almost all Wikipedia, including Bangla and English Wikipedia. They use a template on the article talk page where a description also placed, instead of using on the main articles. Using dashboard were not a mandatory tool, because many wikis' developed thier own jury tools, like Bangla, Ukrainian, even English Wikipedia also used a different tool called [https://fountain.toolforge.org Fountain], it’s depend on local organizers which tool they are comfortable to use. Bangla Wikipedia was submitted 1806 articles, due to non-relevant issue they removed several articles. For you clarity, Bangla Wikipedia was looking for additional jury members to complete thier jury process in time, and I joined to help then, in the meantime I have re-reviewd several articles. So, I believe that the jury process were well strictured and trusted. I kindly request you to provide the details you have been asked at your earliest convenience. Additional inquiry, are you attending EduWiki Conference 2025? Or, someone who can receive your gift and certificate from the conference let me know in the same email. Thank you! [[User:ZI Jony|ZI Jony]] ([[User talk:ZI Jony|talk]]) 10:51, 27 May 2025 (GMT) :::Ok...thanks for the detailed explanation. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 11:03, 27 May 2025 (GMT) == [[José Rafael Córdero Sánchez]] == Hi DaSupremo, I need your help about this article because is a crosswiki spam, for more details please check: [[:nl:Overleg Wikipedia:Checklijst langdurig structureel vandalisme/Josercs1|this report]] from Dutch Wikipedia. Thank you. [[User:Taichi|Taichi]] ([[User talk:Taichi|talk]]) 23:48, 16 October 2025 (GMT) :Hello @[[User:Taichi|Taichi]]. Thanks for reaching out and well noted. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 00:01, 17 October 2025 (GMT) == [[Samata (fashion entrepreneur)]] == Hi DaSupremo, I noticed that you expanded this article in 2023 by translating content from English Wikipedia. The English Wikipedia article was deleted earlier this year as most of the sources were found to be spam or unreliable. Other language Wikipedias like French, Arabic, Swahili and Igbo have also deleted this article on similar grounds. It seems the original English article was written by a spammer for promotional purposes, therefore the Ghanaian Pidgin article (which was primarily translated from English) should also be deleted. Let me know your thoughts. [[User:Acoustical|Acoustical]] ([[User talk:Acoustical|talk]]) 19:16, 25 November 2025 (GMT) :Hello @[[User:Acoustical|Acoustical]]. Thanks for reaching out and well noted. Since it has been deleted from other language Wikipedias, I think it should be deleted too on the Ghanaian Pidgin WIkipedia. [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 22:32, 25 November 2025 (GMT) == Undeletion Request == hello @[[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] I noticed that you previously improved the article about Adebayo Temitayo (Realjjfrosh). I wanted to let you know that the page was later deleted. If you have time, I would appreciate any guidance on whether the sources used (Punch, Vanguard, ThisDay, BusinessDay, Daily Trust) meet the project’s notability standards, or how the article could be reworked to comply fully with policy. Thank you for your earlier improvements and for any advice you may be able to offer. [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-74643-7|&#126;2026-74643-7]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-74643-7|talk]]) 12:13, 3 February 2026 (GMT) :It was deleted because of (Spam and it was a ([[metawiki:steward|steward]] action)) [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 12:19, 3 February 2026 (GMT) ::Ok thanks [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-74643-7|&#126;2026-74643-7]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-74643-7|talk]]) 12:39, 3 February 2026 (GMT) == Thank you for being a medical contributors! == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> {| style="background-color: #fdffe7; color: #000; border: 1px solid #fceb92;" |rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 5px;" | [[File:Wiki Project Med Foundation logo.svg|130px]] |style="font-size: x-large; padding: 3px 3px 0 3px; height: 1.5em;" |'''The 2025 Cure Award''' |- | style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 3px;" |In 2025 you '''[[mdwiki:WikiProjectMed:WikiProject_Medicine/Stats/Top_medical_editors_2025_(all)|were one of the top medical editors in your language]]'''. Thank you from [[m:WikiProject_Med|Wiki Project Med]] for helping bring free, complete, accurate, up-to-date health information to the public. We appreciate you and the vital work you do! Wiki Project Med Foundation is a [[meta:Wikimedia_thematic_organizations|thematic organization]] whose mission is to improve our health content. '''[[meta:Wiki_Project_Med#People_interested|Consider joining for 2026]]''', there are no associated costs. Additionally one of our primary efforts revolves around translating health content. We invite you to '''[https://mdwiki.toolforge.org/Translation_Dashboard/index.php try our new workflow]''' if you have not already. Our dashboard automatically [https://mdwiki.toolforge.org/Translation_Dashboard/leaderboard.php collects statistics] of your efforts and we are working on [https://mdwiki.toolforge.org/fixwikirefs.php tools to automatically improve formating]. |} Look forwards to collaborating in the year ahead. Thanks again :-) -- [[mdwiki:User:Doc_James|<span style="color:#0000f1">'''Doc James'''</span>]] along with the rest of the team at '''[[m:WikiProject_Med|Wiki Project Med Foundation]]''' 07:42, 14 February 2026 (GMT) </div> (This message was sent to [[:User:DaSupremo]] and is being posted here due to a redirect.) <!-- Message sent by User:Doc James@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Top_Other_Language_Editors_2025&oldid=30070084 --> == Thank you for being a medical translator! == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> {| style="background-color: #fdffe7; color: #000; border: 1px solid #fceb92;" |rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 5px;" | [[File:Wiki Project Med Foundation logo.svg|100px]] |style="font-size: x-large; padding: 3px 3px 0 3px; height: 1.5em;" |'''The 2025 Cure Translators Award''' |- | style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 3px;" |In 2025 you [https://mdwiki.toolforge.org/Translation_Dashboard/leaderboard.php?camp=all&user_group=all&year=2025&month=All joined us as a medical translator]. Thank you from [[m:WikiProject_Med|Wiki Project Med]] for helping bring free, complete, accurate, up-to-date health information to the public. Wiki Project Med Foundation is a [[meta:Wikimedia_thematic_organizations|thematic organization]] whose mission is to improve our health content. '''[[meta:Wiki_Project_Med#People_interested|Consider formally joining the organization for 2026]]''', there are no associated costs. |} Look forwards to collaborating further in the year ahead. Thanks again :-) -- [[mdwiki:User:Doc_James|<span style="color:#0000f1">'''Doc James'''</span>]] along with the rest of the team at '''[[m:WikiProject_Med|Wiki Project Med Foundation]]''' 07:53, 14 February 2026 (GMT) </div> (This message was sent to [[:User:DaSupremo]] and is being posted here due to a redirect.) <!-- Message sent by User:Doc James@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_message_delivery/Targets/Top_Translators_2025&oldid=30070105 --> == Feminism and Folklore 2026 – Community Organisers & Jury == Hello {{PAGENAME}}!, Thank you for taking the lead in organising '''Feminism and Folklore 2026''' in your community. We truly appreciate your efforts! To ensure a smooth and successful campaign, please make sure you have: * Fully completed all details on the [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Project Page|Feminism and Folklore 2026 Project Page]]: * Started promoting the campaign within your community. * Requested a local administrator to place a '''sitenotice''' about the campaign so users are notified. * Used the '''[https://tools.wikilovesfolklore.org/fnf/ Article List Generator Tool]''' and shared the generated article lists with your community. === Internet & Childcare Support === Community organisers and jury members who require '''internet and childcare support''' (non-mandatory, opt-in, request-only support) should fill the support request form '''by 22 February 2026'''. '''[https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSeutXEF1yTnJfExWUYPIf6SkhcnTgul07BeI-biqT4RE_vsrA/viewform Link to the form]''' Requests submitted after this date will not be entertained. === Important Participation Guidelines === * Minimum article size: '''3000 bytes and 300 words''' (final decision may be set by local organisers). * If your country is not listed on the Article list generator tool, please contact us. === Community Engagement === * Keep your community active and motivated throughout the campaign. * Share your achievements and notable articles with us so we can highlight them globally. * In the support form, please indicate if you would like a '''quick coordination call after the campaign'''. Let’s make '''Feminism and Folklore''', under the banner of '''#WeTogether''', help bridge the '''gender gap''' and '''folklore gap''' on Wikipedia worldwide. 🌍✊ Thank you for your collaboration! ''If someone from your community organisers or jury has missed this message feel free to share this message with them.'' Feminism and Folklore International Team. –[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 05:17, 16 February 2026 (GMT) <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tiven2240/fnf26&oldid=30083330 --> == Translation request == Hello, DaSupremo. Can you translate and upload the articles [[:en:Bazardüzü]] and [[:en:Campi Flegrei]] in Ghanaian Pidgin Wikipedia? Yours sincerely, [[User:Kurcke|Kurcke]] ([[User talk:Kurcke|talk]]) 07:39, 15 March 2026 (GMT) :Hello @[[User:Kurcke|Kurcke]]. Noted [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 13:22, 15 March 2026 (GMT) ::Hello, DaSupremo. ::Thank you very much for the new article. ::Yours sincerely, [[User:Kurcke|Kurcke]] ([[User talk:Kurcke|talk]]) 16:43, 9 April 2026 (GMT) :::Welcome @[[User:Kurcke|Kurcke]] [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 16:47, 9 April 2026 (GMT) == Next Steps and Feedback meeting for Feminism and Folklore Organizers == <div style="border:8px maroon ridge; padding:6px;"> [[File:Feminism and Folklore 2026 logo.svg|center|550px|frameless]] <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr" style="padding: 1em 2em;"> <div style="text-align: center; width: 100%;">''{{int:please-translate}}''</div> Dear Organizer, I hope this message finds you well. First and foremost, on behalf of the International Team I want to extend my gratitude to you for your efforts in organizing the '''Feminism and Folklore 2026''' campaign on your local Wikipedia. Your contribution has been instrumental in bridging the gender and folk gap on Wikipedia, and we truly appreciate your dedication to this important cause. As the campaign has ended I wanted to inform you about the next steps. It's time to commence the jury process using the CampWiz or Fountain tool where your campaign was hosted. Please ensure that you update the details of the jury, campaign links and the names of organizers accurately on the [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Project Page|sign-up page]]. Once the jury process is completed, kindly update only the top 3 winners details on the [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Results|results page]] accordingly. The deadline for jury submission of results is '''April 30, 2026'''. However, if you find that the number of articles is high and you require more time, please don't hesitate to inform us via email or on campaign Meta Wiki talk page. We are more than willing to approve an extension if needed. Should you encounter any issues with the tools, please feel free to reach out to us on Telegram for assistance. Your feedback and progress updates are crucial for us to improve the campaign and better understand your community's insights. Therefore, we kindly ask you to spare just an hour to collectively share your progress and achievements with us during our '''[[:m:Event:Feminism and Folklore 2026 Post-Campaign Office Hour|community feedback session]]'''. Your input will greatly assist us in making the campaign more meaningful and impactful. Thank you once again for your hard work and dedication to the Feminism and Folklore campaign. Your efforts are deeply appreciated, and we look forward to hearing from you soon. Warm regards, [[User:Tiven2240|Tiven2240]] on behalf of Feminism and Folklore International Team <nowiki>#WeTogether</nowiki> </div></div> --[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 11:57, 11 April 2026 (GMT) <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tiven2240/fnf26&oldid=30391231 --> == You may be an eligible candidate for the U4C election == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> Greetings, The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C)]] seeks candidates for the 2026 election. The U4C is the global committee responsible for overseeing enforcement of the [[foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal Code of Conduct|Universal Code of Conduct]]. Elections are held annually, if elected a committee member serves for two years. This year the U4C requires candidates to hold administrator rights on at least one wiki, which is why you are being contacted as you appear to hold this right. There are other requirements, such as candidates must be at least 18 years old and may not be employed by the Wikimedia Foundation or other related chapters and affiliates. You can find more information in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026#Call_for_Candidates|call for candidates on Meta-wiki]]. Additionally, the committee's working language is English; some ability to communicate in English is required. The election opens on 18 May, if you are eligible and interested you have until 10 May to submit your candidacy. There will week between for candidates to answer questions from the community. Voting takes place privately in [[m:Special:MyLanguage/SecurePoll|SecurePoll]], successful candidates must receive at least 60% support. More information is available on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026|the 2026 Elections page]], including timelines and other candidacy information. If you read over the material and consider yourself qualified, please consider submitting your name to run for the committee. If you think someone else in your community might be interested and qualified, please encourage them to run. In partnership with the U4C -- [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User_talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 18:33, 28 April 2026 (GMT) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Keegan_(WMF)/test&oldid=30471754 --> == Ghanaian Pidgin == Hello. I'm looking for Ghanaian Pidgin translation of descriptions of a few items for Wikidata. Would you help? [[User:Eurohunter|Eurohunter]] ([[User talk:Eurohunter|talk]]) 19:45, 7 May 2026 (GMT) :Sure [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 20:07, 7 May 2026 (GMT) :: I'm looking for: : "studio album by Basshunter" : "compilation album by Basshunter" : "song by Käärijä den Basshunter" : "single by Käärijä den Basshunter" : "promotional single by Basshunter" : "music video by Basshunter" : "lyric video by Basshunter" :: [[User:Eurohunter|Eurohunter]] ([[User talk:Eurohunter|talk]]) 20:17, 7 May 2026 (GMT) :::@[[User:Eurohunter|Eurohunter]] Done [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 16:25, 8 May 2026 (GMT) :::: So they are almost like English with the only difference of "den"? [[User:Eurohunter|Eurohunter]] ([[User talk:Eurohunter|talk]]) 18:00, 8 May 2026 (GMT) :::::Ghanaian Pidgin is more of English with a bit of local Ghanaian languages [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] ([[User talk:DaSupremo|talk]]) 18:50, 8 May 2026 (GMT) :::::: Good to know. All added. Thanks a lot. [[User:Eurohunter|Eurohunter]] ([[User talk:Eurohunter|talk]]) 21:30, 8 May 2026 (GMT) == Request writing about Isabelle de Charriere (Q123386) == hi DaSupremo Would you like to write about Isabelle de Charriere (Q123386) for the GPE Wikipedia? It'll be appreciated if it 'll be done. [[User:Boss-well63|Boss-well63]] ([[User talk:Boss-well63|talk]]) 18:41, 29 May 2026 (GMT) == Final Reminder: Submission of Local Winners for Feminism and Folklore 2026 == Dear Feminism and Folklore organiser, This is a friendly reminder that the deadline for submitting the names and details of your local winners for '''Feminism and Folklore 2026''' is '''5 June 2026'''. Please ensure that your community's [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026/Results|winner information]] is submitted before this date. Communities that do not provide their winner data by the deadline will unfortunately not be eligible for prize distribution, and the international organizing team will not be able to accommodate late submissions received after 5 June 2026. Thank you for your prompt attention to this matter and for your participation in the campaign. Best regards, '''Feminism and Folklore International Organizing Team''' --[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 02:09, 3 June 2026 (GMT) <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tiven2240/wlf2026&oldid=30627457 --> == Thank you for organising Feminism and Folklore 2026 == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> [[File:Feminism and Folklore 2026 logo.svg|right|350px]] Dear {{PAGENAME}}, Your dedication, coordination, and hard work played a vital role in making this year's [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026|Feminism and Folklore]] campaign successful. We truly appreciate the time and effort you invested in engaging your community and supporting participants. As we have completed the jury phase and begin planning for next year's campaign, we would like to learn from your experiences. Please complete the organisers' feedback form and share your insights, challenges, and suggestions on how we can improve the campaign. '''This feedback form is mandatory for all organisers''', as it helps us evaluate the campaign and make meaningful improvements for future editions. '''Form link [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSf6IsGAsxkTEWTwueyLg-gBjRVlY3g2kTNj3xRhDiILiQnQwQ/viewform?usp=dialog here]''' Please submit your response by '''25 June 2026'''. Thank you once again for your invaluable contributions and for helping make Feminism and Folklore a global success. We look forward to working with you again in the future! Regards, '''Feminism and Folklore Team''' --[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 12:05, 18 June 2026 (GMT) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tiven2240/wlf2026&oldid=30704175 --> == Thank you for being a part of Feminism and Folklore 2026 == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> [[File:Feminism and Folklore 2026 logo.svg|right|350px]] Dear {{PAGENAME}}, Your contributions helped make this year's [[:Feminism and Folklore 2026|Feminism and Folklore]] campaign a great success, and we are truly grateful for your time, knowledge, and dedication to documenting women's stories and folklore on Wikimedia projects. As we reflect on this year's campaign and prepare for the next edition, we'd love to hear about your experience. Please take a few minutes to fill out our feedback form and share your thoughts and suggestions. As a token of our appreciation, everyone who completes the form will receive a '''special digital postcard'''! in their email. This year marks '''''25 years of Wikipedia''''', and the postcard has been created to celebrate this milestone and to recognize the incredible efforts of participants like you who continue to enrich free knowledge for the world. '''Form Link - [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSdqFZN9IdWbAnZ_7DyG5bIsuq7KAkdsIxweC_TdPH9In-tthQ/viewform?usp=dialog here]''' Please complete the feedback form by '''25 June 2026'''. Thank you once again for making Feminism and Folklore 2026 a success. We hope to see you again in future campaigns! Best regards, Feminism and Folklore international Team. --[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 14:31, 18 June 2026 (GMT) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tiven2240/wlf2026&oldid=30704478 --> 2hrbzd567xyjttqoym6gmgoztxtt41a 0 2106 103997 40171 2026-06-19T09:31:57Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103997 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Jimmy Donal Wales''' (dem born am August 7, 1966), dem san so know am as '''Jimbo Wales''', be American–British Internet entrepreneur, webmaster den former financial trader. He be co-founder for de online non-profit encyclopedia [[Wikipedia]] den de for-profit wiki hosting service Fandom (formerly Wikia). He job for oda online projects top, wey dey include Bomis, Nupedia, WikiTribune, den WT Social. Na dem born Wales insyd Huntsville, Alabama, wer he attend de Randolph School. He earn bachelor's den master's degrees insyd finance from Auburn University den de University of Alabama, respectively. Insyd graduate school, Wales teach at two universities; he depart before he plete PhD make he take a job insyd finance den later he work as de research director of Chicago Options Associates. Insyd 1996, Wales den two partners found Bomis, web portal dem know for featuring erotic photographs. Bomis provide de initial funding for de free peer-reviewed encyclopedia Nupedia (2000–2003). For January 15, 2001, plus Larry Sanger den odas, Wales launch Wikipedia, free open-content encyclopedia wey enjoy rapid growth den popularity. As ein public profile grow, Wales cam turn ein promoter den spokesman. Though he be historically credited as co-founder, he dispute dis, wey he dey declare ein self de sole founder. Wales dey serve for de Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees top, de charity wey he help establish make e operate Wikipedia, dey hold ein board-appointed "community founder" seat. Wales dey give an annual "State of the Wiki" address at de Wikimania conference.<ref>Toor, Amar (July 15, 2012). [https://www.theverge.com/2012/7/15/3160926/jimmy-wales-wikipedia-gender-gap-kate-middleton-wedding-dress "Jimmy Wales, Mary Gardiner address Wikipedia's gender gap at Wikimania conference"]. ''The Verge''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170708195532/https://www.theverge.com/2012/7/15/3160926/jimmy-wales-wikipedia-gender-gap-kate-middleton-wedding-dress Archived] from the original on July 8, 2017. Retrieved December 26, 2017.</ref> For ein role in make he create Wikipedia, ''Time'' name am one of "The 100 Most Influential People in the World" insyd 2006. == Publications == * Brooks, Robert; Corson, Jon; Wales, Jimmy Donal (1994). "The Pricing of Index Options When the Underlying Assets All Follow a Lognormal Diffusion". ''Advances in Futures and Options Research''. '''7'''. SSRN [https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=5735 5735]. * Wales, Jimmy; Weckerle, Andrea (December 31, 2008). "Foreword". In Fraser, Matthew; Dutta, Soumitra (eds.). ''[[iarchive:throwingsheepinb00fras|Throwing Sheep in the Boardroom: How Online Social Networking Will Transform Your Life, Work and World]]'' (1st ed.). Wiley. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-470-74014-9|978-0-470-74014-9]]</bdi>. OCLC [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/233939846 233939846]. * Wales, Jimmy; Weckerle, Andrea (January 8, 2009). [http://edition.cnn.com/2009/TECH/01/07/wales.obama.cto/ "Commentary: Create a tech-friendly U.S. government"]. CNN. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110816141243/http://edition.cnn.com/2009/TECH/01/07/wales.obama.cto/ Archived] from the original on August 16, 2011. Retrieved December 29, 2009. * Wales, Jimmy; Weckerle, Andrea (February 10, 2009). "Foreword". In Powell, Juliette (ed.). ''[[iarchive:33millionpeoplei0000powe|33 Million People in the Room: How to Create, Influence, and Run a Successful Business with Social Networking]]'' (1st ed.). Financial Times Press. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-13-715435-7|978-0-13-715435-7]]</bdi>. OCLC [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/244066502 244066502]. * Wales, Jimmy; Weckerle, Andrea (March 3, 2009). "Foreword". In Weber, Larry (ed.). ''Marketing to the Social Web: How Digital Customer Communities Build Your Business'' (2nd ed.). Wiley. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-470-41097-4|978-0-470-41097-4]]</bdi>. OCLC [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/244060887 244060887]. * Wales, Jimmy (March 17, 2009). "Foreword". In Lih, Andrew (ed.). ''[[:en:The_Wikipedia_Revolution:_How_a_Bunch_of_Nobodies_Created_the_World's_Greatest_Encyclopedia|The Wikipedia Revolution: How a Bunch of Nobodies Created the World's Greatest Encyclopedia]]'' (1st ed.). Hyperion. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-4013-0371-6|978-1-4013-0371-6]]</bdi>. OCLC [https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/232977686 232977686]. * Wales, Jimmy; Weckerle, Andrea (March 30, 2009). [https://web.archive.org/web/20160319004854/http://www.aef.com/industry/news/data/2009/9014 "Most Define User-Generated Content Too Narrowly"]. ''Advertising Age''. '''80'''. Archived from [http://www.aef.com/industry/news/data/2009/9014 the original] on July 18, 2012. Retrieved May 4, 2009. * Wales, Jimmy; Weckerle, Andrea (December 28, 2009). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704107104574572101333074122 "Keep a Civil Cybertongue"]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170519001651/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704107104574572101333074122 Archived] from the original on May 19, 2017. Retrieved August 8, 2017. * Mons, B.; Ashburner, M.; Chichester, C.; Van Mulligen, E.; Weeber, M.; Den Dunnen, J.; Van Ommen, G. J.; Musen, M.; Cockerill, M.; Hermjakob, H.; Mons, A.; Packer, A.; Pacheco, R.; Lewis, S.; Berkeley, A.; Melton, W.; Barris, N.; Wales, J.; Meijssen, G.; Moeller, E.; Roes, P.; Borner, K.; Bairoch, A. (2008). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2441475 "Calling on a million minds for community annotation in WikiProteins"]. ''Genome Biology''. '''9''' (5): R89. doi:[[doi:10.1186/gb-2008-9-5-r89|10.1186/gb-2008-9-5-r89]]. ISSN [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1465-6906 1465-6906]. PMC [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2441475 2441475]. PMID [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18507872 18507872]. [[File:293_GD-Preis_5524_crop.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:293_GD-Preis_5524_crop.jpg|thumb|Wales for de 2011 Gottlieb Duttweiler Awards Show]] [[File:Maastricht-39e_Diesviering_in_de_St._Janskerk_(Universiteit_Maastricht)_(37).JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maastricht-39e_Diesviering_in_de_St._Janskerk_(Universiteit_Maastricht)_(37).JPG|thumb|Wales dey receive honorary doctorate from Maastricht University, 2015]] [[File:Jimmy_Wales_Accepting_the_Dan_David_Prize.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jimmy_Wales_Accepting_the_Dan_David_Prize.jpg|thumb|Jimmy Wales dey accept de Dan David Prize for de Tel Aviv University, 2015]] == References == [[Category:1966 births]] [[Category:20th-century American businesspeople]] [[Category:21st-century American businesspeople]] [[Category:British Wikimedians]] [[Category:Creative Commons-licensed authors]] [[Category:Indiana University alumni]] [[Category:History of Wikipedia]] [[Category:People wey komot Huntsville, Alabama]] [[Category:Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees members]] [[Category:Wikipedia people]] <references /> == Bibliography == * Poe, Marshall (September 2006). [https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200609/wikipedia "The Hive"]. ''The Atlantic Monthly''. '''298''' (2): 86–94. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080704202107/http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200609/wikipedia/ Archived] from the original on July 4, 2008. Retrieved February 29, 2008. == Read further == * "[http://www.cbsnews.com/news/wikipedia-jimmy-wales-morley-safer-60-minutes-2/ Wikimania: Meet the Wikipedians. Those "persnickety," techy types who keep your favorite Internet information website brimming with data]." ''60 Minutes'': Morley Safer interviewing Jimmy Wales. First aired on April 5, 2015. Rebroadcast on July 26, 2015. * Wales, Jimmy (July 2005). [https://www.ted.com/talks/jimmy_wales_on_the_birth_of_wikipedia "The birth of Wikipedia – Jimmy Wales recalls how he assembled "a ragtag band of volunteers," gave them tools for collaborating and created Wikipedia, the self-organizing, self-correcting, never-finished online encyclopedia"]. TED talks. * [http://www.onbeing.org/program/jimmy-wales-the-sum-of-all-human-knowledge/8916 On Being w/Krista Tippett] [https://web.archive.org/web/20170109203631/http://www.onbeing.org/program/jimmy-wales-the-sum-of-all-human-knowledge/8916 Archived] January 9, 2017, at de Wayback Machine; Jimmy Wales – The Sum of All Human Knowledge (broadcast WAMU American University) September 11, 2016 * "[https://www.newsweek.com/2019/12/20/wikipedia-jimmy-wales-facebook-artificial-intelligence-1476534.html Wikipedia Founder Jimmy Wales is Taking on Facebook and the Dangers Lurking in the Rise of Artificial Intelligence]", by Fred Guterl, ''Newsweek'', December 12, 2019. == External links == '''Jimmy Wales''' at Wikipedia ein sisto projects * [[File:Commons-logo.svg|link=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Basshunter?uselang=gpe|16x16px]] [[commons:Jimmy_Wales|Wikimedia Commons]] * [[File:Wikiquote-logo.svg|link=https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Basshunter?uselang=gpe|16x16px]] [[wikiquote:Jimmy_Wales|Wikiquote]] * [[File:Wikidata-logo.svg|link=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q383541|16x16px]] [[wikidata:Q181|Wikidata]] * [[File:Wikinews-logo.svg|link=https://www.wikinews.org/wiki/Q383541|16x16px]] [[wikinews:Category:Jimmy_Wales|Wikinews]] * [[File:Wikisource-logo.svg|link=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q383541|16x16px]] [[wikisource:Author:Jimmy_Donal_Wales|Wikisource]] * [[metawiki:Jimbo_Wales|Discussions]] from Meta-Wiki * [https://jimmywales.com/ Official website] * [[imdbname:2467065|Jimmy Wales]] at IMDb * [https://charlierose.com/guests/3804 Jimmy Wales] on ''Charlie Rose'' * [https://www.c-span.org/person/?1015974 Appearances] on C-SPAN * [https://www.ted.com/speakers/jimmy_wales Jimmy Wales] at TED *Roberts, Russ (March 9, 2009). [http://www.econtalk.org/archives/_featuring/jimmy_wales/ "Wales on Wikipedia"]. ''EconTalk''. Library of Economics and Liberty. * [[:en:Wikipedia:Role_of_Jimmy_Wales|Wikipedia:Role of Jimmy Wales]], Wales ein role insyd de English Wikipedia as described by ein editors * ''[http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/10/19/you-can-look-it-up-the-wikipedia-story.html You can look it up: The Wikipedia story]'' – excerpt from de 2014 book ''The Innovators'' * [[:en:User:Jimbo_Wales|Wikipedia userpage]] * [http://community.fandom.com/wiki/User:Jimbo_Wales Wikia userpage] * Wales, Jimmy (December 9, 2016). [https://www.cato.org/multimedia/cato-daily-podcast/how-wikipedia-works "How Wikipedia Works"]. ''cato.org''. Cato Institute. <q>Jimmy Wales, founder of Wikipedia, discusses the site, how it's treated by governments, and how it's fueled by its users.</q> [[Category:American bloggers]] [[Category:American emigrants to England]] [[Category:American technology company founders]] [[Category:American social entrepreneurs]] [[Category:Auburn University alumni]] [[Category:American Wikimedians]] [[Category:Berkman Fellows]] [[Category:British technology company founders]] [[Category:English Wikimedians]] [[Category:Fandom (website)]] [[Category:Indiana University Bloomington alumni]] [[Category:Intelligent Community Forum]] [[Category:Members of de Creative Commons board of directors]] [[Category:Naturalised citizens of de United Kingdom]] [[Category:People wey komot St. Petersburg, Florida]] [[Category:Recipients of de President's Medal (British Academy)]] [[Category:UNESCO Niels Bohr Medal recipients]] [[Category:University of Alabama alumni]] [[Category:Winners of The Economist innovation awards]] squvmfrsxyecxaiojw4jc54e155q2ve 0 2773 103836 103544 2026-06-18T20:34:46Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103836 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Akosombo Dam''', wey dem sanso dey bell am '''Volta Dam''', be sam hydroelectric dam wey dey de Volta River top for southeastern [[Ghana]] wey dey Akosombo gorge insyd den part of de Volta River Authority.<ref>[https://www.myjoyonline.com/akosombo-dam-could-serve-ghana-for-another-50-years-if-well-maintained-kweku-awotwi/ "Akosombo Dam could serve Ghana for another 50 years if well maintained – Kweku Awotwi - MyJoyOnline.com".] ''www.myjoyonline.com''. Retrieved 18 May 2021.</ref> De construction of de dam flood part of de Volta River Basin wey elead go de subsequent creation of Lake Volta. Lake Volta be de largest man-made lake for de world insyd by surface area. It covers 8,502 square kilometres (3,283 sq mi), wey be 3.6% of Ghana ein land area. Plus de volume of 148 cubic kilometers, Lake Volta be de world ein third largest man-made lake by volume; de largest wey be Lake Kariba wey get 185 cubic kilometers of water.<ref name=":0">[[:en:Akosombo_Dam#CITEREFFobil2003|Fobil 2003]]</ref> Na de primary purpose of de Akosombo Dam be say ego provide electricity for de aluminium industry.<ref>[[:en:Akosombo_Dam#CITEREFZakhary1997|Zakhary 1997]]</ref> Na dem dey bell Akosombo Dam as "de largest single investment for de economic development plans of Ghana."<ref name=":1">[http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/history/akosombo_dam.php "History of Akosombo dam".] Ghana Home Page. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110516134942/http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/history/akosombo_dam.php Archived] from the original on 16 May 2011. Retrieved 8 May 2011.</ref> De dam be significant for providing de majority of both [[Togo]] den [[Benin]] ein electricity, although de construction of de [[Adjarala Dam]] (for Togo ein [[Mono River]]) dey hope say ego reduce dese countries' reliance for imported electricity top.<ref>Europa Publications (2014). ''Africa South of the Sahara 2014''. Routledge. p. 112. ISBN 9781857436983.</ref> Na de dam ein original electrical output be 912 megawatts (1,223,000 hp), wey dem upgrade go 1,020 megawatts (1,370,000 hp) for sam retrofit project insyd wey dem fini for 2006 insyd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070808064226/http://www.vra.com/Power/retrofit.html "Akosombo Hydro Power Plant Retrofit".] Volta River Authority. Archived from [http://www.vra.com/Power/retrofit.html the original] on 8 August 2007. Retrieved 30 July 2007.</ref> De flood wey create de Lake Volta reservoir displace chaw menners wey na eget significant impact for de local environment top,<ref name=":2">[[:en:Akosombo_Dam#CITEREFGyau-Boakye2001|Gyau-Boakye 2001]]</ref> edey include seismic activity wey lead go coastal erosion; sam hydrology wey echange cause microclimatic changes plus less rain den higher temperatures. De soil wey dey surround de lake be less fertile than de soil wey dey ein unders, wey heavy agricultural use dey require de use of fertilizers, wey elater dey lead am go eutrophication, wey cause, among others, de explosive growth of sam invasive weed wey dey render water navigation den transportation difficult, wey edey form sam habitat for de vectors of water-borne illnesses such as bilharzia, river blindness den malaria. Resettlement of de inhabitants wey edisplace prove complex wey for sam cases ebe unsuccessful; traditional farming practices disappear wey emake poverty increase. == Ein Design == Geologist Albert Kitson wey he conceive de dam for 1915 insyd, but dem no draw any plan till de 1940s insyd.<ref>Okoampa-Ahoofe, Kwame (16 July 2009). [http://www.thestatesmanonline.com/pages/news_detail.php?newsid=8696&section=1 "The False Ghanaian History of Paa Kwesi Nduom".] ''The Statesman''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110930095101/http://www.thestatesmanonline.com/pages/news_detail.php?newsid=8696&section=1 Archived] from the original on 30 September 2011. Retrieved 11 October 2023.</ref> Dem propose de development of de Volta River Basin for 1949 insyd, bah secof na funds no chaw, de American company Volta Aluminum Company (Valco) lend Ghana money so say dem go fi construct de dam. Presido [[Kwame Nkrumah]] adopt de Volta River hydropower project.<ref name=":1" /> == Ein Construction == [[File:Akosombo_Dam_is_spilling_water,_Ghana.JPG|left|thumb|Akosombo dam plus open spillways]] For May 1960 insyd, de Ghana government call for tenders for construction of de hydroelectric dam. For 1961 insyd, sam Italian consortium, Impregilo wey na ecomplete de Kariba Dam, win de contract. For 1961 insyd, Ghana ein Parliament establish Volta River Authority (VRA) through de passage of de Volta River Development Act. Six Board members den Nkrumah as chairman wey structure VRA ein fundamental operations. VRA ein primary task be say ego manage de development of de Volta River Basin, wey na edey include de construction den supervision of de dam, de power station den de power transmission network. De VRA be responsible for de reservoir wey dem impound by de dam, fishing for de lake insyd, lake transportation den communication, den de welfare of menners wey dey surround de lake.<ref name=":0" /> [[File:1_Ghana_Cedi.png|left|thumb|Akosombo Dam for de reverse of sam 2007 1 [[Ghanaian cedi|Cedi]] specimen banknote]] == Ein Power generation == De dam dey provide electricity go Ghana den ein neighboring West African countries, wey dey include [[Togo]] den [[Benin]].<ref>[[:en:Akosombo_Dam#CITEREFSuave2002|Suave 2002]]</ref> Initially na 20% of Akosombo Dam ein electric output (wey dey serve 70% of national demand) be wat Ghanaians dey get for form of electricity, na dem dey generate de remaining 80% give Valco.<ref>Kwame Okoampa-Ahoofe (28 August 2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20121113003925/http://www.thestatesmanonline.com/pages/news_detail.php?section=11&newsid=4580 "NPP cuts sod for Bui Dam".]Statesman online. Archived from [http://www.thestatesmanonline.com/pages/news_detail.php?section=11&newsid=4580 the original] on 30 May 2012. Retrieved 13 October 2007.</ref> == Ein Impacts == [[File:Akosombo_Dam_hydroelectric_plant.jpg|left|thumb|De hydroelectric power plant for Lake Volta top]] De Akosombo Dam dey benefit sam industrial den economic activities from de addition of lake transportation, fishing wey e increase, fresh farming activities for de shoreline, den tourism.<ref name=":2" /> === Biological habitat === [[File:Volta_lake.jpg|right|thumb|Lake Volta from space]] == References == [[Category:Ghana]] [[Category:Dams insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Lake Volta]] [[Category:Dams for de Volta River top]] [[Category:Volta River Authority]] [[Category:Dams dem plete insyd 1965]] [[Category:1965 establishments insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Eastern Region (Ghana)]] [[Category:Dams insyd Africa]] [[Category:Pages plus maps]] 48krj0vm6ul1f2lm4rp6pcfca8mdm7w 0 2845 103876 24394 2026-06-18T21:55:41Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103876 wikitext text/x-wiki   {{Databox|item=Q4765996}} De '''Ankasa Conservation Area''' be area insyd southwestern [[Ghana]], insyd Ghana ein [[Western Region (Ghana)|Western Region]], about 365 kilometres west of [[Accra]] near de border plus [[Ivory Coast|Côte d'Ivoire]].<ref>[[Ivory Coast|"Ivory Coast"]], ''Wikipedia'', 2019-05-21, retrieved 2019-05-25</ref> Edey incorporate de [[Nini Suhien National Park]]<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20220701210125/https://fcghana.org/page.php/?page=268&section=32&typ=1&subs=275 "Nini Suhien National Park and Ankasa Resources Reserve, Ghana"]. ''www.fcghana.org''. Retrieved 2019-05-25.</ref> insyd de North, den de Ankasa Forest Reserve insyd de South.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20190916041523/http://www.ghanawildlifesociety.org/page.php?page=209&section=32&typ=1&subs= "Ghana Wildlife Society:ANKASA NATIONAL PARK (Accessed June 2014)".]Archived from [http://www.ghanawildlifesociety.org/page.php?page=209&section=32&typ=1&subs= the original] on 2013-09-11. Retrieved 2014-06-25.</ref> De park be approximately 500 square kilometers, den edey consist largely of tropical evergreen rainforest.<ref>[https://rainforests.mongabay.com/ "Rainforests"]. ''Mongabay.com''. Retrieved 2019-05-25.</ref> De Ankasa Conservation Area be de only wildlife wey ebe area dem protect insyd Ghana dat dey locate insyd de wet evergreen tropical high rainforest belt.<ref name=":0">Tilahun, Mesfin; Damnyag, Lawrence; Anglaaere, Luke C.N. (2016). "The Ankasa Forest Conservation Area of Ghana: Ecosystem service values and on-site REDD + opportunity cost". ''Forest Policy and Economics''. '''73''': 168–176. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.forpol.2016.08.011|10.1016/j.forpol.2016.08.011]].</ref> De Ankasa, Nini, den Suhien Rivers all pass through de park, den are known for ein rapids den waterfalls. De forest gey de most biological diversity of any insyd Ghana, with over 800 vascular plant species, 639 butterfly species, den more dan 190 bird species.<ref name=":0" /><ref>Hall, J. B.; Swaine, M. D. (1976). "Classification and Ecology of Closed-Canopy Forest in Ghana". ''Journal of Ecology''. '''64''' (3): 913–951. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2307/2258816|10.2307/2258816]]. [[:en:JSTOR_(identifier)|JSTOR]]&nbsp;[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2258816 2258816].</ref> Animal life dey include de elephant, bongo, leopard, chimpanzee,<ref>[https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/c/chimpanzee/ "Chimpanzee | National Geographic"]. ''Animals''. 2011-05-10. Retrieved 2019-05-25.</ref> Diana monkey,<ref>[https://www.iucnredlist.org/en "The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species"]. ''IUCN Red List of Threatened Species''. Retrieved 2019-05-25.</ref> den oda primates. Apart from de forest wey edey reserve wey dem selectively log til 1976, de rest of de protected area dey almost intact.<ref name=":0" /> De park dey include basic camping facilities plus shelters, toilets, den running water along plus chaw facilities for sitting down den having chat. [[File:Untouched_pool_in_Ankasa_-_Ghana_14_IMG_0830_(16010557179).jpg|alt=|center|thumb|436x436px| Ankasa Forest ]] == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061009013012/http://www.ghanatourism.gov.gh/regions/highlight_detail.asp?id=7&rdid=247 Ghana Ministry of Tourism -- official site] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304140959/http://www.ghanawildlifesociety.org/page.php?page=46&section=22&typ=1&subs= Ghana Wildlife Society (Accessed June 2014)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100716145423/http://apes.eva.mpg.de/apeswiki/index.php/Ankasa_Conservation_Area Status of Great Apes in the area] == References == [[Category:Western Region (Ghana)]] [[Category:Protected areas of Ghana]] [[Category:Eastern Guinean forests]] <references /> [[Category:Ghana]] [[Category:Pages plus maps]] [[Category:Ghana geography]] [[Category:Tourism for Ghana insyd]] 6tclmqfez88tni17y83oy8ua76cedjx 0 3012 103925 79863 2026-06-18T23:28:22Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103925 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q813584}} '''Bechem United Football Club''' (wey dem be known officially as: ''Bechem United Football Club'' anaa de "Hunters") be sam [[Ghana|Ghanaian]] professional football club, wey dem dey [[Bechem]] for de [[Ahafo Region]] insyd.<ref>2015/16 fa cup champions.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111018180720/http://www.ghanafa.org/premierleague/201109/6010.php Team news: Bechem United FC] [https://web.archive.org/web/20111018180720/http://www.ghanafa.org/premierleague/201109/6010.php Archived] 2011-10-18 Ghana Football Association</ref> Dem dey play for Ghanaian Premier League. == Dema Club history == Bechem United get long history of rivalry plus Brong Ahafo (BA) Stars den Berekum Chelsea.<ref>[http://www.facebook.com/pages/Bechem-United/133669543362470 "Bechem United"]. Facebook. 2012-04-15. Retrieved 2012-05-14.</ref> For 2007 insyd, Bechem United dema youth team go play for de Trofeo Karol Wojtyla, youth tournament for de Italian Commune of Fiumicino, Province of Rome, Lazio region.<ref>BOXadv S.r.L. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230321093004/http://www.karolwojtylacup.it/bechem_united.php "Team: Bechem United F.C"]. Karol Wojtyla Cup.it. Archived from [http://www.karolwojtylacup.it/bechem_united.php the original] on 2012-09-04. Retrieved 2012-05-14.</ref> For September 2011, ebe Bechem United wey carry de trophy for de Poly Tank Division One League Zone 1 wey promote dem go de 2011–12 season of de Glo Premier League.<ref>[http://westafricanfootball.com/2011/10/05/bechem-united-fc-%e2%80%93-season-preview/ BECHEM UNITED FC – SEASON PREVIEW], West African Football</ref> For 10 October 2011, Eric Fordjour score de club ein first top flight goal plus penalty for dema league opener against Aduana Stars, buh dem loose de match 3–2.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210904014443/https://www.kickoff.com/news/articles/local/categories/news/ghana-premier-league-weekend-round-up/533952 "Ghana Premier League weekend round up"]. ''Kick Off''. 2011-10-10. Retrieved 2021-09-04.</ref> For 5 November 2011, de club get dema first league point afta dem 1–1 draw against Aduana Stars.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20230926170109/https://m.peacefmonline.com/pages/sports/soccer/201111/77864.php "Bechem United Draws With Aduana To Pick First League Point"]. ''Peace FM Online''. Peace FM. 6 November 2011. Retrieved 2021-09-03.</ref> Ebe Richard Addae wey score de goal for de 18th minute of de match. Richard Addae end dema debut season as de club ein top goal scorer den de league ein third top goal scorer plus 11 goals.<ref>[https://ghanasoccernet.com/hearts-of-oak-seal-striker-addai-deal "Hearts of Oak seal striker Addai deal"]. ''GhanaSoccernet''. MTNFootball. 2012-08-23. Retrieved 2021-09-03.</ref> === FA Cup Champions === Bechem United win de Ghanaian FA Cup 2015–2016 for de first tym for dema history insyd afta dem score Okwawu United 2-1 for de Cape Coast Stadium for September 2016 insyd.<ref>[http://ghanasoccernet.com/2016-mtn-fa-cup-final-match-report-okwahu-united-2-1-bechem-united-yaw-arnols-brace-wins-debut-trophy-for-hunters-in-massive-cape-coast-final "2016 MTN FA Cup Final - Match Report: Bechem United 2-1 Okwawu United - Yaw Arnol's brace wins maiden trophy for Hunters in epic Cape Coast final - Ghanasoccernet.com"]. ''ghanasoccernet.com''. Retrieved 3 April 2017.</ref> Ebe Yaw Annor wey score de brace for de final insyd.<ref>Football, CAF-Confedération Africaine du. [https://www.cafonline.com/news-center/news/bechem-united-crowned-ghana-fa-cup-kings "Bechem United crowned Ghana FA Cup kings"]. ''CAFOnline.com''. Retrieved 2021-03-17.</ref> == Grounds == De club dey play dema home games for de BetPawa Ghana Premier League for de Nana Gyeabour's Park,<ref>[http://www.ghanabusinessnews.com/2011/05/23/bechem-united-and-tema-youth-qualify-for-premier-league/ Bechem United and Tema Youth qualify for Premier League]. ''ghana Business News''.</ref> wey edey Bechem. == Current squad == ''As for 14 October 2022'' {| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" |+ !<abbr>No.</abbr> !<abbr>Pos.</abbr> !Nation !Player |- |2 |<abbr>DF</abbr> |GHA |Foster Appiah |- |3 |<abbr>DF</abbr> |GHA |Francis Acquah |- |4 |<abbr>DF</abbr> |GHA |Aaron Essel |- |5 |<abbr>DF</abbr> |GHA |Kofi Agbesimah |- |6 |<abbr>MF</abbr> |GHA |Paul Kwei Jr |- |7 |<abbr>FW</abbr> |THA |Emmanuel Avornyo |- |8 |<abbr>MF</abbr> |GHA |Francis Twene |- |10 |<abbr>FW</abbr> |GHA |Clinton Duodu |- |12 |<abbr>GK</abbr> |GHA |Iddrisu Abdulai |- |14 |<abbr>DF</abbr> |GHA |Aaron Essel |- |16 |<abbr>GK</abbr> |GHA |Haruna Aziz Dari |- |18 |<abbr>MF</abbr> |GHA |Abdul Karim |- |20 |<abbr>FW</abbr> |GHA |Yaw Dasi Obuoba |} | {| class="wikitable" |+ !<abbr>No.</abbr> !<abbr>Pos.</abbr> !Nation !Player |- |22 |<abbr>MF</abbr> |CMR |Gabriel Yapy Tenlep |- |24 |<abbr>DF</abbr> |GHA |Desmond Tawiah |- |26 |<abbr>MF</abbr> |GHA |Caleb Asamoah |- |28 |<abbr>DF</abbr> |GHA |Joseph Kinful |- |29 |<abbr>MF</abbr> |GHA |Seth Kwadwo |- |30 |<abbr>MF</abbr> |GHA |Abdul Latif Anabila |- |32 |<abbr>FW</abbr> |GHA |Dennis Modzaka |- |40 |<abbr>FW</abbr> |GHA |Peter Opoku |- |41 |<abbr>FW</abbr> |GHA |Emmanuel Annor |- |45 |<abbr>MF</abbr> |GHA |Isaac Afoakwa |- |48 |<abbr>FW</abbr> |GHA |Samuel Amoto |- |50 |<abbr>FW</abbr> |CMR |Junior Atemengue |- |88 |<abbr>FW</abbr> |GHA |Hafiz Konkoni |} |} == Management == {| class="wikitable" |+ !Roles !Personnel ! |- |President |Kingsley Owusu-Achau | |- |Chairman |Kingsley Osei Bonsu | |- |Chief Executive Officer |Nana Akwesi Darlyn | |- |Administrative Manager |Francis German Hackman | |- |Director of Operations |Francis Addai | |- |Team Manager |Emmanuel Amoako Gyampah | |- |Public Relations Officer |Emmanuel Gyasi Atuahene | |} == Club captains == * Asante Agyemang (2017–2018)<ref>Gyamera-Antwi, Evans (1 April 2018). [https://www.goal.com/en-us/news/bechem-captain-egyin-laments-departure-of-key-players/goj81tku8e19188b6h5dgy7ls "Bechem captain Egyin laments departure of 'key players' | Goal.com"]. ''www.goal.com''. Goal. Retrieved 5 September 2021.</ref> * Daniel Egyin (2018–2019)<ref>[https://ghanasportsonline.com/2018/04/bechem-united-appoints-defender-daniel-egyin-new-captain/ "Bechem United appoints defender Daniel Egyin as new captain"]. ''Ghana Sports Online''. 2018-04-06. Retrieved 2021-04-02.</ref> * Prince Asempa (2019–2020) * Moro Salifu (2020–2021)<ref>[https://ghanasoccernet.com/ex-bechem-united-captain-moro-salifu-seals-move-to-al-ittihad-of-egypt "Ex-Bechem United captain Moro Salifu seals move to Al Ittihad of Egypt"]. ''GhanaSoccernet''. 2021-08-29. Retrieved 2021-09-05.</ref> == Notable coaches == * Mohammed Adil Erradi (2015–2016) * Romain Folz (2020) == Honours == :: 2016 :: Runners up: 2017 * '''Poly Tank Division One League Zone 1: 1''' :: 2010–11 == References and notes == {{Reflist|2}} <references /> [[Category:Ghana]] [[Category:Football clubs insyd Ghana]] [[Category:1966 establishments insyd Africa]] [[Category:1966 establishments insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Association football clubs dem establish insyd 1966]] [[Category:Ahafo Region]] [[Category:Bechem United F.C.]] 2zbctgmyu4o6760704h4bhnjsbhlsb2 0 3475 103868 85540 2026-06-18T21:47:50Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103868 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox|item=Q540049}}De '''''angklung''''' (Sundanese: ᮃᮀᮊᮣᮥᮀ) be sam musical instrument from de Sundanese people wey dey Indonesia wey ebe made of varying number of bamboo tubes wey dem attach plus sam bamboo frame.<ref name=":0">[https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/indonesian-angklung-00393 "Indonesian Angklung", Inscribed in 2010 (5.COM) on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity"]. UNESCO. Retrieved 5 January 2021.</ref> Dem carve de tubes say ego get resonant pitch if e struck den dem go tune am go octaves, similar plus Western handbells. Dem dey hold de base of de frame for one hand insyd, wey de oda hand dey shake de instrument, wey edey cause repeating note plus sound. Each performer for ''angklung'' ensemble insyd be typically responsible for just one pitch, wey dem dey sound demma individual ''angklung'' for de appropriate tyms so say dem go produce complete melodies (see Kotekan). De ''angklung'' originate from wat dem now dey bell am West Java den Banten provinces for Indonesia, wey Sundanese play am for chaw centuries. De ''angklung'' den ein music cam turn important part of de cultural identity of Sundanese communities.<ref>Spiller, Henry (2004). ''Gamelan: The Traditional Sounds of Indonesia, Volume 1''. ABC-CLIO. p.&nbsp;140. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;<bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/9781851095063|9781851095063]]</bdi>. <q>Angklung has become a veritable symbol of Sundanese culture</q></ref> Playing de ''angklung'' as sam orchestra dey require cooperation den coordination, wey dem dey believe say edey promote de values of teamwork, mutual respect den social harmony.<ref name=":0" /> For November 18, 2010 insyd, UNESCO officially recognize de Indonesian ''angklung'' as sam Masterpiece of de Oral den Intangible Heritage of Humanity, wey dem encourage de Indonesian menners den de Indonesian government say make dem safeguard, transmit, promote performances den say dem go encourage de craftsmanship of de ''angklung''.<ref name=":0" /> == Ein Etymology == More tyms dem originate de word ''angklung'' from Sundanese ''angkleung-angkleungan'', wey dey suggest de movement of de ''angklung'' player den de onomatopoeic ''klung'' sound wey dey cam from de instrument.<ref name=":1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20140928195329/http://indonesia.travel/en/destination/596/saung-angklung-udjo-village-nature-and-culture-in-perfect-harmony/article/89/angklung-harmony-in-a-bamboo-orchestra "Angklung : Harmony in a Bamboo Orchestra"]. Archived from [http://www.indonesia.travel/en/destination/596/saung-angklung-udjo-village-nature-and-culture-in-perfect-harmony/article/89/angklung-harmony-in-a-bamboo-orchestra the original] on 28 September 2014. Retrieved 2 October 2014.</ref> == Ein History == According to Dr. Groneman, na de ''angklung'' already be favorite musical instrument give de entire archipelago even before de Hindu era.<ref>[https://penalis.com/seni-budaya/angklung/ "Angklung, Warisan Budaya Sunda Kebanggaan Indonesia"]. ''penalis.com'' (in Indonesian). 23 May 2021. Retrieved 2021-05-24.</ref> According to Jaap Kunst for ''Music for Java insyd'', besides West Java, ''angklung'' sana dey exist for South Sumatra den Kalimantan. Lampung, East Java den Central Java sana be familiar plus de instrument.<ref name=":1" /> == World record == For 9 July 2011, 5 insyd,182 menners wey dey comot from chaw nations play ''angklung'' togeda for Washington, D.C., wey dem list am for de Guinness Book of Records as de largest ''angklung'' ensemble.<ref>Bayuni, Endy M. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110712233030/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/07/10/washington-dc-shakes-angklung-world-record.html "Washington DC shakes to angklung world record"]. ''The Jakarta Post''. Archived from [http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/07/10/washington-dc-shakes-angklung-world-record.html the original] on July 12, 2011. Retrieved July 11, 2011.</ref> For Saturday, 5 August 2023 insyd, Indonesia succeed wey break de Guinness World Records of de world ein largest angklung ensemble wey den conduct plus 15,110 participants for de Bung Karno Stadium, Jakarta. De Indonesian President Joko Widodo attend dis grand event plus de ministers of de cabinet.<ref>[https://www.cnnindonesia.com/nasional/20230807110548-293-982825/indonesia-berhasil-pecahkan-rekor-pagelaran-angklung-terbesar-dunia "Indonesia Berhasil Pecahkan Rekor Pagelaran Angklung Terbesar Dunia"]. ''CNN Indonesia'' (in Indonesian). Retrieved 2023-08-24.</ref> == Gallery == <gallery mode="packed"> File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Jonge_danser_begeleid_door_anklungspelers_Garoet_TMnr_60019214.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Jonge_danser_begeleid_door_anklungspelers_Garoet_TMnr_60019214.jpg|<small>Young dancer wey angklung players dey accompany am for [[:en:Baduy_people|Baduy]], [[:en:Banten|Banten]] insyd. c. 1910-1930.</small> File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Angklungspelers_TMnr_10017815.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Angklungspelers_TMnr_10017815.jpg|<small>Angklung players, [[:en:Indonesia|Indonesia]], 1949.</small> File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Angklungorkest_van_de_Christelijke_basisschool_Paulus_I_TMnr_20000363.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Angklungorkest_van_de_Christelijke_basisschool_Paulus_I_TMnr_20000363.jpg|<small>Angklung Orchestra, [[:en:Indonesia|Indonesia]] for 1971 insyd.</small> File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Jonge_angklungspelers_West-Java_TMnr_10017867.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Jonge_angklungspelers_West-Java_TMnr_10017867.jpg|<small>Sundanese boys wey dey play de ''angklung'' for 1918 insyd.</small> File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Kinderen_bij_angkloengspelers_aan_het_meer_van_Bagendit._TMnr_60007815.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Kinderen_bij_angkloengspelers_aan_het_meer_van_Bagendit._TMnr_60007815.jpg|<small>Kiddies plus angklung players for Lake Bagendit.</small> File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Javaanse_angkloengspelers_en_gemaskerde_dansers_TMnr_10004858.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Javaanse_angkloengspelers_en_gemaskerde_dansers_TMnr_10004858.jpg|<small>Angklung den dancers.</small> File:Mari_bermain_Angklung.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mari_bermain_Angklung.jpg|<small>Playing Angklung.</small> File:Saung_Angklung_Udjo.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Saung_Angklung_Udjo.JPG|<small>Angklung orchestra for Saung Angklung Udjo, Indonesia insyd.</small> File:Angklung-kolintang.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Angklung-kolintang.jpg|<small>Angklung performance for [[:en:Frankfurt|Frankfurt]], [[:en:Germany|Germany]] insyd.</small> File:Kelompok_musik_calung_di_Malioboro.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kelompok_musik_calung_di_Malioboro.jpg|<small>Angklung performance for [[:en:Malioboro|Malioboro]] street wey dey [[:en:Yogyakarta|Yogyakarta]] insyd.</small> File:Mkif_angklung.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mkif_angklung.jpg|<small>MKIF Angklung Group performance for [[:en:Germany|Germany]] insyd.</small> </gallery> == Make you sana see == * [[:en:Music_of_Indonesia|Music of Indonesia]] * [[:en:Gamelan|Gamelan]] * [[:en:Talempong|Talempong]] == References == <references /> == You fi read further == * Tenzer, Michael (1998). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=T6oTAQAAIAAJ&q=balinese+music Balinese Music]''. Hong Kong: Periplus Eds. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/9789625931692|9789625931692]]</bdi>. == External links == * [https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/indonesian-angklung-00393 UNESCO: Indonesian Angklung] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060519203523/http://www.gsj.org/gsj/index.cfm?fuseaction=Window.DisplayDescription&Entity=Description&EntityID=2 Gamelan Sekar Jaya (excerpt about angklung)] from Michael Tenzer's book ''Balinese Music'' * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304102248/http://www.gsj.org/windha/swf/tabuh_telu.swf Musical sample] I Nyoman Windha compose * [http://www.angklung-udjo.co.id/ Saung Angklung Udjo] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120722110028/http://www.sabilulungan.org/angklungde/ Angklung Orchester Hamburg, Germany (2003/2004)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150101110002/http://angklung-web-institute.com/ Angklung Web Institute] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081007235031/http://www.angklung.org/ Lancaster Angklung Orchestra, Lancaster, UK] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081008062947/http://www.sabilulungan.org/angklung3/ Angklung Hamburg] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20141016194356/http://angklung3.org/ Keluarga Paduan Angklung SMA Negeri 3 Bandung] [[Category:Gamelan ensembles den genres]] [[Category:Gamelan instruments]] [[Category:Idiophones]] [[Category:Indonesian musical instruments]] [[Category:Music of West Java]] [[Category:Indonesian culture]] [[Category:Sundanese culture]] [[Category:Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity]] [[Category:Masterpieces of de Oral den Intangible Heritage of Humanity]] [[Category:Indonesian words den phrases]] [[Category:Indonesian inventions]] [[Category:Asian percussion instruments]] m9wsljbecrxskjrzx78r1sfcwvzst50 0 4714 103999 29520 2026-06-19T09:59:56Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103999 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Joshua Mqabuko Nkomo Polytechnic''' be state higher education institution insyd Gwanda, [[Zimbabwe]],<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120713025021/http://www.mhet.ac.zw/registered_colleges.htm "Examination Centres Registered for HEXCO Courses"]. Higher Education Examination Council (HEXCO). Archived from [http://www.mhet.ac.zw/registered_colleges.htm the original] on 5 September 2012. Retrieved 17 January 2012.</ref><ref>[http://www.bulawayo24.com/index-id-news-sc-regional-byo-9855-article-Gwanda+State+University+to+open+in+January+next+year.html "Gwanda State University to open in January next year"]. Bulawayo24 News. 6 December 2011. Retrieved 17 January 2012.</ref> wey dey offer Diploma insyd Education.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111114055159/http://www.mhet.ac.zw/josua.htm "Joshua Mqabuko Nkomo Polytechnic"]. Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Zimbabwe. Archived from [http://www.mhet.ac.zw/josua.htm the original] on 14 November 2011. Retrieved 19 January 2012.</ref> De Government of Zimbabwe dey plan major investment into de polytechnic,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120119020735/http://www.thezimbabwean.co.uk/news/zimbabwe/52558/us386m-needed-for-education.html "US$386m needed for education"]. The Zimbabwean. 8 September 2011. Archived from [http://www.thezimbabwean.co.uk/news/zimbabwe/52558/us386m-needed-for-education.html the original] on 19 January 2012. Retrieved 19 January 2012.</ref> wey dey allow am make e start dey offer degrees<ref>[http://www.zimpapers.co.zw/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3863:government-to-upgrade-teachers-colleges-polytechnics&catid=38:local-news&Itemid=131 "Government to upgrade teachers' colleges, polytechnics"]. The Chronicle. 24 June 2011. Retrieved 19 January 2012.</ref> den resolve de accommodation shortage for students.<ref>[http://www.newsday.co.zw/article/2011-10-13-accommodation-crisis-hits-gwanda-college "Accommodation crisis hits Gwanda college"]. Newsday. 13 October 2011. Retrieved 19 January 2012.</ref> De Gwanda State University dem plan nu de Polytechnic go host am whilst construction dey take place.<ref>[http://www.herald.co.zw/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=17159:gwanda-varsity-plans-advanced-&catid=38:local-news&Itemid=131 "Gwanda varsity plans advanced"]. The Herald. 2 August 2011. Retrieved 17 January 2012.</ref> == References == <references /> [[Category:Universities den colleges insyd Zimbabwe]] [[Category:Buildings den structures insyd Matabeleland South Province]] [[Category:Education insyd Matabeleland South Province]] [[Category:Educational institutions dem establish insyd 1981]] [[Category:1981 establishments insyd Zimbabwe]] fshzwbutn0rbkt94ma5rflzblrjumsl 0 4924 103935 30003 2026-06-19T00:43:27Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103935 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Dakar_University,_Senegal,_1967.jpg|right|thumb|300x300px|Cheikh Anta Diop University campus, 1967. De original library building for center.]] '''Cheikh Anta Diop University''' (French: '''''Université Cheikh Anta Diop''''' anaa '''''UCAD'''''), dem sanso know am as de '''Cheikh Anta Diop University of Dakar''', be varsity insyd Dakar, [[Senegal]]. Dem name am after de [[Senegal|Senegalese]] physicist, historian den anthropologist Cheikh Anta Diop<ref>Toure, Maelenn-Kegni (2009-03-08). [https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/cheikh-anta-diop-university-1957/ "Cheikh Anta Diop University (1957--) •"]. Retrieved 2024-05-28.</ref><ref>[https://www.britannica.com/place/University-Cheikh-Anta-Diop "University Cheikh Anta Diop | university, Dakar, Senegal | Britannica"]. ''www.britannica.com''. Retrieved 2024-05-28.</ref> wey e get enrollment of over 60,000. == History == Cheikh Anta Diop University predate Senegalese independence wey he grow out of several French institutions set up by de colonial administration. For 1918 insyd, de French create de "école africaine de médecine" (African medical school), mostly make e serve white den Métis students buh sanso open to de small educated elite of de four free towns of Senegal plus nominal French citizenship. For 1936 insyd, under de Popular Front government insyd France, Dakar cam turn home to de Institut Fondamental d'Afrique Noire (IFAN), institute for de study of African culture. Insyd 1950s, plus decolonisation already dey loom, de French administration expand dese schools, dem add science faculties, wey dem combine de schools into de "Institut des Hautes Etudes de Dakar". Insyd 1957, na dem construct fresh campus as de 18th French Public University, dem attach to de University of Paris den de University of Bordeaux. Dis cam turn de '''University of Dakar''' de largest den most prestigious university insyd French West Africa. For 1987 insyd, na dem change ein name make e honor de Senegalese philosopher den anthropologist, Cheikh Anta Diop. == Academics == De education system dey follow de French pattern, plus oral den/anaa written final exams dem administer for de end of de year. Dem dey teach all courses for de university for French insyd, except those insyd language departments oda dan French. === Schools den institutes === UCAD dey offer courses of study insyd Humanities, Sciences, Engineering, Medicine, Finance, Accounting, den Law. De varsity dey award de degrees wey dey follow: B.A., B.S., Ph.D., den D.M.A. De School of Medicine dey include departments of Pharmacy, Research, den Surgery.<ref>[https://www.ucad.sn/ "Accueil | Université Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar"]. ''www.ucad.sn''. Retrieved 2024-05-28.</ref> De varsity sanso dey encompass de Institute of Sciences of de Environment (ISE) den de Institute of Sciences of Earth (ISE). De Institut Fondamental d'Afrique Noire (IFAN), dem found am insyd 1936, dey remain one of de world centers of African Studies. De IFAN Museum of African Arts' ''Musée d'Art africain'', attach to IFAN, dey display den conserve world-renowned collection of African arts. De Centre de linguistique appliquée de Dakar (Center of Applied Linguistics of Dakar) for CADU be de regulatory body give de Wolof language. Dem divide language studies into de disciplines wey dey follow: Philosophy, Sociology, History, Geography, Letters, Arabic, Russian, Languages den Civilizations, English, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Latin, German den Linguistics. De varsity dey oversee language school: Institut de Français pour Etrangers (IFE). De IFE dey specialize insyd French language studies wey aim at foreign students for preparation give regular courses dem teach insyd French. === Foreign programs === UCAD dey host number of foreign study abroad programs, wey dey include ones dem administer by Wells College, Indiana University, den de University of Oregon insyd de United States den numerous European universities. Participants insyd de program typically take required course insyd Introductory Wolof den French language (if applicable) course thru de IFE for addition to regular varsity courses dem teach insyd French.<ref>Wells Program. (2005). Dakar Program for foreigners. Retrieved April 10, 2005, from "[https://web.archive.org/web/20060618181652/http://www.wells.edu/academic/dakar.htm Archived copy]". Archived from [http://www.wells.edu/academic/dakar.htm the original] on 2006-06-18. Retrieved 2006-04-28.</ref> Division of de varsity dey offer courses for foreign students insyd Senegalese den African studies, wey dey include African literature, history, politics, philosophy, den sociology. CADU be member of de Federation of de Universities of de Islamic World. ==== Special requirements ==== For foreign students, UCAD dey require minimum age of 18 make dem enroll insyd studies for Pharmacy insyd den minimum age of 22 make dem enroll insyd studies wey dey relate to oral surgery. == Student life == UCAD get diverse student body dem draw from chaw countries wey dey include Senegal, [[Chad]], [[Burkina Faso|Burkina-Faso]], [[Ivory Coast]], France, [[Togo]], [[Benin|Benin,]] [[Nigeria]], de United States, [[Mauritania]], [[Mali]], [[Morocco]], [[Rwanda]], [[Cameroon]], Belgium, den de United Kingdom. As plus number of oda [[Africa|African]] varsities, UCAD occasionally dey experience student strikes wey dem dey protest government anaa varsity policies, most notable of wich na occur during de 1993 presidential election. Plus over 60,000 students den 5,000 dormitory rooms per, chaw students from outside Dakar for look for oda accommodations. Chaw students dey live insyd de Cité Aline Sitoe Diatta, near de varsity campus, wey those wey no fi afford Dakar ein often high rents often dey share rooms.<ref>Polgreen, Lydia (20 May 2007). [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/20/world/africa/20senegal.html "Africa's Storied Colleges, Jammed and Crumbling"]. ''The New York Times''. Retrieved 15 November 2016.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20161116101426/http://admin.seneweb.com/news/Societe/cit-aline-sito-diatta-ex-claudel-le-d-fi-de-la-cohabitation_n_475.html "Cité Aline Sitoé Diatta, ex-Claudel: Le défi de la cohabitation"]. ''Seneweb.com Senegal news''. Archived from [http://admin.seneweb.com/news/Societe/cit-aline-sito-diatta-ex-claudel-le-d-fi-de-la-cohabitation_n_475.html the original] on 2016-11-16. Retrieved 15 November 2016.</ref>[[File:BibliothèqueCheikhAntaDiop.JPG|right|thumb|300x300px|Cheikh Anta Diop University library building, dey show additions, 2005.]] == Notable alumni den professors == === Notable instructors === * Abdoulaye Bathily, former government minister den President candidate, Professor of History. * Souleymane Bachir Diagne, Senegalese philosopher, former Vice-dean of de College of Humanities den Professor of Philosophy. * Souleymane Mboup, microbiologist, leader of team wey discover HIV-2, den dey lead de Bacteriology-Virology Laboratory for le Dantec Hospital.<ref>[https://aslm.org/news-article/profile-medical-research-advocate-senegal-prof-souleymane-mboup/ "Profile of Senegal's Prof. Souleymane Mboup"]. ''African Society for Laboratory Medicine''. Retrieved 2020-07-01.</ref> * Amsatou Sow Sidibé, Senegalese lawyer den presidential candidate * Khady Sylla, Senegalese novelist * Louis-Vincent Thomas, French sociologist, anthropologist, ethnologist, former professor. * Abdoulaye Wade, former Presido of Senegal, former dean of de law den economics faculty. === Notable students === * Simeon Aké, former Ivorian Foreign Minister den UN Ambassador. * Barthélémy Attisso, guitarist den lawyer. * Sangaré Niamoto Ba, Minister of Mali * Sékou Ba, former Burkina Faso Minister of Animal Resources * Sokhna Benga, Senegalese novelist den poet * Emmanuel Bombande, co-founder den executive director of de West Africa Network for Peacebuilding, Chair of de Board of de Global Partnership for de Prevention of Armed Conflict * Yayi Boni, Presido of Benin. * Ousmane Camara, former Senegalese Chief Justice. * Awa Marie Coll-Seck, former Senegalese Minister of Health. * Mbaye Diagne, Senegalese Army officer den United Nations military observer dem credit plus saving chaw lives during de 1994 Rwandan genocide. * Souleymane Bachir Diagne (Philosophy), professor for Columbia University. * Salif Diallo, Master of Law, Burkinabé political leader. * Cheick Sidi Diarra, United Nations Special Adviser on Africa den High Representative for de Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries den Small Island Developing States (OSAA/OHRLLS). * Ousmane Tanor Dieng:, International Relations, Law; first Secretary of de Socialist Party of Senegal, vice-pee of de Socialist International. * Abdou Diouf, 2nd Presido of Senegal * Mamadou Diouf, historian of Cayor, former CADU professor, den director of African Studies for Columbia University. * Adebayo Faleti, Nigerian Poet, Writer den Actor. * Ibrahima Fall (politician): former Foreign Minister den professor of Law * Teguest Guerma, Medical Post-Doctorate, Associate Director of de HIV/AIDS Department, of de World Health Organisation. * Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta, Presido of Mali * Souleymane Mboup, microbiologist den leader of team wey discover HIV-2 * Molly Melching, Human rights activist. * Kanidoua Naboho, Doctor of Medicine, Burkinabé political leader. * Doudou Ndoye, Senegalese politician (Law) * Erin Pizzey, activist den founder of world's first domestic violence shelter.<ref>[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/passedfailed-an-education-in-the-life-of-erin-pizzey-womens-refuge-founder-and-writer-778934.html "Passed/Failed: An education in the life of Erin Pizzey, women's refuge"]. ''Independent.co.uk''. 7 February 2008.</ref> * Jean Pliya, Beninois playwright den short story writer. * Théodore-Adrien Sarr, Archbishop of Dakar, licentiate insyd Greek & Latin. * Talla Sylla, Senegalese politician, leader of APJ * Soham El Wardini, mayor of Dakar (first female make she be mayor post-independence) * Marie Khemesse Ngom Ndiaye, doctor den health minister === Honorary degrees === * [[Nelson Mandela]]: Honorary Doctorate dem confer, 30 June 1992 == References == <references /> === Notes === * [http://www.ifla.org/V/press/French-LC-established07.htm IFLA French Language Centre Established in the University Library, Dakar, Senegal], International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA). 20 August 2007. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060619093642/http://www.angolapress-angop.ao/noticia-e.asp?ID=414484 Senegalese pay homage to Cheikh Anta Diop Tuesday], Dakar, Senegal, 02/07. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090707113316/http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=12268 Cheikh Anta Diop University Library, Bibliothèque Centrale de l'Université Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar (UCAD)], ArchNet.org. * Pina, Jean Rousset de, [https://web.archive.org/web/20081028202351/http://bbf.enssib.fr/sdx/BBF/frontoffice/1966/08/imprimerDocument.xsp?id=bbf-1966-08-0293-002%2F1966%2F08%2Ffam-apropos%2Fapropos La Nouvelle Bibliothèque centrale de l'Université de Dakar], BBF, 1966, n° 08, p.&nbsp;293-304 Consulted 18 March 2008 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080324124816/http://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/developing/news/newsid%3D641497.html Celebrations at the Cheikh Anta Diop University], (FIFA.com) Tuesday 20 November 2007. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090710042745/http://www.idrc.ca/es/ev-83062-201_104882-1-IDRC_ADM_INFO.html Fiftieth Anniversary : Cheikh Anta Diop University (Sénégal)], 2007, Canadian International Development Research Centre. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080418002405/http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-86457-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html Senegal ICT Resource Centre: Creating R&D Capacity], 2004, Canadian International Development Research Centre. * Kone, Pierrette Women in the university hierarchy at the Cheikh Anta Diop University Women in higher education in Africa; Publ: 1995; p.&nbsp;140-148. * Niang, Souleymane African universities and globalisation Les Universités africaines et la mondialisation Higher education in Africa: achievements, challenges and prospects; Publ: 1998; p.&nbsp;31-40. * [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/20/world/africa/20senegal.html?pagewanted=print Africa’s Storied Colleges, Jammed and Crumbling], By LYDIA POLGREEN, ''The New York Times'', 20 May 2007. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081012104352/http://www.diversityweb.org/diversity_innovations/faculty_staff_development/teaching_strategies_practices/senegalese_scholar.cfm NOTES FROM ACADEME Senegalese Scholar Focuses on Race in American Society], By Carolyn J. Mooney, ''The Chronicle of Higher Education'', 3 July 1997. * [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/WBI/WBIPROGRAMS/KFDLP/0,,contentMDK:20879721~menuPK:461215~pagePK:64156158~piPK:64152884~theSitePK:461198,00.html Francophone Africa Universities’ Contribution to Development, Lessons to be Learned from Successful Initiatives], The World Bank, Seminar, Saly, Senegal, November 30-December 2, 2005 . * Clark, Andrew Francis; Phillips, Lucie Colvin; Phillips, Lucie Colvin. Historical Dictionary of Senegal. Scarecrow Press: (2nd Ed, 1995) ISBN 978-0-8108-2747-9 == External links == === Official Web links === * [https://web.archive.org/web/20051207085807/http://www.ucad.sn/ Official website]* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070622123713/https://web.archive.org/web/20051207085807/http://www.ucad.sn/communaute/historique.html UCAD history page] *, Library school at EBAD. * [http://flsh.ucad.sn/ Université Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar et la Faculté des Lettres et Sciences Humaines]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070128022431/http://www.refer.sn/eismv/ École Inter-États des Sciences et Médecine Vétérinaire de Dakar (site officiel)] [[Category:Cheikh Anta Diop University]] [[Category:Universities insyd Senegal]] [[Category:Universities den colleges dem establish insyd 1957]] [[Category:Forestry education]] [[Category:Education insyd Dakar]] [[Category:Educational institutions dem establish insyd 1957]] 0tmavq80r7qvjq8rk6qe9xt4zbauezd 0 5066 103852 50040 2026-06-18T21:13:55Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103852 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''University of Algiers''' (Arabic: جامعة الجزائر), dem commonly dey bell am de '''Algiers 1 University''' anaa '''Benyoucef Benkhedda'''(Arabic: بن يوسف بن خـدة), be public research varsity wey base for Algiers, Algeria. Dem found am for 1909 from de amalgamation of different institutions, plus e cam turn de oldest den most prestigious organised varsity for de country.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130502082443/http://www.enstructive.com/university-of-algiersbenyoucef-benkhedda/ "University of Algiers/Benyoucef Benkhedda"]. enstructive.com. Archived from [http://www.enstructive.com/university-of-algiersbenyoucef-benkhedda/ the original] on 2 May 2013. Retrieved 13 September 2013.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210107213411/http://www.africanseer.com/Universities-In-Africa/Universities-In-Algeria.php "University of Algiers – Benyoucef Benkhedda"]. africanseer.com. Archived from [http://www.africanseer.com/Universities-In-Africa/Universities-In-Algeria.php the original] on 7 January 2021. Retrieved 13 September 2013.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20141009070438/http://www.mediahex.com/University_of_Algiers "University of Algiers"]. mediahex.com. Archived from [http://www.mediahex.com/University_of_Algiers the original] on 13 September 2013. Retrieved 13 September 2013.</ref> == History == De historical tradition of higher education for Algeria start for 1832, plus de creation of de Higher School of Letters of Algiers, as way to guarantee de teaching of Arabic den French languages, for de context of de French conquest of Algeria. For 1849 insyd, de institution gbele campuses for Oran den Constantine, wey dem formally integrate am into de regular French education system for 20 December 1879. Subsequently, dem create de Superior School of Medicine den Pharmacy for 1833 (dem officialize for 4 August 1857); for 1868 de School of Sciences, den for 1879 de School of Law. All dese institutions base for de city of Algiers.<ref name=":0">[https://web.archive.org/web/20250124202020/https://www.africa2trust.com/member/Default.aspx?l=1&c=49&glx=0&sid=9362&catid=2 "About University of Algiers (Algeria)"]. ''www.africa2trust.com''. Retrieved 3 June 2024.</ref> For 1909, dem turn all educational institutions into faculties. Soon after, for de same year, dem unite de faculties make e form de University of Algiers.<ref name=":0" /> De installation of de Free French government for Algiers, wey make am de capital for exile for 1942, mark de admission of greater number of Muslim students, wey for dat year represent 11.4% of de total number of students. Algerian den French numbers cam turn equivalent per for 1961. For 19 May 1956, de General Union of Algerian Muslim Students (UGEMA) call indefinite student strike, wey halt academic courses den examinations for de University of Algiers, wey dey rally support from de National Liberation Front. For 7 June 1962 – just one month ahead of de Algerian independence referendum – de Organisation Armée Secrète (OAS), de movement of colonists wey dey oppose Algerian independence, set fire to de library building, wey destroy 500,000 books.<ref>n incendie criminel ravage l’universite, plusieurs autres batiments publics sont de ́truit’, LeMonde(9 June 1962)</ref> De destruction of dese books den de library wey na dem report insyd de Arab world as tactic of war anaa dirty war, dem know am as scorched earth. Egypt, Iraq, den Jordan condemn de arson den issue repudiation notes. Dis show say de savagery of de anti-independence movement extend make edey remove den indeed destroy culture so long as Algeria intend to create ein own national culture.<ref>Fleury, Georges. The Secret History of the Organisation De l'Armée Secrète Grasset, 2002.</ref> De 1971 higher education reform abolish de college system den group de different disciplines by affinities into departments den institutes. De reform decree de progressive Arabization of de disciplines, wey dey start plus certain classes for de social sciences (initially, philosophy den history). For 12 December 1998, dem re-establish de college system.<ref name=":0" /> For 2009, dem subdivide de university into three new institutions. De most important, de University of Algiers Benyoucef Benkhedda (oanaaAlgiers 1 University), stand as heir to de historical-academic tradition. De other two institutions dem create be:<ref name=":0" /> * Abou El Kacem Saadallah University (Algiers 2 University); * Brahim Soltane Chaibout University (Algiers 3 University). For 2015, due to de state of degradation of de university ein buildings, professors, students, den supporters demand say make dem classify de university as national historical-architectural heritage. De Ministry of Culture respond to de claims for July 2015.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150614044357/http://www.reporters.dz/index.php/galeries-videos/item/46575-appel-d-universitaires-et-d-intellectuels-a-faire-de-la-fac-centrale-un-monument-historique "Appel d'universitaires et d'intellectuels à faire de la Fac centrale un monument historique"]. Reporters. 12 June 2015. Archived from [http://www.reporters.dz/index.php/galeries-videos/item/46575-appel-d-universitaires-et-d-intellectuels-a-faire-de-la-fac-centrale-un-monument-historique the original] on 14 June 2015. Retrieved 25 July 2021.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150706000626/http://www.huffpostmaghreb.com/2015/07/03/faculte-alger-patrimoine_n_7721938.html "L'appel des universitaires a été entendu: la Fac centrale d'Alger classée monument historique"]. Huffington Post. 3 July 2015. Archived from [http://www.huffpostmaghreb.com/2015/07/03/faculte-alger-patrimoine_n_7721938.html the original] on 6 July 2015. Retrieved 25 July 2021.</ref> == Library == De library holds 800,000 volumes.<ref>[http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Algeria-LIBRARIES-AND-MUSEUMS.html "Libraries and museums – Algeria"]. ''Encyclopedia of the Nations''. 2015. Retrieved 28 February 2015.</ref> == Notable faculty == * Fernand Braudel (1902–1985) – French historian * John Peters Humphrey (1905–1995) – Canadian legal scholar * André Chastagnol (1920–1996) – French historian * Assia Djebar (1936–2015) – novelist, translator, film maker * Ahmed Zaoui – Islamic scholar, wey obtain refugee status for New Zealand insyd 2014 == Notable alumni == === Arts den Science === [[File:Trolard_CIPH0082.jpg|left|thumb|225x225px|Jean Baptiste Paulin Trolard]] * Jean Baptiste Paulin Trolard (1842–1910) – physician; de "vein of Trolard" (de superior anastomotic vein) dem name after am * Albert Camus (1913–1960) – writer den de awardee of de Nobel Prize for Literature for 1957 * Paul Coste-Floret (1911–1979) – law professor den politician * Albert Memmi (1920–2020) – Tunisian scholar * Suzanne Carrell (1923–2019) – educator * Gabriel Camps (1927–2002) – archaeologist den social anthropologist * Maurice Audin (1932–1957) – mathematician den political activist * Fadéla M'rabet (born 1935) – writer den feminist * Fatima Gallaire (1944–2020) – author den playwright * Youcef Saad (born 1950) – mathematician * Bernard Picinbono (born 1933) – applied statistician * Elias Zerhouni (born 1951) – Algerian-born American physician scientist radiologist den biomedical engineer * Saddek Rabah (born 1968) – University Professor den academic researcher * Kaouther Adimi (born 1986) – writer * Abdelkader Rezig Elmokhadimi (1950–2022) – author den journalist === Politics den Diplomacy === * Ferhat Abbas (1899–1985) – politician * Mohamed Lamine Debaghine (1917–2003) – political activist * Mehdi Ben Barka (1920–1965?) – Moroccan politician; disappear insyd 1965 * Lakhdar Brahimi (born 1934) – UN diplomat den Algerian Minister of Foreign Affairs * Hassiba Ben Bouali (1938–1957) – political activist * Ferhat Mehenni (born 1951) – political activist * Ahmed Djoghlaf (born 1953) – executive secretary of de Convention on Biological Diversity * Said Djinnit (born 1954) – United Nations diplomat * Brahim Djamel Kassali (born 1954) – Algerian Minister of Finance * Khalida Toumi (born 1958) – feminist activist == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170609124559/http://www.univ-alger.dz/ University of Algiers Website] (insyd Arabic, English, den French) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100401065015/http://www.fac-islamique-alger.dz/ Faculty of Islamic Sciences] (insyd Arabic) [[Category:University of Algiers]] [[Category:1909 establishments insyd Algeria]] [[Category:Universities den colleges dem establish insyd 1909]] [[Category:Buildings den structures insyd Algiers]] [[Category:Educational institutions dem establish insyd 1909]] [[Category:Education insyd Algiers]] ickz372x0kn7g8re656dza6k8q4riqa 0 5238 103837 46554 2026-06-18T20:36:52Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103837 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Aksum University''' (AKU) be teaching varsity insyd Aksum wey dey Tigray Region, [[Ethiopia]]. Edey offer teaching programs den research projects wich dey lead toward undergraduate den master's degrees. Na dem establish am insyd February 2007 plus de objective of teaching about education, research den community service.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180321101657/https://msudenver.edu/newsroom/news/2014/july/03-aksumunivmou.shtml "July - Newsroom - MSU Denver"]. msudenver.edu. Retrieved 14 March 2016.</ref> During de Tigray War insyd late 2020 den early 2021, na de varsity ein facilities be "completely destroyed", according to Alula Habteab, head of de Bureau of Construction, Road den Transport insyd de Transitional Government of Tigray.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20240718015940/https://tghat.com/2021/02/27/ethiopian-army-eritrea-and-amhara-forces-destroyed-tigrays-30-year-development-says-interim-official/ "Ethiopian army, Eritrea and Amhara forces destroyed Tigray's 30-year development, says interim official"]. ''Tghat''. 2021-02-27. from the original on 2021-02-28. Retrieved 2021-02-28.</ref> == International Relationships == * - University of Graz,  University of Vienna<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160314163201/https://gleichstellung.univie.ac.at/en/gender-equality/international-cooperations/delegation-visit-to-aksum-university/ "Human Resources and Gender Equality » Delegation visit to Aksum University"]. univie.ac.at. Archived from [https://gleichstellung.univie.ac.at/en/gender-equality/international-cooperations/delegation-visit-to-aksum-university/ the original] on 14 March 2016. Retrieved 14 March 2016.</ref> * - Metropolitan State College of Denver,<ref>Yesenia Robles (20 November 2010). [http://www.denverpost.com/ci_16667682 "Metro State sending 8 tons of books to Ethiopia"]. The Denver Post. Retrieved 14 March 2016.</ref> University of Nebraska, Lincoln  == References == <references /> [[Category:Universities den colleges dem establish insyd 2007]] [[Category:Universities den colleges insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:2007 establishments insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Educational institutions dem establish insyd 2007]] c2gvtmmsx3s55kljgupm8zrnleh4t8f 0 5628 103939 38602 2026-06-19T01:38:10Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103939 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Dalanj University''' be public varsity insyd Dalang, South Kordofan State, [[Sudan]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20161129234641/http://mohe.gov.sd/ "Sudanese higher education"]. Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research. Retrieved 2011-09-15.</ref> Na dem establish de Teachers college for 1995 AD insyd. De Centre for Peace Studies, Computer Center den College of additional studies follow am for 1999 insyd, wey e evolve into de Faculty of Community Development. Dem establish de Graduate School for 2001 insyd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170630202759/http://www.dalanjuniversity.edu.sd/ "The emergence of the university and its development"]. Dalanj University. Archived from [http://www.dalanjuniversity.edu.sd/ the original] on 2017-06-30. Retrieved 2011-09-15.</ref> As of September 2011, na de varsity be member in good standing of de Association of African Universities.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20161217175011/http://www.aau.org/membership/ "Members on Good Standing"]. Association of African Universities. Archived from [http://www.aau.org/membership/ the original] on 2012-07-19. Retrieved 2011-09-17.</ref> == References == <references /> [[Category:Universities den colleges insyd Sudan]] [[Category:Educational institutions dem establish insyd 1995]] [[Category:1995 establishments insyd Sudan]] [[Category:Universities den colleges dem establish insyd 1995]] [[Category:Education insyd Sudan]] 39jbjy7lujhsfic59f6mmo6ytfrl8b3 0 5639 103921 86316 2026-06-18T22:34:04Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103921 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} {| class="infobox vcard" |+ class="infobox-title fn org" id="5" |Association of African Universities | colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" |<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">اتحاد الجامعات الأفريقية</span></span>&nbsp;<span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(Arabic)</span><span title="French-language text">''Association des universités africaines''</span>&nbsp;<span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(French)</span><span title="Portuguese-language text">''Associação das Universidades Africanas''</span>&nbsp;<span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(Portuguese)</span><span title="Amharic-language text"><span lang="am" style="font-style: normal;">የአፍሪካ ዩኒቨርስቲዎች ማህበር</span></span>&nbsp;<span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(Amharic)</span><span title="Swahili (macrolanguage)-language text">''Chama cha Vyuo Vikuu Afrika''</span>&nbsp;<span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(Swahili)</span> |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image logo" | |- | colspan="2" class="infobox-image logo" |[[File:OER_Africa_and_AAU_MoU_(6282294001).jpg|frameless]]<div class="infobox-caption">Open air event for de AAU Headquarters insyd 2011</div> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.6em;" |Abbreviation | class="infobox-data nickname" |AAU |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.6em;" |Formation | class="infobox-data note" |November&nbsp;12,&nbsp;1967<span style="display:none">&nbsp;(<span class="bday dtstart published updated itvstart">1967-11-12</span>)</span> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.6em;" |Founder | class="infobox-data" |African universities initiate by UNESCO |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.6em;" |Location | class="infobox-data label" |<div class="plainlist"> * <span class="locality">[[Accra]]</span>, <span class="country-name">Ghana</span> </div> |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.6em;" |Origins | class="infobox-data" |1962 UNESCO Summit insyd Antananarivo, follow by de 1963 Khartoum preparatory committee meeting |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.6em;" |<div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; ">Region dem serve </div> | class="infobox-data" |[[Africa]] |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.6em;" |Fields | class="infobox-data" |International cooperation insyd higher education |- ! class="infobox-label" scope="row" style="padding-right:0.6em;" |Website | class="infobox-data" |<span class="url">[https://www.aau.org/ www.aau.org]</span> |} De '''Association of African Universities''' ('''AAU''') (Arabic: اتحاد الجامعات الأفريقية, French: Association des universités africaines) be university association of African universities wey base insyd [[Accra]], [[Ghana]]. Plus member institutions all around Africa, AAU dey provide forum for cooperation den exchange of information for higher education den research policies. == History == Dem found AAU insyd Rabat, [[Morocco]] for November 12, 1967, wey dey follow recommendations dem make at earlier conference organize by de United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) insyd Antananarivo, [[Madagascar]] for September 1962 insyd. Antananarivo meeting dem call upon ein participants make dem establish organization for mutual cooperation. De Antananarivo recommendations dem take up by preparatory Committee of de heads of African institutions of higher education, wich dem meet insyd Khartoum for September 1963 insyd wey dem draft de founding constitution of de association. Plus initial membership of 34, de association now get ova 373 members from 46 countries, wey dey cut across language den oda divides.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20161217175011/http://www.aau.org/membership/ AAU Member Universities] 2012-07-19 at archive.today (accessed 1 March 2024)</ref> == Members == * [[Ardhi University]] * [[University of Dar es Salaam]] * [[Eduardo Mondlane University]] * [[Islamic University in Uganda]] * [[Makerere University]] * [[Muslim University of Morogoro]] * [[Mzumbe University]] * [[Open University of Tanzania]] * [[St. Augustine University of Tanzania]] * [[Sokoine University of Agriculture]] * [[Uganda Martyrs University]] * [[University of the Sacred Heart Gulu]] * [[Zanzibar University]] == References == <references /> == Read further == * Livsey, Timothy. "Imagining an Imperial Modernity: Universities and the West African Roots of Colonial Development." ''Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History'' 44.6 (2016): 952–975. == External links == * [https://aau.org/ Official website] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20200518003051/https://www.aau.org/subs/membership/ Full list of member universities] * [https://aau.org/programmes-and-services/ Programs & Services] [[Category:College den university associations den consortia insyd Africa]] [[Category:Educational organizations dem establish insyd 1967]] [[Category:1967 establishments insyd Africa]] 6a6vv8dkdyrwjivd29qk171simjr4t9 0 5811 103851 32852 2026-06-18T21:00:06Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103851 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Al Fashir University''' be public university insyd al-Fashir, de capital city of North Darfur, [[Sudan]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20161129234641/http://mohe.gov.sd/ "Sudanese higher education"]. Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research. Archived from [http://www.mohe.gov.sd/ the original] on 29 November 2016. Retrieved 15 September 2011.</ref> == Foundation == Na dem create de university insyd 1990 by decree of President Omar Hassan Ahmed Bashir, wey na dem officially gbele am insyd February 1991 for premises west of al-Fashir airport insyd den South of de al-Fashir school.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111020201144/http://www.fashir.edu.sd/ "History of the University"]. Al Fashir University. Archived from [http://www.fashir.edu.sd/ the original] on 20 October 2011. Retrieved 15 September 2011.</ref> == Teaching == Na der be 11,671 students dem enroll insyd 2011, plus 199 faculty members den 243 staff den technical assistants.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120104060537/http://fashir.edu.sd/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=157&Itemid=104 "Facts & Figures"]. Al Fashir University. Archived from [http://www.fashir.edu.sd/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=157&Itemid=104 the original] on 4 January 2012. Retrieved 18 September 2011.</ref> Ebe member of de [[Association of African Universities]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20061006193828/http://www.aau.org/membership/member.php?AddressID=115 "Al Fashir University"]. Association of African Universities. Archived from [http://www.aau.org/membership/member.php?AddressID=115 the original] on 6 October 2006. Retrieved 18 September 2011.</ref> == Research == === Conflict analysis === For December 2004 insyd na dem hold conference make dem discuss de effect of environmental degradation wey dey cause conflict insyd Darfur. Faculty den students of de universities of Zalingei, al-Fashir den Nyala present de findings of dema research. Dem make recommendations wey dey include closer cooperation between de UN den local universities, joint research projects den collaborative workshops.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100619095310/http://upeace.org/library/documents/darfur_cp.pdf "Environmental Degradation as a Cause of Conflict in Darfur"] (PDF). UN University for Peace. December 2004. p. 14. Archived from [http://www.upeace.org/library/documents/darfur_cp.pdf the original] (PDF) on 19 June 2010. Retrieved 18 September 2011.</ref> === Human Rights Knowledge Centre === For 28 October 2019, de Minister of Welfare den Social Development, Lena el-Sheikh Mahjoub, den de Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations, Amina J. Mohammed, gbele de ''Human Rights Knowledge Centre'' for al-Fashir University, as cooperative project between de university den de United Nations Development Program (UNDP). De fresh centre be affiliate plus de university ein Faculty of Sharia den Law.<ref>[https://www.dabangasudan.org/en/all-news/article/human-rights-knowledge-centre-launched-at-north-darfur-university "Human Rights Knowledge Centre launched at North Darfur university"]. ''Radio Dabanga''. 29 October 2019. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191030011857/https://www.dabangasudan.org/en/all-news/article/human-rights-knowledge-centre-launched-at-north-darfur-university Archived] from the original on 30 October 2019. Retrieved 30 October 2019.</ref> == Police repression == Insyd October 2010 na de police arrest five students of de university loyal to de Sudan Liberation Movement lead by Minni Minawi wey dem severely beat dem before dem release dem on bail. Dem take one of dem to de hospital for treatment of ein injuries.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20101015190520/http://www.radiodabanga.org/node/4785 "Five University of El Fasher students severely beaten in police station"]. ''Radio Dabanga''. 14 October 2010. Archived from [http://www.radiodabanga.org/node/4785 the original] on 15 October 2010. Retrieved 18 September 2011.</ref> Insyd March 2011 dem shoot two students dead by police for de university, one from range of less dan one metre. Na dem dey disobey university authorities wey dem dey participate for political rally insyd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120326000210/http://www.radiodabanga.org/node/12408 "Two students shot dead by police at El Fasher University"]. ''Radio Dabanga''. 17 March 2011. Archived from [http://www.radiodabanga.org/node/12408 the original] on 15 April 2013. Retrieved 18 September 2011.</ref> == References == <references /> [[Category:Al Fashir University]] [[Category:Universities den colleges insyd Sudan]] [[Category:Universities den colleges dem establish insyd 1990]] [[Category:1990 establishments insyd Sudan]] [[Category:Education insyd Sudan]] [[Category:Educational institutions dem establish insyd 1990]] 5ghea70y7akv07lrbdtk4fikynufkwx 0 6312 103829 85538 2026-06-18T19:56:14Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103829 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Adigrat University''' (Tigrinya: ዓዲግራት ዩኒቨርሲቲ) be residential national university insyd Adigrat, Tigray Region, [[Ethiopia]]. E dey approximately 900 kilometres (560 mi) north of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20161005122403/http://www.adu.edu.et/about-us/ "About Us » Adigrat University"]. Archived from [http://www.adu.edu.et/about-us/ the original] on 2016-10-05. Retrieved 2016-10-04.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20161005122403/http://www.adu.edu.et/about-us/ "About Us"]. ''Adigrat University''. Retrieved 30 July 2017.</ref> De Ministry of Education dey admit qualified students to Adigrat University base for dema score for de Ethiopian Higher Education Entrance Examination (EHEEE) top.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20240723062209/http://www.adu.edu.et/about/ "About Us"]. Adigrat University. Retrieved 2020-05-26.</ref> Na facilities for de university ein campuses be "completely destroyed" during de Tigray War.<ref name=":0">[https://web.archive.org/web/20240718015940/https://tghat.com/2021/02/27/ethiopian-army-eritrea-and-amhara-forces-destroyed-tigrays-30-year-development-says-interim-official/ "Ethiopian army, Eritrea and Amhara forces destroyed Tigray's 30-year development, says interim official"]. ''Tghat''. 2021-02-27. from the original on 2021-02-28. Retrieved 2021-02-28.</ref> == History == Dem say de Prime Minister Meles Zenawi wey initiate de main reason for de establishment of Adigrat University during ein visit to de town den discussion plus de town elders. Na dem lay de cornerstone for Adigrat University insyd December 2008. Dem officially establish de university via government proclamation (Council of Ministers decree 223/2003) for May 26, 2011.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170731090906/http://www.hopr.gov.et/c/document_library/get_file?p_l_id=10754&folderId=250032&name=DLFE-5655.pdf "Adigrat University Establishment Council of Ministers Regulation No. 223/2011"] (PDF). ''Federal Negarit Gazeta of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia''. 26 May 2011. Archived from [http://www.hopr.gov.et/c/document_library/get_file?p_l_id=10754&folderId=250032&name=DLFE-5655.pdf the original] (PDF) on 31 July 2017. Retrieved 30 July 2017.</ref> Insyd July 2011, de university gbele plus 4 colleges den 13 departments plus 960 students. During de Tigray War insyd late 2020 den early 2021, de facilities den properties of Adigrat University ve "completely destroyed", according to Alula Habteab, head of de Bureau of Construction, Road den Transport insyd de Transitional Government of Tigray.<ref name=":0" />[[File:Adigrat_University_Campus.jpg|thumb|284x284px|Bati Genahti Campus]] == Academics == Adigrat University get two campuses Bati Genahti Campus den Agame Campus. === Colleges === * College of Engineering and Technology * College of Medicine and Health Science * College of Social Sciences and Humanities * College of Business and Economics * College of Natural and Computational Sciences * College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences === Library system === Adigrat University ein library system get archives, reading rooms, den research centers.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20240610100758/http://www.adu.edu.et/library-services/ "Library Services"]. ''www.adu.edu.et''. Retrieved 30 July 2017.</ref> De university administration embark of capacity building by make dem dey invest insyd media den communications department, cloud computing den telecom equipment, den digital library services.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160904170447/http://www.awrambatimes.com/?p=15333 "Adigrat University Launches Media and Communication Department"]. ''newspaper''. September 3, 2016. Archived from the original on September 4, 2016</ref> == Athletics == Dem dey bell Adigrat University ein team Welwalo, plus colors gold den black. De Welwalo dey participate insyd Group A of de higher league insyd de Ethiopian Premier League as part of football conference.<ref>Gebresellsie, Yohannes (19 July 2017). [http://aigaforum.com/article2017/football-renaissance-in-tigray.htm "Football Renaissance in Tigray"]. ''Aiga Forum''. Retrieved 30 July 2017.</ref> De Welwalo men's football team dey play home games for de Adigrat stadium. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20191224185953/http://www.adu.edu.et/ Adigrat University] [[Category:Universities den colleges insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Universities den colleges dem establish insyd 2011]] [[Category:2011 establishments insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Education insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Educational institutions dem establish insyd 2011]] 0iuvfpipiygd3oyzzrzjszrk8xmevyi 0 6769 103950 83407 2026-06-19T04:46:59Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103950 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Federica Brignone''' (born 14 July 1990) be Italian World Cup alpine ski racer.<ref>[https://www.eurosport.com/alpine-skiing/federica-brignone_prs89964/person.shtml "Federica Brignone"]. ''www.eurosport.com''. 21 July 2024. Retrieved 21 July 2024.</ref><ref>Cappelletti, Andrea (15 July 2024). [https://skiracing.com/federica-brignone-summer-is-for-summer-things/ "Federica Brignone: Summer Is for Summer Things"]. ''Ski Racing Media''. Retrieved 21 July 2024.</ref> She dey compete insyd all alpine disciplines, plus focus for giant slalom den super-G. Brignone win de World Cup overall title insyd 2020, wey she cam turn de first Italian female make she achieve dis feat.<ref>[https://mam-e.it/federica-brignone-chi-e-la-prima-italiana-a-vincere-la-coppa-del-mondo-di-sci/ "FEDERICA BRIGNONE: CHI È LA PRIMA ITALIANA A VINCERE LA COPPA DEL MONDO DI SCI"]. ''mam-e.it'' (insyd Italian). 8 December 2021. Retrieved 6 March 2022.</ref> She sanso be Olympic den World Championship medalist.<ref>[https://www.skiracing.com/stories/world-cup-races-in-are-sweden-canceled-ending-womens-wc-season "World Trophy (1985-2008)/World Championships (2009 on)"]. skiracing.com. 11 March 2020. Retrieved 11 March 2020. <q>The cancellation of Are officially marks the end of the women's season, as they will not be replaced on the World Cup calendar. This means that Federica Brignone has officially earned the overall crystal globe. Mikaela Shiffrin finished second in the overall standings, 153 points behind Brignone. Petra Vlhova finished in third. Brignone also earned the giant slalom overall crystal globe, followed by Vlhova and Shiffrin</q></ref> For de 2022 Winter Olympics, she win silver medal insyd de giant slalom den bronze insyd de combined.<ref>[https://www.nbcolympics.com/athletes/federica-brignone-711462 "Federica Brignone Olympic Profile | NBC Olympics"]. ''www.nbcolympics.com''. Retrieved 9 April 2022.</ref><ref>[https://olympics.com/en/news/federica-brignone-italy-alpine-skiing-silver "Federica Brignone: Italy's alpine skiing champion enters record books with Beijing 2022 'dream'"]. ''olympics.com''.</ref><ref>[https://olympics.com/en/news/italy-ski-history-maker-federica-brignone-interview-2021 "Federica Brignone shares her mantra: 'You only live once'"]. ''olympics.com''.</ref><ref>[https://www.msn.com/en-us/sports/olympics/italys-brignone-unsure-of-milan-cortina-dream/ar-AAU7Wsn "Italy's Brignone unsure of Milan-Cortina 'dream'"]. ''MSN''. Retrieved 9 April 2022.</ref> == Ski racing == Dem born am insyd Milan, Lombardy, Brignone make ein World Cup debut for age 17 insyd December 2007, wey na ein first full season for de World Cup circuit be insyd 2010. For ein first World Championships insyd 2011, Brignone win de silver medal insyd de giant slalom. Insyd December 2012, Brignone undergo surgery for ein right ankle wey dem komot bothersome cyst,<ref>[http://www.fisalpine.com/news/federica-brignone-puts-season-hold-for-ankle-surgery,2149.html "Federica Brignone puts season on hold for ankle surgery"]. FIS Alpine. 13 December 2012.</ref> wey she miss de rest of de 2013 season. During de World Cup finals for Aspen insyd March 2017, Brignone win giant slalom wey she lead Italian podium sweep, plus teammates Sofia Goggia and Marta Bassino. Na she be part of two oda hat tricks by Italy, both insyd downhill: as runner-up for Bad Kleinkirchheim insyd 2018, den third place for Bansko insyd 2020. For de 2018 Winter Olympics insyd PyeongChang, South Korea, Brignone win ein first Olympic medal, de bronze insyd de giant slalom. Insyd March 2020, Brignone earn de overall crystal globe plus 1378 points – ahead of Mikaela Shiffrin (1225) den [[Petra Vlhová|Petra Vlhova]] (1189) – wey she cam turn de first Italian woman per wey to date make she win World Cup overall title. Plus five wins den eleven podiums during de season, she add two more globes give de giant slalom den combined titles. Brignone win de silver medal insyd de giant slalom den de bronze medal insyd de combined for de 2022 Winter Olympics insyd Beijing.<ref>[https://www.raisport.rai.it/articoli/2022/02/pechino-2022-brignone-argento-in-discesa-oro-alla-hector-48b85d89-9739-4d6e-b858-822bbe9fc96b.html "Brignone ARGENTO nel gigante - Rai Sport"].</ref> Thru December 2023, Brignone get 23 World Cup victories den 60 podiums, plus 32 insyd giant slalom, 16 insyd super-G, 6 insyd downhill, den 6 insyd combined. For 2 den 3 December 2023, Brignone achieve consecutive victories insyd de Giant slalom insyd Tremblant, [[Canada]].<ref>[https://www.gazzetta.it/Sport-Invernali/Sci-Alpino/Coppa-Mondo-Sci/03-12-2023/brignone-vince-il-secondo-gigante-donne-in-canada-in-coppa-del-mondo.shtml "Brignone gigantesca: ancora prima in Canada, è l'italiana più vincente di sempre in Coppa"]. gazzetta.it. gazzetta.it. 3 December 2023. Retrieved 3 December 2023.</ref> == Ein life matter == Brignone be de daughter of [[Maria Rosa Quario]] (b.1961), alpine racer insyd de late 1970s den early 1980s, wey she get four World Cup wins den fifteen podiums, all insyd slalom.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140428020825/http://www.fis-ski.com/uk/604/613.html?sector=AL&listid=&competitorid=49429&type=result&rec_start=0&limit=100 FIS-ski.com] – Maria-Rosa Quario – accessed 28 December 2011</ref> Na she be engaged to French skier Nicolas Raffort.<ref>[https://www.federicabrignone.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Brignone_Chi17_2018.pdf "Federica Brignone - Il mio sogno azzurro"] (PDF) (insyd Italian). federicabrignone.com. Retrieved 26 January 2020. <q>Nata a Milano, la Brignone vive a La Salle, in Val d'Aosta, ed è fidanzata con Nicolas Raffort, sciatore francese.</q></ref> == World Cup results == [[File:2017_Audi_FIS_Ski_Weltcup_Garmisch-Partenkirchen_Damen_-_Federica_Brignone_-_by_2eight_-_8SC8889.jpg|thumb|260x260px|Brignone during Garmisch-Partenkirchen Kandahar downhill insyd 2017]] [[File:Federica_Brignone_(Courchevel_2019).png|thumb|260x260px|Brignone de day of ein victory insyd World Cup's Giant slalom of Courchevel for 2019 insyd.]] === Season titles === * 5 titles – (1 Overall, 1 [[Giant slalom|GS]], 2 [[Alpine skiing combined|AC]], 1 [[Super-G|SG]]) {| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%; text-align:center; border:gray solid 1px; width:30%;" | rowspan="6" style="width:1%;" |[[File:FIS_Crystal_Globe.svg|150x150px]] | rowspan="2" style="width:10%;" |'''Season''' |- style="background:#4180be; color:white;" | style="width:10%;" |Discipline |- ! rowspan="3" |'''2020''' |'''Overall''' |- |Giant slalom |- |Combined |- !'''2022''' |Super-G |} === Season standings === {| class="wikitable" | rowspan="2" |'''Season''' |- |Age |'''Overall''' |Slalom |Giant slalom |Super-G |Downhill |Combined |Parallel |- |2010 |''19'' |43 |— |12 |— |— |— | rowspan="10" |— |- |2011 |''20'' |26 |— |5 |44 |— |36 |- |2012 |''21'' |20 |55 |6 |49 |— |20 |- |2013 ^ |''22'' |103 |— |— |— |— |30 |- |2014 |''23'' |31 |50 |9 |— |— |— |- |2015 |''24'' |20 |39 |7 |17 |— |— |- |2016 |''25'' |8 |39 |4 |6 |43 |17 |- |2017 |''26'' |5 |46 |4 |8 |27 |2 |- |2018 |''27'' |11 |50 |5 |6 |24 |3 |- |2019 |''28'' |6 |39 |5 |8 |21 |1 |- |2020 |''29'' |1 |36 |1 |2 |3 |1 |3 |- |2021 |''30'' |7 |28 |5 |2 |19 | rowspan="4" |— |7 |- |2022 |''31'' |3 |38 |6 |1 |14 |— |- |2023 |''32'' |4 |48 |5 |2 |14 | rowspan="2" |— |- |2024 |''33'' |2 |54 |2 |2 |5 |} : ^ Season-ending surgery insyd December 2012 : Standings thru 9 March 2024 === Race victories === {| class="wikitable" | rowspan="2" | |- |Total |Slalom |Giant slalom |Super-G |Downhill |Combined |Parallel |- |Wins |'''27''' |— |12 |10 |— |5 |— |- |Podiums |'''69''' |— |36 |20 |7 |6 |— |} {| class="wikitable" | colspan="1" rowspan="2" |'''Season''' |- |Date |Location |Discipline |- | rowspan="2" |'''2016''' |24 October 2015 |Sölden, Austria |Giant slalom |- |27 February 2016 |Soldeu, Andorra |Super-G |- | rowspan="3" |'''2017''' |24 January 2017 |Kronplatz, Italy |Giant slalom |- |24 February 2017 |  Crans-Montana, Switzerland |Combined |- |19 March 2017 |Aspen, USA |Giant slalom |- | rowspan="3" |'''2018''' |29 December 2017 |Lienz, Austria |Giant slalom |- |13 January 2018 |Bad Kleinkirchheim, Austria |Super-G |- |4 March 2018 |  Crans-Montana, Switzerland |Combined |- | rowspan="2" |'''2019''' |24 November 2018 |Killington, USA |Giant slalom |- |24 February 2019 |  Crans-Montana, Switzerland |Combined |- | rowspan="5" |'''2020''' '''5''' victories (2 GS, 2 AC, 1 SG) |17 December 2019 |Courchevel, France |Giant slalom |- |12 January 2020 |Altenmarkt-Zauchensee, Austria |Combined |- |18 January 2020 |Sestriere, Italy |Giant slalom |- |2 February 2020 |Rosa Khutor, Russia |Super-G |- |23 February 2020 |  Crans-Montana, Switzerland |Combined |- |'''2021''' |28 February 2021 |Val di Fassa, Italy |Super-G |- | rowspan="4" |'''2022''' '''4''' victories (3 SG, 1 GS) |12 December 2021 |  St. Moritz, Switzerland |Super-G |- |16 January 2022 |Altenmarkt-Zauchensee, Austria |Super-G |- |30 January 2022 |Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany<ref>[https://www.ansa.it/sito/notizie/sport/sci/2022/01/30/sci-brignone-show-vince-superg-di-garmisch_21770c72-426e-475b-83fe-abf6f1ca1dba.html "Sci: Brignone show, vince superG di Garmisch. 'Ora concentrati sui Giochi'"]. ansa.it. ansa.it. 30 January 2022. Retrieved 30 January 2022.</ref> |Super-G |- |20 March 2022 |Méribel, France |Giant slalom |- |'''2023''' |14 January 2023 |St. Anton, Austria |Super-G |- | rowspan="6" |'''2024''' '''6''' victories (4 GS, 2 SG) |2 December 2023 | rowspan="2" |Tremblant, Canada |Giant slalom |- |3 December 2023 |Giant slalom |- |17 December 2023 |Val-d'Isère, France |Super-G |- |3 March 2024 |Kvitfjell, Norway |Super-G |- |9 March 2024 |Åre, Sweden |Giant slalom |- |17 March 2024 |Saalbach, Austria |Giant slalom |} === Podiums === {| class="wikitable" | colspan="1" rowspan="3" |'''Season''' | colspan="16" |'''Podiums''' |- ! colspan="3" |Downhill ! colspan="3" |Super G ! colspan="3" |Giant slalom ! colspan="3" |Combined ! colspan="4" |Total |- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | !Σ |- |2010 | | | | | | | | |1 | | | |0 |0 |1 !1 |- |2011 | | | | | | | |1 | | | | |0 |1 |0 !1 |- |2012 | | | | | | | |3 |1 | | | |0 |3 |1 !4 |- |2013 | | | | | | | | | | | | |0 |0 |0 !0 |- |2014 | | | | | | | | | | | | |0 |0 |0 !0 |- |2015 | | | | | | | | |1 | | | |0 |0 |1 !1 |- |2016 | | | |1 | | |1 | |4 | | | |2 |0 |4 !6 |- |2017 | | | | | |1 |2 |1 | |1 |1 | |3 |2 |1 !6 |- |2018 | |1 | |1 | | |1 | |1 |1 | | |3 |1 |1 !5 |- |2019 | | | | | |1 |1 |1 | |1 | | |2 |1 |1 !4 |- |2020 | |2 |1 |1 |2 | |2 |1 | |2 | | |5 |5 |1 !11 |- |2021 | | | |1 | |2 | |2 | | | | |1 |2 |2 !5 |- |2022 | | | |3 | | |1 |1 | | | | |4 |1 |0 !5 |- |2023 | |1 | |1 |2 | | |2 |1 | | | |1 |5 |1 !7 |- |2024 | |1 |1 |2 |2 | |4 |2 |1 | | | |6 |5 |2 !13 |- | rowspan="2" |'''Total''' |0 |5 |2 |10 |6 |4 |12 |14 |10 |5 |1 |0 |27 |26 |16 | rowspan="2" |'''69''' |- | colspan="3" |7 | colspan="3" |20 | colspan="3" |36 | colspan="3" |6 | colspan="3" |'''69''' |} == World Championship results == {| class="wikitable" | colspan="1" rowspan="2" |'''Year''' |- |Age |Slalom |Giant slalom |Super-G |Downhill |Combined |- |2011 |''20'' |DNF1 |2 |— |— |— |- |2013 |''22'' | colspan="5" |<small>''She injure: she no compete''</small> |- |2015 |''24'' |19 |DNF1 |— |— |— |- |2017 |''26'' |24 |4 |8 |— |7 |- |2019 |''28'' |— |5 |10 |— |6 |- |2021 |''30'' |DNF1 |DNF1 |10 |— |DNF2 |- |2023 |''32'' |— |2 |8 |— |1 |} == Olympic results == {| class="wikitable" | colspan="1" rowspan="2" |'''Year''' |- |Age |Slalom |Giant slalom |Super-G |Downhill |Combined |- |2010 |''19'' |— |18 |— |— |— |- |2014 |''23'' |DNF2 |DNF1 |— |— |11 |- |2018 |''27'' |— |3 |6 |DNF |8 |- |2022 |''31'' |DNF2 |2 |7 |— |3 |} == National titles == Brignone win nine national championships for individual senior level.<ref>[https://www.sportflash24.it/albo-doro-campionati-italiani-sci-alpino-vincitori-170466 "ALBO D'ORO CAMPIONATI ITALIANI SCI ALPINO"]. ''sportflash24.it'' (insyd Italian). 31 March 2017. Retrieved 17 September 2022.</ref><ref>[https://www.eurosport.it/sci-alpino/campionati-italiani-doppietta-di-federica-brignone-a-la-thuile.-al-maschile-ori-per-zazzi-e-franzoso_sto9526709/story.shtml "CAMPIONATI ITALIANI: DOPPIETTA DI FEDERICA BRIGNONE A LA THUILE. AL MASCHILE ORI PER ZAZZI E FRANZOSO"]. ''eurosport.it''. Retrieved 24 March 2023.</ref> * Italian Alpine Ski Championships ** Super-G: 2017, 2023 (2) ** Giant slalom: 2011, 2017, 2018 (3) ** Slalom: 2021 (1) ** Combined: 2016, 2017, 2023 (3) == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://www.fis-ski.com/DB/general/athlete-biography.html?sectorcode=AL&competitorid=118379 Federica Brignone] at FIS (alpine) * [https://olympics.com/en/athletes/federica-brignone Federica Brignone] at Olympics.com * [https://www.olympedia.org/athletes/118361 Federica Brignone] at Olympedia * [https://web.archive.org/web/20231216041119/https://www.coni.it/it/italia-team/atleti/scheda-atleta/scheda_atleta/1562 Federica Brignone] at de ''Comitato Olimpico Nazionale Italiano'' (insyd Italian) * [https://www.ski-db.com/db/profiles/federica_brignone_ita_297601.php Federica Brignone] at Ski-DB Alpine Ski Database * [https://www.fisi.org/atleti/brignone-federica/ Italian Winter Sports Federation – (FISI)] – alpine skiing – Federica Brignone – ''(insyd Italian)'' * [http://www.federicabrignone.com/ Official website]  – ''(insyd Italian den English)'' [[Category:Human]] [[Category:1990 births]] [[Category:Italian female alpine skiers]] [[Category:Alpine skiers at de 2010 Winter Olympics]] [[Category:Alpine skiers at de 2014 Winter Olympics]] [[Category:Alpine skiers at de 2018 Winter Olympics]] [[Category:Alpine skiers at de 2022 Winter Olympics]] [[Category:Olympic alpine skiers for Italy]] [[Category:Alpine skiers wey komot Milan]] [[Category:Olympic silver medalists for Italy]] [[Category:Olympic bronze medalists for Italy]] [[Category:Medalists at de 2018 Winter Olympics]] [[Category:Medalists at de 2022 Winter Olympics]] [[Category:Olympic medalists insyd alpine skiing]] [[Category:Alpine skiers of Centro Sportivo Carabinieri]] [[Category:FIS Alpine Ski World Cup champions]] [[Category:21st-century Italian sportswomen]] ob5hwglvq76x41z7tbrgqsmxi0q3tux 0 7128 103854 36204 2026-06-18T21:25:20Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103854 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Allison Jones''' (born insyd Amarillo, Texas, for May 12, 1984) be Paralympic skier den cyclist give de United States of America.<ref>[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/medal-quest/athletes/detail/allison-jones/index.html "Allison Jones | American Paralympic Athlete Profiles | Medal Quest | PBS"]. ''www.pbs.org''. Retrieved August 3, 2024.</ref><ref>[https://www.teamusa.com/profiles/allison-jones-866268 "Allison Jones"]. ''www.teamusa.com''. May 2, 2024. Retrieved August 3, 2024.</ref><ref>[https://www.usparacycling.org/news/2023/july/26/paralympic-champ-allison-jones-is-biking-toward-glasgow-then-paris- "Paralympic Champ Allison Jones Is Biking Toward Glasgow, Then Paris"]. ''www.usparacycling.org''. July 26, 2023. Retrieved August 3, 2024.</ref> Na dem born am plus de birth defect proximal femoral focal deficiency (PFFD), wich lef am widout right femur. She undergo surgery for age 7 months make dem amputate ein right foot, wey allow am make she more easily wear prosthetic leg. She receive ein first prosthetic leg for 9 months of age. Allison move from Amarillo, TX go Colorado Springs, CO for age 2 den half. == Education == She get mechanical engineering degree from University of Denver wer na she receive de "Pioneer Award".<ref>[http://ipc.infostradasports.com/asp/lib/TheASP.asp?pageid=8937&sportid=572&personid=912807 JONES Allison] [https://web.archive.org/web/20181003055526/http://ipc.infostradasports.com/asp/lib/TheASP.asp?pageid=8937&sportid=572&personid=912807 Archived] October 3, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. Ipc.infostradasports.com. Retrieved on 2013-01-27.</ref> == Career == For de 2006 Winter Paralympics she win gold medal for slalom insyd de standing category. Before dat she win silver medals insyd de super-G den de giant slalom insyd de 2002 Winter Paralympics. She dey live insyd Colorado Springs, Colorado.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20200511112432/https://gazette.com/sports/americans-95536-paralympic-preview.html Colorado Springs Gazette for March 12 2010]. Gazette.com (2010-03-12). Retrieved on 2013-01-27.</ref> Chaw of ein Paralympic medals be at skiing, buh she sanso win silver medal for de 2008 Summer Paralympics insyd cycling.<ref>Adia Waldburger (2008-09-30) [http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=PCRB&p_theme=pcrb&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=1238DE09283142C8&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D Allison Jones scores silver in Beijing]. Nl.newsbank.com. Retrieved on 2013-01-27.</ref> [[File:Allison_Jones_competing_in_the_Super_G_during_the_second_day_of_the_2012_IPC_Nor_Am_Cup_at_Copper_Mountain.jpg|left|thumb|250x250px|Jones dey compete insyd de Super G for de 2012 IPC Nor-Am Cup]] == References == <references /> == External links == '''Allison Jones (athlete)''' for Wikipedia ein sisto projects * [[commons:Category:Allison_Jones|Media]] from Commons * [[wikinews:Allison_Jones|News]] from Wikinews * [[wikidata:Q3790954|Data]] from Wikidata [[Category:Human]] [[Category:1984 births]] [[Category:Sportspeople wey komot Colorado Springs, Colorado]] [[Category:Sportspeople wey komot Amarillo, Texas]] [[Category:Paralympic gold medalists for de United States]] [[Category:Paralympic silver medalists for de United States]] [[Category:Paralympic alpine skiers for de United States]] [[Category:Alpine skiers at de 2002 Winter Paralympics]] [[Category:Alpine skiers at de 2006 Winter Paralympics]] [[Category:Alpine skiers at de 2010 Winter Paralympics]] [[Category:Alpine skiers at de 2014 Winter Paralympics]] [[Category:Paralympic cyclists for de United States]] [[Category:Cyclists at de 2008 Summer Paralympics]] [[Category:Cyclists at de 2012 Summer Paralympics]] [[Category:Cyclists at de 2016 Summer Paralympics]] [[Category:University of Denver alumni]] [[Category:American female alpine skiers]] [[Category:UCI Para-cycling World Champions]] [[Category:Medalists at de 2002 Winter Paralympics]] [[Category:Medalists at de 2006 Winter Paralympics]] [[Category:Medalists at de 2014 Winter Paralympics]] [[Category:Medalists at de 2008 Summer Paralympics]] [[Category:Medalists at de 2012 Summer Paralympics]] [[Category:Paralympic medalists insyd alpine skiing]] [[Category:Medalists at de 2011 Parapan American Games]] [[Category:Medalists at de 2015 Parapan American Games]] [[Category:21st-century American women]] [[Category:Cyclists wey komot Texas]] [[Category:21st-century American sportswomen]] 7ivxsfx1y0vxgyfhh54sxvdteogcn8q 0 7324 103949 36541 2026-06-19T03:12:39Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103949 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Elaine Estrela Moura''' (born 1 November 1982), commonly dem know am as '''Elaine''', be Brazilian footballer den coach. Versatile player wey dem fi use am insyd de defense anaa midfield, she play give de Brazil women's national football team. She previously play give give Tyresö den Umeå IK of the Swedish Damallsvenskan, as well as Saint Louis Athletica insyd de American Women's Professional Soccer (WPS). == Club career == [[File:Elaine_Estrela_Moura.jpg|left|thumb|200x200px|Elaine (R) dey play against de Philadelphia Independence.]] She start dey play soccer influenced by ein bro, wey she play give Bahia teams til 2000, buh she neva get any salary. Three years later, she cam turn professional insyd Ferroviária. After game between de Brazilian national team den Umeå IK insyd 2004, na dem contract am by Umeå wey she play give dem insyd Damallsvenskan from 2005 to 2009, wer na she join [[Marta (footballer)|Marta]]. Insyd 2010, she move go de United States wey she play give Saint Louis Athletica insyd Women's Professional Soccer (WPS). Wen de club go bust shortly afterwards, she decide make she return to Sweden wey she join Tyresö FF of de Damallsvenskan.<ref>Lindbäck, Anna (21 June 2010). [https://www.aftonbladet.se/sportbladet/fotboll/a/VRQeXr/tyresos-bomb-varvar-tva-landslagsspelare "Tyresös bomb: Värvar två landslagsspelare"] [Tyresö's bomb: Recruits two national team players]. ''Aftonbladet'' (in Swedish). Retrieved 30 June 2023.</ref> Tyresö win de Damallsvenskan title give de first time insyd de 2012 season wey Elaine collect ein fifth Swedish league winner's medal.<ref>Cleris, Johannes (3 November 2012). [http://www.dn.se/sport/fotboll/tyreso-vann-sm-guld-efter-dramatik/ "Tyresö vann SM-guld efter dramatik"] (insyd Swedish). Dagens Nyheter. Retrieved 29 August 2013.</ref> Plus competition for places cam turn very strong for Tyresö, Elaine move go loan to nearby Elitettan club Älta IF insyd July 2013.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180717155432/http://www.damfotboll.com/nyheter/2013/07/elaine-byter-till-alta-if-0 "Elaine byter till Älta IF"](insyd Swedish). Damfotboll.com. 31 July 2013. Archived from [http://damfotboll.com/nyheter/2013/07/elaine-byter-till-alta-if-0 the original] on 29 August 2013. Retrieved 29 August 2013.</ref> Ahead of de 2014 season she make ein transfer to Älta permanent.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140205024124/http://damfotboll.com/nyheter/2014/01/elaine-fortsatter-i-alta-if "Elaine fortsätter i Älta IF"] (insyd Swedish). Damfotboll.com. 8 January 2014. Archived from [http://damfotboll.com/nyheter/2014/01/elaine-fortsatter-i-alta-if the original] on 5 February 2014. Retrieved 8 January 2014.</ref> She stop dey play after de 2014 season wey she join Djurgårdens as assistant coach for 2015.<ref>[http://www.damfotboll.com/node/22917 "Elaine blir tränare i Djurgården"] (insyd Swedish). Damfotboll.com. 1 December 2014. Retrieved 8 January 2023.</ref> Insyd 2018 she miss dey play wey she join Division 3 club Lindhagen FF as player.<ref>Bernövall, Johann (2 June 2018). [https://www.pressreader.com/sweden/vasastandirekt/20180602/281732680168107 ""Lindhagen har gett mig glädjen tillbaka""] (insyd Swedish). Mitt Västerås. Retrieved 8 January 2023.</ref> == International career == Elaine ein performances for Ferroviária bring am to de notice of Brazil women's national football team selectors wey she feature insyd de gold medal-winning national team for de 2003 Pan American Games.<ref>Leme de Arruda, Marcelo (8 January 2022). [https://rsssfbrasil.com/sel/brazil200305w.htm "Seleção Brasileira Feminina (Brazilian National Women's Team) 2003-2005"] (insyd Brazilian Portuguese). RSSSF. Retrieved 8 January 2023.</ref> Na dem select am for de 2004 Athens Olympics<ref>[https://www.uol.com.br/esporte/olimpiadas/brasileiros/futebol/elaine.jhtm "Elaine"] (insyd Brazilian Portuguese). Universo Online. Retrieved 8 January 2023.</ref> wey she play insyd de 2–1 overtime final defeat by de United States, as Brazil collect silver medals.<ref>Garavello, Murilo (26 August 2004). [https://www.uol.com.br/esporte/olimpiadas/ultimas/2004/08/26/ult2255u145.jhtm "Brasil cai em jogo dramático e vê sonho de ouro virar prata"] (insyd Brazilian Portuguese). Universo Online. Retrieved 4 January 2023.</ref> She remain insyd de national selection for de 2007 Pan American Games, wer Brazil retain dema gold medals. For de 2007 FIFA Women's World Cup insyd China, Elaine feature insyd Brazil ein striking 4–0 semi-final win over de United States den de 2–0 final defeat by Germany.<ref>Leme de Arruda, Marcelo (9 December 2012). [http://www.rsssfbrasil.com/sel/brazil200607w.htm "Seleção Brasileira Feminina (Brazilian National Women's Team) 2006–2007"] (insyd Portuguese). Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation. Retrieved 20 December 2014.</ref> Na dem include am insyd de final 21-player squad for de 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup insyd Germany.<ref>[https://extra.globo.com/esporte/definida-lista-da-selecao-brasileira-de-futebol-feminino-para-mundial-2020111.html "Definida lista da seleção brasileira de futebol feminino para o Mundial"] (insyd Brazilian Portuguese). Rede Globo. 11 June 2011. Retrieved 8 January 2023.</ref> Na dem remove am from de national team squad two days before de start of de London 2012 Olympics wen magnetic resonance imaging reveal muscle injury.<ref>[https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/esporte/1124368-a-dois-dias-da-estreia-jogadora-da-selecao-de-futebol-e-cortada.shtml "A dois dias da estreia, jogadora da seleção de futebol é cortada"] (insyd Brazilian Portuguese). Folha de S.Paulo. 23 July 2012. Retrieved 8 January 2023.</ref> Ein last official games give Brazil take place insyd December 2011 for de Torneio Internacional Cidade de São Paulo.<ref>Leme de Arruda, Marcelo (5 March 2014). [http://www.rsssfbrasil.com/sel/brazil201113w.htm "Seleção Brasileira Feminina (Brazilian National Women's Team) 2011–2013"] (insyd Portuguese). Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation. Retrieved 21 December 2014.</ref> == Managerial career == As of 5 June 2023, na Elaine be youth football coach for Enskede IK.<ref>[https://www.mitti.se/nyheter/fritids-med-fokus-pa-fotboll--en-fulltraff-6.3.85760.7156232f19 "Fritids med fokus på fotboll – en fullträff"]. ''www.mitti.se'' (insyd Swedish). 3 June 2023. Retrieved 30 June 2023.</ref><ref>[https://www.enskedeik.nu/sektion/?ID=1720 "Lagledare & tränare"] [Team manager & coach] (insyd Swedish). Enskede IK. Retrieved 30 June 2023.</ref> == Ein life matter == For 4 February 2021, Elaine report security guards insyd Gullmarsplan of Stockholm to police after allegedly dem beat am wey she suffer injuries, wey dey include concussion, while she dey attempt make she reach de subway for ein way home.<ref>[https://www.aftonbladet.se/sportbladet/a/869y4E/elaine-moura-jag-ropade-snalla-sluta-snalla-sluta "Elaine Moura: Jag ropade: snälla sluta, snälla sluta"] [Elaine Moura: "I shouted please stop, please stop"]. ''Aftonbladet''. 4 February 2021. Retrieved 30 June 2023.</ref> De guards remain on duty after de incident wey dem claim to police say na de action be necessary secof na Elaine be allegedly intoxicated, wich she deny.<ref>[https://www.aftonbladet.se/sportbladet/a/JJl0mj/vakterna-hon-var-markbart-berusad "The guards: She was noticeably drunk"]. ''Aftonbladet''. 4 February 2021. Retrieved 30 June 2023.</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/1/https://www.svenskfotboll.se/allsvenskan/person/?playerid=5394 Elaine] at de Swedish Football Association (insyd Swedish) (archived) * [http://esporte.uol.com.br/olimpiadas/brasileiros/futebol/elaine.jhtm Elaine] for UOL Sports top (insyd Brazilian Portuguese) * [http://pan.uol.com.br/pan/2007/modalidades/futebol/brasileiros/elainemoura.jhtm Elaine] at de Pan American Games 2007 [[Category:Human]] [[Category:1982 births]] [[Category:Footballers wey komot Salvador, Bahia]] [[Category:Footballers]] [[Category:Footballers at de 2004 Summer Olympics]] [[Category:Olympic footballers for Brazil]] [[Category:Olympic silver medalists for Brazil]] [[Category:Saint Louis Athletica players]] [[Category:Expatriate women's footballers insyd Sweden]] [[Category:Brazilian expatriate sportspeople insyd Sweden]] [[Category:Brazilian expatriate sportspeople insyd de United States]] [[Category:2011 FIFA Women's World Cup players]] [[Category:Olympic medalists insyd football]] [[Category:Tyresö FF players]] [[Category:Damallsvenskan players]] [[Category:Umeå IK players]] [[Category:Medalists at de 2004 Summer Olympics]] [[Category:Brazil women's international footballers]] [[Category:Brazilian expatriate women's footballers]] [[Category:Women's association football midfielders]] [[Category:Associação Ferroviária de Esportes (women) players]] [[Category:Pan American Games gold medalists for Brazil]] [[Category:Pan American Games medalists insyd football]] [[Category:Footballers at de 2003 Pan American Games]] [[Category:Footballers at de 2007 Pan American Games]] [[Category:Medalists at de 2003 Pan American Games]] [[Category:Medalists at de 2007 Pan American Games]] [[Category:Women's Professional Soccer players]] [[Category:Elitettan players]] 6utu715ff3vvarsp368rxho6xm2ydf5 0 7908 103801 85171 2026-06-18T19:06:33Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103801 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''2014 IPC Athletics European Championships''' na ebe track den field competition give athletes plus disability open to International Paralympic Committee (IPC) dem affiliate countries within Europe, plus Azerbaijan den Israel. Na dem hold am insyd Swansea, Wales den wey last from 18 to 23 August. Na dem stage de competition for Swansea University Stadium. Approximately 550 athletes wey komot 37 countries attend de games.<ref>[http://www.paralympic.org/events/swansea-2014/about-us "Swansea 2014"]. paralympic.org. Retrieved 13 November 2014.</ref> Russia win de Games atop de medal table plus 41 Gold medals, wey dem sanso collect de greatest overall medal haul plus 88.<ref name=":0">[https://web.archive.org/web/20140903113058/http://85.17.198.3/static/info/swansea-2014/resipc/pdf/ec2014/at/ec2014_at_c95_at0000000.pdf "Medal Standings"] (PDF). IPC. 23 August 2014. Archived from [http://85.17.198.3/static/info/swansea-2014/resipc/pdf/ec2014/at/ec2014_at_c95_at0000000.pdf the original] (pdf) on 3 September 2014. Retrieved 27 August 2014.</ref> De host nation, Britain, fini third.<ref name=":0" /> Of de 37 nations wey dey compete, 34 manage make dem achieve podium finish.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140903112840/http://85.17.198.3/static/info/swansea-2014/resipc/pdf/ec2014/at/ec2014_at_c96_at0000000country_total.pdf "Placing Table"] (PDF). IPC. 23 August 2014. Archived from [http://85.17.198.3/static/info/swansea-2014/resipc/pdf/ec2014/at/ec2014_at_c96_at0000000country_total.pdf the original] (pdf) on 3 September 2014. Retrieved 27 August 2014.</ref> Na der be seven world records set den further seven European records, insyd games na ebe beset by difficult weather conditions thru out de tournament.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140903113046/http://85.17.198.3/static/info/swansea-2014/resipc/pdf/ec2014/at/ec2014_at_c81_at0000000.pdf "Records Set: As of 23 Aug 2014"] (PDF). IPC. 23 August 2014. Archived from [http://85.17.198.3/static/info/swansea-2014/resipc/pdf/ec2014/at/ec2014_at_c81_at0000000.pdf the original] (pdf) on 3 September 2014. Retrieved 27 August 2014.</ref> == Venue == Na de venue give de Championships be de Swansea University athletics stadium.<ref>Davies, Gareth A (21 March 2013). [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/paralympic-sport/9946529/Swansea-to-host-2014-IPC-Athletics-European-Championships.html "Swansea to host 2014 IPC Athletics European Championships"]. telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 20 November 2013.</ref> == Format == De 2014 IPC Athletics European Championships be invitational tournament wey dem dey take insyd track den field events. Dem no include combined sports insyd de 2014 Championships. No be all events wey dem open to all classifications, though na dem no contest events between classifications. Na dem award athletes wey fini insyd first place de gold medal, second place de silver medal den third place de bronze. If three competitors per wey be available make dem challenge for event then dem no dey award bronze medal. Dem go dey class sam events as 'no medal' events. == Coverage == As plus de 2013 IPC Athletics World Championships, de IPC produce live streaming footage of de Championships for ParalympicSport.TV top. Insyd de United Kingdom Channel 4 continue dema commitment to para-sport plus dema own live streaming website den daily live coverage dem show for dema sisto channel More4 top.<ref>Anderson, Gary (10 July 2014). [https://web.archive.org/web/20140728213056/http://www.insidethegames.biz/paralympics/1021237-bumper-summer-of-paralympic-sports-coverage-as-channel-4-set-to-broadcast-host-of-events "Bumper summer of Paralympic sports coverage as Channel 4 set to broadcast host of events"]. insidethegames.biz. Retrieved 20 July 2014.</ref> == Events == === Opening ceremony === De Championship opening ceremony take place for de Swansea University Stadium for de nightie of 18 August de day before na dem hold de first events. Na de competition be officially open by Welsh Assembly Minister John Griffiths wey na de IPC president Sir Philip Craven follow plus address.<ref name=":1">[http://www.thewave.co.uk/news/local/swansea-2014-the-opening-ceremony/ "Swansea 2014: The Opening Ceremony"]. thewave.co.uk. 19 August 2014. Retrieved 21 August 2014.</ref> De IPC flag dem carry into de stadium by schoolgirl Molly Hopkins, de youngest Swansea 2014 ambassador, Paralympian champion John Harris, swimmer Jack Thomas den games volunteer Harmony Dumay; before na dem raise am make dem signal de opening of de games. Na Welsh athlete Josie Pearson, ein coach Anthony Hughes, den for behalf of de officials by Matt Witt undertake de swearing of de oaths.<ref name=":1" /> Na dem provide entertainment for de venue by singers Shaheen Jafargholi den John Adams; den de Morriston Orpheus Choir.<ref name=":1" /> === Classification === Make dem ensure competition be as fair den balanced as possible, dem dey classify athletes dependent for how dema disability impacts for dema chosen event/s top. Thus athletes fi compete insyd event against competitors plus different disability to dema selves. Wer der be more dan one classification insyd one event, (for example discus throw F54/55/56), dem dey use a points system make den determine de winner. * F = field athletes * T = track athletes * 11-13 – visually impaired, 11 den 12 dey compete plus sighted guide * 20 – intellectual disability * 31-38 – cerebral palsy anaa oda conditions wey dey affect muscle co-ordination den control. Athletes insyd class 31-34 dey compete insyd seated position; athletes insyd class 35-38 dey compete standing. * 41-46 – amputation, ''les autres'' * 51-58 – wheelchair athletes[[File:IPC_European_Championships_Men's_400m_T54_Final_1.JPG|right|thumb|350x350px|De final of de men's T54 400m sprint. De Netherlands ein Kenny van Weeghel dey celebrate de gold medal during de victory lap.]] [[File:IPC_European_Championships_Men's_400m_-_T12_Final.jpg|right|thumb|350x350px|De final of de men's T12 400m sprint. Germany einThomas Ulbricht win gold, hie challenge by Elmir Jabrayilov]] === Schedule === {| class="wikitable" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:90%;position:relative;" |- |bgcolor="#00cc33"|&nbsp;●&nbsp;||Opening ceremony |bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |&nbsp; &nbsp;||Events |bgcolor="#ee3333"|&nbsp;●&nbsp;||Closing ceremony |} {| class="wikitable" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:90%; line-height:1.25em;" |- align="center" ! colspan="2"| Date → || width="40px" |18 || width="40px" |19 || width="40px" |20 || width="40px" |21 || width="40px" |22 || width="40px" |23 |- align="center" | align="left" rowspan="2"| 100 m || Men<br> || ||bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T12<br/>T42<br/>T44<br/>T35<br/>T36<br/>T37<br/>T38<br/>T34<br/>T54 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T33<br/>T53<br/>T51<br/>T13<br/>T11 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T47 || || |- align="center" | Women<br> || || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T42<br/>T44<br/>T37<br/>T34<br/>T51<br/>T53 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T13<br/>T54<br/>T47<br/>T38<br/>T35<br/>T12<br/>T11 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T36 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T33<br/>T52 || |- align="center" | align="left" rowspan="2"| 200 m || Men<br>|| || ||bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T47<br/>T44 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T11<br/>T12<br/>T13<br/>T35<br/>T36<br/>T37<br/>T38<br/>T42<br/>T34<br/>T53 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T54 || |- align="center" | Women<br> || || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T36 || ||bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T12<br/>T35<br/>T44 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T11|| |- align="center" | align="left" rowspan="2"| 400 m || Men<br> || || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T51 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T44<br/>T36<br/>T54<br/>T52<br/>T12 || || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T53<br/>T37<br/>T38<br/>T47<br/>T13<br/>T20 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T11<br/>T34 |- align="center" | Women<br> || || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T13<br/>T53<br/>T47<br/>T54 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T20<br/>T52 || ||bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T44<br/>T37<br/>T38<br/>T12 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T11 |- align="center" | align="left" rowspan="2"| 800 m || Men<br>|| ||bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T53 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T38<br/>T34<br/>T36 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T54 || || |- align="center" | Women<br> || || || ||bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T53<br/>T54 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T34 || |-align="center" | align="left" rowspan="2"| 1500 m || Men<br> || || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T52 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T54 || ||bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T20 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T38<br/>T46<br/>T11 |-align="center" | Women<br> || || ||bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T11 || ||bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T13 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T46<br/>T13<br/>T20<br/>T54 |- align="center" | align="left" rowspan="2"| 5000 m || Men<br> || || ||bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T13 || ||bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T11 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T54 |-align="center" | Women<br> || || ||bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T54 || || || |- align="center" | align="left" rowspan="2"| 4 × 100 m relay || Men<br>|| || || || || ||bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T11-13 |- align="center" | Women<br>|| || || || || ||bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T35-38 |- align="center" | align="left" rowspan="2"| Long jump || Men<br> || || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T11|| bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T47<br/>T12<br/>T37 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T20|| bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T36<br/>T13 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T38<br/>T44<br/>T42 |- align="center" | Women<br> || || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T38<br/>T11 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T12 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T37<br/>T20<br/>T42 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T47<br/>T44 || |- align="center" | align="left" rowspan="1"| High jump || Men<br> || || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T12|| bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T42 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T47 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T44|| |- align="center" | align="left"| Triple jump || Men<br>|| || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |T47 || || || || |- align="center" | align="left" rowspan="2"| Shot put || Men<br>|| || bgcolor="#D0A9F5"|F20<br/>F38<br/>F57 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |F44<br/>F32 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |F34<br/>F42<br/>F36<br/>F35 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |F33<br/>F12<br/>F46 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |F55<br/>F40<br/>F37<br/>F53<br/>F41 |- align="center" | Women<br>|| || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |F37<br/>F32<br/>F35 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |F20<br/>F40<br/>F55 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |F12 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |F36<br/>F57<br/>F41 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |F33<br/>F53<br/>F34 |- align="center" | align="left" rowspan="2"| Discus throw || Men<br> || || bgcolor="#D0A9F5"|F12<br/>F34 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |F56<br/>F38 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |F52<br/>F11 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |F44 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |F57<br/>F46<br/>F42 |- align="center" | Women<br> || || bgcolor="#D0A9F5"|F55<br/>F40<br/>F52<br/>F41|| ||bgcolor="#D0A9F5"|F57 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |F11<br/>F12<br/>F44 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |F38 |- align="center" | align="left" rowspan="2"| Javelin throw || Men<br>|| || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |F46<br/>F42 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |F57<br/>F34<br/>F41 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |F44<br/>F38<br/>F56 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |F40<br/>F54 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |F12 |- align="center" | Women<br> || || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |F12 || ||bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |F56<br/>F46<br/>F37 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |F34<br/>F54 || |- align="center" | align="left" rowspan="2"| Club throw || Men<br> || || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |F32 || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |F51 || || || |- align="center" | Women<br> || || ||bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |F51 || || bgcolor="#D0A9F5" |F32|| |- align="center" | align="left" colspan="2"| Ceremonies || bgcolor="#00cc33"|● || || || || ||bgcolor="#ee3333"|● |} == Medal table == De end medal table after day 5, dey show all medal winning countries.  *   Host nation (Great Britain) {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ !Rank !Nation !Gold !Silver !Bronze !Total |- |1 !Russia |41 |29 |18 |88 |- |2 !Ukraine |17 |8 |18 |43 |- |3 !Great Britain* |16 |19 |17 |52 |- |4 !Germany |14 |17 |15 |46 |- |5 !Finland |9 |3 |4 |16 |- |6 !France |8 |8 |4 |20 |- |7 !Switzerland |8 |3 |6 |17 |- |8 !Poland |6 |15 |10 |31 |- |9 !Spain |6 |9 |10 |25 |- |10 !Netherlands |5 |4 |5 |14 |- |11 !Italy |4 |5 |2 |11 |- |12 !Bulgaria |4 |3 |4 |11 |- |13 !Turkey |4 |3 |2 |9 |- |14 !Ireland |4 |1 |0 |5 |- |15 !Sweden |3 |2 |2 |7 |- |16 !Greece |2 |5 |5 |12 |- |17 !Austria |2 |2 |0 |4 |- | rowspan="2" |18 !Croatia |2 |1 |5 |8 |- !Czech Republic |2 |1 |5 |8 |- |20 !Lithuania |2 |1 |2 |5 |- |21 !Belarus |2 |1 |1 |4 |- |22 !Latvia |2 |0 |1 |3 |- |23 !Portugal |1 |6 |3 |10 |- | rowspan="2" |24 !Azerbaijan |1 |2 |1 |4 |- !Hungary |1 |2 |1 |4 |- |26 !Slovakia |1 |1 |1 |3 |- |27 !Iceland |1 |0 |1 |2 |- |28 !Serbia |0 |5 |1 |6 |- |29 !Denmark |0 |2 |1 |3 |- |30 !Belgium |0 |2 |0 |2 |- | rowspan="2" |31 !Luxembourg |0 |1 |0 |1 |- !Norway |0 |1 |0 |1 |- |33 !Slovenia |0 |0 |1 |1 |- ! colspan="2" |Totals (33 entries) !168 !162 !146 !476 |} === Multiple medallists === Chaw competitors win multiple medals for de 2014 Championships. De athletes wey dey follow win four medals anaa more. {| class="wikitable sortable" !Name !Country !Medal !Event |- |Margarita Goncharova |Russia |Gold Gold Gold Gold |100m - T38 400m - T38 Long jump - T38 4 × 100 m relay - T35-38 |- |Henry Manni |Finland |Gold Gold Gold Gold |100m - T34 200m - T34 400m - T34 800m - T34 |- |Manuela Schär |Switzerland |Gold Gold Gold Gold |400m - T54 800m - T54 1500m - T54 5000m - T54 |- |Marcel Hug |Switzerland |Gold Gold Gold Bronze |800m - T54 1500m - T54 5000m - T54 400m - T54 |- |Kenny van Weeghel |Netherlands |Gold Gold Silver Silver |200m - T54 400m - T54 100m - T54 800m - T54 |- |Marc Schuh |Germany |Silver Bronze Bronze Bronze |400m - T54 100m - T54 200m - T54 800m - T54 |} == Highlights == === Broken records === Na dem break fourteen records wey dey include seven world records. {| class="wikitable sortable" !Event !Round !Name !Nation !Time/Distance !Date !Record |- |Men's 400m T37 |Final |Andrei Vdovin |Russia |50.91 |22 August |'''WR''' |- |Men's 5000m T13 |Final |Alexey Akhtyamov |Russia |15:07.13 |20 August |'''ER''' |- |Men's High Jump T44 |Final |Maciej Lepiato |Poland |2.17m |22 August |'''WR''' |- |Men's Discus Throw F44 |Final |Dan Greaves |Great Britain |62.34m |22 August |'''ER''' |- |Men's Discus Throw F54 |Final |Drazenko Mitrovic |Serbia |33.68 |20 August |'''WR''' |- |Women's 100m T12 |Semifinal |Oxana Boturchuk |Ukraine |12.00 |19 August |'''ER''' |- |Women's 400m T38 |Final |Margarita Goncharova |Russia |1:03.40 |22 August |'''WR''' |- |Women's 400m T44 |Final |Marie-Amelie Le Fur |France |1:01.41 |22 August |'''WR''' |- |Women's 4 × 100 m Relay T35-38 |Final |Zhanna Fekolina Margarita Goncharova Anna Sapozhnikova Svetlana Sergeeva |Russia |53.53 |23 August |'''WR''' |- |Women's Long Jump T37 |Final |Anna Sapozhnikova |Russia |4.46 |21 August |'''ER''' |- |Women's Shot Put F37 |Final |Eva Berna |Czech Republic |11.01 |19 August |'''ER''' |- |Women's Discus Throw F12 |Final |Sofia Oksem |Russia |45.97 |22 August |'''WR''' |- |Women's Javelin Throw F53 |Final |Svitlana Stetsyuk |Ukraine |10.50 |22 August |'''ER''' |- |Women's Club Throw F51 |Final |Joanna Butterfield |Great Britain |17.68 |22 August |'''ER''' |} == Nations wey participate == Below be de list of countries wey gree make dem participate insyd de Championships wey de number of athlete dem request wey dem dey place for each. * Austria 6 * Azerbaijan 5 * Belarus 6 * Belgium 5 * Bulgaria 10 * Croatia 15 * Denmark 7 * Estonia 2 * Finland 11 * France 19 * Germany 32 * Great Britain 52 * Greece 35 * Hungary 7 * Ireland 8 * Iceland 3 * Israel 2 * Italy 13 * Latvia 8 * Lithuania 11 * Luxembourg 1 * Montenegro 1 * Norway 4 * Netherlands 23 * Poland 33 * Portugal 22 * Romania 3 * Russia 74 * Serbia 9 * Slovakia 5 * Slovenia 2 * Spain 31 * Sweden 8 *  Switzerland 9 * Czech Republic 12 * Turkey 24 * Ukraine 34 == References == <references /> == External links == Wikimedia Commons get media wey relate to '''''[[commons:Category:2014_IPC_Athletics_European_Championships|2014 IPC Athletics European Championships]]'''''. * [http://www.paralympic.org/Events/swansea-2014 Official web-site] [[Category:2014 IPC Athletics European Championships]] [[Category:World Para Athletics European Championships]] [[Category:2014 insyd athletics (track den field)]] [[Category:2014 insyd European sport]] [[Category:International athletics competitions dem host by Wales]] [[Category:Sport insyd Swansea]] r8psycmie7sgqayd4fwoso7xq86v1sz 0 8256 103799 38431 2026-06-18T18:59:10Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103799 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''2006 Winter Olympics''' (Italian: ''2006 Olimpiadi invernali''), officially de '''XX Olympic Winter Games''' (Italian: ''XX Giochi olimpici invernali'') dem sanso know am as '''Torino 2006''', na ebe winter multi-sport event dem hold from 10 to 26 February insyd Turin, Italy. Dis mark de second time Italy host de Winter Olympics, de first be insyd 1956 insyd Cortina d'Ampezzo; na Italy sanso host de Summer Olympics insyd 1960 insyd Rome. Na dem select Turin as de host city give de 2006 Games insyd June 1999. Na de official motto of Torino 2006 be "Passion lives here".<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080216091149/http://www.torino2006.org/ENG/OlympicGames/bin/page/C_3_page_eng_283_paragraphs_paragrafo_0_attachments_allegato_7_object.pdf "Italian Passion in the Motto of Torino 2006"] (PDF). ''Torino 2006''. Archived from [http://www.torino2006.org/ENG/OlympicGames/bin/page/C_3_page_eng_283_paragraphs_paragrafo_0_attachments_allegato_7_object.pdf the original] (PDF) on 16 February 2008. Retrieved 18 April 2007.</ref><ref>[https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20231102-italy-s-dormant-bobsleigh-track-ready-for-troubled-2026-winter-olympics "Italy's dormant bobsleigh track ready for troubled 2026 Winter Olympics"]. ''France 24''. 2 November 2023. Retrieved 3 September 2024.</ref> De Games ein logo depict stylized profile of de Mole Antonelliana building, dem draw for white den blue ice crystals insyd, wey dey signify de snow den de sky. Na de crystal web sanso mean make e portray de web of fresh technologies den de Olympic spirit of community. Na de 2006 Olympic mascots be Neve ("snow" insyd Italian), female snowball, den Gliz, male ice cube.<ref>[http://www.olympic.org/uk/games/torino/open_mascotte_uk.asp "Torino 2006 Mascots"]. ''olympic.org''. IOC. [https://web.archive.org/web/20100526214256/http://www.olympic.org/uk/games/torino/open_mascotte_uk.asp Archived] from the original on 26 May 2010. Retrieved 18 April 2007.</ref> Dem schedule Italy make e host de [[2026 Winter Paralympics|Winter Olympics in 2026]] insyd Milan den Cortina d'Ampezzo, 20 years after de 2006 event. == Host city selection == [[File:PassionLivesHere.jpg|thumb|"Passion lives here", de Turin 2006 motto de Italian calligrapher Francesca Biasetton wrep.]] Na dem choose Turin as de host of de Olympics for de 109th IOC Session insyd Seoul, South Korea for 19 June 1999.<ref name=":0">[http://www.gamesbids.com/english/archives/past.shtml "Olympic Bid Election History—Voting Records and Results"]. GamesBids. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080510132655/http://www.gamesbids.com/english/archives/past.shtml Archived] from the original on 10 May 2008. Retrieved 19 April 2007.</ref> Na dis decision be de first bidding process, after de IOC adopt fresh election procedures during de 108th Extraordinary IOC Session insyd light of de controversies wey dey surround de votes give de 1998 den 2002 Winter Olympics.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070614134114/http://www.worldgames-iwga.org/vsite/vfile/page/fileurl/0,11040,1044-163474-180689-13798-0-file,00.pdf "World Games News"] (PDF). International World Games Association. April 1999. Archived from [http://www.worldgames-iwga.org/vsite/vfile/page/fileurl/0,11040,1044-163474-180689-13798-0-file,00.pdf the original] (PDF) on 14 June 2007. Retrieved 19 April 2007.</ref> Since na dem forbid IOC members from make dem visit de candidate cities (for de interests of make dem reduce bribery), de 109th IOC Session elect special body, de Selection College, make dem choose finalist cities from de pool of candidate cities after each make dema final presentations to de full IOC Session. De full IOC Session then vote for de cities dem choose as finalist cities by de Selection College. Although six European cities present dema projects. Two per go advance to de final stage, wich na be de choice of de host city. For de first phase, all for make de preliminary presentation for full IOC Session insyd. All de members of de Selection College for be present for de audience wey na ebe dema responsibility make dem decide wich go be de two finalists. Dem decide say na de cities be: de big favorite Sion den de dark horse of de process: Turin.<ref name=":0" /> Na dem drop de bids of Helsinki, Finland; Poprad-Tatry, Slovakia; Zakopane, Poland; den Klagenfurt, Austria by de Selection College after all six bidding cities make dema presentations.<ref>[http://www.olympic.org/uk/games/torino/election_uk.asp "Turin 2006—Election"]. International Olympic Committee. [https://web.archive.org/web/20100609164614/http://www.olympic.org/uk/games/torino/election_uk.asp Archived] from the original on 9 June 2010. Retrieved 19 April 2007.</ref> De selection of Turin over Sion cam as surprise around de world since na dem see de Swiss city as de overwhelming favorite for part secof de IOC get dema headquarters insyd Switzerland.<ref>[https://www.usatoday.com/sports/olympics/2006-10-18-hodler-obit_x.htm "Olympic corruption whistle-blower Hodler dies"]. ''USA Today''. 18 October 2006. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110604100427/http://www.usatoday.com/sports/olympics/2006-10-18-hodler-obit_x.htm Archived] from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 19 April 2007.</ref> Sam analysts attribute de choice of Turin as reaction to Swiss IOC member Marc Hodler ein role for he expose de bribery scandal wey dey surround Salt Lake City ein bid for de 2002 Winter Olympics.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110604100518/http://sports.espn.go.com/oly/winter02/gen/news?id=1340126 "Italian city prepares for next Winter Olympics"]. Associated Press/ESPN. 24 February 2002. Archived from [http://sports.espn.go.com/oly/winter02/gen/news?id=1340126 the original] on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 19 April 2007.</ref> De information below dem cam from de International Olympic Committee Vote History [https://web.archive.org/web/20080525070757/http://www.aldaver.com/votes.html Archived] 25 May 2008 at de Wayback Machine web page. {| class="wikitable" |+2006 Winter Olympics bidding results<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110124022022/http://www.gamesbids.com/eng/past.html "GamesBids.com - Past Results"]. 24 January 2011. Archived from [http://www.gamesbids.com/eng/past.html the original] on 24 January 2011.</ref><ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rgx6Ds_7R0o "2006 Winter Olympic Games Announcement"]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20191106233426/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rgx6Ds_7R0o&gl=US&hl=en Archived] from the original on 6 November 2019. Retrieved 20 December 2016 – via www.youtube.com.</ref> !City !Country | style="background:silver;" |'''Round 1''' |- |'''Turin''' |'''Italy''' | style="text-align:center;" |'''53''' |- |Sion |Switzerland | style="text-align:center;" |36 |} == Cost den cost overrun == ''The Oxford Olympics Study'' establish de outturn cost of de Torino 2006 Winter Olympics for US$4.4 billion insyd 2015-dollars den cost overrun for 80% insyd real terms.<ref>Flyvbjerg, Bent; Stewart, Allison; Budzier, Alexander (2016). ''The Oxford Olympics Study 2016: Cost and Cost Overrun at the Games''. Oxford: Saïd Business School Working Papers (Oxford: University of Oxford). pp. 9–13. SSRN [https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2804554 2804554].</ref> Dis dey include sports-related costs per, wey be, (i) ''operational costs'' dem incur by de organizing committee for de purpose of staging de Games, e.g., expenditures give technology, transportation, workforce, administration, security, catering, ceremonies, den medical services, den (ii) ''direct capital costs'' dem incur by de host city den country anaa private investors make dem build, e.g., de competition venues, de Olympic village, international broadcast center, den media den press center, wich dem require make dem host de Games. Dem no include indirect capital costs, such as for road, rail, anaa airport infrastructure, anaa for hotel upgrades anaa oda business investment dem incur for preparation give de Games buh no directly relate to staging de Games. De cost den cost overrun give Torino 2006 dey compare plus costs of US$2.5 billion den cost overrun of 13% for Vancouver 2010, den costs of US$51 billion den cost overrun of 289% give Sochi 2014, de latter be de most costly Olympics to date. Average cost give Winter Games since 1960 be US$3.1 billion, average cost overrun be 142%. == Sports == De 2006 Winter Olympics feature 84 medal events over 15 disciplines insyd 7 sports.<ref>[http://olympic.org/uk/games/past/index_uk.asp?OLGT=2&OLGY=2006 "Turin 2006—XXth Olympic Winter Games"]. International Olympic Committee. [https://web.archive.org/web/20060609161212/http://olympic.org/uk/games/past/index_uk.asp?OLGT=2&OLGY=2006 Archived] from the original on 9 June 2006. Retrieved 18 April 2007.</ref> Unlike de previous 4 editions, na dem no introduce sport/discipline to de program insyd dis edition. However, na dem add 8 fresh events insyd disciplines wey na dem already exist insyd de Olympic Program.Na de list of fresh events be mass start insyd biathlon, team sprint insyd cross-country skiing, border cross insyd snowboard den de team pursuit insyd speed skating.Insyd all dese events na dem hold both events give men den women.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070418115011/http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_851.pdf "Factsheet—Olympic Winter Programme"] (PDF). International Olympic Committee. 7 February 2007. Archived from [http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_851.pdf the original] (PDF) on 18 April 2007. Retrieved 18 April 2007.</ref> Secof number of changes dem make by de International Ski Federation, na dis be de first edition of de Winter Olympic Games for wich na dem implement rotation system between skiing styles. For dis way insyd, de long cross-country skiing events (30 km give de women den 50 km give men) wey na dem contest insyd de classic system during de 2002 Winter Olympics na dem alternate am plus de freestyle system. De list wey dey follow dey show de sports den disciplines wey na dem contest for de 2006 Games. # '''Biathlon''' #* Biathlon <small>(10)</small> # '''Bobsleigh''' #* Bobsleigh <small>(3)</small> #* Skeleton <small>(2)</small> # '''Curling''' #* Curling <small>(2)</small> # '''Ice hockey''' #* Ice hockey <small>(2)</small> # '''Luge''' #* Luge <small>(3)</small> # '''Skating''' #* Figure skating <small>(4)</small> #* Short track speed skating <small>(8)</small> #* Speed skating <small>(12)</small> # '''Skiing''' #* [[File:Alpine_skiing_pictogram.svg|link=|alt=|20x20px]] Alpine skiing <small>(10)</small> #* Cross-country skiing <small>(12)</small> #* Freestyle skiing <small>(4)</small> #* Nordic combined <small>(3)</small> #* Ski jumping <small>(3)</small> #* Snowboarding <small>(6)</small> ''Numbers insyd parentheses dey indicate de number of medal events dem contest insyd each separate discipline.'' == Calendar == : ''All dates be insyd Central European Time (UTC+1)'' {| class="wikitable" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:90%;position:relative;" | style="width:2.5em; background:#00cc33; text-align:center" |'''OC''' |Opening ceremony | style="width:2.5em; background:#3399ff; text-align:center" |● |Event competitions | style="width:2.5em; background:#ffcc00; text-align:center" |'''1''' |Event finals | style="width:2.5em; background:#ffdead; text-align:center" |'''EG''' |Exhibition gala | style="width:2.5em; background:#FF8888; text-align:center" |'''CC''' |Closing ceremony |} {| class="wikitable" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:90%; line-height:1.25em;" ! colspan="2" |February ! style="width:2.5em" |10th Fri ! style="width:2.5em" |11th Sat ! style="width:2.5em" |12th Sun ! style="width:2.5em" |13th Mon ! style="width:2.5em" |14th Tue ! style="width:2.5em" |15th Wed ! style="width:2.5em" |16th Thu ! style="width:2.5em" |17th Fri ! style="width:2.5em" |18th Sat ! style="width:2.5em" |19th Sun ! style="width:2.5em" |20th Mon ! style="width:2.5em" |21st Tue ! style="width:2.5em" |22nd Wed ! style="width:2.5em" |23rd Thu ! style="width:2.5em" |24th Fri ! style="width:2.5em" |25th Sat ! style="width:2.5em" |26th Sun !Events |- | colspan="2" |[[File:Olympic_Rings_Icon.svg|link=|alt=|20x20px]] Ceremonies | bgcolor="#00cc33" align="center" |'''OC''' | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | bgcolor="#FF8888" align="center" |'''CC''' | |- align="center" | colspan="2" align="left" |[[File:Alpine_skiing_pictogram.svg|link=|alt=|20x20px]] Alpine skiing <!-- 10 --> |<!-- 11 --> |<!-- 12 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 13 --> |<!-- 14 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 15 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 16 --> |<!-- 17 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 18 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''2''' <!-- 19 --> |<!-- 20 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''2''' <!-- 21 --> |<!-- 22 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 23 --> |<!-- 24 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 25 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 26 --> |<!-- T --> |'''10''' |- align="center" | colspan="2" align="left" |[[File:Biathlon_pictogram.svg|link=|alt=|20x20px]] Biathlon <!-- 10 --> |<!-- 11 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 12 --> |<!-- 13 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 14 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 15 --> |<!-- 16 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 17 --> |<!-- 18 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''2''' <!-- 19 --> |<!-- 20 --> |<!-- 21 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 22 --> |<!-- 23 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 24 --> |<!-- 25 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''2''' <!-- 26 --> |<!-- T --> |'''10''' |- align="center" | colspan="2" align="left" |[[File:Bobsleigh_pictogram.svg|link=|alt=|20x20px]] Bobsleigh <!-- 10 --> |<!-- 11 --> |<!-- 12 --> |<!-- 13 --> |<!-- 14 --> |<!-- 15 --> |<!-- 16 --> |<!-- 17 --> |<!-- 18 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 19 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 20 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 21 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 22 --> |<!-- 23 --> |<!-- 24 --> |<!-- 25 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 26 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- T --> |'''3''' |- align="center" | colspan="2" align="left" |[[File:Cross_country_skiing_pictogram.svg|link=|alt=|20x20px]] Cross country skiing <!-- 10 --> |<!-- 11 --> |<!-- 12 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''2''' <!-- 13 --> |<!-- 14 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''2''' <!-- 15 --> |<!-- 16 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 17 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 18 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 19 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 20 --> |<!-- 21 --> |<!-- 22 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''2''' <!-- 23 --> |<!-- 24 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 25 --> |<!-- 26 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- T --> |'''12''' |- align="center" | colspan="2" align="left" |[[File:Curling_pictogram.svg|link=|alt=|20x20px]] Curling <!-- 10 --> |<!-- 11 --> |<!-- 12 --> |<!-- 13 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 14 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 15 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 16 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 17 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 18 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 19 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 20 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 21 --> |<!-- 22 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 23 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 24 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 25 --> |<!-- 26 --> |<!-- T --> |'''2''' |- align="center" | colspan="2" align="left" |[[File:Figure_skating_pictogram.svg|link=|alt=|20x20px]] Figure skating <!-- 10 --> |<!-- 11 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 12 --> |<!-- 13 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 14 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 15 --> |<!-- 16 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 17 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 18 --> |<!-- 19 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 20 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 21 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 22 --> |<!-- 23 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 24 --> | bgcolor="#ffdead" |'''EG''' <!-- 25 --> |<!-- 26 --> |<!-- T --> |'''4''' |- align="center" | colspan="2" align="left" |[[File:Freestyle_skiing_pictogram.svg|link=|alt=|20x20px]] Freestyle skiing <!-- 10 --> |<!-- 11 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 12 --> |<!-- 13 --> |<!-- 14 --> |<!-- 15 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 16 --> |<!-- 17 --> |<!-- 18 --> |<!-- 19 --> |<!-- 20 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 21 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 22 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 23 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 24 --> |<!-- 25 --> |<!-- 26 --> |<!-- T --> |'''4''' |- align="center" | colspan="2" align="left" |[[File:Ice_hockey_pictogram.svg|link=|alt=|20x20px]] Ice hockey <!-- 10 --> |<!-- 11 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 12 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 13 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 14 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 15 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 16 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 17 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 18 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 19 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 20 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 21 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 22 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 23 --> |<!-- 24 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 25 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 26 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- T --> |'''2''' |- align="center" | colspan="2" align="left" |[[File:Luge_pictogram.svg|link=|alt=|20x20px]] Luge <!-- 10 --> |<!-- 11 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 12 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 13 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 14 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 15 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 16 --> |<!-- 17 --> |<!-- 18 --> |<!-- 19 --> |<!-- 20 --> |<!-- 21 --> |<!-- 22 --> |<!-- 23 --> |<!-- 24 --> |<!-- 25 --> |<!-- 26 --> |<!-- T --> |'''3''' |- align="center" | colspan="2" align="left" |[[File:Nordic_combined_pictogram.svg|link=|alt=|20x20px]] Nordic combined <!-- 10 --> |<!-- 11 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 12 --> |<!-- 13 --> |<!-- 14 --> |<!-- 15 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 16 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 17 --> |<!-- 18 --> |<!-- 19 --> |<!-- 20 --> |<!-- 21 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 22 --> |<!-- 23 --> |<!-- 24 --> |<!-- 25 --> |<!-- 26 --> |<!-- T --> |'''3''' |- align="center" | colspan="2" align="left" |[[File:Short_track_speed_skating_pictogram.svg|link=|alt=|20x20px]] Short track speed skating <!-- 10 --> |<!-- 11 --> |<!-- 12 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 13 --> |<!-- 14 --> |<!-- 15 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 16 --> |<!-- 17 --> |<!-- 18 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''2''' <!-- 19 --> |<!-- 20 --> |<!-- 21 --> |<!-- 22 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 23 --> |<!-- 24 --> |<!-- 25 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''3''' <!-- 26 --> |<!-- T --> |'''8''' |- align="center" | colspan="2" align="left" |[[File:Skeleton_pictogram.svg|link=|alt=|20x20px]] Skeleton <!-- 10 --> |<!-- 11 --> |<!-- 12 --> |<!-- 13 --> |<!-- 14 --> |<!-- 15 --> |<!-- 16 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 17 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 18 --> |<!-- 19 --> |<!-- 20 --> |<!-- 21 --> |<!-- 22 --> |<!-- 23 --> |<!-- 24 --> |<!-- 25 --> |<!-- 26 --> |<!-- T --> |'''2''' |- align="center" | colspan="2" align="left" |[[File:Ski_jumping_pictogram.svg|link=|alt=|20x20px]] Ski jumping <!-- 10 --> |<!-- 11 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 12 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 13 --> |<!-- 14 --> |<!-- 15 --> |<!-- 16 --> |<!-- 17 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 18 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 19 --> |<!-- 20 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 21 --> |<!-- 22 --> |<!-- 23 --> |<!-- 24 --> |<!-- 25 --> |<!-- 26 --> |<!-- T --> |'''3''' |- align="center" | colspan="2" align="left" |[[File:Snowboarding_pictogram.svg|link=|alt=|20x20px]] Snowboarding <!-- 10 --> |<!-- 11 --> |<!-- 12 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 13 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 14 --> |<!-- 15 --> |<!-- 16 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 17 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 18 --> |<!-- 19 --> |<!-- 20 --> |<!-- 21 --> |<!-- 22 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 23 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 24 --> |<!-- 25 --> |<!-- 26 --> |<!-- T --> |'''6''' |- align="center" | colspan="2" align="left" |[[File:Speed_skating_pictogram.svg|link=|alt=|20x20px]] Speed skating <!-- 10 --> |<!-- 11 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 12 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 13 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 14 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 15 --> | bgcolor="#3399ff" |● <!-- 16 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''2''' <!-- 17 --> |<!-- 18 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 19 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 20 --> |<!-- 21 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 22 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 23 --> |<!-- 24 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 25 --> | bgcolor="#ffcc00" |'''1''' <!-- 26 --> |<!-- T --> |'''12''' |- ! colspan="2" |Total events ! !4 !8 !4 !6 !4 !8 !3 !9 !3 !5 !4 !7 !5 !4 !7 !3 ! rowspan="2" |84 |- ! colspan="2" |Cumulative total ! !4 !12 !16 !22 !26 !34 !37 !46 !49 !54 !58 !65 !70 !74 !81 !84 |- ! colspan="2" |February ! style="width:2.5em" |10th Fri ! style="width:2.5em" |11th Sat ! style="width:2.5em" |12th Sun ! style="width:2.5em" |13th Mon ! style="width:2.5em" |14th Tue ! style="width:2.5em" |15th Wed ! style="width:2.5em" |16th Thu ! style="width:2.5em" |17th Fri ! style="width:2.5em" |18th Sat ! style="width:2.5em" |19th Sun ! style="width:2.5em" |20th Mon ! style="width:2.5em" |21st Tue ! style="width:2.5em" |22nd Wed ! style="width:2.5em" |23rd Thu ! style="width:2.5em" |24th Fri ! style="width:2.5em" |25th Sat ! style="width:2.5em" |26th Sun !Events |} ==Medal table== [[File:Torino 2006 Medals Plaza.jpg|thumb|300px|Victory ceremony for Medals Plaza]] De top ten list NOCs by number of gold medals dem list dem below.  Host country (Italy) ''Make you sort dis table by nation, total medal count, any any other column, make you click for de [[File:sort both.gif]] icon top next to de column title.'' {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ !Rank !Nation !Gold !Silver !Bronze !Total |- |1 !Germany |11 |12 |6 |29 |- |2 !United States |9 |9 |7 |25 |- |3 !Austria |9 |7 |7 |23 |- |4 !Russia |8 |6 |8 |22 |- |5 !Canada |7 |10 |7 |24 |- |6 !Sweden |7 |2 |5 |14 |- |7 !South Korea |6 |3 |2 |11 |- |8 !Switzerland |5 |4 |5 |14 |- |9 !Italy* |5 |0 |6 |11 |- | rowspan="2" |10 !France |3 |2 |4 |9 |- !Netherlands |3 |2 |4 |9 |- ! colspan="2" |Totals (11 entries) !73 !57 !61 !191 |} ===Podium sweeps=== {| class="wikitable" |+ !Date !Sport !Event !NOC !Gold !Silver !Bronze |- |14 February |Luge |Women's singles |Germany |Sylke Otto |Silke Kraushaar |Tatjana Hüfner |- |25 February |Alpine Skiing |Men's slalom |Austria |Benjamin Raich |Reinfried Herbst |Rainer Schönfelder |} == Highlights == [[File:Piazza_Carlo_Felice_Torino.JPG|thumb|2006 Olympics logo for display insyd de Carlo Felice Square, insyd Turin]] === Day 1 (Opening Ceremony) === [[Stefania Belmondo]], 10-time Olympic medalist insyd cross-country skiing, light de Olympic Flame during de opening ceremony for 10 February. Before dat, na dem celebrate de ceremony de best of Italy den Sport wey dey include segment wey dey honor de Alps. De FilmMaster Group K-events (from March 2012: Filmmaster Events) create den produce de Opening den Closing Ceremonies of de XX Winter Olympic Games insyd Turin insyd 2006. Executive Producer Marco Balich, Content Supervisor Alfredo Accatino, Art Direction Lida Castelli. Monica Maimone of Studio Festi direct de section ''From Renaissance To Baroque'', part of de Opening Ceremony.<ref>[https://www.webcitation.org/5wfdPToxz?url=http://www.sportsnetwork.com/default.asp?c=sportsnetwork&page=olymp%2F2006%2Farchive%2Fsummary10.htm "Olympic Daily News"]. The Sports Network. 10 February 2006. Archived from [http://www.sportsnetwork.com/default.asp?c=sportsnetwork&page=olymp/2006/archive/summary10.htm the original] on 21 February 2011. Retrieved 18 April 2007.</ref><ref>[http://www.olympic.org/uk/games/torino/torch_relay/full_story_uk.asp?id=1670 "Torino 2006: Flame in the Tallest Cauldron"]. International Olympic Committee. 11 February 2006. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090730042446/http://www.olympic.org/uk/games/torino/torch_relay/full_story_uk.asp?id=1670 Archived] from the original on 30 July 2009. Retrieved 18 April 2007.</ref> === Day 2 === Na dem award de first gold medal of de 2006 Games insyd de 20 kilometre biathlon, German Michael Greis win for de first day of competition. Ice hockey begin plus de women's competition; Sweden defeat Russia 3–1 insyd de first match while Canada ein team open plus de second most lopsided win insyd Olympic history by dem beat de host Italians 16–0. === Day 3 === For 12 February, Latvia win ein first winter Olympic medal wen Mārtiņš Rubenis take de bronze insyd de men's luge. Armin Zöggeler ein win insyd dat event give Italy ein first gold medal of de Games wey e give Zöggeler medals for four consecutive Olympics, wey dey include two golds in a row. Insys Alpine skiing, na Antoine Deneriaz of France win de men's downhill. === Day 4 === Chinese figure skating pair Zhang Dan den Zhang Hao, dey trail dominant Russian pair, dem attempt a throw quadruple salchow jump— element wich na e never be successfully dem plete insyd competition. Zhang Dan fall, wey she injure ein knee, buh de pair fini dema program to standing ovation wey dem take de silver medal. Russia fini de third day of competition plus two gold medals, as de United States do. === Day 5 === De fourth day see Evgeni Plushenko of Russia set world record score insyd de men's figure skating short program; ein 90.66 points exceed de nearest opponent ein score by more dan 10 points. Na dem riddle de men's combined alpine skiing plus disqualifications, wey dey include front-runners Bode Miller den Benjamin Raich. American Ted Ligety win de event for wat na dem consider an upset. === Day 6 === Canada get anoda strong day for 15 February, wey dem set fresh Olympic records insyd both men's den women's pursuit team speed skating events as well as dem gbele de men's ice hockey competition plus win against Italy. Italy fini de day plus de men's pursuit team Olympic record, however, after de Netherlands better Canada ein time wey Italy improve upon dema own. China win ein first gold of 2006 plus Wang Meng ein victory insyd de women's individual 500-metre short track speed skating. Pair of Austrian bros Andreas Linger den Wolfgang Linger win de men's doubles luge while Michaela Dorfmeister give de nation anoda championship insyd de women's downhill. === Day 7 === Kristina Šmigun win ein second gold medal of de Games plus victory insyd de women's 10 kilometre classical cross-country skiing for 16 February, wey remain de Estonian per to medal. Insyd men's curling action, Great Britain edge Germany 7–6, Switzerland keep New Zealand winless by dem win 9–7, Canada beat Norway 7–6, wey de United States defeat Sweden, 10–6. Evgeni Plushenko of Russia win de gold insyd de men's singles artistic skating. === Day 8 === For 17 February, Tanja Frieden of Switzerland take de gold insyd women's snowboard cross after Lindsey Jacobellis of de United States fall for de second-to-last jump while dem perform unnecessary method grab. Jacobellis settle give silver (she win gold if na she no perform de grab), while Canada ein Dominique Maltais take bronze after she recover from crash. Duff Gibson of Canada take gold insyd de skeleton just ahead of fellow Canadian Jeff Pain, wey he cam turn de oldest individual gold medalist insyd Winter Olympics history. Insyd de women's ice hockey semifinals, de United States loose shootout to Sweden, dey mark de first time insyd international competition wey de United States loose to anyone oda dan Canada.<ref>Burnside, Scott (17 February 2006). [https://www.espn.com/olympics/winter06/hockey/columns/story?id=2334389 "Semifinal stunner changes women's hockey map"]. ''espn.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200708012336/https://www.espn.com/olympics/winter06/hockey/columns/story?id=2334389 Archived] from the original on 8 July 2020. Retrieved 7 July 2020.</ref> Canada ein win maintain ein record of e never loose to any bro oda dan de United States.<ref>Marsh, James H. (21 July 2013). [https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/ice-hockey "Ice Hockey in Canada"]. The Canadian Encyclopedia. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220429030451/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/ice-hockey Archived] from the original on 29 April 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2020. <q>Canada and the US were again widely considered to be the gold and silver medal contenders, but Sweden managed to eke out the US to play the final match with Canada. Team Canada claimed gold with a 4–1 victory. It was the first time that both Canada and US had faced serious contenders in international women's hockey besides each other.</q></ref> === Day 9 === Kjetil André Aamodt win gold give Norway insyd de men's super-G for 18 February, wey he beat Hermann Maier of Austria. Germans Kati Wilhelm den Martina Glagow fini first den second insyd de 10 kilometre biathlon pursuit. De host Italians defeat Canada insyd men's curling, while Switzerland do de same insyd men's ice hockey make e put de Canadians for de wrong end of two major upsets for de same day. De United States men's ice hockey team suffer ein first loss of de tournament as Slovakia den Russia continue dema dominance of de pool. === Day 10 === Lascelles Brown cam turn de first Jamaican-born competitor make he win medal for de Winter Olympics for 19 February, wey he compete for de Canadian 2-man bobsleigh team wich na he fini second insyd extremely tight competition. Na de German pair be .21&nbsp;seconds per ahead of de Canadians, dema selves .14 per ahead of de Swiss team. Finland continue e be unbeaten insyd men's ice hockey, wey hand Canada ein second loss. De day sanso see de most hyped event of dese games, at least insyd Europe, as na dem schedule de Men's 10 km Cross Country Relay. De battle stem from de Lillehammer games 12 years ago for wich Italy out-duel Norway insyd dat very same event. To dat extent, chaw Norwegians want make dem win dis event so say dem go embarrass de Italians for dema home turf top, buh na e for no be as Italy crush de field wey dem win over Germany by over 15 seconds make dem take dema 5th straight gold insyd dis event. Norway fail make dem medal for de first time since 1988. === Day 11 === Na de final day of curling pool play be 20 February; Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, den Canada advance to de women's semifinals while Finland, Canada, de United States, den Great Britain qualify insyd de men's competition. Austria take dema first team gold medal insyd ski jumping, while Canada take dema second insyd women's ice hockey. === Day 12 === Slovakia den Finland both win dema final men's ice hockey games for 21 February make dem win dema respective pools plus 5–0–0 records. Enrico Fabris give de host nation anoda gold medal insyd speed skating by he win de men's 1500 metres. === Day 13 === For 22 February, de twelfth day of competition, Anja Pärson win ein first gold medal insyd de women's slalom; na ebe ein fifth overall Olympic medal den third of de 2006 Games. Chandra Crawford take quicker route to de top of de podium, wey she win de 1.1 kilometre cross-country sprint gold insyd ein Olympic debut. Insyd de men's ice hockey quarterfinals, de previously undefeated Slovaks loose to de Czech Republic while Russia, Finland, den Sweden eliminate Canada, de United States, den Switzerland, respectively. Philipp Schoch successfully defend ein snowboarding giant slalom gold against ein bro Simon. === Day 14 === Sweden take xe women's championship insyd de curling finals dem hold for 23 February. Shizuka Arakawa give Japan ein first gold medal of de Games den first figure skating gold medal, wey she win de ladies dema figure skating competition for part by she be able make she fini widout falling, as Sasha Cohen den Irina Slutskaya both tumble. Russia wrest de gold medal insyd women's team biathlon from Germany. === Day 15 === Na 24 February be de day of de men's curling finals, for wich Canada win ein first gold medal den de United States win ein first medal insyd de sport as Canada defeat Finland den de United States beat Great Britain for de second time. Na dem sanso hold de figure skating gala, plus top placers insyd all of de events dey perform exhibitions. Sweden den Finland win dema men's ice hockey semifinal games, wey dem defeat de Czech Republic den Russia. === Day 16 === De Austrians sweep de men's alpine slalom medals for 25 February, Benjamin Raich lead am. Germany take gold medals insyd de men's 15 kilometer biathlon den de men's individual bobsleigh. Apolo Anton Ohno win ein second short track speed skating gold medal. South Korea ein Jin Sun-Yu win ein third gold of de Games insyd de women's 1000 m. Compatriot Ahn Hyun-Soo win ein third gold medal of de Games, wey he medal insyd every men's short track event wey he bring ein total number of medals insyd Turin to four. === Day 17 (Closing ceremony) === Na dem hold de final day of competition den de closing ceremony, during de Sunday Carnival for 26 February. De Swedish men's ice hockey team hand Finland dema first loss insyd de final make dem take de gold medal. Insyd de closing ceremony, Manuela Di Centa, seven-time Olympic medalist wey komot Italy den then-member of de International Olympic Committee, na dem schedule am make she present de medals for de men's 50-kilometre cross-country skiing event. Dis result in she present de gold medal to ein own bro wen Giorgio Di Centa win de event to take ein second gold medal. == Venues == === Olympic areas === Na dem mainly hold Olympic events insyd Turin, buh oda events (namely skiing, snowboarding, den de track sports) na dem hold dem insyd mountainous outlying villages for obvious reasons. ==== Turin ==== Na chaw venues locate insyd de Olympic District insyd central Turin, wey dey include: * Oval Lingotto – Speed skating * Torino Esposizioni – Ice hockey * Palasport Olimpico – Ice hockey (final) * Stadio Olimpico – Opening den closing ceremonies * Palavela – Figure skating, short-track speed skating * Piazza Castello - awarding ceremonies * Olympic Village ==== Other locations ==== [[File:Map_of_the_XX_Olympic_Winter_Games_(english).png|thumb|Location of venues]] * Bardonecchia – Snowboarding * Cesana Pariol – Bobsleigh, Luge, Skeleton * Cesana San Sicario – Biathlon * Pinerolo – Curling * Pragelato – Nordic combined (ski jumping), Ski jumping * Pragelato Plan – Cross-country skiing, Nordic combined (cross-country skiing) * San Sicario Fraiteve – Alpine skiing (women's combined (downhill), downhill, den super-g) * Sauze d'Oulx – Freestyle skiing * Sestriere Borgata – Alpine skiing (men's combined (downhill), downhill, super-g) * Sestriere Colle – Alpine skiing (combined (slalom), giant slalom, slalom) === Olympic villages === * Bardonecchia * Sestriere * Turin === Official Olympic training sites === * Chiomonte * Claviere * Prali * Alpe Lusentino - Domodossola (VB) (Alpine Skiing) * Riale - Formazza (VB) (Nordic Skiing) === Olympic mountain training site === * Torre Pellice == National Olympic Committees wey dey participate == [[File:2006_Winter_olympics_team_numbers.PNG|right|thumb|300x300px|Number of athletes sent from participating NOCs: 1–9; blue: 10–49; orange: 50–99; red: 100 or more.]] Record 80 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) enter athletes for de 2006 Winter Olympic Games. Na dis be increase of two from de 78 wey represent for de 2002 Olympic Winter Games. De number insyd parentheses dey indicate de number of participants wey NOC contribute. Na ebe de first appearance for Albania, [[Ethiopia]] den [[Madagascar]]. Na ebe de appearance per for de Winter Olympics give Serbia and Montenegro, dey cam between de country ein name change insyd 2003 from de Federal Republic of Yugoslavia den Montenegro ein then-pending vote for independence insyd May 2006. [[Algeria]] return to de Winter games after 14-year absence, [[Senegal]] return to de Winter games after 12-year absence, den Luxembourg, North Korea den Portugal return after 8 years. Six countries, [[Cameroon]], Fiji, Jamaica, Mexico, Puerto Rico den Trinidad and Tobago wich na dem be for de 2002 Games, no participate insyd 2006. {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" !National Olympic Committees wey dey participate |- | * Albania (1) * Algeria (2) * Andorra (3) * Argentina (9) * Armenia (5) * Australia (40) * Austria (73) * Azerbaijan (2) * Belarus (28) * Belgium (4) * Bermuda (1) * Bosnia and Herzegovina (6) * Brazil (9) * Bulgaria (21) * Canada (191) * Chile (9) * China (73) * Costa Rica (1) * Croatia (23) * Cyprus (1) * Czech Republic (83) * Denmark (4) * Estonia (26) * Ethiopia (1) * Finland (90) * France (82) * Georgia (3) * Germany (155) * Great Britain (39) * Greece (5) * Hong Kong (1) * Hungary (19) * Iceland (5) * India (4) * Iran (2) * Ireland (4) * Israel (5) * Italy (179) '''(host)''' * Japan (110) * Kazakhstan (55) * Kenya (1) * North Korea (6) * South Korea (40) * Kyrgyzstan (1) * Latvia (57) * Lebanon (3) * Liechtenstein (5) * Lithuania (7) * Luxembourg (1) * Macedonia (3) * Madagascar (1) * Moldova (6) * Monaco (4) * Mongolia (2) * Nepal (1) * Netherlands (33) * New Zealand (15) * Norway (67) * Poland (45) * Portugal (1) * Romania (25) * Russia (174) * San Marino (1) * Senegal (1) * Serbia and Montenegro (6) * Slovakia (58) * Slovenia (36) * South Africa (3) * Spain (16) * Sweden (106) * Switzerland (125) * Chinese Taipei (1) * Tajikistan (1) * Thailand (1) * Turkey (6) * Ukraine (52) * United States (204) * Uzbekistan (4) * Venezuela (1) * Virgin Islands (1) |} === Number of athletes by National Olympic Committee === 2,494 athletes from 80 NOCs participate insyd de 2006 Winter Olympics. {| class="wikitable sortable" !IOC Letter Code !Country !Athletes |- |ALB |Albania |1 |- |ALG |Algeria |2 |- |AND |Andorra |3 |- |ARG |Argentina |9 |- |ARM |Armenia |5 |- |AUS |Australia |40 |- |AUT |Austria |73 |- |AZE |Azerbaijan |2 |- |BLR |Belarus |28 |- |BEL |Belgium |4 |- |BER |Bermuda |1 |- |BIH |Bosnia and Herzegovina |6 |- |BRA |Brazil |9 |- |BUL |Bulgaria |21 |- |CAN |Canada |191 |- |CHI |Chile |9 |- |CHN |China |73 |- |CRC |Costa Rica |1 |- |CRO |Croatia |23 |- |CYP |Cyprus |1 |- |CZE |Czech Republic |83 |- |DEN |Denmark |4 |- |EST |Estonia |26 |- |ETH |Ethiopia |1 |- |FIN |Finland |90 |- |FRA |France |82 |- |GEO |Georgia |3 |- |GER |Germany |155 |- |GBR |Great Britain |39 |- |GRE |Greece |5 |- |HKG |Hong Kong |1 |- |HUN |Hungary |19 |- |ISL |Iceland |5 |- |IND |India |4 |- |IRI |Iran |2 |- |IRL |Ireland |4 |- |ISR |Israel |5 |- |ITA |Italy |179 |- |JPN |Japan |110 |- |KAZ |Kazakhstan |55 |- |KEN |Kenya |1 |- |PRK |North Korea |6 |- |KOR |South Korea |40 |- |KGZ |Kyrgyzstan |1 |- |LAT |Latvia |57 |- |LIB |Lebanon |3 |- |LIE |Liechtenstein |5 |- |LTU |Lithuania |7 |- |LUX |Luxembourg |1 |- |MKD |Macedonia |3 |- |MAD |Madagascar |1 |- |MDA |Moldova |6 |- |MON |Monaco |4 |- |MGL |Mongolia |2 |- |NEP |Nepal |1 |- |NED |Netherlands |33 |- |NZL |New Zealand |15 |- |NOR |Norway |67 |- |POL |Poland |45 |- |POR |Portugal |1 |- |ROU |Romania |25 |- |RUS |Russia |174 |- |SMR |San Marino |1 |- |SEN |Senegal |1 |- |SCG |Serbia and Montenegro |6 |- |SVK |Slovakia |58 |- |SLO |Slovenia |36 |- |RSA |South Africa |3 |- |ESP |Spain |16 |- |SWE |Sweden |106 |- |SUI |Switzerland |125 |- |TPE |Chinese Taipei |1 |- |TJK |Tajikistan |1 |- |THA |Thailand |1 |- |TUR |Turkey |6 |- |UKR |Ukraine |52 |- |USA |United States |204 |- |UZB |Uzbekistan |4 |- |VEN |Venezuela |1 |- |ISV |Virgin Islands |1 |} == Organization == Out of 40,000 applicants, na dem select 20,000 volunteers make dem help de athletes, spectators, den journalists, den make dem prepare de competition sites. Na dem select dem by de recruiting program Noi2006.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20060827190417/http://www.torino2006.org/ENG/OlympicGames/spirito_olimpico/volontari.html "Noi2006 – The Volunteers Programme"]. Archived from [http://www.torino2006.org/ENG/OlympicGames/spirito_olimpico/volontari.html the original] on 27 August 2006. Retrieved 19 April 2007.</ref> === Construction === Na dem construct sixty-five sporting facilities, various infrastructures, sport villages for athletes den media, den transportation infrastructures for total of 1.7 billion euros.<ref>Villani, Ron. [https://web.archive.org/web/20060208163059/http://www.thechronicle.us/news.php?id=975 "Winter Olympics Return to Italy Opening Ceremonies Begin February 10 in Turin"]. Archived from [http://www.thechronicle.us/news.php?id=975 the original] on 8 February 2006. Retrieved 19 April 2007.</ref> Among de most important sporting facilities wey na dem use be: * De Stadio Olimpico (Turin) (dem formerly know am as Stadio Comunale); * Five sports halls (three fresh, two dem rearrange): de Palazzo a Vela wey Gae Aulenti re-design am (make e host short track den ice skating), de Oval Lingotto (speed ice skating), Torino Esposizioni (ice hockey), de Ice stadium insyd corso Tazzoli, de Palasport Olimpico wey Arata Isozaki design am (ice hockey); * De Olympic arch of Turin; * Olympic villages of Turin, Bardonecchia den Sestriere; * De ice stadium insyd Pinerolo, dem re-arrange den enlarge am, make e host de curling competition; * Fresh stadium insyd Torre Pellice (ice hockey); * Twelve fresh intermediate-level ski lifts insyd Cesana Torinese, Cesana San Sicario, Sestriere, Bardonecchia, Claviere, Sauze d'Oulx, Pragelato; * De tracks give bobsled, luge, den skeleton insyd Cesana (de second international track insyd Italy, along plus de one insyd Cortina d'Ampezzo); Na de most important transport infrastructure works be: * De Turin Metro (VAL system), wich for de Olympic games connect Collegno to de railway station of Porta Susa. * De upgrade of 11 state roads den motorways wey dey connect Turin plus oda Olympic sites, wey dey include de Motorway between Turin den Pinerolo, wich na dem host to de Curling events. Insyd de city, na de main developments be de Palafuksas, glass building design wey Massimiliano Fuksas design am, de fresh Modern Art Gallery den de great project of de "Spina", wey go provide urban regeneration over area of 2 million square meters thru de construction of underground urban railway den de re-utilization of industrial areas dem abandon. === Sponsors === Worldwide Olympic Partners * Atos Origin * De Coca-Cola Company * General Electric * Kodak * Lenovo * Manulife * McDonald's * Omega SA * Panasonic * Samsung Electronics * Visa Inc. Main sponsors * Fiat Group * Sanpaolo IMI * Telecom Italia (Telecom den TIM) Official sponsors * Alfa Romeo * Alpitour * Anheuser-Busch * ASICS * Berloni * Eutelsat * Ferrovie dello Stato Italiane * Jet Set Sports * Johnson & Johnson * Kyocera * Lancia * Leonardo-Finmeccanica * Reale Mutua Assicurazioni Official suppliers * Adecco Group * Automobile Club d'Italia * A.T. Kearney * Ceriel * Cicrespi * Cofatech * Deutsche Bahn (DB Schenker) * Europcar * Fast-Buyer * Fontanafredda Winery * Garrett Metal Detectors * Intercom Dr. Leitner * Italcar * Italgas * Liski * Nortel * Ottaviani * Pininfarina * Recchi * Seteco * SITAF * Technogym * Ticketone * TNT Express == Broadcasting == Na about 40% of de television coverage of de Olympics be insyd high definition.<ref>[https://www.computerworld.com/article/2532236/olympics-goes-all-hd-for-the-first-time.html Olympics goes all-HD for the first time] [https://web.archive.org/web/20200903234857/https://www.computerworld.com/article/2532236/olympics-goes-all-hd-for-the-first-time.html Archived] 3 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine - Martyn Williams, Computer World, 8 August 2008</ref> Na de 2006 Winter Olympic Games be broadcast worldwide by number of television broadcasters: {| class="wikitable" !Country !Broadcaster !Ref |- |Argentina |TyC |<ref name=":1">[https://web.archive.org/web/20110823150153/http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Reports/EN/en_report_1143.pdf "Torino 2006 Broadcast"] (PDF). ''International Olympic Committee''. Olympic.org. Archived from [http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Reports/EN/en_report_1143.pdf the original] (PDF) on 23 August 2011. Retrieved 21 April 2013.</ref> |- |Asia |ABU |<ref name=":2">[https://web.archive.org/web/20060830195653/http://www.torino2006.org/ENG/OlympicGames/gare_e_programma/tv_sport.html "The Games on Television"]. ''Torino2006.com''. Archived from [http://www.torino2006.org/ENG/OlympicGames/gare_e_programma/tv_sport.html the original] on 30 August 2006. Retrieved 21 April 2013.</ref> |- |Australia |Seven Network |<ref>Steffens, Miriam (23 August 2005). [https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aR0K3Fc17HX4&refer=australia "Seven Network 2nd-Half Profit Falls 13% on TV Costs (Update5)"]. ''Bloomberg''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20150904082901/http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aR0K3Fc17HX4&refer=australia Archived] from the original on 4 September 2015. Retrieved 21 April 2013.</ref> |- |Brazil |SporTV |<ref name=":1" /> |- |Canada | * CBC/Radio-Canada * TSN * RDS |<ref>[http://www.channelcanada.com/canadian-channels/nets/cbc/canadians-to-experience-olympic-winter-games-in-hd-for-the-first-time "Canadians to experience Olympic Winter Games in HD for the first time"]. ''Channel Canada''. 26 January 2006. [https://web.archive.org/web/20150904082901/http://www.channelcanada.com/canadian-channels/nets/cbc/canadians-to-experience-olympic-winter-games-in-hd-for-the-first-time Archived] from the original on 4 September 2015. Retrieved 21 April 2013.</ref> |- |Caribbean |CMC |<ref name=":2" /> |- |People's Republic of China |CCTV |<ref name=":2" /> |- |Chinese Taipei | * CTS * TTV |<ref name=":2" /> |- |Estonia |ETV |<ref name=":3">[http://www.akamai.com/html/about/press/releases/2006/press_030106.html "Akamai Supports European Broadcasting Union with Streaming of 2006 Olympic Winter Games"]. ''Akamai''. 1 March 2006. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131009234334/http://www.akamai.com/html/about/press/releases/2006/press_030106.html Archived] from the original on 9 October 2013. Retrieved 21 April 2013.</ref> |- |Europe | * EBU * Eurosport |<ref>[http://www.gamesbids.com/eng/index.php?news=1064508384 "IOC Changes Broadcast Rights Sales"]. ''GamesBids.com''. 25 September 2003. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230918045622/https://gamesbids.com/eng/?news=1064508384 Archived] from the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 21 April 2013.</ref><ref>[http://www.indiantelevision.com/headlines/y2k6/mar/mar152.htm "Winter Olympics exceeds expectations on European broadcaster Globosport"]. ''Indiantelevision.com''. 11 March 2006. [https://web.archive.org/web/20181116072408/http://www.indiantelevision.com/headlines/y2k6/mar/mar152.htm Archived] from the original on 16 November 2018. Retrieved 21 April 2013.</ref> |- |Finland |Yle |<ref name=":4">Hiestand, Michael (24 February 2006). [http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/sports/olympics/torino/2006-02-24-international-tv-coverage_x.htm "NBC has company in the Olympic TV business"]. ''USA Today''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130224065657/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/sports/olympics/torino/2006-02-24-international-tv-coverage_x.htm Archived] from the original on 24 February 2013. Retrieved 21 April 2013.</ref> |- |France |France Télévisions |<ref name=":2" /> |- |Germany | * ARD * ZDF |<ref name=":3" /> |- |Iceland |RÚV |<ref name=":3" /> |- |Italy |RAI |<ref>[http://english.eastday.com/eastday/englishedition/sports/userobject1ai1821271.html "Turin Olympics to set audience record for Winter Games"]. ''English.eastday.com''. 28 January 2006. [https://web.archive.org/web/20150904082902/http://english.eastday.com/eastday/englishedition/sports/userobject1ai1821271.html Archived] from the original on 4 September 2015. Retrieved 21 April 2013.</ref> |- |Japan |NHK |<ref name=":2" /> |- |Latin America |OTI |<ref name=":2" /> |- |Malaysia | * RTM * Astro |<ref name=":1" /> |- |Mexico |Azteca |<ref name=":4" /> |- |Middle East |ASBU |<ref name=":2" /> |- |Netherlands |NOS |<ref name=":3" /> |- |New Zealand |TVNZ |<ref name=":1" /> |- |Norway |NRK |<ref name=":4" /> |- |Puerto Rico |Telemundo |<ref>Martzke, Rudy (6 June 2003). [http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/sports/olympics/2003-06-06-nbc_x.htm "NBC keeps rights for Olympic broadcasts through 2012"]. ''USA Today''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20121104051646/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/sports/olympics/2003-06-06-nbc_x.htm Archived] from the original on 4 November 2012. Retrieved 21 April 2013.</ref> |- |Romania |TVR |<ref name=":4" /> |- |Serbia and Montenegro | * RTS * RTK |<ref>[http://www.vreme.co.rs/cms/view.php?id=441608 "Praznik u Torinu"]. ''Vreme''. 2 February 2006. [https://web.archive.org/web/20160206153103/http://www.vreme.co.rs/cms/view.php?id=441608 Archived] from the original on 6 February 2016. Retrieved 2 February 2016.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160409074716/http://www.rtklive.com/new/rtk/?cid=1,2&p=histori "Histori e Shkurtër"]. Archived from [http://www.rtklive.com/new/rtk/?cid=1,2&p=histori the original] on 9 April 2016. Retrieved 2 February 2016.</ref> |- |South Africa |SuperSport |<ref name=":1" /> |- |South Korea | * KBS * SBS |<ref name=":2" /> |- |Sweden |SVT |<ref name=":1" /> |- |Switzerland |SRG SSR |<ref name=":3" /> |- |United Kingdom |BBC |<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/other_sports/winter_sports/schedule/4581754.stm "BBC coverage of Winter Olympics"]. ''BBC Sport''. 8 February 2006. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120227180945/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/other_sports/winter_sports/schedule/4581754.stm Archived] from the original on 27 February 2012. Retrieved 21 April 2013.</ref> |- |United States |NBC |<ref>Mahan, Colin (10 February 2006). [https://web.archive.org/web/20150904082901/http://www.tv.com/news/nbc-set-to-begin-coverage-of-2006-winter-olympics-in-torino-italy-3220/ "NBC set to begin coverage of 2006 Winter Olympics in Torino, Italy"]. ''TV.com''. Archived from [http://www.tv.com/news/nbc-set-to-begin-coverage-of-2006-winter-olympics-in-torino-italy-3220/ the original] on 4 September 2015. Retrieved 21 April 2013.</ref> |} == Controversies == Na de Games get issues plus dem dey cover costs den international attendance. Secof lack of funding by de Italian Government, TOROC risk dissolution. === Metro === Na dem finally gbele de metro to de public for 4 February 2006, after 45-day delay. E operate for shorter stretch (''XVIII Dicembre'' (Porta Susa) to ''Fermi'' – 11 stations) dan originally forecast; e finally reach de main railway station (''Porta Nuova'') den de rest of de city centre more dan one year after de Games, insyd October 2007. For de duration of de Games, single ticket (5 euros) cover use of both de metro den oda means of public transportation for whole day. However, during de Games, metro service stop for 6:00 pm, wey dey make am impractical give spectators of eveningti events. Furthermore, de metro no reach any of de Olympic venues. For de oda hand, na de bus service be heavily improved for de Games, although still inadequate for night hours. === Doping === During de games, Italian police raid de Austrian athletes dema quarters in search of evidence of blood doping. Na dem conduct de raid secof suspicions over de presence of biathlon coach Walter Mayer, wey na dem ban am from all Olympic events up to den dey include de Vancouver Olympic Games insyd 2010 secof previous doping convictions. Around de time of de raid Mayer den two Austrian biathletes, Wolfgang Perner den Wolfgang Rottmann, try make dem escape wey dem fly back to Austria. Later, de Austrian ski federation presido say dat de two athletes tell am say dem "may have used illegal methods". Na dem sanso take six skiers den four biathletes for drug screens by de IOC.<ref>David, Ariel (22 February 2006). [https://www.scribd.com/document/102464771/2006-02-22 "Austrians change tune about inquiry"]. Lawrence, Kansas, US: The University Daily Kansan. The Associated Press. p. 3B. [https://web.archive.org/web/20161025044302/https://www.scribd.com/document/102464771/2006-02-22 Archived] from the original on 25 October 2016. Retrieved 24 October 2016.</ref> Na those substance screens later return negative results. For 25 April 2007, na dem ban six Austrian athletes (Roland Diethard, Johannes Eder, Wolfgang Perner, Jürgen Pinter, Wolfgang Rottmann den Martin Tauber) for life from de Olympics for dema involvement insyd de doping scandal for de 2006 Turin Olympics, de first time de IOC punish athletes widout positive anaa missed doping test. Na dem find de Austrians guilty of dem dey possess doping substances wey dem take part insyd conspiracy, base for materials Italian police seize during de raid for de living quarters. Na dem sanso annul de Austrians dema competition results from Turin.<ref>[http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/sports/olympics/2007-04-25-austrians-banned_N.htm "Six Austrians banned from Olympics in Turin doping scandal"]. USA Today. The Associated Press. 26 April 2007. [https://web.archive.org/web/20161111091019/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/sports/olympics/2007-04-25-austrians-banned_N.htm Archived] from the original on 11 November 2016. Retrieved 24 October 2016.</ref> List of athletes plus doping convictions insyd dese Games: * Na dem strip Russian Olga Pyleva of ein silver den oda medals insyd de 15 km biathlon event after she test positive for carphedon.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130521054315/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,185095,00.html "Russian Biathlete Expelled From Torino for Doping | Fox News"]. ''Fox News''. 16 February 2006. Archived from [http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,185095,00.html the original] on 3 July 2012. Retrieved 6 August 2016.</ref> * Brazilian bobsled athlete Armando dos Santos, dem eject am from de Games after preventive antidoping test cam positive (na de results be from test dem conduct insyd Brazil).<ref>[https://www.espn.com/espn/print?id=2330182&type=story "Dos Santos expelled from Brazilian bobsled team for doping"]. Associated Press. [https://web.archive.org/web/20121026072636/http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/print?id=2330182&type=story Archived] from the original on 26 October 2012. Retrieved 22 February 2009.</ref> Na de IOC retest nearly 500 doping samples wey na dem collect for de 2006 Turin Games. Insyd 2014, na dem notify de Estonian Olympic Committee by de IOC say sample dem retest from cross-country skier Kristina Šmigun na e test positive. For 24 October 2016, de World Anti-Doping Agency Athletes' Commission state say Šmigun, wey win two gold medals for de Turin Games, dey face Court of Arbitration for Sport hearing before de end of October.<ref>Butler, Nick (24 October 2016). [http://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1042965/smigun-vahi-facing-cas-hearing-after-positive-retest-at-turin-2006 "Šmigun-Vähi facing CAS hearing after "positive" retest at Turin 2006"]. ''INSIDETHEGAMES.BIZ''. Dunsar Media Company Limited. [https://web.archive.org/web/20161025115726/http://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1042965/smigun-vahi-facing-cas-hearing-after-positive-retest-at-turin-2006 Archived] from the original on 25 October 2016. Retrieved 24 October 2016.</ref> Insyd December 2017, IOC announce say re-analysis of samples result in no positive cases.<ref>Butler, Nick (13 December 2017). [https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1059102/estonian-cross-country-skier-looks-to-be-in-clear-as-ioc-announce-no-positive-results-in-turin-2006-re-analysis "Estonian cross-country skier looks to be in clear as IOC announce no positive results in Turin 2006 re-analysis"]. ''www.insidethegames.biz''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220221173207/https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1059102/estonian-cross-country-skier-looks-to-be-in-clear-as-ioc-announce-no-positive-results-in-turin-2006-re-analysis Archived] from the original on 21 February 2022. Retrieved 21 February 2022.</ref> === Ratings den attendance === Number of events report low spectator attendance despite dem get acceptable ticket sales. Preliminary competition den locally less popular sports fail make dem attract capacity crowd as dem expect. Organizers explain na dis be secof blocks of seats wey na dem reserve anaa dem purchase by sponsors den partners wey later dem no show up for de events. Several news organizations report say na chaw Americans no be as interested insyd de Olympics as for years past insyd.<ref>Shipley, Amy (26 February 2006). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/02/26/AR2006022600137_pf.html "Ciao to the Winter Games"]. ''The Washington Post''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20121105125306/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/02/26/AR2006022600137_pf.html Archived] from the original on 5 November 2012. Retrieved 19 April 2007.</ref> Na dem suggest say reasons for dis lack of interest dey include de tape delayed coverage, wich show events insyd prime-time as much as 18 hours later insyd de Western United States.<ref>Caple, Jim (26 February 2006). [https://www.espn.com/olympics/winter06/columns/story?id=2345588 "The best, and real, drama is always at Olympics"]. ESPN. [https://web.archive.org/web/20111207030153/http://sports.espn.go.com/oly/winter06/columns/story?id=2345588 Archived] from the original on 7 December 2011. Retrieved 19 April 2007.</ref> Na primetime viewing figures insyd Canada sanso be disappointing, especially after de early exit of de Canadian men's hockey team,<ref>McArthur, Keith; Robertson, Grant (23 February 2006). [https://web.archive.org/web/20160124113816/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20060223.wxolyblues0223_3/BNStory/Torino2006/home "Olympic hockey loss misses the net for CBC ratings"]. ''The Globe and Mail''. Toronto. Archived from [https://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20060223.wxolyblues0223_3/BNStory/Torino2006/home the original] on 24 January 2016. Retrieved 19 April 2007.</ref> though na overall viewing figures be up from 2002.<ref>Brioux, Bill (23 February 2006). "Olympics lose against fake games".</ref> == Olympic legacy == [[File:Oval2009.jpg|thumb|Torino's Olympic Oval dey host de 2009 European Athletics Indoor]] De Olympics represent opportunity make dem revamp de city ein look den change ein traditional image as industrial city by dem dey show de world ein hidden syd of vibrant cultural life den stunning architectures. Thanks to de Olympic exposure den state of de art venues, Turin cam turn one of Italy ein primary tourist destinations wey dem establish am as important sport center insyd Europe.<ref>[http://www.olympic.org/news/turin-enjoys-on-going-tourism-legacy-of-2006-winter-games/222028 "Turin enjoys on-going tourism legacy of 2006 Winter Games"]. ''www.olympic.org''. 21 July 2016. [https://web.archive.org/web/20140128113227/http://www.olympic.org/news/turin-enjoys-on-going-tourism-legacy-of-2006-winter-games/222028 Archived] from the original on 28 January 2014. Retrieved 27 January 2014.</ref> Since 2006, na TOP (Torino Olympic Park) be de agency in charge of make dem dey manage de Olympic facilities. == Security measures == As plus every Olympics since de Munich massacre for de 1972 Summer Olympics den then increasingly since de Salt Lake 2002 Winter Olympics insyd de aftermath of de September 11 attacks, na der be heavy security secof fears of terrorism. De organizers further increase security measures<ref>The Washington Post</ref> in connection plus de Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy wey dem insist say na de Olympic Games go be safe, wich na dem be; de Olympics conclude widout major breach of security dey occur. == References == <references /> == External links == Wikimedia Commons get media wey relate to '''''[[commons:Category:2006_Winter_Olympics|2006 Winter Olympics]]'''''. * [https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/turin-2006 "Turin 2006"]. ''Olympics.com''. International Olympic Committee. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130315115259/http://www.torino2006.it/ENG/OlympicGames/home/index.html Official site] * City of Turin – [https://web.archive.org/web/20150222012327/http://www.comune.torino.it/canaleturismo/en/ English] * [[dmoz:Sports/Events/Olympics/Winter_Games/2006_-_Torino|2006 Winter Olympics]] at Curlie * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080507191521/http://www.marcolympics.org/jeux/2006-2008/winter/index.php The program of the 2006 Turin Winter Olympics] {| class="wikitable" ! colspan="3" |Winter Olympics |- | rowspan="1" |Precede by Salt Lake City | rowspan="1" |'''XX Olympic Winter Games''' '''Turin''' 2006 | rowspan="1" |Succeed by Vancouver |} [[Category:2006 Winter Olympics]] [[Category:2006 insyd Italian sport]] [[Category:Sports competitions insyd Turin]] [[Category:Olympic Games insyd Italy]] [[Category:Winter Olympics by year]] [[Category:2006 insyd winter sports]] [[Category:2006 insyd multi-sport events]] [[Category:February 2006 sports events insyd Europe]] [[Category:Winter sports competitions insyd Italy]] [[Category:2000s insyd Turin]] hekiejunbdmwqbch9ps3gkmzqbwadj2 0 8258 103800 101187 2026-06-18T19:03:18Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 4 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103800 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''2012 Summer Olympics''', officially de '''Games of the XXX Olympiad''' wey dem sanso know am as '''London 2012''', na ebe international multi-sport event dem hold from 27 July to 12 August 2012 insyd London, England, United Kingdom. De first event, de group stage insyd women's football, begin for 25 July for de Millennium Stadium insyd Cardiff, Wales, follow by de opening ceremony for 27 July.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080801100305/http://www.olympic.org/uk/games/london/index_uk.asp "London 2012"]. ''olympic.org''. International Olympic Committee. Archived from [http://www.olympic.org/uk/games/london/index_uk.asp the original] on 1 August 2008. Retrieved 3 August 2008.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160111234444/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/olympics/2012/schedule-results/list/football/20120725 "Olympics Schedule & Results – Wednesday 25 July, Football"]. ''BBC Sport''. Archived from [https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/olympics/2012/schedule-results/list/football/20120725 the original] on 11 January 2016.</ref> Na der be 10,518 athletes wey komot 206 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) wey participate insyd de 2012 Olympics.<ref name=":7">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120718221053/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/olympics/2012/countries "Olympics – Countries"]. ''BBC Sport''. Archived from [https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/olympics/2012/countries the original] on 18 July 2012. Retrieved 19 July 2012. <q>From the 27th of July 2012 – 204 countries will send more than 10,000 athletes to compete in 300 events</q></ref> Dey follow bid head by former Olympic champion Sebastian Coe den de then-London mayor Ken Livingstone, na dem select London as de host city for de 117th IOC Session insyd Singapore for 6 July 2005, dem defeat bids from Moscow, New York City, Madrid, den Paris.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20091005010107/http://www.olympic.org/en/content/Olympic-Games/All-Future-Olympic-Games/Summer/London-2012 "London 2012: Election"]. ''olympic.org''. International Olympic Committee. Archived from [http://www.olympic.org/en/content/Olympic-Games/All-Future-Olympic-Games/Summer/London-2012 the original] on 5 October 2009. Retrieved 2 October 2009.</ref> London cam turn de first city make e host de modern Olympics three times,<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/olympics_2012/4654821.stm "Coe promises Olympics to remember"]. ''BBC Sport''. 6 July 2005. [http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110609063729/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/olympics_2012/4654821.stm Archived] from the original on 9 June 2011. Retrieved 3 August 2008.</ref> dem previously host de Summer Games insyd 1908 den 1948.<ref>Barden, Mark (26 April 2008). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympics/7361921.stm "London's first Olympics"]. ''BBC Sport''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080501025441/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympics/7361921.stm Archived] from the original on 1 May 2008. Retrieved 3 August 2008.</ref><ref>Greenberg, Stan (3 March 2011). [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/olympics_1948_gallery.shtml "The 1948 London Olympics Gallery"]. ''BBC History''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080718202435/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/modern/olympics_1948_gallery.shtml Archived] from the original on 18 July 2008. Retrieved 3 August 2008.</ref> Construction give de Games involve considerable redevelopment, plus emphasis for sustainability top.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20091018073244/http://www.london2012.com/plans/sustainability/getting-ready/index.php "Building a sustainable Games"]. London 2012. Archived from [http://www.london2012.com/plans/sustainability/getting-ready/index.php the original] on 18 October 2009. Retrieved 2 October 2009.</ref> Na de main focus be fresh 200-hectare (490-acre) Olympic Park, dem construct am for former industrial site insyd Stratford, East London.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120424194043/http://www.newham.gov.uk/2012Games/AboutThe2012Games/TheOlympicPark.htm "Newham London: The Olympic Park"]. London Borough of Newham. Archived from [http://www.newham.gov.uk/2012Games/AboutThe2012Games/TheOlympicPark.htm the original] on 24 April 2012. Retrieved 1 April 2012.</ref> De Games sanso use venues wey already exist before de bid.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120722094808/http://www.london2012.com/mm/Document/Publications/CandidateFile/01/24/07/59/questionnaire-response-english.pdf "Response to the questionnaire for cities applying to become Candidate cities to host the Games of the XXX Olympiad and the Paralympic Games in 2012"] (PDF). London 2012. Archived from [https://web.archive.org/web/20120722094808/http://www.london2012.com/mm/Document/Publications/CandidateFile/01/24/07/59/questionnaire-response-english.pdf the original] (PDF) on 22 July 2012. Retrieved 29 July 2012.</ref> De United States top de medal table, dem win de most gold medals (48) den de highest number of medals overall (104). China fini second plus total of 91 medals (38 gold) wey Great Britain cam third plus 65 medals overall (29 gold). Michael Phelps of de United States cam turn de most decorated Olympic athlete of all time for de time, he win ein 22nd medal.<ref>McCrae, Donald (1 August 2012). [https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2012/jul/31/london-2012-michael-phelps-olympian "Michael Phelps becomes the greatest Olympian"]. ''The Guardian''. London. p. 1. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113193643/http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2012/jul/31/london-2012-michael-phelps-olympian Archived] from the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 11 August 2012.</ref> Saudi Arabia, Qatar den Brunei enter female athletes for de first time, dey mean say every currently eligible country now send female competitor for at least one Olympic Games.<ref>Magnay, Jacquelin (11 August 2012). [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/9468113/London-2012-Olympics-diary-three-countries-have-failed-to-send-any-female-athletes.html "London 2012 Olympics diary: three countries have failed to send any female athletes"]. ''The Daily Telegraph''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120813231039/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/9468113/London-2012-Olympics-diary-three-countries-have-failed-to-send-any-female-athletes.html Archived] from the original on 13 August 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2012.</ref> Na dem include women's boxing for de first time, den de 2012 Games cam turn de first for wich na every sport get female competitors.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/olympics/19096530 "London 2012 international digest – Day Six"]. ''BBC Sport''. 2 August 2012. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120805011840/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/olympics/19096530 Archived] from the original on 5 August 2012. Retrieved 11 August 2012.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120715100639/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2012/olympics/2012/07/12/saudi-arabia-women-london-olympics.ap/index.html "Saudis to send two women to London, make history"]. ''SI.com''. Associated Press. 12 July 2012. Archived from [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2012/olympics/2012/07/12/saudi-arabia-women-london-olympics.ap/index.html the original] on 15 July 2012. Retrieved 13 July 2012.</ref><ref>[https://www.latimes.com/opinion/editorials/la-xpm-2012-jul-27-la-ed-olympics-women-20120727-story.html "An Olympic moment for women"]. ''L.A. Times Archives''. 27 July 2012. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190917161757/https://www.latimes.com/opinion/editorials/la-xpm-2012-jul-27-la-ed-olympics-women-20120727-story.html Archived] from the original on 17 September 2019. Retrieved 3 September 2015.</ref> De Games receive considerable praise for dema organisation, plus de volunteers, de British military den public enthusiasm commend particularly highly.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-19233495 "London 2012: IOC chief Jacques Rogge 'very happy' with Games"]. ''BBC News''. 12 August 2012. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120813101505/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-19233495 Archived] from the original on 13 August 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2012.</ref><ref>Waldram, Hannah (12 August 2012). [https://www.theguardian.com/sport/london-2012-olympics-blog/2012/aug/12/has-olympics-changed-london-2012 "Has the Olympics changed London?"]. ''The Guardian (London 2012 Olympics blog)''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113193544/http://www.theguardian.com/sport/london-2012-olympics-blog/2012/aug/12/has-olympics-changed-london-2012 Archived] from the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 14 August 2012.</ref><ref>Scanlan, Wayne (10 August 2012). [https://web.archive.org/web/20120816063024/https://calgaryherald.com/sports/2012-summer-games/Buoyed+record+medal+haul+suprisingly+sunny/7072134/story.html "Buoyed by a record medal haul – and surprisingly sunny skies – the British have embraced the Olympics, turning out to live sites in droves to cheer on Team GB"]. ''Calgary Herald''. London. Archived from [https://calgaryherald.com/sports/2012-summer-games/Buoyed+record+medal+haul+suprisingly+sunny/7072134/story.html the original] on 16 August 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2012.</ref> Na dem describe de Games as "happy and glorious".<ref name=":6">[https://olympics.com/en/news/happy-and-glorious-london-bids-farewell-to-the-games ""Happy and Glorious": London bids farewell to the Games"].</ref> De opening ceremony, Academy Award winner Danny Boyle direct am, receive widespread acclaim.<ref>Goldsmith, Harvey; Phillips, Arlene; Quantick, David; Brown, Mick; Beard, Mary (29 July 2012). [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/9434563/London-2012-the-experts-view-of-the-Olympic-opening-ceremony.html "London 2012: the experts' view of the Olympic opening ceremony".] ''The Sunday Telegraph''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120813183157/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/9434563/London-2012-the-experts-view-of-the-Olympic-opening-ceremony.html Archived] from the original on 13 August 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2012.</ref><ref>Topping, Alexandra (28 July 2012). [https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2012/jul/27/olympics-opening-ceremony-view-from-abroad "Olympics opening ceremony: the view from abroad"]. ''The Guardian''. London. p. 2. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131105042926/http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2012/jul/27/olympics-opening-ceremony-view-from-abroad Archived] from the original on 5 November 2013. Retrieved 14 August 2012.</ref> Na dese be de final Olympic Games under de IOC presidency of Belgian Jacques Rogge, wey na German Thomas Bach succeed am de next year. == Bidding process == Na dem choose London over Birmingham make e represent Great Britain ein bid by de British Olympic Association. By 15 July 2003—de deadline for interested cities make dem submit bids to de International Olympic Committee (IOC)—na nine cities submit bids make dem host de 2012 Summer Olympics: Havana, Istanbul, Leipzig, London, Madrid, Moscow, New York City, Paris, den Rio de Janeiro.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/3068323.stm "Olympic bids: The rivals"]. ''BBC Sport''. 15 July 2003. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090210040857/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/3068323.stm Archived] from the original on 10 February 2009. Retrieved 3 August 2008.</ref> For 18 May 2004, as result of scored technical evaluation, de IOC reduce de number of cities to five: London, Madrid, Moscow, New York den Paris.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/olympics_2012/3725157.stm "London bid team delighted"]. ''BBC Sport''. 18 May 2004. [https://web.archive.org/web/20060313040837/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/olympics_2012/3725157.stm Archived] from the original on 13 March 2006. Retrieved 3 August 2008.</ref> All five submit dema candidate files by 19 November 2004 wey de IOC inspection team visit dem during February den March 2005. Na de Paris bid suffer two setbacks during de IOC inspection visit: number of strikes den demonstrations coincide plus de visits, den report say key member of de bid team, Guy Drut, go face charges over alleged corrupt party political finances.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20061020064434/http://www.gamesbids.com/cgi-bin/news/viewnews.cgi?category=1&id=1110389129 "Day One Of Paris 2012 Inspection By IOC"]. ''GamesBids.com''. Archived from [http://www.gamesbids.com/cgi-bin/news/viewnews.cgi?category=1&id=1110389129 the original] on 20 October 2006. Retrieved 9 March 2005.</ref> Thru out de process, na dem widely see Paris as de favourite, particularly as na dis be ein third bid for recent years insyd. Na dem initially see London as e dey lag behind Paris by considerable margin.<ref>Oliver, Mark (6 July 2005). [https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2005/jul/06/olympics2012.olympicgames1 "London wins 2012 Olympics"]. ''The Guardian''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20140102192648/https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2005/jul/06/olympics2012.olympicgames1 Archived] from the original on 2 January 2014. <q>The IOC president, Jacques Rogge, announced the result at 1248BST – around an hour after it had been decided in secret.</q></ref> Ein position begin dey improve after de appointment of Lord Coe as de new chair of de London Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games (LOCOG) for 19 May 2004.<ref>Payne, Michael. [https://web.archive.org/web/20150323014744/http://bsr.london.edu/lbs-article/673/index.html "How London really won the games"]. ''London Business School''. Archived from [http://bsr.london.edu/lbs-article/673/index.html the original] on 12 December 2012. Retrieved 24 June 2012.</ref> Insyd late August 2004, reports predict tie between London den Paris.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20041107021325/http://www.gamesbids.com/cgi-bin/news/viewnews.cgi?category=1&id=1093970849 "London And Paris Tie In 2012 Bid"]. ''GamesBids.com''. Archived from [http://www.gamesbids.com/cgi-bin/news/viewnews.cgi?category=1&id=1093970849 the original] on 7 November 2004. Retrieved 31 August 2004.</ref> For 6 June 2005, de IOC release ein evaluation reports for de five candidate cities. Na dem no contain any scores anaa rankings, buh na dem consider de report give Paris de most positive. Na London be close behind, e close chaw of de gap dem observe by de initial evaluation insyd 2004. New York den Madrid sanso receive very positive evaluations.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20060418052415/http://www.gamesbids.com/cgi-bin/news/viewnews.cgi?category=1&id=1118060827 "Paris, London and New York Get Glowing IOC Reports"]. ''GamesBids.com''. Archived from [http://www.gamesbids.com/cgi-bin/news/viewnews.cgi?category=1&id=1118060827 the original] on 18 April 2006. Retrieved 6 June 2005.</ref> For 1 July 2005, wen dem biz am who go win, Jacques Rogge say, "I cannot predict it since I don't know how the IOC members will vote. But my gut feeling tells me that it will be very close. Perhaps it will come down to a difference of say ten votes, or maybe less."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120118194440/http://www.sailing.org/news/12257.php "Rogge Arrives in Singapore"]. ''sailing.org''. International Sailing Federation. 1 July 2005. Archived from [http://www.sailing.org/news/12257.php the original] on 18 January 2012. Retrieved 6 March 2007.</ref> For 6 July 2005, na dem announce de final selection for de 117th IOC Session insyd Singapore. Na Moscow be de first city make dem eliminate, follow by New York den Madrid. Na de final two contenders be London den Paris. At de end of de fourth round of voting, London win de right make e host de 2012 Games plus 54 votes to 50.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/front_page/4655555.stm "London beats Paris to 2012 Games"]. ''BBC Sport''. 6 July 2005. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170725072233/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/front_page/4655555.stm Archived] from the original on 25 July 2017.</ref> Na de celebrations insyd London be short-lived, ebe overshadow by bombings for London ein transport system less dan 24 hours after de announcement.<ref>Culf, Andrew (6 July 2005). [https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2005/sep/02/london.Olympics2012 "The party that never was: capital marks the games at last"]. ''The Guardian''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20081002091306/http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2005/sep/02/london.Olympics2012 Archived] from the original on 2 October 2008. Retrieved 22 August 2008.</ref> 12 years later, na dem later choose Paris as de host of de [[2024 Summer Olympics|2024 games]] insyd 2017.<ref>[https://olympics.com/ioc/news/ioc-makes-historic-decision-by-simultaneously-awarding-olympic-games-2024-to-paris-and-2028-to-los-angeles "IOC makes historic decision by simultaneously awarding Olympic Games 2024 to Paris and 2028 to Los Angeles"]. ''Olympics''. 13 September 2017. Retrieved 26 August 2024.</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+'''2012 host city election – ballot results''' ! rowspan="2" |City ! rowspan="2" |Country ! colspan="4" |Round |- !1 !2 !3 !4 |- |'''London''' | '''Great Britain''' |'''22''' |27 |'''39''' |'''54''' |- |Paris |France |21 |25 |33 |50 |- |Madrid |Spain |20 |'''32''' |31 |— |- |New York City |United States |19 |17 |— |— |- |Moscow |Russia |15 |— |— |— |- | |'''Total ballots''' |97 |101 |103 |104 |} == Development den preparations == Na dem create de London Organising Committee of de Olympic Games (LOCOG) make e oversee de staging of de Games, wey dem hold ein first board meeting for 3 October 2005.<ref name=":0">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120119122828/http://www.lda.gov.uk/news-and-events/media-centre/press-releases/2005/locog-formally-established-at-first-meeting-of-london-2012-transition-board.aspx "LOCOG formally established at first meeting of London 2012 Transition Board"]. ''London Development Agency'' (Press release). 3 October 2005. Archived from [http://www.lda.gov.uk/news-and-events/media-centre/press-releases/2005/locog-formally-established-at-first-meeting-of-london-2012-transition-board.aspx the original] on 19 January 2012. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> De committee, chair by Lord Coe, na he be in charge of implementing den staging de Games, while de Olympic Delivery Authority (ODA), dem establish insyd April 2006, na ebe in charge of construction of de venues den infrastructure.<ref name=":0" /><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120227155513/https://www.london2012.com/news/2006/07/lemley-chairs-first-oda-board-meeting.php "Lemley chairs first ODA board meeting"] (Press release). London 2012. Archived from [http://www.london2012.com/news/2006/07/lemley-chairs-first-oda-board-meeting.php the original] on 27 February 2012. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> De Government Olympic Executive (GOE), unit within de Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS), na ebe de lead government body for coordinating de London 2012 Olympics. E focus for oversight of de Games, cross-programme management, den de London 2012 Olympic Legacy before den after de Games wey go benefit London den de wider United Kingdom. Na de organisation sanso be responsible for de supervision of de £9.3 billion of public sector funding.<ref>[http://www.culture.gov.uk/what_we_do/2012_olympic_games_and_paralympic_games/default.aspx "2012 Olympic Games & Paralympic Games"]. Department for Culture, Media and Sport. [https://web.archive.org/web/20111026041400/http://www.culture.gov.uk/what_we_do/2012_olympic_games_and_paralympic_games/default.aspx Archived] from the original on 26 October 2011. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> Insyd August 2011, security concerns arise wey dey surround de hosting of de Olympic Games insyd London, dey follow de 2011 England riots.<ref>Macur, Juliet; Pfanner, Eric (9 August 2011). [https://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/10/sports/london-rioting-prompts-fears-over-soccer-matches-and-the-olympics.html "London Rioting Prompts Fears Over Soccer and Olympics"]. ''The New York Times''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120306212647/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/10/sports/london-rioting-prompts-fears-over-soccer-matches-and-the-olympics.html Archived] from the original on 6 March 2012. Retrieved 11 August 2011.</ref> Sam countries express safety concerns,<ref>Foster, Peter (9 August 2011). [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/crime/8690809/London-riots-China-raises-questions-over-safety-of-2012-Olympic-Games.html "London riots: China raises questions over safety of 2012 Olympic Games"]. ''The Daily Telegraph''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110811044036/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/crime/8690809/London-riots-China-raises-questions-over-safety-of-2012-Olympic-Games.html Archived] from the original on 11 August 2011. Retrieved 11 August 2011.</ref> despite de IOC ein assurance say de riots no go affect de Games.<ref>Jackson, Jamie (9 August 2011). [https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2011/aug/09/london-riots-2012-olympics "London riots will not affect 2012 Olympic security, says IOC"]. ''The Guardian''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113193520/http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2011/aug/09/london-riots-2012-olympics Archived] from the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 11 August 2011.</ref> De IOC ein Coordination Commission for de 2012 Games plete ein tenth den final visit to London insyd March 2012. Ein members conclude say "London is ready to host the world this summer".<ref>[http://www.olympic.org/news?articlenewsgroup=-1&articleid=159094 "London is ready to host the Olympic Games as excitement builds"]. Olympic.org. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120815025657/http://www.olympic.org/news?articlenewsgroup=-1&articleid=159094 Archived] from the original on 15 August 2012. Retrieved 13 April 2012.</ref> === Venues === [[File:London_Queen_Elizabeth_Olympic_Park.jpg|thumb|De Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park]] De 2012 Olympic den Paralympic Games use mixture of fresh venues, existing den historic facilities, den temporary facilities, sam of dem dey well-known locations such as Hyde Park den Horse Guards Parade. After de Games, dem go reuse sam of de fresh facilities insyd dema Olympic form, while dem go resize anaa relocate odas.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111007091359/http://excel-london.co.uk/mediacentre/pressoffice/london2012 "London 2012"]. ''ExCel-London.co.uk''. 6 July 2005. Archived from [http://www.excel-london.co.uk/mediacentre/pressoffice/london2012 the original] on 7 October 2011. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> Na dem divide de majority of venues into three zones within Greater London: de Olympic Zone, de River Zone den de Central Zone. For addition na der be few venues dat, by necessity, na dem be outsyd de boundaries of Greater London, such as de Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy sam 125 (201 km) southwest of London, wich host de sailing events. Na dem stage de football tournament for several grounds around de UK.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120304063707/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympic_games/7758646.stm "Olympics 2012 venue guide"]. ''BBC Sport''. 3 December 2008. Archived from [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympic_games/7758646.stm the original] on 4 March 2012. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> Work begin for de Park top insyd December 2006, wen na dem pull down a sports hall insyd Eton Manor.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/olympics_2012/6179069.stm "Work begins on 2012 Olympic Park"]. ''BBC Sport''. 14 December 2006. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070112232122/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/olympics_2012/6179069.stm Archived] from the original on 12 January 2007. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> Na dem plete de athletes dema village insyd Portland for September 2011 insyd.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-dorset-14896476 "Osprey Quay Olympic village topping out ceremony"]. ''BBC News''. 13 September 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110919010332/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-dorset-14896476 Archived] from the original on 19 September 2011. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> [[File:London_Olympic_Stadium_West_Ham.jpg|thumb|London Olympic Stadium ]] Insyd November 2004, na dem reveal de 200-hectare (500-acre) Olympic Park plans.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/olympics_2012/3990319.stm "London reveals Olympic Park plans"]. ''BBC Sport''. 8 November 2004. [https://web.archive.org/web/20051029094314/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/olympics_2012/3990319.stm Archived] from the original on 29 October 2005. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> Na dem approve de plans give de site insyd September 2004 by Tower Hamlets, Newham, Hackney den Waltham Forest.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/3639130.stm "2012 Olympic Park gets go ahead"]. ''BBC News''. 9 September 2004. [https://web.archive.org/web/20060618141714/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/3639130.stm Archived] from the original on 18 June 2006. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> De redevelopment of de area make dem build de Olympic Park require compulsory purchase orders of property. Na de London Development Agency dey in dispute plus London and Continental Railways about de orders insyd November 2005. By May 2006, na dem buy 86% of de land as businesses fight eviction.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/4753045.stm "Probe into Olympic land evictions"]. ''BBC News''. 9 May 2006. [https://web.archive.org/web/20061215074617/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/4753045.stm Archived] from the original on 15 December 2006. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> Residents wey oppose de eviction try make dem find ways make dem stop am by dem set up campaigns, buh na dem for lef as dem buy 94% of land wey de oda 6% dem buy as dem start £9 billion regeneration project.<ref>Hartley, Debbie (11 March 2009). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympic_games/7937133.stm "Stratford's last stand"]. ''BBC Sport''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090316082113/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympic_games/7937133.stm Archived] from the original on 16 March 2009. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> Na der be sam issues plus de original venues no be challenging enough anaa ebe financially unviable. Na dem initially consider both de Olympic road races den de mountain bike event say e be too easy, so dem eventually schedule dem for fresh locations top.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110907052443/http://www.london2012.com/games/olympic-sports/cycling-road.php "Cycling – Road"]. ''London2012.com''. Archived from [http://www.london2012.com/games/olympic-sports/cycling-road.php the original] on 7 September 2011. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympics/london_2012/7554020.stm "Essex venue to host 2012 biking"]. ''BBC Sport''. 11 August 2008. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090113051820/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/olympics/london_2012/7554020.stm Archived] from the original on 13 January 2009. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> De Olympic marathon course, wich na dem set am make e fini insyd de Olympic stadium, na dem move am go The Mall, since na dem deem if dem close Tower Bridge go cause traffic problems insyd central London.<ref>Gibson, Owen (4 October 2010). [https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2010/oct/04/london-2012-marathon-mall "London 2012 marathon to finish at The Mall despite East End protests"]. ''The Guardian''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113193533/http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2010/oct/04/london-2012-marathon-mall Archived] from the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> Na dem scrap North Greenwich Arena 2 insyd cost-cutting exercise, na dem use Wembley Arena for badminton den rhythmic gymnastics events instead.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/articles/2008/10/17/greenwich_o2_wembley_feature.shtml "Greenwich or Wembley?"]. ''BBC London''. 17 October 2008. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120203123600/http://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/articles/2008/10/17/greenwich_o2_wembley_feature.shtml Archived] from the original on 3 February 2012. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref><ref>Henson, Mike (15 June 2009). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympic_games/8101822.stm "Boxing chiefs voice 2012 concerns"]. ''BBC Sport''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090616012530/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/olympic_games/8101822.stm Archived] from the original on 16 June 2009. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympic_games/8015377.stm "Wembley may stage Olympic boxing"]. ''BBC Sport''. 23 April 2009. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090426065958/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympic_games/8015377.stm Archived] from the original on 26 April 2009. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120610234954/http://www.morethanthegames.co.uk/summer-sports/2610926-badminton-and-rhythmic-gymnastics-agree-london-2012-wembley-move "Badminton and rhythmic gymnastics agree to London 2012 Wembley move"]. ''MoreThanTheGames.co.uk''. 26 May 2010. Archived from [http://www.morethanthegames.co.uk/summer-sports/2610926-badminton-and-rhythmic-gymnastics-agree-london-2012-wembley-move the original] on 10 June 2012. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> Na dem hold test events thru out 2011 den 2012, either thru existing championship such as 2012 Wimbledon Championships anaa as specially created event dem hold under de banner of ''London Prepares''.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympic_games/london_2012/9397066.stm "London 2012 Olympic test event schedule unveiled"]. ''BBC Sport''. 24 February 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110227194749/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/olympic_games/london_2012/9397066.stm Archived] from the original on 27 February 2011.</ref> Na Team GB House be de British Olympic Association ein operational HQ up to den during de 2012 Olympic den Paralympic Games. Architects Gebler Tooth design for de top floor of sam office building insyd Westfield Stratford City, e combine de team HQ, athletes dema "Friends and Family" lounge, Press Centre, den VIP lounge. === Public transport === [[File:St_Pancras_railway_station_MMB_31_395018.jpg|right|thumb|De Olympic Javelin high-speed service run between St Pancras den Ebbsfleet, via Stratford.]] IOC's ein initial evaluation feel say, if na dem deliver transport improvements in time give de Games, London go cope.<ref>[http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Host_city_elections/2012_OG-Report_of_the_Evaluation_Commission.pdf "Report of the IOC Evaluation Commission for the Games of the XXX Olympiad in 2012"] (PDF). Olympic.org. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120803071036/http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Host_city_elections/2012_OG-Report_of_the_Evaluation_Commission.pdf Archived] (PDF) from the original on 3 August 2012. Retrieved 23 June 2012.</ref> Transport for London (TfL) carry out chaw improvements for preparation give 2012, wey dey include de expansion of de London Overground ein East London Line, dey upgrade to de Docklands Light Railway den de North London Line, den de introduction of fresh "Javelin" high-speed rail service.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/kent/3957867.stm "High-speed rail links confirmed"]. ''BBC News''. 27 October 2004. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090215114217/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/kent/3957867.stm Archived] from the original on 15 February 2009.</ref> According to Network Rail, additional 4,000 train services operate during de Games, wey train operators run longer trains during de day.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-13534021 "Extra trains planned for visitors to London 2012 venues"]. ''BBC News''. 25 May 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120319063640/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-13534021 Archived] from the original on 19 March 2012.</ref> During de Games, na any international services no serve Stratford International station (just as e no be before de Games),<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10154343 "Eurostar 'will not stop' at Stratford International"]. ''BBC News''. 25 May 2010. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130303051015/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10154343 Archived] from the original on 3 March 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2012.</ref> westbound trains no stop for Hackney Wick railway station,<ref>[http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20120719155804/http://www.getaheadofthegames.com/travelinaffectedareas/city/transport/publictransportoverlay/hackneywick.html "Hackney Wick"]. ''Get Ahead of the Games''. Transport for London. Archived from [http://www.getaheadofthegames.com/travelinaffectedareas/city/transport/publictransportoverlay/hackneywick.html the original] on 19 July 2012. Retrieved 24 July 2012.</ref> den Pudding Mill Lane DLR station close entirely during de Games.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120723070306/http://www.getaheadofthegames.com/travelinaffectedareas/city/transport/publictransportoverlay/439.html "Pudding Mill Lane"]. ''Get Ahead of the Games''. Transport for London. Archived from [http://www.getaheadofthegames.com/travelinaffectedareas/city/transport/publictransportoverlay/439.html the original] on 23 July 2012. Retrieved 24 July 2012.</ref> [[File:Emirates_Air_Line_above_Royal_Victoria_Dock_-_geograph.org.uk_-_4709077.jpg|thumb|De Emirates Air Line dey cross de River Thames between Greenwich Peninsula den de Royal Docks.]] TfL sanso build £25 million cable car across de River Thames, dem bell de Emirates Air Line, make e link 2012 Olympics venues.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/10501313.stm "Thames cable car to link 2012 Olympic Games venues"]. ''BBC News''. 4 July 2010. [https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20120424194220/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10501313 Archived] from the original on 24 April 2012. Retrieved 4 July 2010.</ref> Na dem inaugurate am insyd June 2012 wey e dey cross de Thames between Greenwich Peninsula den de Royal Docks, wey dey carry up to 2,500 passengers an hour, wey dey cut journey times between The O2 den de ExCeL exhibition centre den dey provide crossing every 30 seconds.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100912182337/http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/media/newscentre/archive/16125.aspx "Plans unveiled for a new Thames crossing with London's first cable car system"] (Press release). Transport for London. 4 July 2010. Archived from [http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/media/newscentre/archive/16125.aspx the original] on 12 September 2010. Retrieved 5 July 2010.</ref> Na de plan be make dem get 80% of athletes travel less dan 20 minutes go dema event<ref>[https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200506/cmselect/cmtran/588/588i.pdf "Going for Gold: Transport for London's 2012 Olympic Games"] (PDF). House of Commons Transport Committee. 8 March 2006. [https://web.archive.org/web/20111125061150/http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200506/cmselect/cmtran/588/588i.pdf Archived] (PDF) from the original on 25 November 2011. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> den 93% of dem within 30 minutes of dema event.<ref name=":1">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympics/london_2012/4025027.stm "London plan at-a-glance"]. ''BBC Sport''. 6 July 2005. [https://web.archive.org/web/20081209004335/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympics/london_2012/4025027.stm Archived] from the original on 9 December 2008.</ref> De Olympic Park go be served by ten separate railway lines plus combined capacity of 240,000 passengers per hour.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/3866209.stm "Free travel plan for Olympic bid"]. ''BBC News''. 5 July 2004. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090302113322/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/3866209.stm Archived] from the original on 2 March 2009.</ref> For addition, LOCOG plan give 90% of de venues make e be serve by three anaa more types of public transport.<ref name=":1" /> Na two park-and-ride sites off de M25 plus combined capacity of 12,000 cars be 25 minutes away from de Olympic Park. Na dem plan anoda park-and-ride site insyd Ebbsfleet plus capacity give 9,000 cars wer spectators fi board 10-minute shuttle train service.<ref name=":1" /> Make dem get spectators to Eton Dorney, na dem set up four park-and-ride schemes.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-berkshire-14911974 "Olympics 2012: Park and ride schemes for Dorney Lake events"]. ''BBC News''. 14 September 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20111026054930/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-berkshire-14911974 Archived] from the original on 26 October 2011. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> Na First Games Transport dey operate dese Park den Ride services.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/north_east/8516359.stm "FirstGroup wins Olympics bus contract"]. ''BBC News''. 15 February 2010. [https://web.archive.org/web/20100218202247/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/north_east/8516359.stm Archived] from the original on 18 February 2010.</ref> TfL define network of roads wey dey lead between venues as de Olympic Route Network; roads wey dey connect all of de Olympic venues locate within London. Chaw of dese roads sanso contain special "Olympic lanes" dem mark plus de Olympic rings-dem reserve give de use of Olympic athletes, officials, den oda VIPs during de Games. Members of de public wey dey drive insyd Olympic lane be subject to fine of £130. Additionally, na London buses no fi include roads plus Olympic lanes for dema routes top.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120305060001/http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/projectsandschemes/18196.aspx "Olympic and Paralympic route network"]. ''TfL.gov.uk''. Archived from [http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/projectsandschemes/18196.aspx the original] on 5 March 2012.</ref><ref>Beard, Matthew (15 November 2011). [https://www.standard.co.uk/olympics/olympic-news/revealed-the-road-signs-that-will-ban-drivers-from-olympic-lanes-6368234.html "Revealed: the road signs that will ban drivers from Olympic lanes"]. ''London Evening Standard''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170704130857/http://www.standard.co.uk/olympics/olympic-news/revealed-the-road-signs-that-will-ban-drivers-from-olympic-lanes-6368234.html Archived] from the original on 4 July 2017.</ref><ref>Tuffrey, Laurie (10 July 2012). [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/bike-blog/2012/jul/10/olympics-regulations-cyclists "Olympics regulations force cyclists to dismount"]. ''The Guardian''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113192008/http://www.theguardian.com/environment/bike-blog/2012/jul/10/olympics-regulations-cyclists Archived] from the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2012.</ref> Na dem express concerns for de logistics of spectators wey dey travel go de events outsyd London. For particular, na de sailing events for Portland get no direct motorway connections, wey local roads be heavily congested by tourist traffic insyd de summer.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111103172317/http://www.panamericanchauffeurs.com/london_olympics_2012_airport_transfers.html "2012 London Olympic Games | London Chauffeur Limo Service"]. Panamerican Chauffeurs. 6 July 2005. Archived from [http://www.panamericanchauffeurs.com/london_olympics_2012_airport_transfers.html the original] on 3 November 2011. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> However, na dem build £77 million relief road wey dey connect Weymouth to Dorchester wey dem gbele am insyd 2011.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/dorset/6529709.stm "Go-ahead won for £77m relief road"]. ''BBC News''. 5 April 2007. [https://web.archive.org/web/20071006044624/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/dorset/6529709.stm Archived] from the original on 6 October 2007.</ref><ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-dorset-12769307 "Weymouth Olympic relief road is opened"]. ''BBC News''. 17 March 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110919012001/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-dorset-12769307 Archived] from the original on 19 September 2011.</ref> Na dem put aside sam £16 million give de rest of de improvements.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/dorset/8323724.stm "Olympics road plans put on show"]. ''BBC News''. 24 October 2009. [https://web.archive.org/web/20091027053339/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/dorset/8323724.stm Archived] from the original on 27 October 2009.</ref> TfL create promotional campaign den website, ''Get Ahead of the Games'', make e help provide information wey relate to transport during de Olympics den Paralympics. Thru de campaign, TfL sanso encourage de use of cycling as mode of transport.<ref>Gardner, Jasmine (26 July 2012). [https://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/london-life/the-olympic-commute-get-ahead-of-the-games-by-bike-7978591.html "The Olympic commute... Get ahead of the Games by bike"]. ''London Evening Standard''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120803001316/http://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/london-life/the-olympic-commute-get-ahead-of-the-games-by-bike-7978591.html Archived] from the original on 3 August 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2012.</ref> Na dem create temporary terminal for Heathrow Airport make dem use am by 10,100 athletes wey dey depart after de Games. Na dem dey expect up to 35% more bags dan normal for 13 August, wich na dem predict make e be de busiest day insyd de airport ein history, according to Nick Cole, head of Olympic den Paralympic planning for Heathrow. === Cost den financing === Study wey komot Oxford University find say de sports-related costs of London 2012 amount to US$15 billion, compare plus $4.6 billion give Rio 2016, $40–44 billion give Beijing 2008, den $51 billion give Sochi 2014 (de most expensive Olympics insyd history). London 2012 go over budget by 76% for real terms, dem measure from bid go completion. Na de cost per athlete be $1.4 million.<ref>Flyvbjerg, Bent; Stewart, Allison; Budzier, Alexander (2016). ''The Oxford Olympics Study 2016: Cost and Cost Overrun at the Games''. Saïd Business School, University of Oxford. arXiv:[[arxiv:1607.04484|1607.04484]]. doi:[[doi:10.2139/ssrn.2804554|10.2139/ssrn.2804554]]. ISSN [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1556-5068 1556-5068]. S2CID [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:156794182 156794182]. SSRN [https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2804554 2804554].</ref> Dis no dey include wider costs give urban den transport infrastructure, wich often equal anaa exceed de sports-related costs. Na de costs of staging de Games be separate from those give building de venues den infrastructure den redeveloping de land give de Olympic Park. While na dem privately fund de Games, na dem largely finance de venues den infrastructure dem use public money. According to ''The Wall Street Journal'', na de original budget give de Games dem increase to about £9.3 billion (US$15.28&nbsp;billion) insyd 2007.<ref>Pearman, Hugh (24 July 2012). [https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303754904577532921054250902 "These Knock-Down, Shrinkable Games"]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. p. D6. [https://web.archive.org/web/20201112014235/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303754904577532921054250902 Archived] from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 25 July 2012.</ref> Na dem announce de revised figures to de House of Commons for 15 March 2007 by Tessa Jowell. Along plus East End regeneration costs, na de breakdown be: * Dey build de venues den infrastructure – £5.3 billion * Elite sport den Paralympic funding – £400 million * Security den policing – £600 million * Regeneration of de Lower Lea Valley – £1.7 billion * Contingency fund&nbsp;– £2.7&nbsp;billion === Volunteers === Unpaid volunteers dem know as Games Makers perform variety of tasks before den during de Games.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120424201321/http://www.london2012.com/volunteer "Volunteering – Making the Games happen"]. London 2012. Archived from [http://www.london2012.com/volunteer the original] on 24 April 2012. Retrieved 15 April 2012.</ref> Na dem set up target of 70,000 volunteers as early as 2004.<ref>Shifrin, Tash (10 February 2004). [https://www.theguardian.com/society/2004/feb/10/volunteering "Olympic appeal as volunteer target hit"]. ''The Guardian''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113193705/http://www.theguardian.com/society/2004/feb/10/volunteering Archived] from the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 15 April 2012.</ref> Wen recruitment take place insyd 2010, na dem receive more dan 240,000 applications.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120424204030/http://www.london2012.com/get-involved/volunteer/london-2012-games-makers/10-games-maker-facts.php "10 Games Maker facts"]. London 2012. Archived from [http://www.london2012.com/get-involved/volunteer/london-2012-games-makers/10-games-maker-facts.php the original] on 24 April 2012. Retrieved 15 April 2012.</ref> Sebastian Coe say insyd February 2012, "Our Games Makers will contribute a total of around eight million volunteer hours during the Games and the Games simply wouldn't happen without them".<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/9061305/London-2012-Olympics-volunteers-training-day-at-Wembley-Stadium-as-they-prepare-for-Games.html "Volunteers training day at Wembley Stadium as they prepare for Games"]. ''The Daily Telegraph''. London. 4 February 2012. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120206234020/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/9061305/London-2012-Olympics-volunteers-training-day-at-Wembley-Stadium-as-they-prepare-for-Games.html Archived] from the original on 6 February 2012. Retrieved 15 April 2012.</ref> De volunteers wear clothing wey include purple den red polo shirts den jackets, beige trousers, grey socks den grey-and-white trainers, wich dem collect from de Uniform Distribution and Accreditation Centre. Volunteers sanso wear photo accreditation badges wey na officials, athletes, family members den media sanso wear dem, wich gain dem access to specific venues den buildings around de site. === Ticketing === Organisers estimate sam 8 million tickets go be available give de Olympic Games,<ref name=":2">[https://web.archive.org/web/20070202155136/http://www.london2012.org/en/ourvision/Ticketing.htm "Just the ticket"]. ''London 2012''. Archived from [http://www.london2012.org/en/ourvision/Ticketing.htm the original] on 2 February 2007. Retrieved 20 July 2012.</ref> den 1.5 million tickets give de Paralympic Games.<ref name=":2" /> LOCOG aim make dem raise £375–£400 million for ticket sales insyd. Na der sanso be free events such as marathon, triathlon den road cycling,<ref>[https://abcnews.go.com/Travel/wireStory?id=10171244 "London Opens Ticket Process for 2012 Olympics"]. ''ABC News''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20100325093452/https://abcnews.go.com/Travel/wireStory?id=10171244 Archived] from the original on 25 March 2010. Retrieved 20 May 2010.</ref> although, for de first time insyd Olympic history, dem ticket de sailing events.<ref>ISAF (28 July 2011). [https://web.archive.org/web/20111020014531/http://www.sailing.org/london2012/news/36364.php "ISAF: London 2012 Olympic Games Sailing Competition: What Is The Weymouth And Portland International Regatta?"]. Sailing.org. Archived from [http://www.sailing.org/london2012/news/36364.php the original] on 20 October 2011. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> Eventually, dem sell more dan 7,000,000 tickets.<ref>Adam, Karla (30 July 2012). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/olympics/at-london-olympics-empty-seats-have-organizers-scrambling-giving-away-tickets-to-children-and-soldiers/2012/07/29/gJQA6YVBJX_story.html "At London Olympics, empty seats have organizers scrambling, giving away tickets to children and soldiers"]. ''The Washington Post''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170719170354/https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/olympics/at-london-olympics-empty-seats-have-organizers-scrambling-giving-away-tickets-to-children-and-soldiers/2012/07/29/gJQA6YVBJX_story.html Archived] from the original on 19 July 2017.</ref> Dey follow IOC rules, people apply for tickets from de NOC of dema country of residence. Na European Union residents be able make dem apply for tickets insyd any EU country.<ref>Lynn, Guy (22 May 2012). [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-18161743 "Ukrainian Olympic official 'willing to sell tickets to black market'"]. ''BBC News''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120607222537/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-18161743 Archived] from the original on 7 June 2012. Retrieved 8 June 2012.</ref> Insyd Great Britain, ticket prices range from £20 for chaw events to £2,012 for de most expensive seats for de opening ceremony. Na dem give sam free tickets to military personnel as part of de Tickets For Troops scheme,<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-13758141 "Olympic tickets offered to UK Armed Forces members"]. ''BBC News''. 14 June 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110824064608/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-13758141 Archived] from the original on 24 August 2011.</ref> as well as to survivors den families of those wey die during de 7 July 2005 London bombings.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-13302220 "2012 Olympic tickets for 7/7 bomb attack victims"]. ''BBC News''. 6 May 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110719233157/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-13302220 Archived] from the original on 19 July 2011.</ref> Initially, na people be able make dem apply for tickets via website from 15 March til 26 April 2011. Na der be huge demand for tickets, plus demand of more dan three times de number of tickets available.<ref>Bond, David (27 April 2011). [https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/olympics/13209306 "London 2012 Olympic ticket demand passes 20m"]. ''BBC News''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170806103645/http://www.bbc.com/sport/olympics/13209306 Archived] from the original on 6 August 2017.</ref><ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14008482 "750,000 Olympics tickets sold in 'second chance' round"]. ''BBC News''. 3 July 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110825091749/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14008482 Archived] from the original on 25 August 2011.</ref> For 11 May 2012 round of nearly one million "second chance" tickets go on sale over 10-day period between 23 June den 3 July 2011.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14066068 "Olympic tickets on sale in 'second chance' phase"]. ''BBC News''. 11 July 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110718201248/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14066068 Archived] from the original on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 17 August 2011.</ref> Na about 1.7 million tickets be available for football den 600,000 give oda sports, wey dey include archery, field hockey, football, judo, boxing den volleyball. Na ten sports sell out by 8 am of de first day.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-13918958 "2012 Hopefuls miss out on tickets"]. ''BBC News''. 26 June 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110830050722/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-13918958 Archived] from the original on 30 August 2011.</ref> === Countdown === [[File:The_Olympic_Clock_in_Trafalgar_Square_-_geograph.org.uk_-_2762728.jpg|thumb|De Countdown Clock insyd Trafalgar Square]] During de closing ceremony of the 2008 Olympics, na dem formally hand over de Olympic Flag from de Mayor of Beijing to de Mayor of London. Na dis be follow by section dem dey highlight London.<ref>Eight minute wonder (17 June 2008). [https://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/articles/2008/06/17/adrian_eight_minutes_feature.shtml "The BBC"]. BBC. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090110133956/http://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/articles/2008/06/17/adrian_eight_minutes_feature.shtml Archived] from the original on 10 January 2009. Retrieved 20 May 2010.</ref> One month later, na dem raise de Olympic den Paralympic flags outsyd de London City Hall.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120113113104/http://legacy.london.gov.uk/view_press_release.jsp?releaseid=18998 "1948 Olympians and 2012 hopefuls join Beijing heroes as Olympic and Paralympic flags raised at City Hall"]. Legacy.london.gov.uk. 26 September 2008. Archived from [http://legacy.london.gov.uk/view_press_release.jsp?releaseid=18998 the original] on 13 January 2012. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> Na dem unveil countdown clock insyd Trafalgar Square, 500 days before de Games.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-12749912 "London 2012 countdown clock stops in Trafalgar Square"]. ''BBC News''. 15 March 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110318075539/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-12749912 Archived] from the original on 18 March 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.</ref><ref>Murray, Scott; Murrells, Katy (27 July 2011). [https://www.theguardian.com/sport/london-2012-olympics-blog/2011/jul/27/london-2012-year-to-go "London 2012: The 'One Year To Go' Celebrations – as they happened"]. ''The Guardian''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170104081343/https://www.theguardian.com/sport/london-2012-olympics-blog/2011/jul/27/london-2012-year-to-go Archived] from the original on 4 January 2017.</ref> Na ebe two-sided clock plus de Paralympic countdown for de oda syd. De countdown to de start of de Olympics begin plus ceremony for de lighting of de Olympic flame insyd Olympia, Greece.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120510144844/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/tournaments/london-olympics/Olympic-flame-lit-for-London-Games/articleshow/13079554.cms "Olympic flame lit for London Games"]. ''The Times Of India''. Archived from [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/tournaments/london-olympics/Olympic-flame-lit-for-London-Games/articleshow/13079554.cms the original] on 10 May 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2012.</ref> === Security === De police lead de security operation (dem name am '''Operation Olympics''' by de Ministry of Defence), plus 10,000 officers available, support by 13,500 members of de British Armed Forces. Na dem deploy naval den air assets as part of de security operation, wey dey include ships situate insyd de Thames, Typhoon fighter jets den surface-to-air missiles;<ref>[https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm5801/cmselect/cmdfence/357/full-report.html "Manpower or mindset: Defence's contribution to the UK's pandemic response"]. ''publications.parliament.uk''. 25 March 2020. [https://web.archive.org/web/20211205222331/https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm5801/cmselect/cmdfence/357/full-report.html Archived] from the original on 5 December 2021. Retrieved 12 August 2021. <q>'''Operation Olympics''' | 2012 | Wide-ranging support to delivery of the London Olympic [Games]</q></ref> na ebe de biggest security operation Britain face insyd decades. De cost of security increased from £282 million to £553 million, wey na de figure of 13,500 armed forces personnel be greater dan de number dem deploy for de time insyd Afghanistan.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-16195861 "London 2012: 13,500 troops to provide Olympic security"]. ''BBC News''. 15 December 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20111216022738/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-16195861 Archived] from the original on 16 December 2011.</ref> De Metropolitan Police den de Royal Marines carry out security exercises for preparation give de Olympics for 19 January 2012, plus 50 marine police officers for rigid inflatables insyd den fast response boats, join by up to 100 military personnel den Royal Navy Lynx helicopter.<ref>Seida, Jim (19 January 2012). [https://web.archive.org/web/20120315020234/http://photoblog.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/01/19/10192015-metropolitan-police-and-the-royal-marines-perform-security-exercises-in-preparation-for-london-olympics "Metropolitan Police and the Royal Marines perform security exercises in preparation for London Olympics"]. ''msnbc.com''. Archived from [https://photoblog.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/01/19/10192015-metropolitan-police-and-the-royal-marines-perform-security-exercises-in-preparation-for-london-olympics the original] on 15 March 2012.</ref> De Ministry of Defence distribute leaflets to residents of de Lexington building insyd Bow, dey announce say na dem station missile system for de top of de water tower.<ref name=":3">Booth, Robert (29 April 2012). [https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2012/apr/29/london-rooftops-missiles-olympic-games "London rooftops to carry missiles during Olympic Games"]. ''The Guardian''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113192000/http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2012/apr/29/london-rooftops-missiles-olympic-games Archived] from the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 29 April 2012.</ref><ref name=":4">[https://web.archive.org/web/20120429213246/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/news/9234544/London-Olympics-2012-MoD-rooftop-missile-base-plan-alarms-local-residents.html "London Olympics 2012: MoD rooftop missile base plan alarms local residents"]. ''The Daily Telegraph''. London. 29 April 2012. Archived from [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/news/9234544/London-Olympics-2012-MoD-rooftop-missile-base-plan-alarms-local-residents.html the original] on 29 April 2012. Retrieved 29 April 2012.</ref> Dis cause concern to sam residents.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /> De Ministry say e go probably use Starstreak missiles wey na site evaluations take place, buh dat no final decision take place.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /> === Medals === [[File:USA_London_2012_Silver_Medal_Front.jpg|thumb|246x246px|Front of de Silver Medal win by de USA.]] Approximately de Royal Mint produce 4,700<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20111025002237/http://www.royalmint.com/Corporate/media/London-2012-Olympic-games-victory-medals.aspx "London 2012 Olympic Games victory medals to be made by the Royal Mint"]. Royalmint.com. Archived from [http://www.royalmint.com/Corporate/media/London-2012-Olympic-games-victory-medals.aspx the original] on 25 October 2011. Retrieved 15 October 2011.</ref> Olympic den Paralympic medals for Llantrisant.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-11989437 "London 2012 medals deal struck for Royal Mint in Llantrisant"]. ''BBC News''. 14 December 2010. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120223050218/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-11989437 Archived] from the original on 23 February 2012.</ref> David Watkins (Olympics) den Lin Cheung (Paralympics) design dem.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-15475942 "London 2012: Olympic medals go into production in Wales"]. ''BBC News''. 27 October 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20111228155844/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-15475942 Archived] from the original on 28 December 2011. Retrieved 4 July 2012.</ref> Na Rio Tinto wey komot sam mine insyd Salt Lake County, Utah insyd de U. S. donate 99% of de gold, silver den copper.<ref>Hollenhorst, John (13 June 2012). [http://www.ksl.com/?nid=148&sid=20827055 "Kennecott donating $7.3 million in gold, silver, bronze for Olympics"]. KSL.com. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120624071037/http://www.ksl.com/?nid=148&sid=20827055 Archived] from the original on 24 June 2012. Retrieved 25 July 2012.</ref> De 1% wey remain cam from Mongolian mine.<ref>[http://sg.news.yahoo.com/mongolia-goes-gold-london-medals-192955303--finance.html "Mongolia goes for gold with London medals – Yahoo! News Singapore"]. Sg.news.yahoo.com. 18 July 2012. [https://web.archive.org/web/20121024195417/http://sg.news.yahoo.com/mongolia-goes-gold-london-medals-192955303--finance.html Archived] from the original on 24 October 2012. Retrieved 28 October 2012.</ref> Each medal dey weigh 375-400 g (13.2-14.1 oz), wey e get diameter of 85 mm (3.3 in) wey e be 7 mm (0.28 in) thick, wey dem engrave de sport den discipline for de rim top.<ref name=":5">[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-18677289 "London 2012: Olympic medals locked in Tower"]. ''BBC News''. 2 July 2012. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120704142244/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-18677289 Archived] from the original on 4 July 2012. Retrieved 4 July 2012.</ref> De obverse, as be traditional, dey feature Nike, de Greek goddess of victory, wey dey step from de Panathinaiko Stadium wey host de first modern Olympic Games insyd 1896, plus Parthenon insyd de background; de reverse dey feature de Games logo, de River Thames den series of lines wey dey represent "the energy of athletes and a sense of pulling together".<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14291544 "London 2012: Olympic medals timeline"]. ''BBC News''. 26 July 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110727171350/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14291544 Archived] from the original on 27 July 2011.</ref> Na dem tranfer de medals to de Tower of London vaults for 2 July 2012 for storage.<ref name=":5" /> Each gold medal be 92.5 percent silver den 1.34 percent gold, plus de remainder copper. De silver medal be 92.5 percent silver, plus de remainder copper. De bronze medal be made up of 97 percent copper, 2.5 percent zinc, den 0.5 per cent tin.<ref>DeMarco, Anthony (26 July 2012). [https://www.forbes.com/sites/anthonydemarco/2012/07/26/a-closer-look-at-the-olympic-gold-medal/ "London's Olympic Gold Medal Worth The Most In The History Of The Games"]. ''Forbes''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120729232146/http://www.forbes.com/sites/anthonydemarco/2012/07/26/a-closer-look-at-the-olympic-gold-medal/ Archived] from the original on 29 July 2012. Retrieved 30 July 2012.</ref> Na de value of de materials insyd de gold medal be about £410 (US$644), de silver about £210 (US$330), den se bronze about £3 (US$4.71) as of 30 July 2012.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120731232433/http://olympics.yardbarker.com/blog/olympics/article/how_much_is_a_medal_actually_worth_not_as_much_as_youd_think/11334214 "How much is a medal actually worth? Not as much as you'd think"]. ''Yardbarker.com''. 30 July 2012. Archived from [http://olympics.yardbarker.com/blog/olympics/article/how_much_is_a_medal_actually_worth_not_as_much_as_youd_think/11334214 the original] on 31 July 2012.</ref> === Torch relay === De Olympics torch relay run from 19 May to 27 July 2012, before de Games. Na dem develop plans give se relay insyd 2010–11, plus de torch-bearer selection process dem announce for 18 May 2011.<ref>Magnay, Jacquelin (17 May 2011). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110521045410/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/olympics/8518637/London-2012-Olympics-torch-relay-should-focus-on-youth-says-Locog.html "London 2012 torch relay should focus on youth"]. ''The Daily Telegraph''. London. Archived from [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/olympics/8518637/London-2012-Olympics-torch-relay-should-focus-on-youth-says-Locog.html the original] on 21 May 2011. Retrieved 17 May 2011.</ref> Edward Barber den Jay Osgerby design de torch. For 18 May 2012 de Olympic flame arrive for RNAS Culdrose insyd Cornwall from Greece<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110608061845/http://www.london2012.com/olympic-torch-relay "The Olympic Torch Relay"]. London Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games. 18 May 2011. Archived from [http://www.london2012.com/olympic-torch-relay the original] on 8 June 2011. Retrieved 18 May 2011.</ref> for flight BA2012, operate by British Airways Airbus A319 dem name am "Firefly". De relay last 70 days, plus 66 evening celebrations den six island visits, wey dem involve sam 8,000 people wey dey carry de torch about 8,000 mi (12,875 km), wey dey start from Land's End insyd Cornwall.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-13426353 "London 2012 Olympic torch relay route revealed"]. ''BBC News''. 18 May 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110518081518/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-13426353 Archived] from the original on 18 May 2011. Retrieved 18 May 2011.</ref> De torch get three days outsyd de United Kingdom wen e visit de Isle of Man for 2 June, Dublin insyd Ireland, for 6 June,<ref>[http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2011/1208/breaking40.html "Dublin to host Olympic Torch"]. ''The Irish Times''. Dublin. Reuters. 8 December 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20111211165912/http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/breaking/2011/1208/breaking40.html Archived] from the original on 11 December 2011.</ref> wey both Guernsey den Jersey for 15 July. De relay focus for National Heritage Sites, locations plus sporting significance, key sporting events, schools dem register plus de Get Set School Network, green spaces den biodiversity, Live Sites (city locations plus large screens), den festivals den oda events.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121030062212/http://london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/lcsg/docs/openmeetings/20091102/presentation3.pdf "London Culture and 2012 Open Meeting"] (PDF). Greater London Authority. Archived from [http://www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/lcsg/docs/openmeetings/20091102/presentation3.pdf the original] (PDF) on 30 October 2012. Retrieved 19 May 2011.</ref> Na Dumfries den Galloway be de Region per insyd de whole of de United Kingdom wey get make de Olympic Torch pass thru am twice. Group of young athletes, dem nominate by retired Olympic athletes, run de torch around de stadium. Na dese torchbearers be Callum Airlie, Jordan Duckitt, Desiree Henry, Katie Kirk, Cameron MacRitchie, Aidan Reynolds, den Adelle Tracey. Togeda de torchbearers each light petal wey spread de fire to de 204 petals of de cauldron, wey dey represent de countries wey dem participate insyd de Games.<ref>Urquhart, Conal; Davies, Lizzy (28 July 2012). [http://www.guardian.co.uk/ "Olympic Torchbearers who lit cauldron kept it secret from parents"]. ''The Guardian''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120214064224/http://www.guardian.co.uk/ Archived] from the original on 14 February 2012. Retrieved 8 December 2012.</ref> Na Thomas Heatherwick design de cauldron === Environmental policy === Na dem plan de Olympic Park make e incorporate 45 hectares of wildlife habitat, plus total of 525 bird boxes den 150 bat boxes. Na dem enhance local waterways den riverbanks as part of de process.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090309051828/http://www.london2012.com/news/archive/2009-02/new-biodiversity-plan-sets-out-future-for-olympic-park-wildlife.php "New biodiversity plan sets out future for Olympic Park wildlife"]. ''London 2012''. 27 February 2009. Archived from [http://www.london2012.com/news/archive/2009-02/new-biodiversity-plan-sets-out-future-for-olympic-park-wildlife.php the original] on 9 March 2009. Retrieved 5 March 2009.</ref> Renewable energy sanso feature for de Olympics. Na dem originally plan make dem provide 20% of de energy give de Olympic Park den Village from renewable technologies; however, na dem achieve 9% per of am.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-13034546 "London 2012 Olympics 'to miss renewable energy target'"]. ''BBC News''. 11 April 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110528023613/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-13034546 Archived] from the original on 28 May 2011. Retrieved 7 June 2011.</ref> Proposals make dem meet de original target include large-scale on-site wind turbines den hydroelectric generators insyd de River Thames, buh na dem scrap dese plans for safety reasons.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10234665 "Olympic Games site wind turbine scrapped"]. ''BBC News''. 4 June 2010. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110519213657/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10234665 Archived] from the original on 19 May 2011. Retrieved 7 June 2011.</ref> De focus subsequently move to make dem dey install solar panels for sam buildings top, den dey provide de opportunity make dem recover energy from waste. Wer na dem no fi reuse am anaa recycle am, food packaging for use for de Olympics— wey dey include fast-food wrappers, sandwich boxes den drink cartons—na de make am from compostable materials like starch den cellulose-based bioplastics. After use, na chaw of dese materials be suitable give anaerobic digestion (AD), wey dey allow dem make dem make dem into renewable energy.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110606000417/http://www.nnfcc.co.uk/news/compostable-bioplastics-set-for-big-win-at-london-olympics "Compostable bioplastics set for big win at London Olympics"]. ''NNFCC''. 31 May 2011. Archived from [http://www.nnfcc.co.uk/news/compostable-bioplastics-set-for-big-win-at-london-olympics the original] on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 31 May 2011.</ref> Post-Games, na dem relocate buildings like de Water Polo Arena elsewhere. Na dem recycle building parts like roofing covers den membranes of different temporary venues via VinyLoop. Dis allow organisers make dem meet de standards of de Olympic Delivery Authority wey dey concern environmental protection. London 2012 inaugurate Olympic Games guidelines wey include de recycling of PVC, wich na dem use dem for temporary buildings such as de Basketball Arena den for de temporary parts of permanent venues such as de Olympic Stadium.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120827113019/http://www.london2012.com/news/articles/2009/5/london-2012-seeks-sustainable-solutions-for-temporary-ve-1243087.html "London 2012 seeks sustainable solutions for temporary venues"]. ''London2012''. 5 May 2009. Archived from [http://www.london2012.com/news/articles/2009/5/london-2012-seeks-sustainable-solutions-for-temporary-ve-1243087.html the original] on 27 August 2012. Retrieved 20 August 2012.</ref> Insyd de Water Polo Arena, na dem make PVC roofing from recycled cushions make e provide insulation.<ref>[https://www.eurosport.com/olympics/water-polo-arena_sto3329059/story.shtml "Water Polo Arena"]. ''Eurosport''. 2 July 2012.</ref> Thru dis recycling process, na dem fulfil de Olympic Games PVC Policy; de policy dey state:<ref>[https://library.olympics.com/Default/doc/SYRACUSE/25798/policy-on-the-use-of-pvc-for-the-london-2012-olympic-and-paralympic-games-olympic-delivery-authority "Policy On The Use Of PVC For The London 2012 Olympic And Paralympic Games"]. ''library.olympics.com''. Olympic Delivery Authority. 2009. p. 4. Retrieved 30 June 2023.</ref> : Dem no assure wer London 2012 dey procure PVC for temporary usage anaa wer permanent usage, dem require make London 2012 ensure say der be take-back scheme wey dey offer closed-loop reuse system anaa mechanical recycling system for post-consumer waste. According to Kirsten Henson, Materials Manager for de London 2012 Olympic Park: "''The majority of temporary facilities created for the Olympic Games including the Aquatic centre temporary stands, basketball arena, Water Polo Arena, and the shooting facilities at the Royal Artillery Barracks, are essentially big tents. Basically, PVC stretched over lightweight steel frame. This design solution makes them efficient to install, reduces the need for any significant foundations and are, of course, reusable. We were challenged by the public around the use of PVC; but we considered it to be the right material for certain functions. We therefore challenged the PVC supply chain to have certain environmental performance criteria in place, including a take back and recycle scheme''."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130308122835/http://www.plasticseurope.org/information-centre/televised-newslinks.aspx "Televised Newslinks: Discussing the Sustainability Legacy of the London Olympic Park"]. ''PlasticsEurope.org''. 22 June 2012. Archived from [http://www.plasticseurope.org/information-centre/televised-newslinks.aspx the original] on 8 March 2013. Retrieved 25 March 2013.</ref> === Cultural Olympiad === [[File:Tower_Bridge_Olympic_Lighting,_London_-_July_2012.jpg|right|thumb|Na dem illuminate Tower Bridge plus de Olympic Rings insyd de week wey dey lead up to de opening ceremony.]] De Olympic Charter, de set of rules den guidelines give de organization of de Olympic Games den for make dem dey govern de Olympic Movement, dey state say <blockquote>LOCOG shall organise a programme of cultural events which must cover at least the entire period during which the Olympic Village is open.<ref>[http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Olympic%20Charter/Charter_en_2010.pdf "Olympic Charter"] (PDF). International Olympic Committee. 11 February 2010. p. 80. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110505101457/http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Olympic%20Charter/Charter_en_2010.pdf Archived] (PDF) from the original on 5 May 2011. Retrieved 6 May 2011.</ref></blockquote> De Cultural Olympiad comprise chaw programmes, plus more dan 500 events spread over four years across de whole of de United Kingdom, den dey culminate insyd de London 2012 Festival.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120321172831/http://www.london2012.com/cultural-olympiad "Cultural Olympiad"]. London 2012. Archived from [http://www.london2012.com/cultural-olympiad the original] on 21 March 2012. Retrieved 27 March 2012.</ref><ref>Brown, Mark (12 March 2012). [https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2012/mar/12/cultural-olympiad-2012-critical-masses "Cultural Olympiad 2012 reaches the critical masses"]. ''The Guardian''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130829180955/http://www.theguardian.com/culture/2012/mar/12/cultural-olympiad-2012-critical-masses Archived] from the original on 29 August 2013. Retrieved 27 March 2012.</ref> === Opening ceremony === [[File:KOCIS_Korea_London_Olympics_TeamKorea_12_(7683500856).jpg|thumb|Fireworks for de opening ceremony]] Dem title "The Isles of Wonder", de opening ceremony begin for 21:00 British Summer Time (UTC+1) for 27 July insyd de Olympic Stadium.<ref>[http://blog.oup.com/2012/08/isles-of-wonder-bermuda-avalon-london-2012/ "London 2012 Olympics opening ceremony called 'The Isles of Wonder'"]. Olympics Medal Tally. 27 January 2012. [http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20120813181608/http://blog.oup.com/2012/08/isles-of-wonder-bermuda-avalon-london-2012/ Archived] from the original on 13 August 2012.</ref> Na Oscar-winning director Danny Boyle be artistic director wey Rick Smith of Underworld be musical director.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120720032512/http://www.underworldlive.com/news/underworld-announced-as-music-directors-for-the-opening-ceremony-of-the-2012-london-olympic-games "Underworld announced as Music Directors for the opening ceremony of the 2012 London Olympic Games"]. Underworld. n.d. Archived from [http://www.underworldlive.com/news/underworld-announced-as-music-directors-for-the-opening-ceremony-of-the-2012-london-olympic-games the original] on 16 December 2012.</ref> Na dem immediately see de opening ceremony as tremendous success, dem widely praise am as "masterpiece" den "a love letter to Britain".<ref>Dawson, Andy (28 July 2012). [https://www.mirror.co.uk/tv/tv-reviews/bbcs-trevor-nelson-stumbles-but-danny-1177361 "Boyle Command Performance is hampered by not-so-clever Trevor"]. ''Daily Mirror''. Retrieved 31 July 2012.</ref><ref>Goldsmith, Harvey; Phillips, Arlene; Quantick, David; Brown, Mick; Beard, Mary (29 July 2012). [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/9434563/London-2012-the-experts-view-of-the-Olympic-opening-ceremony.html "London 2012: the experts' view of the Olympic opening ceremony"]. ''The Daily Telegraph''. [https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/9434563/London-2012-the-experts-view-of-the-Olympic-opening-ceremony.html Archived] from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 5 August 2012.</ref> De principal sections of de artistic display represent Britain ein Industrial Revolution, National Health Service, literary heritage, popular music den culture, wey dem note dem for dema vibrant storytelling den use of music. Na Queen Elizabeth II, accompany by Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh officially gbele de Games.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-19008471 "Young athletes light London 2012 Olympic flame"]. ''BBC News''. 28 July 2012. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113193629/http://www.theguardian.com/film/2012/apr/02/london-2012-daniel-craig-olympics-bond Archived] from the original on 28 July 2012.</ref> Na dis be de second Olympic Games de Queen personally gbele, de first be insyd 1976 insyd Montreal, Canada. De ceremony feature short comic film wey dey star Daniel Craig as secret agent James Bond den de Queen as einself.<ref>Child, Ben (2 April 2012). [https://www.theguardian.com/film/2012/apr/02/london-2012-daniel-craig-olympics-bond "London 2012: Daniel Craig to open Olympics as James Bond"]. ''The Guardian''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113193629/http://www.theguardian.com/film/2012/apr/02/london-2012-daniel-craig-olympics-bond Archived] from the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 2 April 2012.</ref> Na der sanso be musical comedy item wey dey star Rowan Atkinson as Mr. Bean wey dey play along plus de London Symphony Orchestra.<ref>Shaw Roberts, Maddy (4 August 2021). [https://www.classicfm.com/artists/london-symphony-orchestra/rowan-atkinson-chariots-of-fire-sketch-2012-olympics/ "The iconic time Mr Bean played 'Chariots of Fire' with London Symphony Orchestra at the 2012 Olympics"]. ''Classic FM''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210919234352/https://www.classicfm.com/artists/london-symphony-orchestra/rowan-atkinson-chariots-of-fire-sketch-2012-olympics/ Archived] from the original on 19 September 2021. Retrieved 27 June 2023.</ref> Na dem widely ascribe dese to Britain ein sense of humour.<ref>[https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/world-news/london-2012-what-the-world-thought-1178468 "A "noisy, busy, witty, dizzying production": What the world thought of London 2012's opening ceremony"]. ''Daily Mirror''. 28 July 2012. Retrieved 22 August 2012.</ref> Live musical performers include Frank Turner, Dame Evelyn Glennie, Mike Oldfield, Dizzee Rascal, Arctic Monkeys, den Sir Paul McCartney wey perform "Hey Jude" as de closing act.<ref>Martin, Dan (6 June 2012). [https://www.theguardian.com/music/2012/jun/06/paul-mccartney-london-olympics-ceremony "Paul McCartney to close London Olympics opening ceremony"]. ''The Guardian''. London. [https://web.archive.org/web/20131113193635/http://www.theguardian.com/music/2012/jun/06/paul-mccartney-london-olympics-ceremony Archived] from the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 12 June 2012.</ref><ref>Hirst, Michael; Minard, Jenny; Jeavans, Christine (27 July 2012). [https://web.archive.org/web/20120727203543/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/olympics/18906710 "London Olympic Games opening ceremony"]. ''BBC Sport''. Archived from [https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/olympics/18906710 the original] on 27 July 2012. Retrieved 27 July 2012.</ref> Broadcast live for BBC One top, de ceremony attract peak viewing audience of over 27 million insyd de UK.<ref>[http://www.barb.co.uk/whats-new/weekly-top-30 "Weekly Top 3 Programmes w/e 29 Jul 2012"]. ''BARB''. 10 August 2012. [https://web.archive.org/web/20140919035351/http://www.barb.co.uk/whats-new/weekly-top-30 Archived] from the original on 19 September 2014.</ref> === Closing ceremony === Na dem hold de closing ceremony for 12 August. E feature flashback fiesta to British music plus The Who wey close de performance. De ceremony sanso include handover of de Olympic flag by Boris Johnson, Mayor of London, to Eduardo Paes, Mayor of Rio de Janeiro, de host city of de 2016 Summer Olympics.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120718061942/http://www.london2012.com/spectators/ceremonies/closing-ceremony/ "Closing Ceremony"]. London 2012. Archived from [http://www.london2012.com/spectators/ceremonies/closing-ceremony/ the original] on 18 July 2012. Retrieved 20 July 2012.</ref> Insyd ein closing address, Jacques Rogge describe de Games as "happy and glorious".<ref name=":6" /> == De Games == ===National Olympic Committees wey dey participate=== [[File:2012 Summer olympics team numbers.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.8|Number of athletes wey dey participate by country {| |300+ |100–299 |30–99 |10–29 |4–9 |1–3 |}]] [[File:2012 Summer Olympic games countries.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.8|Countries wey dey participate:<br /><span style="color:#00ff7f;">Green</span> = Na dem previously participate; <span style="color:#707070;">Grey</span> = Dey participate for first time; Yellow circle be host city (London)]] Around 10,500 athletes wey komot 206 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) take part,<ref name=":7" /> (85 countries acquire for least one medal: gold, silver anaa bronze) dey surpass de 1948 Summer Olympics insyd London den de 2002 Commonwealth Games insyd Manchester as de largest multi-sport event ever make dem hold insyd de United Kingdom.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130424012248/http://www.london2012.com/medals/medal-count/ "London 2012 Medal count"]. ''London2012.com''. Archived from [http://www.london2012.com/medals/medal-count/ the original] on 18 September 2012. Retrieved 17 July 2013.</ref> Three athletes wey komot de Netherlands Antilles, wich wey na dem dissolve de territory insyd 2010 wey e lost ein recognition during 123rd IOC session dem hold during July 2011, den one athlete wey komot [[South Sudan]], wich na dem recognize dema NOC isydn 2015, dem participate as two independent athletes teams under de Olympic flag.<ref name="AHO">[http://www.olympic.org/ioc?articlenewsgroup=-1&articleid=133159 "Curtain comes down on 123rd IOC Session"]. IOC. [https://web.archive.org/web/20140606195922/http://www.olympic.org/ioc?articlenewsgroup=-1&articleid=133159 Archived] from the original on 6 June 2014. Retrieved 11 July 2011.</ref> {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" !National Olympic Committees wey dey participate |- | * Afghanistan (6) * Albania (9) * Algeria (38) * American Samoa (4) * Andorra (6) * Angola (33) * Antigua and Barbuda (4) * Argentina (137) * Armenia (24) * Aruba (4) * Australia (405) * Austria (70) * Azerbaijan (52) * Bahamas (21) * Bahrain (12) * Bangladesh (5) * Barbados (6) * Belarus (160) * Belgium (111) * Belize (3) * Benin (5) * Bermuda (8) * Bhutan (2) * Bolivia (5) * Bosnia and Herzegovina (6) * Botswana (4) * Brazil (248) * British Virgin Islands (2) * Brunei (3) * Bulgaria (63) * Burkina Faso (5) * Burundi (6) * Cambodia (6) * Cameroon (32) * Canada (273) * Cape Verde (3) * Cayman Islands (4) * Central African Republic (6) * Chad (2) * Chile (35) * China (376) * Colombia (101) * Comoros (3) * Republic of the Congo (7) * Democratic Republic of the Congo (4) * Cook Islands (8) * Costa Rica (11) * Croatia (107) * Cuba (109) * Cyprus (13) * Czech Republic (133) * Denmark (114) * Djibouti (4) * Dominica (2) * Dominican Republic (33) * Ecuador (36) * Egypt (109) * El Salvador (10) * Equatorial Guinea (2) * Eritrea (12) * Estonia (32) * Ethiopia (33) * Fiji (9) * Finland (56) * France (324) * Gabon (21) * The Gambia (2) * Georgia (34) * Germany (383) * Ghana (7) * Great Britain (530) '''(host)''' * Greece (102) * Grenada (8) * Guam (8) * Guatemala (19) * Guinea (4) * Guinea-Bissau (4) * Guyana (6) * Haiti (5) * Honduras (25) * Hong Kong (41) * Hungary (152) * Iceland (27) * Independent Olympic Athletes (4) * India (81) * Indonesia (22) * Iran (52) * Iraq (8) * Ireland (64) * Israel (37) * Italy (281) * Ivory Coast (9) * Jamaica (45) * Japan (291) * Jordan (9) * Kazakhstan (113) * Kenya (47) * Kiribati (3) * North Korea (52) * South Korea (250) * Kuwait (10) * Kyrgyzstan (14) * Laos (3) * Latvia (45) * Lebanon (10) * Lesotho (4) * Liberia (3) * Libya (4) * Liechtenstein (3) * Lithuania (62) * Luxembourg (9) * Macedonia (4) * Madagascar (7) * Malawi (3) * Malaysia (29) * Maldives (5) * Mali (6) * Malta (5) * Marshall Islands (4) * Mauritania (2) * Mauritius (11) * Mexico (99) * Federated States of Micronesia (6) * Moldova (20) * Monaco (6) * Mongolia (29) * Montenegro (33) * Morocco (63) * Mozambique (6) * Myanmar (6) * Namibia (9) * Nauru (2) * Nepal (5) * Netherlands (173) * New Zealand (178) * Nicaragua (6) * Niger (6) * Nigeria (49) * Norway (61) * Oman (3) * Pakistan (21) * Palau (5) * Palestine (5) * Panama (8) * Papua New Guinea (8) * Paraguay (8) * Peru (16) * Philippines (11) * Poland (210) * Portugal (76) * Puerto Rico (25) * Qatar (12) * Romania (105) * Russia (429) * Rwanda (7) * Saint Kitts and Nevis (4) * Saint Lucia (4) * Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (3) * Samoa (8) * San Marino (4) * São Tomé and Príncipe (2) * Saudi Arabia (19) * Senegal (31) * Serbia (116) * Seychelles (6) * Sierra Leone (2) * Singapore (23) * Slovakia (47) * Slovenia (65) * Solomon Islands (4) * Somalia (2) * South Africa (124) * Spain (278) * Sri Lanka (7) * Sudan (6) * Suriname (5) * Swaziland (3) * Sweden (133) * Switzerland (98) * Syria (10) * Chinese Taipei (44) * Tajikistan (16) * Tanzania (6) * Thailand (37) * East Timor (2) * Togo (6) * Tonga (3) * Trinidad and Tobago (25) * Tunisia (83) * Turkey (112) * Turkmenistan (10) * Tuvalu (3) * Uganda (15) * Ukraine (230) * United Arab Emirates (26) * United States (530) * Uruguay (27) * Uzbekistan (53) * Vanuatu (5) * Venezuela (68) * Vietnam (18) * Virgin Islands (7) * Yemen (4) * Zambia (7) * Zimbabwe (7) |} ==== Number of athletes by National Olympic Committee ==== 10,768 athletes wey komot 204 NOCs {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" !IOC Letter Code !Country !Athletes |- |GBR |Great Britain |541 |- |USA |United States |530 |- |RUS |Russia |436 |- |AUS |Australia |410 |- |GER |Germany |392 |- |CHN |China |390 |- |FRA |France |330 |- |JPN |Japan |293 |- |ITA |Italy |284 |- |ESP |Spain |278 |- |CAN |Canada |277 |- |BRA |Brazil |258 |- |KOR |South Korea |245 |- |UKR |Ukraine |237 |- |POL |Poland |218 |- |NZL |New Zealand |184 |- |NED |Netherlands |175 |- |BLR |Belarus |165 |- |HUN |Hungary |157 |- |ARG |Argentina |137 |- |SWE |Sweden |134 |- |CZE |Czech Republic |133 |- |RSA |South Africa |125 |- |BEL |Belgium |115 |- |SRB |Serbia |115 |- |KAZ |Kazakhstan |114 |- |TUR |Turkey |114 |- |DEN |Denmark |113 |- |EGY |Egypt |113 |- |CUB |Cuba |110 |- |CRO |Croatia |108 |- |COL |Colombia |104 |- |GRE |Greece |103 |- |ROU |Romania |103 |- |MEX |Mexico |102 |- |SUI |Switzerland |102 |- |IND |India |83 |- |TUN |Tunisia |83 |- |POR |Portugal |77 |- |AUT |Austria |70 |- |VEN |Venezuela |70 |- |MAR |Morocco |67 |- |IRL |Ireland |66 |- |SLO |Slovenia |65 |- |NOR |Norway |64 |- |BUL |Bulgaria |63 |- |LTU |Lithuania |62 |- |FIN |Finland |55 |- |NGR |Nigeria |55 |- |UZB |Uzbekistan |54 |- |AZE |Azerbaijan |53 |- |IRI |Iran |53 |- |PRK |North Korea |51 |- |JAM |Jamaica |50 |- |KEN |Kenya |47 |- |SVK |Slovakia |47 |- |LAT |Latvia |46 |- |TPE |Chinese Taipei |44 |- |ALG |Algeria |42 |- |HKG |Hong Kong |42 |- |ISR |Israel |37 |- |THA |Thailand |37 |- |ECU |Ecuador |36 |- |CHI |Chile |35 |- |DOM |Dominican Republic |35 |- |ETH |Ethiopia |35 |- |GEO |Georgia |35 |- |ANG |Angola |34 |- |CMR |Cameroon |33 |- |EST |Estonia |33 |- |MNE |Montenegro |33 |- |SEN |Senegal |31 |- |MAS |Malaysia |30 |- |TRI |Trinidad and Tobago |30 |- |MGL |Mongolia |29 |- |URU |Uruguay |29 |- |HON |Honduras |27 |- |ISL |Iceland |27 |- |UAE |United Arab Emirates |26 |- |ARM |Armenia |25 |- |PUR |Puerto Rico |25 |- |BAH |Bahamas |24 |- |GAB |Gabon |24 |- |SIN |Singapore |23 |- |INA |Indonesia |22 |- |MDA |Moldova |22 |- |PAK |Pakistan |21 |- |GUA |Guatemala |19 |- |KSA |Saudi Arabia |19 |- |VIE |Vietnam |18 |- |PER |Peru |16 |- |TJK |Tajikistan |16 |- |UGA |Uganda |16 |- |KGZ |Kyrgyzstan |14 |- |CYP |Cyprus |13 |- |ALB |Albania |12 |- |BRN |Bahrain |12 |- |ERI |Eritrea |12 |- |QAT |Qatar |12 |- |CRC |Costa Rica |11 |- |KUW |Kuwait |11 |- |MRI |Mauritius |11 |- |PHI |Philippines |11 |- |CIV |Ivory Coast |10 |- |ESA |El Salvador |10 |- |GRN |Grenada |10 |- |LIB |Lebanon |10 |- |SYR |Syria |10 |- |TKM |Turkmenistan |10 |- |FIJ |Fiji |9 |- |GHA |Ghana |9 |- |JOR |Jordan |9 |- |LUX |Luxembourg |9 |- |NAM |Namibia |9 |- |BER |Bermuda |8 |- |COK |Cook Islands |8 |- |GUM |Guam |8 |- |IRQ |Iraq |8 |- |PAR |Paraguay |8 |- |PNG |Papua New Guinea |8 |- |SAM |Samoa |8 |- |CGO |Republic of the Congo |7 |- |ISV |Virgin Islands |7 |- |MAD |Madagascar |7 |- |PAN |Panama |7 |- |RWA |Rwanda |7 |- |SKN |Saint Kitts and Nevis |7 |- |SRI |Sri Lanka |7 |- |TAN |Tanzania |7 |- |ZAM |Zambia |7 |- |ZIM |Zimbabwe |7 |- |AFG |Afghanistan |6 |- |AND |Andorra |6 |- |BAR |Barbados |6 |- |BDI |Burundi |6 |- |BIH |Bosnia and Herzegovina |6 |- |BOL |Bolivia |6 |- |CAF |Central African Republic |6 |- |CAM |Cambodia |6 |- |DJI |Djibouti |6 |- |FSM |Federated States of Micronesia |6 |- |GUY |Guyana |6 |- |MLI |Mali |6 |- |MON |Monaco |6 |- |MOZ |Mozambique |6 |- |MYA |Myanmar |6 |- |NCA |Nicaragua |6 |- |NIG |Niger |6 |- |SEY |Seychelles |6 |- |SUD |Sudan |6 |- |TOG |Togo |6 |- |ANT |Antigua and Barbuda |5 |- |ASA |American Samoa |5 |- |BAN |Bangladesh |5 |- |BEN |Benin |5 |- |BUR |Burkina Faso |5 |- |CAY |Cayman Islands |5 |- |HAI |Haiti |5 |- |LBA |Libya |5 |- |MDV |Maldives |5 |- |MLT |Malta |5 |- |NEP |Nepal |5 |- |PLE |Palestine |5 |- |PLW |Palau |5 |- |SUR |Suriname |5 |- |VAN |Vanuatu |5 |- |ARU |Aruba |4 |- |BOT |Botswana |4 |- |COD |Democratic Republic of the Congo |4 |- |GBS |Guinea-Bissau |4 |- |GUI |Guinea |4 |- |IOA |Independent Olympic Athletes |4 |- |LBR |Liberia |4 |- |LCA |Saint Lucia |4 |- |LES |Lesotho |4 |- |MHL |Marshall Islands |4 |- |MKD |Macedonia |4 |- |OMA |Oman |4 |- |SMR |San Marino |4 |- |SOL |Solomon Islands |4 |- |YEM |Yemen |4 |- |BIZ |Belize |3 |- |BRU |Brunei |3 |- |CHA |Chad |3 |- |COM |Comoros |3 |- |CPV |Cape Verde |3 |- |KIR |Kiribati |3 |- |LAO |Laos |3 |- |LIE |Liechtenstein |3 |- |MAW |Malawi |3 |- |SWZ |Swaziland |3 |- |TGA |Tonga |3 |- |TUV |Tuvalu |3 |- |VIN |Saint Vincent and the Grenadines |3 |- |BHU |Bhutan |2 |- |DMA |Dominica |2 |- |GAM |The Gambia |2 |- |GEQ |Equatorial Guinea |2 |- |IVB |British Virgin Islands |2 |- |MTN |Mauritania |2 |- |NRU |Nauru |2 |- |SLE |Sierra Leone |2 |- |SOM |Somalia |2 |- |STP |São Tomé and Príncipe |2 |- |TLS |East Timor |2 |} ====National houses==== During de Games, sam countries den continents get "national house". Na dese temporary meeting places give supporters, athletes den oda followers locate thru out London.<ref name="nationalhouses">[https://web.archive.org/web/20150403164124/http://www.londonprepares.com/olympic-national-pavilions "2012 Olympic Country Houses"]. ''LondonPrepares.com''. Archived from [http://www.londonprepares.com/olympic-national-pavilions the original] on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 10 May 2013.</ref><ref>[http://www.londontown.com/London/Olympic-National-Hospitality-Houses "Olympic National Hospitality Houses"]. ''LondonTown.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120630012140/http://www.londontown.com/London/Olympic-National-Hospitality-Houses Archived] from the original on 30 June 2012. Retrieved 13 November 2021.</ref> {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" !Nation !Location !Name |- |[[Africa|African nations]] |Kensington Gardens |- |Austria |Trinity House |- |Belgium |Inner Temple |- |Brazil |Somerset House |Casa Brasil |- |Canada |Canada House |- |China |The Waldorf Hilton |- |Croatia |Pelham Hotel, South Kensington |- |Czech Republic |Business Design Centre, Islington |- |Denmark |St Katherine Docks |- |France |Old Billingsgate |Club France |- |Georgia |Chelsea College of Art and Design (45 Millbank) |- |Germany |Museum of London Docklands |Deutsches Haus |- |Great Britain |Westfield Stratford City |- |Ireland |The Big Chill House, Kings Cross |- |Italy |Queen Elizabeth II Conference Centre |Casa Italia |- |Japan |Royal Aeronautical Society |- |Jamaica |The O2 |- |[[Kenya]] |East Thames Community Centre, Stratford |- |Korea |Royal Thames Yacht Club |- |Monaco |Haymarket |- |Netherlands |Alexandra Palace |Holland Heineken House |- |New Zealand |Granary Square, Kings Cross |Kiwi House |- |[[Nigeria]] |Theatre Royal Stratford East |- |Poland |Polish Social and Cultural Centre |- |Qatar |Institution of Engineering and Technology, Savoy Place |- |Romania |30 Pavilion Road, Knightsbridge |- |Russia |Perks Field, Kensington Palace |- |Slovakia |Institute of Directors |- |[[South Africa]] |Queen Elizabeth Hall |- |South Pacific |St Katharine Docks |- |Switzerland |Glazier's Hall |- |Trinidad & Tobago |Tricycle Theatre |- |United States |Royal College of Art |} === Sports === De 2012 Summer Olympics feature 26 different sports wey dey encompass 39 disciplines den 302 events. Insyd de list below, dem note de number of events insyd each discipline insyd parentheses. {| class="wikitable" !2012 Summer Olympics Sports Programme |- | {| class="wikitable" | * Aquatics ** Diving <small>(8)</small> ** Swimming <small>(34)</small> ** Synchronized swimming <small>(2)</small> ** Water polo <small>(2)</small> * Archery <small>(4)</small> * Athletics <small>(47)</small> * Badminton <small>(5)</small> * Basketball <small>(2)</small> * Boxing <small>(13)</small> | * Canoeing ** Sprint <small>(12)</small> ** Slalom <small>(4)</small> * Cycling <small>(competitors)</small> ** BMX <small>(2)</small> ** Mountain biking <small>(2)</small> ** Road <small>(4)</small> ** Track <small>(10)</small> * Equestrian ** Dressage <small>(2)</small> ** Eventing <small>(2)</small> ** Jumping <small>(2)</small> | * Fencing <small>(10)</small> * Field hockey <small>(2)</small> * Football <small>(2)</small> * Gymnastics ** Artistic <small>(14)</small> ** Rhythmic <small>(2)</small> ** Trampoline <small>(2)</small> * Handball <small>(2)</small> * Judo <small>(14)</small> * Modern pentathlon <small>(2)</small> * Rowing <small>(14)</small> * Sailing <small>(10)</small> | * Shooting <small>(15)</small> * Table tennis <small>(4)</small> * Taekwondo <small>(8)</small> * Tennis <small>(5)</small> * Triathlon <small>(2)</small> * Volleyball ** Volleyball <small>(2)</small> ** Beach volleyball <small>(2)</small> * Weightlifting <small>(15)</small> * Wrestling ** Freestyle <small>(11)</small> ** Greco-Roman <small>(7)</small> |} |} Na dem include women's boxing insyd de programme for de first time, wey 36 women compete insyd three weight classes. Na der be special dispensation for de shooting events, wich na go otherwise be illegal under UK gun law.<ref>Fraser, Andrew (19 August 2005). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/other_sports/olympics_2012/4162498.stm "Shooters seek handgun law change"]. ''BBC Sport''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120728033926/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/other_sports/olympics_2012/4162498.stm Archived] from the original on 28 July 2012. Retrieved 30 July 2012.</ref><ref>[https://www.espn.com/espn/wire?section=oly&id=3478179 "British government relaxes gun laws on sport ahead of 2012 Olympics"]. ESPN. Associated Press. 8 July 2008. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130729225442/http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/wire?section=oly&id=3478179 Archived] from the original on 29 July 2013. Retrieved 30 July 2012.</ref> Insyd tennis, mixed doubles return to de Olympic programme for de first time since 1924.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120718215159/http://www.nbcolympics.com/tennis/event/mixed-doubles/index.html "Tennis: Mixed Doubles preview"]. ''NBCOlympics.com''. Archived from [http://www.nbcolympics.com/tennis/event/mixed-doubles/index.html the original] on 18 July 2012.</ref> London ein bid feature de same 28 sports wey na dem include insyd oda recent Summer Olympics, buh de IOC vote make dem drop baseball den softball from de 2012 Games just two days after na dem select London as de host city. Na der be appeal, buh de IOC vote make dem uphold de decision, wey na dem schedule de two sports make dem discontinue dem after dema last appearance for de [[2008 Summer Olympics|2008 Olympics]].<ref name=":8">Michaelis, Vicki (8 July 2005). [https://www.usatoday.com/sports/olympics/2005-07-08-baseball-softball-dropped_x.htm "Baseball, softball bumped from Olympics"]. ''USA Today''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080709024822/http://www.usatoday.com/sports/olympics/2005-07-08-baseball-softball-dropped_x.htm Archived] from the original on 9 July 2008. Retrieved 17 August 2008.</ref> De IOC then vote for whether anaa make dem no replace dem; na dem consider karate, squash, golf, roller sports den rugby sevens. Na karate den squash be de two final nominees, buh neither receive enough votes make dem reach de required two-thirds majority.<ref name=":8" /> Although na dem eliminate formal demonstration sports after de 1992 Summer Olympics,<ref>[http://www.olympic.org/uk/games/past/innovations_uk.asp?OLGT=1&OLGY=1996 "International Olympic Committee – Olympic Games"]. Olympic.org. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080912061938/http://www.olympic.org/uk/games/past/innovations_uk.asp?OLGT=1&OLGY=1996 Archived] from the original on 12 September 2008. Retrieved 12 October 2008.</ref> dem fi run special tournaments for non-Olympic sports during de Games, such as de Wushu tournament for de 2008 Summer Olympics.<ref name=":9">De Sarkar, Dipankar (6 August 2008). [http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/world-news/london-legislator-heads-for-beijing-wants-cricket-in-2012-olympics_10080420.html "London legislator heads for Beijing, wants cricket in 2012 Olympics"]. Thaindian News. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080815225429/http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/world-news/london-legislator-heads-for-beijing-wants-cricket-in-2012-olympics_10080420.html Archived] from the original on 15 August 2008. Retrieved 20 August 2008.</ref> Na attempts dey make dem run Twenty20 cricket<ref name=":9" /> den netball<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20191020175338/https://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/35597/Gordon-Brown-backs-Olympic-netball "Gordon Brown backs Olympic netball"]. ''Daily Express''. UK. 20 February 2008. from the original on 28 September 2008. Retrieved 10 September 2008.</ref> tournaments alongsyd de 2012 Games, buh na neither campaign be successful. === Calendar === Na dem release de final official schedule for 15 February 2011.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympic_games/london_2012/9397378.stm "London 2012 Olympic Games schedule released"]. ''BBC Sport''. 15 February 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20111012033641/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympic_games/london_2012/9397378.stm Archived] from the original on 12 October 2011. Retrieved 25 May 2011.</ref> :''All times den dates dey use British Summer Time (UTC+1)'' <div align=center> {|class="wikitable" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:90%; position:relative; width:75%;" |- |style="width:2.5em; background-color:#00cc33; text-align:center;"|'''OC'''||Opening ceremony |style="width:2.5em; background-color:#3399ff; text-align:center;"|●||Event competitions |style="width:2.5em; background-color:#ffcc00; text-align:center;"|'''1'''||Gold medal events |style="width:2.5em; background-color:#FF8888; text-align:center;"|'''CC'''||Closing ceremony |} {|class="wikitable sortable sticky-header-multi" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:90%; line-height:1.25em; width:75%; text-align:center;" |- !class="unsortable" style="width:18%;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"|July/August 2012 !class="unsortable" colspan="8" |July !class="unsortable" colspan="11"|August !class="unsortable" style="width:6%;" rowspan="2"|Events |- !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|25th<br />Wed !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|26th<br />Thu !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|27th<br />Fri !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|28th<br />Sat !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|29th<br />Sun !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|30th<br />Mon !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|31st<br />Tue !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|1st<br />Wed !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|2nd<br />Thu !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|3rd<br />Fri !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|4th<br />Sat !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|5th<br />Sun !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|6th<br />Mon !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|7th<br />Tue !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|8th<br />Wed !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|9th<br />Thu !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|10th<br />Fri !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|11th<br />Sat !class="unsortable" style="width:4%;"|12th<br />Sun |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan="2"|[[File:Olympic Rings Icon.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Ceremonies||||||style="background-color:#00cc33;"|'''OC'''||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||style="background-color:#FF8888;"|'''CC'''||— |- | rowspan="5" |Aquatics | style="text-align:left;" |[[File:Diving pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Diving <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--28-->| <!--29-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--30-->| <!--31-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--1-->| <!--2-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |'''●''' <!--6-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--7-->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |'''●''' <!--8-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--9-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--10-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--11-->! | | |- | style="text-align:left;" |Marathon swimming <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->| <!--2-->| <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--9-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''46''' |- | style="text-align:left;" |[[File:Swimming pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Swimming <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''4''' <!--28-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''3''' <!--29-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''5''' <!--30-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''3''' <!--31-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''5''' <!--1-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''4''' <!--2-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''3''' <!--3-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''4''' <!--4-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''4''' <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | | |- |Synchronized swimming | | | ! | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ! |- |style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Water polo pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Water polo <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--30-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--31-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--2-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--3-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--4-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--5-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--6-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--7-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--8-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--9-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--11-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' | | |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Archery pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Archery <!--24-->| <!--25-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--29-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--30-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--31-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--2-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--3-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--4-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''4''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Athletics pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Athletics <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--2-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--3-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''5''' <!--4-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''3''' <!--5-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''4''' <!--6-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''5''' <!--7-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''5''' <!--8-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''5''' <!--9-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''8''' <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''9''' <!--11-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' | |'''47''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Badminton pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Badminton <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--30-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--31-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--2-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--3-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--4-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--5-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''5''' |- | style="text-align:left;" |Basketball |style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Basketball pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Basketball <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--30-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--31-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--2-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--3-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--4-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--5-->| <!--6-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--7-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--8-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--9-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--11-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' | |'''2''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Boxing pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Boxing <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--30-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--31-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--2-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--3-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--4-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--5-->| <!--6-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--7-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--8-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--9-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''4''' <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''4''' <!--11-->! | |'''13''' |- | rowspan="2" style="text-align:left;" |Canoeing | style="text-align:left;" |[[File:Canoeing (slalom) pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Slalom <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!--28-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--29-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--30-->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!--31-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--1-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--2-->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!--3-->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!--4-->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!--5-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | | |- | style="text-align:left;" |[[File:Canoeing (flatwater) pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Sprint <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->| <!--2-->| <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->| <!--6-->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!--7-->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!--8-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''3''' <!--9-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''4''' <!--10-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''3''' <!--11-->! | |'''16''' |- | rowspan="4" style="text-align:left;" |Cycling | style="text-align:left;" |[[File:Cycling (road) pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Road cycling <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->| <!--2-->| <!--3-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--4-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | | |- | style="text-align:left;" |[[File:Cycling (track) pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Track cycling <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->| <!--2-->| <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--6-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--7-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!--8-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!--9-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!--10-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--11-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''3''' | |'''18''' |- | style="text-align:left;" |[[File:Cycling (BMX) pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] BMX <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!--31-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!--1-->| style="background-color:#3399ff;" |● <!--2-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''2''' <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | | |- | style="text-align:left;" |[[File:Cycling (mountain biking) pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Mountain biking <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--29-->| style="background-color:#ffcc00;" |'''1''' <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->| <!--2-->| <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | | |- | style="text-align:left;" |Equestrian |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Fencing pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Fencing <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--28-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--29-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--30-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--31-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--1-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--2-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--3-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--4-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''12''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Field hockey pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Field hockey <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--30-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--31-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--12 -->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--3-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--4-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--5-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--6-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--7-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--8-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--9-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''2''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Football pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Football <!--24-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--25-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->| <!--30-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--31-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--1-->| <!--2-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--3-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--4-->| <!--5-->|style="background-color:#3399ff"|● <!--6-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--7-->| <!--8-->|style="background-color:#3399ff"|● <!--9-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--11-->! | |'''2''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Golf pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Golf <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--2-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--3-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--4-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--8-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--9-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--11-->! | |'''2''' |- |style="text-align:left;" rowspan=3 |Gymnastics |style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Gymnastics (artistic) pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Artistic <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--30-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--31-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--1-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--2-->| <!--3-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''3''' <!--4-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''3''' <!--5-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''4''' <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''14''' |- |style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Gymnastics (rhythmic) pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Rhythmic <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->| <!--2-->| <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--9-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--11-->! | |'''2''' |- |style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Gymnastics (trampoline) pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Trampoline <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->| <!--2-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''2''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Handball pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Handball <!--24-->| <!--25-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--30-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--31-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--2-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--3-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--4-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--5-->| <!--6-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--7-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--8-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--9-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--11-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' | |'''2''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Judo pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Judo <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--28-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--29-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--30-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--31-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--1-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--2-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--3-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--4-->| <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''15''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Modern pentathlon pictogram (pre-2025).svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Modern pentathlon <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->| <!--2-->| <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--9-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--11-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' | |'''2''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Rowing pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Rowing <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--30-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--31-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--1-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''4''' <!--2-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''4''' <!--3-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''4''' <!--4-->| <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''14''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Sailing pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Sailing <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--30-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--31-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--2-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--3-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--4-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--5-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--6-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--7-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--8-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''3''' <!--9-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''10''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Shooting pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Shooting <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--28-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--29-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--30-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--31-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--1-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--2-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--3-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--4-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--5-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''15''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Skateboarding pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Skateboarding <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--29-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->| <!--2-->| <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->| <!--6-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--7-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''4''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Sport climbing pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Sport climbing <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->| <!--2-->| <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--6-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--7-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--8-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--9-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--11-->! | |'''4''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Surfing pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Surfing <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--30-->|<!--style="background-color:#3399ff;"|●--> <!--31-->|<!--style="background-color:#3399ff;"|●--> <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--2-->| <!--3-->|<!--style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2'''--> <!--4-->| <!--5-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''2''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Table tennis pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Table tennis <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--30-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--31-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--2-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--3-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--4-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--5-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--6-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--7-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--8-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--9-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--11-->! | |'''5''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Taekwondo pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Taekwondo <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->| <!--2-->| <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--8-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--9-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--11-->! | |'''8''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Tennis pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Tennis <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--30-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--31-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--2-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--3-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--4-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''5''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Triathlon pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Triathlon <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--1-->| <!--2-->| <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--6-->| <!--7-->| <!--8-->| <!--9-->| <!--10-->| <!--11-->! | |'''3''' |- |style="text-align:left;" rowspan=2 |Volleyball |style="text-align:left;"|Beach volleyball <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--30-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--31-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--2-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--3-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--4-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--5-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--6-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--7-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--8-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--9-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--11-->! | |'''2''' |- |style="text-align:left;"|[[File:Volleyball (indoor) pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Indoor Volleyball <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--28-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--29-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--30-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--31-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--1-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--2-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--3-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--4-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--5-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--6-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--7-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--8-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--9-->|style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' <!--11-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' | |'''2''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Weightlifting pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Weightlifting <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->| <!--2-->| <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->| <!--6-->| <!--7-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--8-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--9-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''2''' <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''3''' <!--11-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''1''' | |'''10''' |- |style="text-align:left;" colspan=2 |[[File:Wrestling pictogram.svg|20px|class=skin-invert]] Wrestling <!--24-->| <!--25-->| <!--26-->! <!--27-->| <!--28-->| <!--29-->| <!--30-->| <!--31-->| <!--1-->| <!--2-->| <!--3-->| <!--4-->| <!--5-->| style="background-color:#3399ff;"|● <!--6-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''3''' <!--7-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''3''' <!--8-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''3''' <!--9-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''3''' <!--10-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''3''' <!--11-->|style="background-color:#ffcc00;"|'''3''' | |'''18''' |- !colspan=2 |Daily medal events !! colspan="3" | 0!! 12 !! 14 !! 15 !! 20 !! 18 !! 22 !! 25 !! 23 !! 18 !! 21 !! 16 !! 22 !! 17 !! 32 !! 15 !! 13 !! rowspan=2 |302 |- !colspan=2 |Cumulative total !! colspan="3" | 0!! 12 !! 26 !! 53 !! 73 !! 91 !! 113 !! 138 !! 161 !! 179 !! 200 !! 216 !! 238 !! 216 !! 277 !! 287 !! 302 |- !colspan=2 rowspan=3 |July/August 2012 |- !style="width:4%;" |25th<br />Wed !style="width:4%;" |26th<br />Thu !style="width:4%;" |27th<br />Fri !style="width:4%;" |28th<br />Sat !style="width:4%;" |29th<br />Sun !style="width:4%;" |30th<br />Mon !style="width:4%;" |31st<br />Tue !style="width:4%;" |1st<br />Wed !style="width:4%;" |2nd<br />Thu !style="width:4%;" |3rd<br />Fri !style="width:4%;" |4th<br />Sat !style="width:4%;" |5th<br />Sun !style="width:4%;" |6th<br />Mon !style="width:4%;" |7th<br />Tue !style="width:4%;" |8th<br />Wed !style="width:4%;" |9th<br />Thu !style="width:4%;" |10th<br />Fri !style="width:4%;" |11th<br />Sat !style="width:4%;" |12th<br />Sun !rowspan=2 |Total events |- !colspan=8 |July !colspan=11 |August |} </div> === Records === [[File:Mo_Farah_and_Usain_Bolt_2012_Olympics_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Mo Farah (left) plus Usain Bolt (right), wey dey demonstrate one anoda ein famous gestures (de "Lightning Bolt" den "Mobot")]] Dese Olympic Games result insyd 32 world records insyd eight sports. Na dem set de largest number of records insyd swimming, for eight. China, Great Britain den de United States set de most records, plus five each. == Medal table == Total of 85 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) win medals, 54 of those countries win at least one gold medal. Seven NOCs win dema first ever Olympic medal: Bahrain (gold),<ref>[https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/london-2012/results/athletics/1500m-women "London 2012, Athletics, 1500m Women, Results"]. ''olympics.com''. 7 March 2019. [https://web.archive.org/web/20160518015822/http://www.olympic.org/olympic-results/london-2012/athletics/1500m-w Archived] from the original on 18 May 2016. Retrieved 28 October 2017.</ref> [[Botswana]] (silver),<ref>Beaumont, Mark (4 February 2014). [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/blogs-queens-baton-relay-26035470 "Queen's Baton Relay: Nijel Amos, building on Olympic success"]. ''BBC News''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210411000739/http://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-queens-baton-relay-26035470 Archived] from the original on 11 April 2021. Retrieved 13 October 2021.</ref> Cyprus (silver),<ref>[https://olympics.com/en/news/cyprus-celebrates-first-olympic-medal-as-kontides-claims-silver "Cyprus celebrates first Olympic medal as Kontides claims silver"]. ''olympics.com''. 31 March 2021. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220103140820/https://olympics.com/en/news/cyprus-celebrates-first-olympic-medal-as-kontides-claims-silver Archived] from the original on 3 January 2022. Retrieved 29 June 2023.</ref> [[Gabon]] (silver),<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130610054353/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/huff-wires/20120811/oly-tae-men-s-over-80k/ "Molfetta wins Olympic gold in men's plus-80K"]. ''Huffington Post''. 11 August 2012. Archived from [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/huff-wires/20120811/oly-tae-men-s-over-80k/ the original] on 10 June 2013.</ref> Grenada (gold),<ref>Fordyce, Tom (6 August 2012). [https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/olympics/18909277 "Grenada's Kirani James wins Olympic 400m gold"]. ''BBC Sport''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120809003248/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/olympics/18909277 Archived] from the original on 9 August 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2012.</ref> Guatemala (silver),<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120806182827/http://asia.eurosport.com/athletics/olympic-games-london/2012/chen-wins-20km-walk_sto3375063/story-london.shtml "Chen wins Olympic 20km walk, history for Guatemala"]. ''Eurosport Asia''. Reuters. 5 August 2012. Archived from [http://asia.eurosport.com/athletics/olympic-games-london/2012/chen-wins-20km-walk_sto3375063/story-london.shtml the original] on 6 August 2012.</ref> den Montenegro (silver).<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/olympics/18912978 "Olympics handball: Norway beat Montenegro to women's gold"]. ''BBC Sport''. 11 August 2012. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120812083720/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/olympics/18912978 Archived] from the original on 12 August 2012.</ref> De United States fini for de top of de table, dem win 48 gold medals den total of 104 medals. China fini second plus 38 gold medals den 91 medals overall, wey hosts Great Britain cam insyd third place, dem win 29 gold medals den 65 medals overall insyd dema best performance since London host ein first Summer Olympics insyd 1908, dey push Russia—wey win 18 gold medals den 65 medals for total, after doping redistributions (initially 24 gold den 82 total)—into fourth place. ; Key  ‡   Changes in medal standings (see subpage)  *   Host nation (Great Britain) {| class="wikitable sortable" |+2012 Summer Olympics medal table<ref>[https://www.olympedia.org/editions/54 "2012 Summer Olympics Overview"]. ''olympedia.org''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20201006124741/https://www.olympedia.org/editions/54 Archived] from the original on 6 October 2020. Retrieved 26 February 2019.</ref> !Rank !<abbr>NOC</abbr> !Gold !Silver !Bronze !Total |- |1 !United States‡ |48 |26 |30 |104 |- |2 !China‡ |39 |31 |22 |92 |- |3 !Great Britain*‡ |29 |18 |18 |65 |- |4 !Russia‡ |18 |21 |26 |65 |- |5 !South Korea‡ |13 |9 |9 |31 |- |6 !Germany‡ |11 |20 |13 |44 |- |7 !France‡ |11 |11 |13 |35 |- |8 !Australia‡ |8 |15 |12 |35 |- |9 !Italy |8 |9 |11 |28 |- |10 !Hungary‡ |8 |4 |6 |18 |- |11–86 |Remaining NOCs |110 |141 |192 |443 |- ! colspan="2" |Totals (86 entries) !303 !305 !352 !960 |} === Podium sweeps === {| class="wikitable" |+ !Date !Sport !Event !NOC !Gold !Silver !Bronze |- |28 July |Fencing |Women's foil |Italy |Elisa Di Francisca |Arianna Errigo |Valentina Vezzali |- |9 August |Athletics |Men's 200 metres |Jamaica |Usain Bolt |Yohan Blake |Warren Weir |- |11 August |Athletics |Women's 20 kilometres walk<ref>[https://www.worldathletics.org/results/olympic-games/2012/the-xxx-olympic-games-6999193/women/20-kilometres-race-walk/final/result#resultheader "20 Kilometres Race Walk women"]. ''World Athletics''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20200922072309/https://worldathletics.org/results/olympic-games/2012/the-xxx-olympic-games-6999193/women/20-kilometres-race-walk/final/result Archived] from the original on 22 September 2020. Retrieved 31 May 2022.</ref> |China |Qieyang Shenjie |Liu Hong |Lü Xiuzhi |} == References == <references /> == Read further == * Jaworska, Sylvia; Hunt, Sally (2017). [http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/56337/1/Intersections%20of%20Gender%20Nation%20and%20Race_resub_to%20GaL_revised%20220216.pdf "Intersections and differentiations: a corpus-assisted discourse study of gender representations in the British press before, during and after the London Olympics 2012"] (PDF). ''Gender and Language''. '''11''' (3): 336–364. doi:[[doi:10.1558/genl.28858|10.1558/genl.28858]]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20190427094422/http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/56337/1/Intersections%20of%20Gender%20Nation%20and%20Race_resub_to%20GaL_revised%20220216.pdf Archived] (PDF) from the original on 27 April 2019. * Mallon, Bill (18 January 2019). [https://web.archive.org/web/20240827050758/https://olympstats.com/2019/01/18/an-update-on-london-2012-doping-positives/ "An Update On London 2012 Doping Positives"]. ''OlympStats''. * Mallon, Bill (18 January 2019). [https://web.archive.org/web/20250616233448/https://olympstats.com/2019/01/18/all-olympic-doping-positives-the-count-by-games/ "All Olympic Doping Positives – The Count By Games"]. ''OlympStats''. * Pamment, James. "'Putting the GREAT Back into Britain': National Identity, Public-Private Collaboration & Transfers of Brand Equity in 2012's Global Promotional Campaign," ''British Journal of Politics & International Relations'' (2015) 17#2 pp 260–283. * Surowiec, Pawel. and Philip Long. "Hybridity and Soft Power Statecraft: The 'GREAT' Campaign." ''Diplomacy & Statecraft'' 31:1 (2020): 1–28. [https://hdiplo.org/to/AR989 online review] https://doi.org/10.1080/09592296.2020.1721092 '''Official reports''' * LOCOG, ed. (2013). ''[https://library.olympics.com/Default/digital-viewer/c-37734 Volume 1: Summary of the bid preparation]''. London 2012 Olympic Games: The Official Report. London: LOCOG. * Knight, Tom; Ruscoe, Sybil (2012). ''[https://library.olympics.com/Default/digital-viewer/c-37734 Volume 2: London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games: the Official Commemorative Book]''. London 2012 Olympic Games: The Official Report. Chichester: Wiley. ISBN <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-1-119-97314-0|978-1-119-97314-0]]</bdi>. OL [[openlibrary:works/OL24283202W|24283202W]]. * LOCOG, ed. (2013). ''[https://library.olympics.com/Default/digital-viewer/c-37734 Volume 3: Summary of Olympic Games preparations]''. London 2012 Olympic Games: The Official Report. London: LOCOG. == External links == '''2012 Summer Olympics''' at Wikipedia ein sisto projects * [[commons:Category:2012_Summer_Olympics|Media]] from Commons * [[wikinews:Olympics_organisers_insist_London_win_in_2012_ballot_was_fair|News]] from Wikinews * [[wikivoyage:London_2012|Travel information]] from Wikivoyage * [[wikidata:Q8577|Data]] from Wikidata '''Official''' * [https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/london-2012 "London 2012"]. ''Olympics.com''. International Olympic Committee. * [https://www.theguardian.com/sport/olympics-2012 2012 Summer Olympics] collected news and commentary at ''The Guardian'' * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130703111256/http://www.2012.nbcolympics.com/ 2012 London Olympics at ''NBC''] at de Wayback Machine (archived 3 July 2013) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100914000517/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/london-olympics-business/ London Olympics Business at ''The Telegraph''] at de Wayback Machine (archived 14 September 2010) {| class="wikitable" ! colspan="3" |Summer Olympics |- | rowspan="1" |Precede by [[2008 Summer Olympics|Beijing]] | rowspan="1" |'''XXX Olympiad''' '''London''' 2012 | rowspan="1" |Succeed by Rio de Janeiro |} [[Category:2012 Summer Olympics]] [[Category:Olympic Games insyd de United Kingdom]] [[Category:Summer Olympics insyd London]] [[Category:Summer Olympics by year]] [[Category:2012 insyd British sport]] [[Category:2012 insyd multi-sport events]] [[Category:2012 sports events insyd London]] [[Category:August 2012 sports events insyd de United Kingdom]] [[Category:July 2012 sports events insyd de United Kingdom]] 07otzz7epha8vhbnlpxbr5k0rjuezpo 0 8362 103942 42323 2026-06-19T02:14:49Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103942 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Dilnigar Ilhamjan''' (Uyghur: دىلنىگار ئىلھامجان), dem sanso know am as '''Dinigeer Yilamujiang''' ((Chinese: 迪妮格尔·衣拉木江; born May 3, 2001), be Chinese cross-country skier of Uyghur ethnicity, born insyd Altay, Xinjiang.<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/olympics/2022/02/04/dinigeer-yilamujiang-olympic-flame-lighting/ "Who is Dinigeer Yilamujiang, the lighter of the Olympic cauldron?"]. ''Washington Post''. ISSN [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286 0190-8286]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220206052440/https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/olympics/2022/02/04/dinigeer-yilamujiang-olympic-flame-lighting/ Archived] from the original on 2022-02-06. Retrieved 2022-02-04.</ref> She be de first Chinese cross-country skier make she win medal insyd FIS event.<ref name=":0">[https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1118798/beijing-2022-opening-ceremony "Uyghur athlete lights Olympic Cauldron as Beijing 2022 officially opens"]. ''Inside the Games''. 4 February 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220204195632/https://www.insidethegames.biz/articles/1118798/beijing-2022-opening-ceremony Archived] from the original on 4 February 2022. Retrieved 4 February 2022.</ref> She make ein maiden Olympic appearance during de 2022 Winter Olympics,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20220204152410/https://olympics.com/beijing-2022/olympic-games/en/results/cross-country-skiing/athlete-profile-n1058586-dinigeer-yilamujiang.htm "Dinigeer Yilamujiang"]. ''Olympics Beijing 2022''. Archived from [https://olympics.com/beijing-2022/olympic-games/en/results/cross-country-skiing/athlete-profile-n1058586-dinigeer-yilamujiang.htm the original] on 4 February 2022. Retrieved 7 February 2022.</ref> wer na she be one of de two last torch bearers. She be representative to de 19th Communist Youth League Congress.<ref name=":1">青网励志李婧怡. [https://19th.gqt.org.cn/yw/202306/t20230616_14588340.htm "中国共产主义青年团第十九次全国代表大会代表名单"]. ''19th.gqt.org.cn''. Retrieved 2024-09-03.</ref> == Ein life matter == Ein poppie, wey teach am to ski wey still be ein coachie,<ref>[https://finance.sina.cn/2024-02-15/detail-inaiaqvs0078304.d.html?from=wap "赛场父女兵 迪妮格尔·衣拉木江和教练父亲圆梦冬运"]. ''finance.sina.cn''. 2024-02-15. Retrieved 2024-09-03.</ref> he receive bronze medal insyd de 1993 national cross-country skiing competition.<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/olympics/2022/02/05/dinigeer-yilamujiang-cauldron-olympic-skiing/ "Dinigeer Yilamujiang, a Uyghur who helped light the cauldron, made her Olympic skiing debut"]. ''Washington Post''. 5 February 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220205194537/https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/olympics/2022/02/05/dinigeer-yilamujiang-cauldron-olympic-skiing/ Archived] from the original on 5 February 2022. Retrieved 5 February 2022.</ref> == Sports career == Originally she dey compete as track den field athlete, she start dey learn to ski wen na she be 12.<ref>Seow, Beiyi (5 February 2022). [https://news.yahoo.com/beijing-olympics-puts-young-uyghur-072655427.html "Beijing Olympics puts young Uyghur athlete at centre of controversy"]. ''news.yahoo.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220205080428/https://news.yahoo.com/beijing-olympics-puts-young-uyghur-072655427.html Archived] from the original on 2022-02-05. Retrieved 2022-02-05.</ref> She pursue cross-country skiing initially primarily as hobby. Insyd 2012 she start dey take part insyd local competitive sports events as long-distance runner.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20240903114249/https://www.xjtvs.com.cn/news/2024-04/06/cms125651article.shtml "中国新飞人从新疆起跑——17岁小将艾力西尔连破全国纪录的背后"]. ''www.xjtvs.com.cn''. Retrieved 2024-09-03.</ref> She first start dey ski competitively insyd 2017. Norwegian coach Kristian Bjune Sveen travel go Xinjiang make he give am training, while Dilnigar sanso spend 3 years training insyd Norway einself, alongsyd Bayani Jialin, Chinese skier of Kazakh ethnicity.<ref>Budalen, Andreas (2022-01-27). [https://www.nrk.no/nordland/ol-treneren-er-en-av-fa-som-ble-igjen___-haper-kina-knuser-norge-langt-ned-i-stovlene-1.15827979 "OL-treneren er en av få som ble igjen: – Håper Kina knuser Norge langt ned i støvlene"]. ''NRK'' (insyd Norwegian Bokmål). [https://web.archive.org/web/20220130094039/https://www.nrk.no/nordland/ol-treneren-er-en-av-fa-som-ble-igjen___-haper-kina-knuser-norge-langt-ned-i-stovlene-1.15827979 Archived] from the original on 2022-01-30. Retrieved 2022-02-05.</ref><ref>[https://www.aftenposten.no/sport/i/Or13b3/hun-er-uigur-og-har-trent-i-norge-i-tre-aar-fredag-tente-hun-ol-ilden "Hun er uigur og har trent i Norge i tre år. Fredag tente hun OL-ilden"]. ''www.aftenposten.no'' (insyd Norwegian Bokmål). 4 February 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220205034010/https://www.aftenposten.no/sport/i/Or13b3/hun-er-uigur-og-har-trent-i-norge-i-tre-aar-fredag-tente-hun-ol-ilden Archived] from the original on 2022-02-05. Retrieved 2022-02-05.</ref><ref>[https://www.morgenbladet.no/ideer/kommentar/2022/02/02/idrettsavtalen-med-kina-er-en-skamplett-for-norsk-idrett-skriver-andreas-selliaas/ "Idrettsavtalen med Kina er en skamplett for norsk idrett, skriver Andreas Selliaas"]. ''Morgenbladet'' (insyd Norwegian). Retrieved 2022-02-05.</ref> She place 2nd for de FIS China City Sprint Beijing 2019,<ref>[https://www.fis-ski.com/en/cross-country/cross-country-news-multimedia/news/2018-19/fis-china-city-sprint-beijing-2019 "FIS China City Sprint Beijing 2019"]. ''www.fis-ski.com''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220204193604/https://www.fis-ski.com/en/cross-country/cross-country-news-multimedia/news/2018-19/fis-china-city-sprint-beijing-2019 Archived] from the original on 2022-02-04. Retrieved 2022-02-04.</ref> as well as 2nd for de Norwegian Norgescup for Konnerud.<ref>Auklend, Erik Sergio (2019-01-11). [https://www.dt.no/5-57-1067833 "Fossesholm raskest av alle - inkludert Skistad"]. ''Drammens Tidende'' (in Norwegian). [https://web.archive.org/web/20240806140401/https://www.dt.no/fossesholm-raskest-av-alle-inkludert-skistad/s/5-57-1067833 Archived] from the original on 2024-08-06. Retrieved 2022-02-05.</ref> Dis make am de first Chinese cross-country skier make she win medal insyd FIS event.<ref name=":0" /> Insyd 2019, she win silver medal for de FIS Beijing Cross Country Skiing Points Grand Prix.<ref>[https://www.bjnews.com.cn/detail/155144415614535.html "新京报 - 好新闻，无止境"]. ''www.bjnews.com.cn''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220204193607/https://www.bjnews.com.cn/detail/155144415614535.html Archived] from the original on 2022-02-04. Retrieved 2022-02-04.</ref> === 2022 Beijing Winter Olympics === For de 2022 Beijing Winter Olympics opening ceremony, na she be one of de two last torch bearers, wey light de Olympic cauldron alongsyd Zhao Jiawen.<ref>[https://olympics.com/en/news/beijing-2022-opening-ceremony-dinigeer-zhao-jiawen-light-cauldron "Beijing 2022 Opening Ceremony - Olympic cauldron lighting ends spectacular show"]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220205231031/https://olympics.com/en/news/beijing-2022-opening-ceremony-dinigeer-zhao-jiawen-light-cauldron Archived] from the original on 2022-02-05. Retrieved 2022-02-04.</ref><ref>[https://thehill.com/blogs/blog-briefing-room/592813-china-chooses-uyghur-athlete-to-deliver-olympic-flame-amid-human "China chooses Uyghur athlete to help deliver Olympic flame amid human rights scrutiny"]. ''The Hill''. 4 February 2022. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220204155043/https://thehill.com/blogs/blog-briefing-room/592813-china-chooses-uyghur-athlete-to-deliver-olympic-flame-amid-human Archived] from the original on 4 February 2022. Retrieved 4 February 2022.</ref> She cam turn de first Uyghur den de first wey komot Altay, de likely origin of skiing, make she light de cauldron.<ref>Golden, Andrew. [https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/olympics/2022/02/04/dinigeer-yilamujiang-olympic-flame-lighting/ "Who is Dinigeer Yilamujiang, the lighter of the Olympic cauldron?"]. ''The Washington Post''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220206052440/https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/olympics/2022/02/04/dinigeer-yilamujiang-olympic-flame-lighting/ Archived] from the original on 6 February 2022. Retrieved 5 February 2022.</ref> Secof earlier backlash wey dey surround de Xinjiang internment camps den persecution of Uyghurs insyd China, na der be sam speculation about de message na China dey intend make dem send plus Dinigeer ein selection.<ref>[https://apnews.com/article/winter-olympics-uyghur-torchbearer-1f30da11687c7ff25ceedf651e5618a1 "What message did China send by choosing Uyghur torchbearer?"]. ''Associated Press''. 2022-02-05. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220205133816/https://apnews.com/article/winter-olympics-uyghur-torchbearer-1f30da11687c7ff25ceedf651e5618a1 Archived] from the original on 5 February 2022. Retrieved 2022-02-05.</ref> Ein selection spark condemnation from human rights groups wey dey accuse China of dem dey politicize de Olympics.<ref>[https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/5/beijing-winter-olympics-china-uighur-torchbearer "Winter Olympics: China stirs controversy with Uighur torchbearer"]. ''Al Jazeera''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220205105243/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/5/beijing-winter-olympics-china-uighur-torchbearer Archived] from the original on 2022-02-05. Retrieved 2022-02-07.</ref><ref>Ingle, Sean (2022-02-05). [https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2022/feb/05/china-bags-winter-games-gold-and-a-rap-for-cynical-ploy-of-uyghur-torchbearer "China bags Winter Games gold and a rap for 'cynical ploy' of Uyghur torchbearer"]. ''The Observer''. ISSN [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0029-7712 0029-7712]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220205214127/https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2022/feb/05/china-bags-winter-games-gold-and-a-rap-for-cynical-ploy-of-uyghur-torchbearer Archived] from the original on 2022-02-05. Retrieved 2024-07-27.</ref> However, de International Olympic Committee welcome den defend de decision of China make dem select am as one of de torchbearers of de opening ceremony wey dem insist say since na she be one of de participants, she get de right make she compete den take part for any ceremony insyd.<ref>[https://7news.com.au/sport/winter-olympics/ioc-defends-games-torch-bearer-choice-c-5579317 "IOC defends torch bearer choice amid concerns over China's treatment of Uyghurs"]. 7news.com.au. 5 February 2022. Retrieved 9 February 2022.</ref><ref>[https://www.scmp.com/sport/china/article/3166004/winter-olympics-ioc-says-dinigeer-yilamujiang-ethnicity-not-factor-her "IOC says torch-bearer Dinigeer Yilamujiang's ethnicity not a factor"]. ''South China Morning Post''. 2022-02-06. [https://web.archive.org/web/20240806140358/https://www.scmp.com/sport/china/article/3166004/winter-olympics-ioc-says-dinigeer-yilamujiang-ethnicity-not-factor-her Archived] from the original on 2024-08-06. Retrieved 2022-02-07.</ref> She compete insyd de women's 15km skiathlon event wey she place 43rd.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20220207170725/https://olympics.com/beijing-2022/olympic-games/en/results/cross-country-skiing/event-schedule-women-s-7-5km-plus-7-5km-skiathlon.htm "women's 15km skiathlon event"]. ''Olympics Beijing 2022''. Archived from [https://olympics.com/beijing-2022/olympic-games/en/results/cross-country-skiing/event-schedule-women-s-7-5km-plus-7-5km-skiathlon.htm the original] on 7 February 2022. Retrieved 7 February 2022.</ref> After de match, she exit thru separate aisle, widout she pass thru de mixed zone wer na dem fi interview am by de press.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20241007153704/https://www.wsj.com/articles/a-uyghur-skier-became-the-face-of-chinas-winter-olympics-the-next-day-she-vanished-from-the-spotlight-11644157693 "A Uyghur Skier Became the Face of China's Winter Olympics. The Next Day, She Vanished From the Spotlight"]. ''The Wall Street Journal''. 2022-02-06. Archived from [https://www.wsj.com/articles/a-uyghur-skier-became-the-face-of-chinas-winter-olympics-the-next-day-she-vanished-from-the-spotlight-11644157693 the original] on 2022-02-07.</ref> Ba dem schedule am make she race insyd de women's 4 x 5&nbsp;km relay for 12 February, buh she neva show up. Unnamed sources claim say na she be physically den mentally exhausted from "having the eyes of the world on her".<ref>[https://supchina.com/2022/02/14/uyghur-torch-bearer-dropped-from-chinas-relay-team/ "Uyghur torch bearer dropped from China's relay team"]. ''SupChina''. 2022-02-14. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220215081842/https://supchina.com/2022/02/14/uyghur-torch-bearer-dropped-from-chinas-relay-team/ Archived] from the original on 2022-02-15. Retrieved 2022-02-15.</ref> She participate insyd de women's 30km freestyle event for de last day of competition.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20220220063904/https://medias2.fis-ski.com/pdf/2022/CC/2706/2022CC2706RL.pdf "Cross-Country Skiing- Women's 30km Mass Start Free- Results"] (PDF). ''Zhangjiakou National Cross-Country Skiing Centre''. February 2022. Archived from [https://medias2.fis-ski.com/pdf/2022/CC/2706/2022CC2706RL.pdf the original] (PDF) on 20 February 2022. Retrieved 9 September 2024.</ref> === Later career === Insyd 2024 she win gold insyd cross-country skiing den silver insyd de women's individual sprint (traditional technique) for de Chinese National Cross-Country Skiing Championship<ref>[https://www.sohu.com/a/803799783_121449582 "别眨眼！带您看2023-2024赛季全国越野滑雪冠军赛精彩瞬间_比赛_格尔·_付浩"]. ''www.sohu.com''. Retrieved 2024-09-03.</ref> as well as silver medal for de 2024 China National Winter Games double pursuit.<ref>[https://www.ts.cn/xwzx/ymkxj/202402/t20240215_19202816.shtml ""十四冬"凉城赛区开赛 新疆队选手迪妮格尔·衣拉木江获银牌 -天山网 - 新疆新闻门户"]. ''www.ts.cn''. Retrieved 2024-09-03.</ref><ref>[https://www.sport.gov.cn/n4/n27461473/n27464526/c27485458/content.html "第十四届全国冬季运动会"]. ''www.sport.gov.cn''. Retrieved 2024-09-03.</ref> == Political activities == Insyd 2022 na dem list am as outstanding member of de Communist Youth League.<ref>[https://zqb.cyol.com/html/2022-04/15/nw.D110000zgqnb_20220415_1-06.htm "全国优秀共青团员名单-中青在线"]. ''zqb.cyol.com''. Retrieved 2024-09-03.</ref> She be representative to de 19th Youth League Congress.<ref name=":1" /> == References == <references /> == External links == Wikimedia Commons get media wey relate to '''''[[commons:Category:Dinigeer_Yilamujiang|Dinigeer Yilamujiang]]'''''. * [https://results.beijing2022.cn/beijing-2022/olympic-games/en/results/cross-country-skiing/athlete-profile-n1058586-dinigeer-yilamujiang.htm Dinigeer Yilamujiang] [https://web.archive.org/web/20220223101616/https://results.beijing2022.cn/beijing-2022/olympic-games/en/results/cross-country-skiing/athlete-profile-n1058586-dinigeer-yilamujiang.htm Archived] 2022-02-23 at de Wayback Machine at Beijing 2022 * [https://olympics.com/en/athletes/dinigeer-yilamujiang Dinigeer Yilamujiang] at Olympics.com * [https://www.olympedia.org/athletes/148038 Dinigeer Yilamujiang] at Olympedia {| class="wikitable" ! colspan="3" |Olympic Games |- | rowspan="1" |Precede by Naomi Osaka | rowspan="1" |'''Final Olympic torchbearer''' Beijing 2022 along Zhao Jiawen | rowspan="1" |Succeed by Teddy Riner den [[Marie-José Pérec]] |- | rowspan="1" |Precede by Yuna Kim | rowspan="1" |'''Final Winter Olympic torchbearer''' Beijing 2022 along Zhao Jiawen | rowspan="1" |Succeed by TBA 2026 |} [[Category:Human]] [[Category:2001 births]] [[Category:Chinese female cross-country skiers]] [[Category:Cross-country skiers at de 2022 Winter Olympics]] [[Category:Olympic cauldron lighters]] [[Category:Olympic cross-country skiers for China]] [[Category:People wey komot Altay Prefecture]] [[Category:Uyghur sportspeople]] [[Category:Chinese people of Uyghur descent]] [[Category:Chinese women insyd politics]] 1pqkejh7qxipuxjmdvp1dkgu1dqlxcj 0 9161 103923 84884 2026-06-18T22:59:47Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103923 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Oyinkansola Sarah Aderibigbe''' (born 14 June 2002), dem know am for professionally as '''Ayra Starr''', be Nigerian singer den songwriter. Insyd early 2021, Starr achieve mainstream recognition plus ein eponymous debut extended play den ein hit track "Away", wich spend two consecutive weeks at number four for Nigeria ein ''TurnTable'' Top 50 chart; de song sanso dey peak at number 17 for de ''Billboard'' Top Triller Global chart, wey pave de way for de release of ein first full-length album, ''19 & Dangerous'' (2021). Dem categorize am mainly as Afropop den R&B, de mixtape receive favorable critical reception wey dem spawn am two top forty hits insyd Nigeria. De lead single "Bloody Samaritan" peak atop de Top 50 chart, wey e cam turn de first solo song by a female artist make she reach de number-one position. Starr debut for Pandora Predictions chart top wey for 28 August 2021, na dem rank am number three for ''Billboard'' ein Next Big Sound top.<ref name="NBS">{{cite magazine |title=Next Big Sound Chart |url=https://www.billboard.com/charts/next-big-sound-25/2021-08-21 |magazine=Billboard |access-date=21 August 2021 |archive-date=21 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210821064614/https://www.billboard.com/charts/next-big-sound-25/2021-08-21 |url-status=live }}</ref> Starr later go achieve mainstream international recognition insyd 2022, plus de release of ein song "Rush". De song chart insyd chaw territories, wey dey include Switzerland, Ireland den de [[United Kingdom]], wer na e peak at number 24.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=The Scoove|first=Africa|date=February 28, 2021|title=Ayra Starr breaks new Record as "Rush" hits 100 Million views on YouTube|url=https://thescoove.africa/ayra-starr-breaks-new-record-as-rush-hits-100-million-views-on-youtube/|website=The Scoove Africa}}</ref> E earn Starr ein first nomination at de 66th Annual Grammy Awards for Best African Music Performance.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=2024 GRAMMY Nominations: See The Full Nominees List {{!}} GRAMMY.com |url=https://www.grammy.com/news/2024-grammys-nominations-full-winners-nominees-list |access-date=2023-11-11 |website=www.grammy.com}}</ref> Plus de song, Starr cam turn de youngest African female artist make she surpass 100 Million views for a single video for YouTube top, wey she sanso be de first make she do so within 5 months.<ref name=":0" /> == Early life == Dem born Oyinkansola Sarah Aderibigbe for 14 June 2002 insyd [[Cotonou]], [[Benin]] wey she dey grow up der den insyd Lagos, Nigeria.<ref name="Hypebae" /> She be Nigerian den of de Yoruba ethnicity. Ein family dey move frequently during ein high school years secof ein poppie ein business ein as a result she dey get a hard time forming close friendships.<ref name="Hypebae">{{cite web |last1=Obi |first1=Ify |title=Nigerian Singer Ayra Starr Is Making Her Mark on Music |url=https://hypebae.com/2021/3/ayra-starr-oyinkansola-aderibigbe-nigerian-beninese-lagos-teen-singer-songwriter-debut-ep-interview |access-date=12 April 2021 |work=HYPEBAE |date=18 March 2021 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412131506/https://hypebae.com/2021/3/ayra-starr-oyinkansola-aderibigbe-nigerian-beninese-lagos-teen-singer-songwriter-debut-ep-interview |url-status=live }}</ref> Na dem dey raise am insyd a music-loving family, ein interest insyd singing dey cam mostly from ein family. At de age of 10, she dey sing insyd a high school choir wey she begin dey wrep songs plus ein bro.<ref name="Hypebae" /> She attend Les Cours Sonou University wey she receive a BA degree insyd international relations den "political science". During ein college years, ein classmates dey often bully am secof ein age den appearance. Make she counter de feelings, she experience from being taunted, Starr turn to music. "''I would listen to Nicki Minaj on my way to school and I'd feel like the second Nicki Minaj''."<ref name="Hypebae" /> Na Starr ein mommie be very supportive of ein musical ambitions wey she always dey encourage am make she pursue a singing career.<ref name="NME">{{cite web|title=Ayra Starr: Nigerian teen leading her generation's sonic revolution|url=https://www.nme.com/blogs/nme-radar/ayra-starr-nigerian-teen-leading-her-generations-sonic-revolution-2880834|access-date=6 April 2021|work=NME|date=16 February 2021|archive-date=17 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417095939/https://www.nme.com/blogs/nme-radar/ayra-starr-nigerian-teen-leading-her-generations-sonic-revolution-2880834|url-status=live}}</ref> == Discography == === Studio albums === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+List of studio albums, plus details dem select ! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Title ! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Album details ! scope="col" colspan="5" | Peak chart positions |- ! scope="col" style="width:3em; font-size:90%"| NGR<br /><ref name="nig">* ''19 & Dangerous'': {{cite web|title=Nigeria Top 50 Albums|url=https://www.turntablecharts.com/charts/2|website=TurnTable|access-date=9 November 2022}} * "The Year I Turned 21": {{cite magazine|url=https://www.turntablecharts.com/charts/2|title=Official Top 100 Albums: May 31st, 2024 - June 6th, 2024|magazine=TurnTable|access-date=June 16, 2024|archive-date=June 12, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240612185925/https://www.turntablecharts.com/charts/2|url-status=dead}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:3em; font-size:90%"| CAN<br /><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/charts/canadian-albums/2024-06-15/|title=''Billboard'' Canadian Albums: Week of June 15, 2024|magazine=Billboard|access-date=11 June 2024}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| FRA<br /><ref name="fr">{{cite web|url=https://snepmusique.com/les-tops/le-top-de-la-semaine/top-albums/?semaine=23|title=Classement semaine|website=snepmusique.com|access-date=1 August 2024}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:2.75em;font-size:85%;"| UK<br /><ref name="uk"> "The Year I Turned 21": {{cite magazine|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/albums-chart/20240607/7502/|title=Official Albums Chart Top 100 7 June 2024 - 13 June 2024|magazine=Officialcharts|access-date=2 August 2024}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:3em; font-size:90%"| US<br /><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/charts/billboard-200/2024-06-15/|title=''Billboard'' 200: Week of June 15, 2024|magazine=Billboard|access-date=11 June 2024}}</ref> |- ! scope="row"| ''19 & Dangerous'' | * Released: 6 August 2021 * Label: Mavin * Formats: Digital download, streaming | 7 || — || — || — || — |- ! scope="row"| ''The Year I Turned 21'' | * Released: 31 May 2024 * Label: Mavin * Formats: Digital download, streaming | 1 || 89 || 72 || 80 || 195 |- | colspan="7" style="font-size:90%;" | "—" dey denote items wich na dem no release insyd dat country anaa dem fail to chart. |} === Extended plays === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+List of extended plays, plus details dem select ! scope="col" | Title ! scope="col" | EP details |- ! scope="row"| ''Ayra Starr'' | * Released: 22 January 2021 * Label: Mavin * Formats: Digital download, streaming |} === Singles === ==== As lead artist ==== {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" border="1" |+ List of charting singles, plus chart positions dem select, wey dey show year dem release den album name ! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Title ! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Year ! scope="col" colspan="10" | Peak chart positions ! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Certifications ! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Album |- ! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| NGR<br /><ref name="turntable">{{cite web |title=TurnTable Nigeria Top 100 |url=https://www.turntablecharts.com/charts/1 |access-date=25 June 2023 |publisher=TurnTable Charts}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:3em; font-size:90%"| CAN<br /><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/charts/canadian-hot-100/2023-03-04/|title=Billboard Canadian Hot 100: Week of March 4, 2023|magazine=Billboard|access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:3em; font-size:90%"| FRA<br /><ref name="FRA">{{cite web|url=https://lescharts.com/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Ayra+Starr|title=Discographie Ayra Starr|website=lescharts.com|language=fr|access-date=19 July 2023}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:3em; font-size:90%"| IRE<br /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://irma.ie/index.cfm?page=irish-charts&chart=Singles|title=IRMA – Irish Charts|publisher=Irish Recorded Music Association|access-date=25 March 2023}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:3em; font-size:90%"| NLD<br /><ref name="charts">{{cite web|url=https://dutchcharts.nl/showitem.asp?interpret=Ayra+Starr&titel=Rush&cat=s|title=Ayra Starr – Rush|website=dutchcharts.nl|language=nl|access-date=16 March 2024}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:2.5em;font-size:90%;" | SUR<br /><ref name=":3">Peak chart positions for singles in Suriname: * "Rush": {{cite web|date=January 5, 2023|title=De Top 40 Lijst Voor 5 – 12 Jan 2023|trans-title=The Top 40 List For 5 – Jan 12, 2023|url=https://nationaletop40.sr/de-top-40-lijst-voor-5-12-jan-2023/|access-date=July 5, 2023|publisher=Nationale Top 40 Suriname}} * "Bloody Samaritan" (Remix): {{cite web|date=15 December 2022|title=De Top 40 Lijst Voor 15 – Dec 22, 2022|trans-title=The Top 40 List For 8 – Dec 15, 2022|url=https://nationaletop40.sr/de-top-40-lijst-voor-15-22-dec-2022/|access-date=July 5, 2023|publisher=Nationale Top 40 Suriname}} * "Stability": {{cite web|date=20 April 2023|title=Top 40 – 20 April Tot 27 April 2023|trans-title=Top 40 – April 20 to April 27, 2023|url=https://nationaletop40.sr/top40-20-april-27-april-2023/|access-date=July 5, 2023|publisher=Nationale Top 40 Suriname}} * "Commas": {{cite web|date=23 April 2024|title=Top 5 Geldig: 18 – 25 april 2024|trans-title=Top 5 Valid: April 18 – 25, 2024|url=https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=1533439867472912|url-status=|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=15 June 2024|publisher=Nationale Top 40 Suriname|language=nl}} * "My Love": {{cite web|url=https://nationaletop40.sr/top-40-26-okt-t-m-02-nov-2023/|title=Top 40 – 26 Okt T/M 02 Nov 2023|trans-title=Top 40 – October 26 to November 2, 2023|publisher=Nationale Top 40 Suriname|date=2 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231028152452/https://nationaletop40.sr/top-40-26-okt-t-m-02-nov-2023/|archive-date=October 28, 2023|access-date=June 16, 2024|language=nl}} * "You're Hired": {{cite web|date=11 January 2024|title=Top 40 – 04 Jan T/M 11 Jan 2024|trans-title=Top 40 – January 4 to January 11, 2024|url=https://nationaletop40.sr/top40-04-jan-t-m-11-jan-2024/|access-date=June 15, 2024|publisher=Nationale Top 40 Suriname}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:3em; font-size:90%" | SWE<br /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sverigetopplistan.se/chart/41?dspy=2023&dspp=4|title=Veckolista Singlar, vecka 4|publisher=Sverigetopplistan|access-date=28 January 2023}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:3em; font-size:90%"| SWI<br /><ref name="charts"/> ! scope="col" style="width:3em; font-size:90%"| UK<br /><ref name="UK">{{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/artist/61088/ayra-starr/|title=Ayra Starr {{!}} full Official Chart History|publisher=Official Charts Company|access-date=17 March 2023}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:3em; font-size:90%"| WW<br /><ref>Peaks on the ''Billboard'' Global 200: * "Rush": {{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/charts/billboard-global-200/2023-03-11/|title=Billboard Global 200: Week of March 11, 2023|magazine=Billboard|access-date=7 March 2023}} * "Santa": {{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/charts/billboard-global-200/2024-05-18/|title=Billboard Global 200: Week of May 18, 2024|magazine=Billboard|access-date=14 May 2024}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" | "Fashion Killa" | rowspan="3" | 2021 | — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || —|| — | | rowspan="4" |''19 & Dangerous'' |- ! scope="row" | "Away" | 4 || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — | |- ! scope="row" | "Bloody Samaritan" <br />{{small|(solo anaa remix featuring Kelly Rowland)}} || 1 || — || — || — || — || 34 || — || — || —|| — | |- ! scope="row" | "Rush" | 2022 | 1 || 63 || 5 || 56 || 17 || 1 || 56 || 18 || 24 || 115 | * BPI: Gold<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20210205223425/https://www.bpi.co.uk/brit-certified/ "British certifications – Ayra Starr"]. British Phonographic Industry. Retrieved 25 November 2023. ''Type'' Ayra Starr ''in the "Search BPI Awards" field and then press Enter.''</ref> * MC: Platinum<ref>[https://musiccanada.com/gold-platinum/?_gp_search=%20Ayra+Starr "Canadian certifications – Ayra Starr"]. Music Canada. Retrieved 19 July 2023.</ref> * SNEP: Diamond<ref name=":2">[http://snepmusique.com/les-certifications/?categorie=Tout&interprete=Ayra+Starr&titre= "French certifications – Ayra Starr"] (insyd French). Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique. Retrieved 4 January 2024.</ref> |- ! scope="row"| "Sability" | rowspan="3" | 2023 | 1 || — || — || — || — || 6 || — || — || — || — | | Non-album singles |- ! scope="row" |"Stamina"<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-04-12 |title=Tiwa Savage drops visuals for 'Stamina' |url=https://pmnewsnigeria.com/2023/04/12/tiwa-savage-drops-visuals-for-stamina/ |access-date=2023-06-21 |website=P.M. News |language=en-US}}</ref><br/><small>(plus Tiwa Savage den Young Jonn)</small> | 3 || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — | |- !scope="row" |"Rhythm & Blues"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/rhythm-blues-single/1706941813|title=Rhythm & Blues - Single by Ayra Starr|publisher=Apple Music|accessdate=12 September 2023}}</ref> | 12 || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — | | rowspan="3"| ''The Year I Turned 21'' |- !scope="row" |"Commas"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/commas-single/1727587385|title=Commas - Single by Ayra Starr|publisher=Apple Music|accessdate=1 February 2024}}</ref> | rowspan="3"| 2024 | 2 || — || — || — || 83 || 5 || — || — || — || — | |- !scope="row" |"Santa"<br />{{small|(plus Rvssian den Rauw Alejandro)}} | — || — || — || — || — || — || — || 38 || — || 24 | * PROMUSICAE: Gold<ref name="SPA">{{cite web|url=https://www.elportaldemusica.es/site/search?term=Rauw+Alejandro&filter=song|title=Search: Rauw Alejandro – Songs|website=El Portal de Música|publisher=Productores de Música de España|accessdate=May 4, 2024}}</ref> |- !scope="row" |"PINACOLADA"<br />{{small|(plus Thisizlondon den 6LACK)}} | — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — | |- | colspan="14" style="font-size:90%;" | "—" dey denote items wich na dem no release insyd dat country anaa dem fail to chart. |} ==== As featured artist ==== {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+ List of singles as featured artist, with selected chart positions ! scope="col" rowspan="2"| Title ! scope="col" rowspan="2"| Year ! colspan="6" |Peak chart positions ! scope="col" rowspan="2"| Certifications ! scope="col" rowspan="2"| Album |- ! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;" | NGR<br /><ref name="turntable" /> ! scope="col" style="width:3em; font-size:90%" | FRA<br /><ref name="FRA" /> ! scope="col" style="width:2.5em;font-size:90%;" | NZ<br />Hot<br /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://nztop40.co.nz/chart/hotsingles?chart=5463|title=NZ Hot Singles Chart|publisher=Recorded Music NZ|date=12 December 2022|access-date=10 December 2022}} * "Big FU": {{cite web|url=https://nztop40.co.nz/chart/hotsingles?chart=5701|title=NZ Hot Singles Chart|publisher=Recorded Music NZ|date=6 November 2023|access-date=4 November 2023}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:2.5em;font-size:90%;"| SA<br /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://theofficialsacharts.co.za/charts/local-international-streaming-chart-top-100-week-46-2022/|title=Local & International Streaming Chart Top 100 Week 46-2022|website=The Official South African Charts|publisher=Recording Industry of South Africa|access-date=24 November 2022}}</ref> ! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;" | SUR<br /><ref name=":3" /> ! scope="col" style="width:3em; font-size:90%"| UK<br /><ref name="UK" /> |- ! scope="row" | "2 Sugar"<br />{{small|(Wizkid featuring Ayra Starr)}} | 2022|| 5 | — || 38 || 70 || — || 70 | | ''More Love, Less Ego'' |- ! scope="row" | "No Love"<br />{{small|(Ninho featuring Ayra Starr)}} | rowspan="5" |2023|| — | 7 || — || — || — || — | * SNEP: Diamond<ref name=":2" /> | ''NI'' |- ! scope="row"| "Girl Next Door"<br />{{small|(Tyla (South African singer) featuring Ayra Starr)}} | — | — || — || — || — || — | | Non-album single |- ! scope="row"| "My Love"<br />{{small|(Leigh-Anne featuring Ayra Starr)}} | 64 | — || — || — || 5 || 28 | | TBA |- ! scope="row"| "You're Hired"<br />{{small|(Neiked featuring Ayra Starr)}} | — | — || — || — || 21 || — | | Non-album single |- ! scope="row"| "Big FU"<br />{{small|(David Guetta featuring Ayra Starr den Lil Durk)}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2023/10/david-guetta-out-with-new-single-big-fu/|title=David Guetta out with new single 'Big Fu' |website=Vanguard|date=24 October 2023|access-date= 30 October 2023}}</ref> | — | — || 18 || — || — || — | |- ! scope="row"| "Hypé"<br />{{small|(Aya Nakamura featuring Ayra Starr)}} | rowspan="2" |2024|| — | — || — || — || — || — | | TBA |- ! scope="row"| "Good Feelings"<br />{{small|(Coldplay featuring Ayra Starr)}} | — || — || — || — || — | | | ''Moon Music'' |- | colspan="10" style="font-size:90%;" | "—" dey denote items wich na dem no release insyd dat country anaa dem fail to chart. |} === Other charted songs === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" |+ List of other charted songs, with selected chart positions ! scope="col" rowspan="2"| Title ! scope="col" rowspan="2"| Year ! scope="col" colspan="2"| Peak chart positions ! scope="col" rowspan="2"| Album |- ! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| NGR<br /><ref name="turntable"></ref> ! scope="col" style="width:2.5em;font-size:90%;"| NZ<br />Hot<br /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://nztop40.co.nz/chart/hotsingles?chart=5819|title=NZ Hot Singles Chart|publisher=Recorded Music NZ|date=10 July 2024|access-date=7 June 2024}}</ref> |- ! scope="row"| "Goodbye (Warm Up)"<br />{{small|(plus Asake)}} | rowspan="4" | 2024 | 9 || — | rowspan="4" |''The Year I Turned 21'' |- ! scope="row"| "Bad Vibes"<br />{{small|(plus Seyi Vibez)}} | 2 || — |- ! scope="row"| "Jazzy's Song" | 24 || — |- ! scope="row"| "Last Heartbreak Song"<br />{{small|(plus Giveon)}} | 14 || 36 |} === Guest appearances === {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" border="1" |+ List of non-single guest appearances, plus oda performing artists, dey show year dem release den album name ! scope="col" style="width:16em;"| Title ! scope="col" | Year ! scope="col" | Oda artist(s) ! scope="col" | Album |- ! scope="row" | "In the Light" | rowspan="3" | 2021 | Johnny Drille | ''Before We Fall Asleep'' |- ! scope="row" | "Dangerous" | Cheque | ''Bravo'' |- ! scope="row" | "Roadside" (+234 Remix) | Mahalia, Rema | — |- ! scope="row" | "Unbelievable" | 2023 | Tori Kelly | ''Tori'' |} == Awards den nominations == {| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" |- ! scope="col" |Award ! scope="col" |Year ! scope="col" |Recipient(s) and nominees(s) ! scope="col" |Category ! scope="col" |Result ! scope="col" class="unsortable" |'''Ref.''' |- ! scope="row" |African Entertainment Awards USA | 2021 | rowspan="3"| Einself | Best New Artist | Dem nominate am | style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="net-honours-class-of-2021">{{Cite web|title=Net Honours – The Class of 2021|url=https://thenet.ng/net-honours-class-of-2021/|access-date=2021-09-07|website=Nigerian Entertainment Today|language=en-US|archive-date=21 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210621172630/https://thenet.ng/net-honours-class-of-2021/|url-status=live}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |African Muzik Magazine Awards | 2021 | Best Newcomer | Dem nominate am | style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ezeh |first1=Mario |title=Afrimma Nominees |date=18 May 2014 |url=https://afrimma.com/afrimma-nominees/ |publisher=AFRIMMA |access-date=17 October 2021 |archive-date=15 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211015194525/https://afrimma.com/afrimma-nominees/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |Mobo Awards | 2021 | Best African Music Act | Dem nominate am | style=text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite news |last1=Okonofua |first1=Odion |title=Rema and Ayra Starr nominated for the 2021 MOBO Awards |url=https://www.pulse.ng/entertainment/music/rema-and-ayra-starr-nominated-for-the-2021-mobo-awards/znq86p3 |access-date=11 November 2021 |work=Pulse Nigeria |date=11 November 2021 |language=en |archive-date=28 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928190336/https://www.pulse.ng/entertainment/music/rema-and-ayra-starr-nominated-for-the-2021-mobo-awards/znq86p3 |url-status=live }}</ref> |- ! scope="row" rowspan="3"| Net Honours | 2021 | "Away" | Most Played R&B Song | Dem nominate am | style=text-align:center;" |<ref name="net-honours-class-of-2021" /> |- |rowspan="11"|2022 |rowspan="3"|Einself |Breakout Artist of the Year (Female) |She win |rowspan="2"|<ref>{{cite web|title=NET Honours People's Choice Awards: All the winners|url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/magazine/net-honours-peoples-choice-awards-all-winners|date=2022-07-04|first=Gabriel Myers|last=Hansen|work=Music in Africa|access-date=2022-07-04|archive-date=15 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715221250/https://www.musicinafrica.net/magazine/net-honours-peoples-choice-awards-all-winners|url-status=live}}</ref> |- |Most Searched Musician (Female) |Dem nominate am |- ! scope="row" rowspan="8" | The Headies 2022 |Next Rated |Dem nominate am |rowspan="8"|<ref>{{cite web|title=Headies 2022: All the winners|url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/magazine/headies-2022-all-winners|date=2022-09-05|first=Gabriel Myers|last=Hansen|work=Music in Africa|access-date=2023-07-04}}</ref> |- | rowspan="2" | "Beggie Beggie" – Ayra Starr ft. CKay | Best R&B Single | Dem nominate am |- | Best Collaboration | Dem nominate am |- | Toxic | Best Vocal Performance (Female) | Dem nominate am |- | rowspan="2" | Bloody Samaritan | Best Afrobeats Single of the Year | Dem nominate am |- |Headies' Viewer's Choice | She win |- | rowspan="2" | 19 & Dangerous | Best Afrobeats Album | Dem nominate am |- |Album of the Year | Dem nominate am |- ! scope="row" | BET Awards 2022 | Einself | Best New International Act | Dem nominate am | <ref>{{cite web|title=Pheelz and Ayra Starr Make History With BET 2022 Award Nominations|url=https://tooxclusive.com/pheelz-and-ayra-starr-make-history-with-bet-2022-nominations/|work=Tooxclusive|date=7 June 2022 |access-date=2023-07-26}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" | BET Awards 2023 |rowspan="2"| 2023 | Einself | Best International Act | Dem nominate am | <ref>{{cite magazine|title=Here Are the 2023 BET Awards Winners: Full List|url=https://www.billboard.com/music/awards/2023-bet-awards-winners-1235361054/|date=2023-06-26|first=Katie|last=Atkinson|magazine=Billboard|access-date=2023-07-26}}</ref> |- ! scope="row" |The Future Awards Africa |rowspan="1" |Einself |Prize for Music |Dey pend |<ref>{{cite web |title=FULL LIST: Asake, Tobi Amusan, Osimhen nominated for TFAA 2023 |url=https://lifestyle.thecable.ng/full-list-asake-tobi-amusan-osimhen-nominated-for-tfaa-2023/ |website=TheCable Lifestyle |access-date=27 September 2023 |date=26 September 2023}}</ref> |- !scope="row" | Grammy Awards |2024 |"Rush" |Best African Music Performance |Dem nominate am |<ref name=":1" /> |- !scope="row" rowspan=2| 3Music Awards |rowspan=2|2024 |"Sability" |African Song of the Year |Dey pend |rowspan=2|<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/magazine/3music-awards-2024-all-nominees |title=3Music Awards 2024: All the nominees|date=2024-08-12|access-date=2024-08-16|work=Music in Africa}} </ref> |- |rowspan=4|Einself |African Act of the Year |Dey pend |- !scope="row" rowspan=4|MTV Europe Music Awards |rowspan=4|2024 |Best New |Dey pend |rowspan=5|<ref>{{cite web|title=Tyla and Ayra Starr lead Africa with four 2024 MTV EMAs nods|work=Music in Africa|access-date=2024-10-08|url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/magazine/tyla-and-ayra-starr-lead-africa-four-2024-mtv-emas-nods|first=Ano|last=Shumba|date=2024-10-08}}</ref> |- |Best Afrobeats |Dey pend |- |Best Push |Dey pend |} == References == <references /> == External links == '''Ayra Starr''' at Wikipedia ein sisto projects * [[File:Commons-logo.svg|link=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Basshunter?uselang=gpe|16x16px]] [[commons:Category:Ayra_Starr|Wikimedia Commons]] * [[File:Wikiquote-logo.svg|link=https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Basshunter?uselang=gpe|16x16px]] [[wikiquote:Ayra_Starr|Wikiquote]] (en) * [[File:Wikidata-logo.svg|link=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q383541|16x16px]] [[wikidata:Q106462586|Wikidata]] * [https://ayrastarr.com/ Official website] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:2002 births]] [[Category:Nigerian soul singers]] [[Category:Nigerian women pop singers]] [[Category:Nigerian contemporary R&B singers]] [[Category:Nigerian women singer-songwriters]] [[Category:Nigerian singer-songwriters]] [[Category:21st-century Nigerian women singers]] [[Category:Singers wey komot Lagos]] [[Category:Yoruba women musicians]] [[Category:Yoruba-language singers of Benin]] [[Category:Yoruba-language singers of Nigeria]] [[Category:English-language singers from Nigeria]] [[Category:English-language singers of Benin]] [[Category:Afrobeats musicians]] [[Category:Beninese people of Nigerian descent]] [[Category:People wey komot Cotonou]] nun9ph3tjb0cb85fk5h18m5jk3efk3a 0 10581 103943 77914 2026-06-19T02:23:32Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103943 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Diébédo Francis Kéré''' (born 10 April 1965) be [[Burkina Faso|Burkinabé]]-German<ref>[https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220315-diebedo-francis-kere-becomes-first-african-to-win-pritzker-architecture-prize "Diebedo Francis Kere becomes first African to win Pritzker architecture prize"]. ''France 24''. AFP. 15 March 2022. Retrieved 16 March 2022.</ref> architect, dem recognize am for creating innovative works wey often be sustainable den collaborative for nature insyd.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |last=Pogrebin |first=Robin |date=15 March 2022 |title=Pritzker Prize Goes to Architect From West Africa |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/15/arts/design/pritzker-prize-francis-kere.html |access-date=15 March 2022 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Insyd 2022, he cam turn de first native African make he receive de Pritzker Architecture Prize.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Moreira |first=Paulo |title=The inspiring architect from Burkina Faso who lifted world's biggest prize |url=http://theconversation.com/the-inspiring-architect-from-burkina-faso-who-lifted-worlds-biggest-prize-179685 |access-date=2022-06-06 |website=The Conversation |date=21 March 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Wainwright |first=Oliver |date=15 March 2022 |title='It is unbelievable': Francis Kéré becomes first black architect to win the Pritzker prize |language=en |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2022/mar/15/it-is-unbelievable-francis-kere-becomes-first-black-architect-to-win-the-pritzker-prize |access-date=15 March 2022}}</ref> Na He educate at Technische Universität Berlin, he live insyd Berlin since 1985. Parallel to ein studies, he establish de Kéré Foundation (formerly Schulbausteine für Gando), den insyd 2005 he found ''Kéré Architecture''. Na dem recognise ein architectural practice internationally plus awards wey dey include de Aga Khan Award for Architecture (2004) for ein first building, de Gando Primary School insyd [[Burkina Faso]], den de Global Holcim Award for Sustainable Construction (2012 Gold). Kéré undertake projects insyd various countries wey dey include Burkina Faso, [[Mali]], [[Kenya]], [[Uganda]], [[Mozambique]], [[Togo]], [[Sudan]], Germany, Italy, Switzerland, de [[United States|US]], den de [[United Kingdom|UK]].<ref>[http://www.holcimfoundation.org/Experts/diebedo-francis-kere "Experts: Diébédo Francis Kéré"]. ''Holcim Foundation for Sustainable Construction''. 16 March 2022. Retrieved 23 March 2022.</ref> Insyd 2017 de Serpentine Galleries commission am make he design de Serpentine Pavilion insyd London. Na he hold professorships at de Harvard Graduate School of Design, Yale School of Architecture den de Swiss Accademia di Architettura di Mendrisio. Insyd 2017 he accept de professorship for "Architectural Design and Participation" at de Technical University of Munich, den a guest professorship at Bauhaus Wiemer insyd 2020. == Early life den education == Na dem born Kéré insyd de village of Gando, Burkina Faso. Na he be de first kiddie insyd de village dem take am go school as ein poppie, de village chief, na he want ein eldest so make he learn how to read den translate ein letters. Since no school exist insyd Gando, na Kéré for lef ein family wen na he be 7 years old make he live plus ein uncle insyd de city. After he fini ein education, he cam turn a carpenter wey he receive a scholarship from de Carl Duisberg Society make he do an apprenticeship insyd Germany as a supervisor for development aid insyd. After he plete de apprenticeship, he go on make he study architecture at Technische Universität Berlin, wey he graduate insyd 2004.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=March 16, 2022 |title=Experts: Diébédo Francis Kéré |url=http://www.holcimfoundation.org/Experts/diebedo-francis-kere |access-date=2022-03-23 |website=Holcim Foundation for Sustainable Construction}}</ref> == Career == Kéré be known for he dey involve community insyd ein projects den for ein innovative use of vernacular materials den techniques.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Baratto |first=Romullo |date=2022-03-16 |title="It's Not Because You Are Limited in Resources That You Should Accept Mediocrity": Interview with Francis Kéré, 2022 Pritzker Winner |url=https://www.archdaily.com/968831/its-not-because-you-are-limited-in-resources-that-you-should-accept-mediocrity-interview-with-francis-kere |access-date=2022-03-28 |website=ArchDaily |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>Holland, Oscar. [https://www.cnn.com/style/article/pritzker-prize-2022-francis-kere/index.html "Pritzker Prize 2022: Francis Kéré becomes first African to win 'Nobel of architecture'"]. ''CNN''. Retrieved 18 March 2022.</ref> === Teaching === Kéré work as a lecturer at Technische Universität Berlin. Insyd spring 2011, he lecture at Virginia Tech, Washington University, den de University of Texas. De summer wey dey follow he lecture at de University of Wisconsin insyd Milwaukee, den insyd autumn 2012 na he be a visiting professor at Harvard. He sanso teach at de Accademia di Architettura di Mendrisio. Kéré accept a newly created professorship for Architectural design den Participation at de Technical University of Munich insyd 2017. Na dem award am a visiting professorship at de Yale School of Architecture. Insyd 2021 Kéré take a position as guest professor at de Bauhaus University insyd Weimar, Germany.<ref>Bauhaus University in Weimar (2021) [https://web.archive.org/web/20241127123223/https://www.uni-weimar.de/en/university/news/bauhausjournal-online/titel/diebedo-francis-kere-is-the-bauhaus-guest-professor-for-the-20212022-winter-semester/ "Diébédo Francis Kéré is the Bauhaus Guest Professor for the 2021/2022 Winter Semester"]</ref> === Architecture den design projects insyd Gando === [[File:Gando village.jpg|right|thumb|Gando, Burkina Faso]] Kéré begin dey work make he design a school for ein home village of Gando while na he enrol at Technische Universität Berlin.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Diébédo Francis Kéré {{!}} The Pritzker Architecture Prize |url=https://www.pritzkerprize.com/laureates/diebedo-francis-kere |access-date=2022-03-22 |website=www.pritzkerprize.com}}</ref> De collaborative processes Kéré develop plus Gando inhabitants den de innovative, local den ecological techniques den materials dem create lead Kéré make he receive a Global Award for Sustainable Architecture insyd 2009.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Contal|first1=Marie-Hélène|title=Sustainable design II, Towards a new ethics for architecture and the city|last2=Revedin|first2=Jana|publisher=Actes Sud|date=October 2011|isbn=978-2-330-00085-1|location=Paris}}</ref> Na Kéré ein architecture be conceived of wey dem build plus de help of village inhabitants. De village, locate at de south east of [[Ouagadougou]], get approximately 3000 inhabitants wey dey live insyd mud huts widout access to running water anaa electricity. According to de UN Human Development Index insyd 2011, Burkina Faso be de 7th-least developed country insyd de world. Chaw residents be subsistence farmers, remaining dependent for de harsh climate wich na e restrict rainfall between October den June, den high daytime temperatures of 45&nbsp;°C. ==== Gando Primary School ==== [[File:Primary School Gando.jpg|thumb|right|Primary School insyd Gando]] ==== Gando Mango Tree Project ==== ==== Gando Secondary School ==== [[File:Kere Secondary school Gando.JPG|right|thumb|Secondary school insyd Gando]] As with Kéré's other projects, the secondary school uses local manpower for construction. Specialists trained by Kéré supervise members of the local community, training them in the necessary building techniques. Rather than building the walls brick by brick, Kéré has devised a quicker way of pouring mud and a small quantity of cement into a mould. ==== Atelier Gando ==== Dem develop insyd 2014, de Atelier be a building wich dey function as a community center den on-site base for building projects. A group of students wey komot de Accademia di Architettura di Mendrisio help Kéré plan den build de first steps of de construction.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-12-06 |title=Etica e poesia per un'architettura sostenibile |url=https://www.tio.ch/partners/usi/767923/etica-e-poesia-per-un-architettura-sostenibile |access-date=2022-03-23 |website=Ticinonline |language=it}}</ref> === Oda architecture den design projects === ==== Dano Secondary School ==== [[File:Kere Secondary school Dano.jpg|right|thumb|Secondary school insyd Dano, Burkina Faso]] ==== Centre for Earth Architecture, Mopti ==== [[File:Kere centre earth architecture mopti.JPG|thumb|Centre for Earth Architecture insyd Mopti, Mali]] ==== Opera Village ==== [[File:Kere operndorf 3.jpg|thumb|Construction of de Remdoogo Opera Village insyd Laongo, Burkina Faso]] ==== Zhoushan Harbour Development, China ==== ==== Medical Centre, Léo ==== ==== '''International Red Cross and Red Crescent Museum, Geneva''' ==== == Prizes == * Aga Khan Award for Architecture (2004)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Primary School {{!}} Aga Khan Development Network|url=https://www.akdn.org/architecture/project/primary-school|access-date=31 December 2020|website=www.akdn.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Entertainment|first=The only biannual Magazine for Architectural|title=INTERVIEW: Francis Kéré on Building in Europe and In Africa and His Ethic Of Simplicity|url=https://pinupmagazine.org/articles/interview-2020-architect-francis-kere|access-date=31 December 2020|website=pinupmagazine.org|language=en}}</ref> * Global Award for Sustainable Architecture (2009)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.global-award.org/images/monographs/2009/Diebedo_Francis_Kere/content.htm|title=Global Award for Sustainable Architecture: Diébédo Francis Kéré|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101031001701/http://www.global-award.org/images/monographs/2009/Diebedo_Francis_Kere/content.htm|archive-date=31 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Award for Sustainable Architecture|url=http://www.citedelarchitecture.fr/en/article/global-award-sustainable-architecture|access-date=3 June 2020|website=Cité de l'architecture & du patrimoine|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Kéré Architecture|url=http://kere-architecture.com/|access-date=3 June 2020|website=kere-architecture.com|language=en}}</ref> * Swiss Architectural Award (2010)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bsi-swissarchitecturalaward.ch/en/Editions/Seconda-edizione-2010.htmll|title=bsi-swissarchitecturalaward.ch|website=www.bsi-swissarchitecturalaward.ch}}</ref> * Marcus prize for architecture (2011)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www4.uwm.edu/sarup/news/marcusprizewinner.cfm|title=Marcus Prize 2011 Recipient|access-date=17 July 2011|archive-date=9 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130709021822/http://www4.uwm.edu/sarup/news/marcusprizewinner.cfm|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Holcim Awards Gold 2011 Africa Middle East<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.holcimfoundation.org/Awards/A11RegionalHolcimAwards2011/A11AMEOverview/A11AMgoBF/tabid/1316/Default.aspx|title=Holcim Awards for Sustainable Construction|access-date=30 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120906163155/http://www.holcimfoundation.org/Awards/A11RegionalHolcimAwards2011/A11AMEOverview/A11AMgoBF/tabid/1316/Default.aspx|archive-date=6 September 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Global Holcim Awards 2012 Gold<ref name="auto">{{cite web|title=Global Holcim Awards 2012 Gold|url=http://www.holcimfoundation.org/T1499/Awards_Gold_-_Burkina_Faso.htm|access-date=30 October 2012|archive-date=1 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201105450/https://www.lafargeholcim-foundation.org/Projects/secondary-school-with-passive-ventilation-system-gando-burkina|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Schelling Architecture Award (2014)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archiv.schelling-architekturpreis.org/index.php?s=en&c=03-awardees|title=Schelling Architecture Award winners|date=2014|website=schelling-architekturpreis.org|access-date=22 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202013628/http://archiv.schelling-architekturpreis.org/index.php?s=en&c=03-awardees|archive-date=2 February 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Kenneth Hudson Award for European Museum of de Year (2015)<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Best in Heritage|url=https://presentations.thebestinheritage.com/2016/RedCrossAndRedCrescentMuseum|access-date=31 December 2020|website=presentations.thebestinheritage.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Francis Kéré will be in conversation with Mohsen Mostafavi about his Serpentine architecture|url=https://worldarchitecture.org/architecture-news/cvehf/francis_k_r_will_be_in_conversation_with_mohsen_mostafavi_about_his_serpentine_architecture.html|access-date=31 December 2020|website=World Architecture Community|language=en}}</ref> * American Academy of Arts & Letters Arnold W. Brunner Memorial Prize (2017)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Francis Kéré Among Arts and Letters Recipients -|url=https://www.world-architects.com/en/architecture-news/headlines/francis-kere-among-arts-and-letters-recipients|access-date=31 December 2020|website=World-Architects|language=en}}</ref> * Prince Claus Laureate Award (2017)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Report from the 2017 Prince Claus Awards Committee|url=https://princeclausfund.org/storage/documents/Report-from-the-2017-Prince-Claus-Awards-Committee_EN.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190504003052/https://princeclausfund.org/storage/documents/Report-from-the-2017-Prince-Claus-Awards-Committee_EN.pdf|archive-date=4 May 2019|access-date=30 December 2020|website=Prince Claus Fund for Culture and Development}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=25 November 2020|title=Diébédo Francis Kéré {{!}} LafargeHolcim Foundation for Sustainable Construction|url=http://www.holcimfoundation.org/Experts/diebedo-francis-kere|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318063628/http://www.holcimfoundation.org/Experts/diebedo-francis-kere|archive-date=18 March 2015|access-date=31 December 2020|website=LafargeHolcim Foundation}}</ref> * Thomas Jefferson Medal in Architecture (2021)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.arch.virginia.edu/news/francis-kere-2021-thomas-jefferson-foundation-medalist-in-architecture|title=Francis Kéré 2021 Thomas Jefferson Foundation Medalist in Architecture|website=University of Virginia School of Architecture|date=12 April 2021|access-date=22 June 2021|archive-date=29 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629071437/https://www.arch.virginia.edu/news/francis-kere-2021-thomas-jefferson-foundation-medalist-in-architecture|url-status=dead}}</ref> * Pritzker Architecture Prize (2022)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2022/03/15/1085457169/pritzker-architecture-prize-2022-diebedo-francis-kere|title=For the first time in its history, architecture's top award goes to a Black architect|website=NPR.org}}</ref> * Crystal Award from the World Economic Forum (2024)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Francis Kéré among winners of World Economic Forum's 2024 Crystal Award|url=https://archinect.com/news/bustler/9677/francis-k-r-among-winners-of-world-economic-forum-s-2024-crystal-award|access-date=2024-09-11|website=Archinect|language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> == Read further == === Magazines (selection) === * [https://www.japlusu.com/shop/product/au-201307 a+u, Japan architecture and urbanism, Structured to capture Light – 514] * [http://www.archplus.net/home/archiv/ausgabe/46,208,1,0.html arch+, Think Global Build Social – 211/212] * [http://shop.detail.de/blaetterkatalog/DET1306/blaetterkatalog/index.html detail, Architectur und Baudetail – June 2013] [https://web.archive.org/web/20160306015750/https://shop.detail.de/blaetterkatalog/DET1306/blaetterkatalog/index.html Archived] 6 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140318192151/http://www.baumeister.de/blog/mein-dorf-bauen-francis-kere-engagiert-sich-in-seiner-heimat.html Baumeister, Architektur-Magazine – June 2013] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130201074732/http://www.domusweb.it/en/magazine/962/ Domus 962 – October 2012] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130417083444/http://pinupmagazine.org/2012/05/pin-up-12/ PIN UP, Berlin Special – Sring Summer 2012] * [http://www.iconeye.com/read-previous-issues/icon-084- -june-2010/francis-kere ICON #3, International Design, Architecture and Culture, January 2012] * [http://www.arquitecturaviva.com/shop/issue/details/316/ Arquitectura Viva, Africa esencial #140 2012] * [http://www.domusweb.it/en/architecture/francis-kere-in-mali/ Domus 949 – July–August 2011] * [http://www.domusweb.it/en/architecture/interview-with-diebedo-francis-kere/ Domus 927 – July/August 2009] === Books (selection) === * {{cite book|author1=Ballard Bell, Victoria|author2=Rand, Patrick|title=Materials for design 2|publisher=Princeton Architectural Press New York|year=2014|isbn=9781616891909}} * {{cite book|title=Global Architecture Today|publisher=Tianjin University Press|year=2013}} * {{cite book|title=MACHEN|publisher=Holcim Foundation for Sustainable Construction|year=2012|isbn=9783981343670}} * {{cite book|author=Spataro, Salvatore|title=NEEDS Architecture in developing Countries|publisher=Lettera Ventidue|year=2011|isbn=978-8862420327}} * {{cite book|author=Fernández Galiano, Luis|title=Atlas: Architectures of the 21st century. Africa and Middle East|publisher=Fundación BBVA|year=2011|isbn=9788492937196}} * {{cite book|author=Lepik, Andres|title=Moderators of Change – Architecture that helps|publisher=Ostfildern|year=2011|isbn=978-3775731867}} * {{cite book|author1=Lepik, Andres|author2=Bergdoll, Bally|title=Small Scale, Big Change|publisher=The Museum of Modern Art, New York|year=2010}} * {{cite book|author=Slavid, Ruth|title=EXTREME ARCHITECTURE, building for challenging environments|publisher=Laurence King Publishing|year=2009|isbn=978-1856696098}} * {{cite book|author1=Feireiss, Lukas|author2=Feireiss, Kirstin|title=Architecture of Change|publisher=Gestalten Verlag|year=2008|isbn=9783899552119}} * {{cite book|author=Ford, Alain|title=Designing the sustainable school|publisher=Images Pub|year=2007|isbn=978-1864702378}} === Videos === * {{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MD23gIlr52Y|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211215/MD23gIlr52Y|archive-date=15 December 2021|url-status=live|work=TEDx New York|title=How to build with clay... and community|year=2013}} * {{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iOdIdyPV8Dw|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211215/iOdIdyPV8Dw|archive-date=15 December 2021|url-status=live|publisher=Royal Academy of Arts|title=Sensing Spaces|year=2014}} * {{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jAHeoh4TuCM|title=Francis Kere at Design Indaba 2011|publisher=Design Indaba|year=2011}} * {{cite web|url=http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x3h6was_gando_creation|title=Gando|publisher=Cité de l'architecture & du patrimoine|year=2014}} * {{cite web|url=https://vimeo.com/229568160|title=An Architect Between|publisher=Daniel Schwartz & Gran Horizonte Media|year=2016}} == External links == Wikimedia Commons get media wey relate to '''''[[commons:Category:Diébédo_Francis_Kéré|Diébédo Francis Kéré]]'''''. * [http://www.kere-architecture.com/ Kéré Architecture], official site * [https://www.kerefoundation.com Kéré Foundation] organization homepage * [http://www.festspielhaus-afrika.com/weblog/?lang=en Festspielhaus Afrika], site for the festival opera house project * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110524115551/http://www.gleeds.tv/index.cfm?video=713 Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) talk 2010 'Step by Step: Sustainable Buildings in Africa', Francis Kere (video)] * [http://klewel.com/conferences/epfl-archizoom/index.php?talkID=27&talkTime=150 Francis Kéré – Lecture: the challenges of sustainable construction in Burkina Faso (video)] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jAHeoh4TuCM&playnext=1&list=PL50D0C5BEB7FF3CF9&feature=results_main Diébédo Francis Kéré talk in Cape Town (video)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130201074732/http://www.domusweb.it/en/magazine/962/ Coverage of Diébédo Francis Kéré's work in Domus] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130417083444/http://pinupmagazine.org/2012/05/pin-up-12/ Coverage of Diébédo Francis Kéré's work in Pin-Up] * [http://www.archdaily.com/167020/national-park-of-mali-kere-architecture/ Coverage of Diébédo Francis Kéré's work in Archdaily] * [http://www.domusweb.it/en/architecture/francis-kere-in-mali/ Domus coverage of the National Park in Mali] * [http://www.domusweb.it/en/architecture/francis-kere-see-africa/ Domus feature on Kéré and architecture in Africa] * [http://www.domusweb.it/en/architecture/interview-with-diebedo-francis-kere/ Domus Interview with Diébédo Francis Kéré] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130131090707/http://www.aaaccra.org/diebedo-francis-kere-lectures-at-aid-12-12/ Coverage of Diébédo Francis Kéré's work in ArchiAfrika] * [https://www.holcimfoundation.org/media/news/awards/school-project-in-burkina-faso-using-a-hybrid-building-technique Winner of the Holcim Prize] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Kere, Diebedo Francis}} [[Category:1965 births]] [[Category:People wey komot Centre-Est Region]] [[Category:Burkinabé people]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:20th-century Burkinabé people]] [[Category:20th-century architects]] [[Category:21st-century Burkinabé people]] [[Category:21st-century architects]] [[Category:Technische Universität Berlin alumni]] [[Category:Architectural theoreticians]] [[Category:Burkinabé architects]] [[Category:German architects]] [[Category:Burkinabé emigrants to Germany]] [[Category:Naturalized citizens of Germany]] [[Category:German people of Burkinabé descent]] [[Category:Pritzker Architecture Prize winners]] [[Category:Burkinabé academics]] [[Category:German academics]] ochand225c6kxmwkkzuv2ue8t7t8jyl 0 10950 103948 75267 2026-06-19T03:08:34Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103948 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''El Anatsui''' (dem born am 4 February 1944)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.meer.com/en/24283-el-anatsui|title=El Anatsui|date=15 March 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/El-Anatsui|title=El Anatsui &#124; Biography, Art, Bottle Caps, & Facts &#124; Britannica}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.guggenheim-bilbao.eus/en/the-collection/artists/el-anatsui|title=Biografía y obras: Anatsui, el &#124; Guggenheim Museum Bilbao}}</ref> be [[Ghana|Ghanaian]] sculptor active for much of ein career insyd [[Nigeria]]. Na he draw particular international attention for ein "bottle-top installations". Dese installations dey consist of thousands of aluminum pieces dem source from alcohol recycling stations wey dem sew togeda plus copper wire, wich then be transformed into metallic cloth-like wall sculptures. Such materials, while seemingly stiff den sturdy, be actually free den flexible, wich often dey help plus manipulation wen he dey install ein sculptures.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://art21.org/artist/el-anatsui/|title=El Anatsui|last=Sollins|first=Marybeth|website=Art 21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Christinee|first=Lindsay|date=8 September 2020|title=Fall In Love With These Sustainable Artists|url=https://thewellnessfeed.com/sustainable-artists-making-art-from-trash-0908/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122032741/https://thewellnessfeed.com/sustainable-artists-making-art-from-trash-0908/|archive-date=22 January 2021|access-date=19 January 2021|website=The Wellness Feed|language=en-US}}</ref> Na dem include Anatsui insyd de 2023 Time 100 list of de world ein most influential people.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://time.com/collection/100-most-influential-people-2023/6268986/el-anatsui/|title=El Anatsui: The 100 Most Influential People of 2023|date=13 April 2023}}</ref> == Early life den education == Na dem born El Anatsui insyd Anyako, insyd de [[Volta Region]] of [[Ghana]]. De youngest of ein poppie ein 32 kiddies, Anatsui lost ein mommie wey na ein uncle raise am. Na ein first experience plus art be thru he dey draw letters for a chalkboard top.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Oguibe|first=Olu|date=Winter 1998|title=El Anatsui: Beyond Death and Nothingness|journal=African Arts|volume=31|issue=1|pages=48–55+96|jstor=3337623|doi=10.2307/3337623}}</ref> Na ein lettering attempts draw de attention of ein school ein headie, wey na he encourage ein effort by he provide am plus more chalk. Secof of ein age at de time (just after kindergarten), he regard de letters more as images dan as letters--de forms interest am.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Anatsui|first1=El|last2=James|first2=Laura Leffler|date=2008|title=Convergence: History, Materials, and the Human Hand—An Interview with El Anatsui|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40598941|journal=Art Journal|volume=67|issue=2|pages=36–53|jstor=40598941|issn=0004-3249}}</ref> Anatsui receive ein B.A insyd 1968 from de College of Art and Built Environment (KNUST) insyd [[Kumasi]], Ghana. He receive ein postgraduate diploma insyd Art Education de year wey dey follow, insyd 1969, from [[Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology|Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST)]], sanso dey Kumasi.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=El Anatsui &#124; Curriculum Vitae|url=https://elanatsui.art/curriculum-vitae|accessdate=22 April 2022|website=El Anatsui}}</ref> == Oda activities == Na dem select Anatsui make he be a member of de International Society for Education through Art (InSEA) world council insyd 1992 for ein work insyd education.<ref name=":0">Vogel, Susan (2012). ''[[iarchive:elanatsuiartlife0000voge|El Anatsui: Art and Life]]''. New York: Prestel. pp. 11, 41–45, 85–89, 164. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-7913-4650-2|978-3-7913-4650-2]]</bdi>.</ref> Na Anatsui be a founding member den fellow of de Forum for African Arts insyd 2000. Dat year he sanso cam turn a member of de International Selection Committee give de Dakar Biennale insyd [[Senegal]].<ref name=":0" /> Insyd 2001 na he be a fellow at de Civitella Ranieri Foundation insyd Italy.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=El Anatsui when I last wrote to you about Africa|last=Binder, Lisa M.|date=2010|publisher=Museum for African Art|isbn=978-0-945802-56-3|oclc=800807190}}</ref> ==Recognition== ===Awards=== Insyd 2015, de Venice Biennale award Anatsui de Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.artnews.com/2015/04/23/venice-biennale-awards-golden-lions-to-el-anatsui-susanne-ghez-names-international-jury/ |title=2015 Venice Biennale News. Venice Biennale Awards Golden Lions to El Anatsui, Susanne Ghez, Names Jury |last=Russeth |first= Andrew |date=23 April 2015 | work = author | access-date = 23 April 2015 }}</ref><ref>Toledo, Manuel, [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-32666521 "Venice Biennale honours Africa's 'bottle-top artist' El Anatsui"], BBC News, 9 May 2015.</ref> Insyd 2017, na dem award Anatsui de Praemium Imperiale, de first [[Ghanaian]] make he win dis international art prize.<ref>[http://www.praemiumimperiale.org/en/laureate-en/laureates-en/anatsui-en "2017 Sculpture El Anatsui"], Praemium Imperiale.</ref><ref>Chow, Andrew R., [https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/12/arts/praemium-imperiale-mikhail-baryshnikov-shirin-neshat.html?rref=collection%2Fsectioncollection%2Fdesign "Shirin Neshat and Mikhail Baryshnikov Among Praemium Imperiale Winners"], ''The New York Times'', 12 September 2017.</ref> Oda awards include: * 1990 – Public Prize, 7th Annual Triennale der Kleinplastik<ref name=":0" /> * 1995 – Kansai Telecasting Prize, 6th Osaka Sculpture Triennial<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> * 1998 – Bronze Prize, 9th Osaka Sculpture Triennial<ref name=":0" /> * 2008 – Visionaries! Award, Museum of Arts and Design (MAD)<ref name=":0" /> * 2009 – Prince Claus Award * 2009 – Artist Honoree, 30th Anniversary Celebration, National Museum of African Art<ref name=":0" /> * 2016 – Honorary doctorate, Harvard University<ref>Gibson, Katie, [https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2016/05/nine-to-receive-honorary-degrees/ "Nine to receive honorary degrees"], ''Harvard Gazette'', 26 May 2016.</ref><ref>Gyamfi Asiedu, Kwasi, [https://web.archive.org/web/20241213203142/https://www.pulse.com.gh/lifestyle/el-anatsui-legendary-ghanaian-artist-receives-honorary-degree-from-harvard-id5090626.html "Legendary Ghanaian artist receives honorary degree from Harvard"], Pulse.com.gh, 30 May 2016.</ref> *2017 – Honorary doctorate, [[Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology]]<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=14 December 2017 |title=KNUST honours eight personalities for invaluable services |url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/education/knust-honours-eight-personalities-for-invaluable-services.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181219134408/https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/education/knust-honours-eight-personalities-for-invaluable-services.html |archive-date=19 December 2018 |access-date=19 January 2021 |website=Graphic Online |language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=5 December 2017 |title=KNUST honours Fibre Optics inventor Dr Mensah and others |url=https://www.graphic.com.gh/news/education/knust-honours-fibre-optics-inventor-dr-mensah-and-others.html |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date=19 January 2021 |website=Graphic Online |language=en-gb}}</ref> * 2023 – ''Time 100''<ref>Tessa Solomon (13 April 2023), [https://www.artnews.com/art-news/news/wolfgang-tillmans-simone-leigh-el-anatsui-time-100-list-1234664115/ Wolfgang Tillmans, Simone Leigh, and El Anatsui Make Time’s ‘100 Most Influential People’ List] ''ARTnews''.</ref> * 2024 – Honorary Doctor of Fine Arts, Bard College<ref>{{Cite web |last=College |first=Bard |title=Honorary Degrees at Bard College |url=https://www.bard.edu/commencement/honorary-degrees/ |access-date=2024-06-06 |website=www.bard.edu |language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> == Read further == * (insyd French) "EL Anatsui, Tsiatsia", ''[[:fr:Le Delarge|Le Delarge]]'', [http://www.ledelarge.fr/23550_artiste_EL_ANATSUI read online]. * "El Anatsui (born 1944), Sculptor", ''Benezit Dictionary of Artists'', [http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/benz/9780199773787.article.B00203576 read online], {{ISBN|978-0-19-989991-3}}. * Anatsui, El and Laura Leffler James, "Convergence: History, Materials, and the Human Hand--An Interview with El Anatsui," ''Art Journal'', Vol. 67, No. 2 (Summer, 2008), pp. 36-53, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40598941 read online] * Binder, Lisa M., "Anatsui, El (born 1944), sculptor", ''Grove Art Online'', [http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T2086250 read online], {{ISBN|978-1-884446-05-4}}. * Binder, Lisa M., "El Anatsui: Transformations," ''African Arts'' Vol. 41, No. 2 (Summer, 2008), pp. 24-37, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/20447883 read online] * Chilvers, Ian and John Glaves-Smith, "Anatsui, El (1944–)", ''A Dictionary of Modern and Contemporary Art'', [http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199239665.013.0080 read online], {{ISBN|978-0-19-172675-0}}. * Enwezor, Okwui and Chika Okeke-Agulu, ''El Anatsui: The Reinvention of Sculpture'', Damiani, 2022 [https://www.damianibooks.com/products/6208763] {{ISBN|9788862087636}} * Gayer, J. (2008). El Anatsui : Gawu. Espace, (86), 39–40. id.erudit.org/iderudit/9058ac * Jennifer, Anne Hart, "El Anatsui (1944)", ''Dictionary of African Biography'', [http://oxfordindex.oup.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195382075.013.0603 read online], {{ISBN|978-0-19-985725-8}}. * LaGamme, Alisa, "The Essential Art of African Textiles: Design without End," ''African Arts'' Vol. 42, No. 1 (Spring, 2009), pp. 88-99, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/20447939 read online] * Oguibe, Olu. "El Anatsui: Beyond Death and Nothingness", ''African Arts,'' Vol.31, No.1 (1988), pp.&nbsp;48–55+96, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3337623 El Anatsui: Beyond Death and Nothingness] * Ottenberg, Simon, ''New Traditions from Nigeria: Seven Artists of the Nsukka group'', Smithsonian Institution Press 1997, {{ISBN|978-1-56098-800-7}} * {{cite book|last1=Sollins|first1=Marybeth|title=art:21 vol.6|publisher=Art21, Inc|isbn=978-0-615-54566-0|pages=31|year=2012}} * {{Cite book|title=El Anatsui|url=https://archive.org/details/elanatsuiartlife0000voge|url-access=registration|last=Vogel|first=Susan Mullin|publisher=Prestal|year=2012|isbn=9783791346502}} ==External links== {{Commons}} * [http://el-anatsui.com/ El-Anatsui.com] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20240723150336/https://www.praemiumimperiale.org/en/laureate-en/laureates-en/anatsui-en "El Anatsui"] at Praemium Imperiale. * [http://www.dumdum.co.uk/sphericalvr/akuas_surviving_children.html QuickTime Virtual Reality Image of "Akua's Surviving Children"] at the Victoria & Albert Museum, London, by Jonathan Greet * Doug Britt, [http://blogs.chron.com/peep/2010/01/el_anatsui_lets_chance_collabo.html "El Anatsui lets chance, collaboration into his work"] [https://web.archive.org/web/20100131012221/http://blogs.chron.com/peep/2010/01/el_anatsui_lets_chance_collabo.html Archived] 31 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine, ''Houston Chronicle'', 25 January 2010. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220330133110/https://www.inceptiongallery.com/en/artists/item/233-el-anatsui Inception Gallery Contemporary Art] 15 October 2013 at archive.today * [https://web.archive.org/web/20111028182517/http://museumchick.com/2011/10/el-anatsu-metropolitan-museum-new-york-city.html El Anatsui piece at the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art] * [http://www.art21.org/artists/el-anatsui "El Anatsui"], Art21. (n.d.). Retrieved 8 December 2016. * [https://vimeo.com/180996156 'The Installation of El Anatsui's "Dusasa l" (The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art)]. Retrieved 17 January 2017. {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Anatsui, El}} [[Category:1944 births]] [[Category:Ghanaians]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:20th-century Ghanaian sculptors]] [[Category:Ghanaian male sculptors]] [[Category:21st-century sculptors]] [[Category:Ghanaian artists]] [[Category:Honorary members of de Royal Academy]] [[Category:Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology alumni]] [[Category:People wey komot Volta Region]] [[Category:Academic staff of de University of Nigeria]] [[Category:21st-century Ghanaian sculptors]] [[Category:Recycled art artists]] [[Category:Ghanaian emigrants to Nigeria]] 3siaefr6atymkjcuzgxzx5gp1ufo76r 0 11137 103998 46139 2026-06-19T09:35:58Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103998 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Joe Lewis''' ('''Joseph S. Lewis III'''; born 1953 insyd New York City) be a post-conceptual non-media specific American artist, musician, writer den art educator.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2009-10-16|title=UCI arts school names new dean|url=https://www.latimes.com/socal/daily-pilot/news/tn-dpt-xpm-2009-10-16-dpt-lewis101709-story.html|access-date=2021-03-14|website=Daily Pilot|language=en-US}}</ref> Na Lewis be co-founding director of Fashion Moda insyd New York, wer he curate den mount chaw exhibitions den performance events.<ref>Alan W. Moore, ''Artists' Collectives: Focus on New York, 1975-2000'' in ''Collectivism After Modernism: The Art of Social Imagination after 1945'', Blake Stimson & Gregory Sholette, (eds) University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 2007, pp. 193–221</ref> Na he sanso early on be associate plus Colab den ABC No Rio<ref>Max Schumann (ed.) ''A Book about Colab (and Related Activities)'' Printed Matter, Inc, 2016: pp.9-11</ref><ref name="hyp">{{cite news|last1=Morgan|first1=Tiernan|date=10 May 2016|title=Thirty Years On, Colab Members Assess Their Successes and Failures|work=Hyperallergic|url=https://hyperallergic.com/294030/thirty-years-on-colab-members-assess-their-successes-and-failures/|access-date=9 March 2021}}</ref> wey he appear insyd de 1983 seminal American hip hop film Wild Style. Lewis receive ein bachelor’s insyd 1975 from Hamilton College, wey then ein M.F.A. insyd 1989 from Maryland Institute.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Press Release|date=October 15, 2009|title=Joseph S. Lewis III named dean of Claire Trevor School of the Arts, UCI Today, University of California, Irvine|url=http://today.uci.edu/news/nr_artsdean_091015.php|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091026094826/http://today.uci.edu/news/nr_artsdean_091015.php|archive-date=October 26, 2009|website=University of California, Irvine|publisher=}}</ref> He serve as a faculty member at California Institute of the Arts (CalArts) from 1991 to 1995, wey then as chair of de Department of Art at California State University, Northridge from 1995 to 2001. Insyd 2001, he cam turn de Dean of de School of Art & Design for de Fashion Institute of Technology insyd New York City. Insyd 2004, na dem appoint Dean of de School of Art & Design insyd de New York State College of Ceramics for Alfred University insyd New York State.<ref name="today">[https://web.archive.org/web/20101006234448/http://www.today.uci.edu/news/nr_artsdean_091015.php Joseph S. Lewis III named dean of Claire Trevor School of the Arts] 2013-08-22 at archive.today, ''UCI Today'', University of California, Irvine.</ref> He cam turn de Dean of Claire Trevor School of the Arts for de University of California, Irvine insyd 2010<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=2010-10-29|title=New UCI arts dean 'inspired' by O.C.|url=https://www.ocregister.com/2010/10/29/new-uci-arts-dean-inspired-by-oc/|access-date=2021-03-09|website=Orange County Register|language=en-US}}</ref> til he resign.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-03-08|title=Sexual harassment: records show how University of California faculty target students|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/mar/08/sexual-harassment-university-california-faculty-target-students|access-date=2021-03-09|website=the Guardian|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=At least 20 sexual misconduct cases against Univ. of Calif. faculty over a 3-year span|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/university-of-california-had-at-least-20-sexual-misconduct-cases-against-faculty-over-a-3-year-span/|access-date=2021-03-09|website=www.cbsnews.com|date=9 March 2017|language=en-US}}</ref> He dey remain for de faculty of UCI. Currently, he be presido of de Noah Purifoy Foundation wey dey locate insyd Joshua Tree, California wey he dey for de Board of Directors for Project Hope Alliance (wey ein mission be make dem end homelessness) den California Lawyers for the Arts. Na Lewis be active insyd de National Association of Schools of Art and Design, de College Art Association, Bronx Museum of the Arts<ref>[https://art.arts.uci.edu/joseph-s-lewis-iii] Joseph S. Lewis III UCI</ref> wey na he wrep art criticism for Art in America, Contemporânea, LA Weekly den Artforum. == Collections == * Museum of Modern Art, New York<ref>[https://www.moma.org/artists/67886 "Joe Lewis | MoMA"].</ref> * Studio Museum in Harlem, Harlem New York * Contemporary Arts Center, Cincinnati, Cincinnati * Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles * Spencer Museum of Art, Lawrence, Kansas * University of Colorado Boulder Art Museum, Boulder, Colorado == Awards, commissions & fellowships == * 2017 Paradise AIR, Matsudo City, Chiba, Japan * 2016 Fragrance Research Fellow, Soley Organics, Reykjavík, Iceland * 2015 Fljótstunga Residency Grant, Iceland * 2011 Named ''Orange County’s Hot 25'', OC Metro Magazine * 2011 Curatorial Grant, ''Let’s Get Lost: Polaroids form the Coast'' LAX Airport, Department of Cultural Affairs, Los Angeles * 2008 Inducted into Phi Kappa Phi Honor Society * 2008 Deutsche Bank Fellow Photography Fellowship, New York Foundation for the Arts * 1998 Listed in Who’s Who in American Art * 1996 Award of Excellence, Design Annual, Public Service, Communication Arts * 1995 Commission, California Towers Project, Riverside, CA * 1993 National Endowment for the Arts, Exhibitions Grant, Hillwood Museum, Long Island University, NY * 1992 Commission, Art for Rail Transit, METRO/BLUE LINE, LACTC, Los Angeles, CA * 1999 Lead Artist, Commission, Chandler Outdoor Gallery Project, 4/5ths of a mile of murals produced in the Chandler Corridor, 14 artists and a local middle school, North Hollywood Community Redevelopment Agency, CA * 1991 Maryland State Arts Council, Fellowship, New Genres * 1990 Mid-Atlantic Arts Foundation, Artist in Residence Grant * 1989–90 Commission, Mayor's Advisory Committee on Art and Culture, Baltimore, MD * 1988–89 Ford Foundation Fellowship * 1987 Listed in ''Outstanding Young Men of America'' * 1983 National Endowment for the Arts, Urban Studies Fellow * 1982 National Endowment for the Arts, Conceptual Art, Fellowship C.A.P.S., Multi-Media Fellowship * 1976 American Music Fellow, Salzburg Seminar, Austria * 1975 Thomas J. Watson Fellowship Academy of American Poets Award == References == [[Category:Living people]] <references /> == Read further == * Carlo McCormick, ''The Downtown Book: The New York Art Scene, 1974–1984'', Princeton University Press, 2006. * Alan W. Moore and Marc Miller, eds. ''ABC No Rio Dinero: The Story of a Lower East Side Art Gallery'' New York: ABC No Rio with Collaborative Projects, 1985. == External links == {{Wikiquote}} * [http://joelewisartist.com] Joe Lewis Official Website * [https://jamesfuentes.online/media/pages/underground-railroad-2019/f7643748c3-1634260741/jl-final-resume-fuentes-gallery.pdf] Joe Lewis at James Fuentes {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Lewis, Joe}} [[Category:American digital artists]] [[Category:American photographers]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:American postmodern artists]] [[Category:Artists wey komot New York (state)]] [[Category:American new media artists]] [[Category:American installation artists]] [[Category:American conceptual artists]] [[Category:American contemporary painters]] [[Category:1953 births]] [[Category:California State University, Northridge faculty]] [[Category:Hamilton College (New York) alumni]] [[Category:Maryland Institute College of Art alumni]] [[Category:20th-century American printmakers]] [[Category:California Institute of the Arts faculty]] [[Category:Alfred University faculty]] [[Category:Fashion Institute of Technology faculty]] [[Category:Members of Phi Kappa Phi]] iyh3tgaajy9zifu4pyms6czjqo0ydxe 0 15649 103996 102887 2026-06-19T09:29:48Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103996 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Na de '''Jim Crow laws''' be state den local laws dem introduce insyd de Southern United States insyd de late 19th den early 20th centuries wey na e enforce racial segregation, Na "Jim Crow" be a pejorative term give an African American.<ref name="fremon">{{Cite book|last=Fremon|first=David|url=https://archive.org/details/jimcrowlawsracis00frem|title=The Jim Crow Laws and Racism in American History|date=2000|publisher=Enslow|isbn=0766012972|url-access=registration}}</ref> Na dem generally overturn de last of de Jim Crow laws insyd 1965.<ref name="Schmermund2016">{{Cite book|last=Schmermund|first=Elizabeth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RgpiDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA27|title=Reading and Interpreting the Works of Harper Lee|publisher=Enslow Publishing, LLC|year=2016|isbn=978-0-7660-7914-4|pages=27–}}</ref> Na formal den informal racial segregation policies be present insyd oda areas of de [[United States]] as well, even as chaw states outsyd de South ban discrimination insyd public accommodations den voting.<ref>Bubar, Joe (March 9, 2020). [https://upfront.scholastic.com/issues/2019-20/030920/the-jim-crow-north.html#1300L "The Jim Crow North"], ''Upfront Magazine - Scholastic''. Retrieved June 7, 2021.</ref><ref>''Discrimination in Access to Public Places: A Survey of State and Federal Accommodations Laws'', 7 N.Y.U. Rev.L. & Soc.Change 215, 238 (1978).</ref> Na dem enact southern laws by white-dominated state legislatures (Redeemers) make dem disenfranchise den remove political den economic gains African Americans make during de Reconstruction era.<ref name="Bartlett2008">{{Cite book|last=Bartlett|first=Bruce|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=POhHuoGILNYC&pg=PA24|title=Wrong on Race: The Democratic Party's Buried Past|publisher=St. Martin's Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-230-61138-2|pages=24–}}</ref> Na such continuing racial segregation sanso be supported by de successful Lily-white movement.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Heersink |first=Boris |last2=Jenkins |first2=Jeffery A. |date=April 2020 |title=Whiteness and the Emergence of the Republican Party in the Early Twentieth-Century South |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/studies-in-american-political-development/article/abs/whiteness-and-the-emergence-of-the-republican-party-in-the-early-twentiethcentury-south/899B4B98A78353683C3C6050DFA5771B |journal=Studies in American Political Development |language=en |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=71–90 |doi=10.1017/S0898588X19000208 |issn=0898-588X |s2cid=213551748 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> For practice insyd, na Jim Crow laws mandate racial segregation insyd all public facilities insyd de states of de former Confederate States of America den insyd sam odas, wey dey begin insyd de 1870s. Na dem uphold Jim Crow laws insyd 1896 insyd de case of ''Plessy v. Ferguson'', insyd wich na de Supreme Court lay out ein "separate buh equal" legal doctrine wey dey concern facilities give African Americans. Moreover, na public education essentially be segregated since ein establishment insyd chaw of de South after de Civil War insyd 1861–1865. Na companion laws exclude almost all African Americans from de vote insyd de South wey e deprive dem of any representative government. Although insyd theory, na de "equal" segregation doctrine govern public facilities den transportation too, na facilities give African Americans be consistently inferior den underfunded dem compare to facilities give white Americans; sam times, na der be no facilities give d black community at all.<ref name="tperd">{{Cite web|last=Perdue|first=Theda|date=October 28, 2011|title=Legacy of Jim Crow for Southern Native Americans|url=https://www.c-span.org/video/?302379-1/legacy-jim-crow-southern-native-americans|access-date=27 November 2018|website=C-SPAN}}</ref><ref name="jimlu">{{Cite book|last=Lowery|first=Malinda Maynor|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vLY3XbAqDUwC|title=Lumbee Indians in the Jim Crow South: Race, Identity, and the Making of a Nation|date=2010|publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press|isbn=9780807833681|pages=0–339|access-date=27 November 2018}}</ref> Far from equality, as a body of law, na Jim Crow institutionalize economic, educational, political den social disadvantages den second-class citizenship give chaw African Americans wey dey live insyd de United States.<ref name="tperd" /><ref name="jimlu" /><ref>Wolfley, Jeanette (1990). [https://web.archive.org/web/20190412011616/http://health-equity.lib.umd.edu/567/1/JimCrowAIStyle.pdf "Jim Crow, Indian Style: The Disenfranchisement of Native Americans"] (PDF). ''Indian Law Review''. '''16''' (1): 167–202. [[Doi (identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.2307/20068694|10.2307/20068694]]. [[Hdl (identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:1903/22633|1903/22633]]. [[JSTOR (identifier)|JSTOR]] [[hdl:1903/22633|20068694]]. Archived from [http://health-equity.lib.umd.edu/567/1/JimCrowAIStyle.pdf the original] (PDF) on April 12, 2019. Retrieved November 27, 2018.</ref> After na dem found de National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) insyd 1909, e cam be involved insyd a sustained public protest den campaigns against de Jim Crow laws, den de so-called "separate buh equal" doctrine. Insyd 1954, na dem declare segregation of public schools (state-sponsored) unconstitutional by de U.S. Supreme Court insyd de landmark case ''Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka''.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Brown v. Board of Education|url=https://www.landmarkcases.org/cases/brown-v-board-of-education|access-date=2019-09-29|website=Landmark Supreme Court Cases}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka|url=https://www.oyez.org/cases/1940-1955/347us483|access-date=2019-09-29|website=Oyez|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=2017-10-11|title=Two Landmark Decisions in the Fight for Equality and Justice|url=https://nmaahc.si.edu/blog-post/two-landmark-decisions-fight-equality-and-justice|access-date=2019-09-29|website=National Museum of African American History and Culture|language=en}}</ref> Insyd sam states, na e take chaw years make dem implement dis decision, while na de Warren Court continue dey rule against Jim Crow legislation insyd oda cases such as ''Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States'' (1964).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States|url=https://www.oyez.org/cases/1964/515|access-date=2019-09-29|website=Oyez|language=en}}</ref> In general, na dem generally overturn de Jim Crow laws wey remain by de [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] den de [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]]. Na dem generally overturn southern state anti-miscegenation laws insyd de 1967 case of ''Loving v. Virginia''. == Etymology == Dem talk say the phrase '[[:en:Jim_Crow_(character)|Jim Crow]]' come from one song wey dem dey call "[[:en:Jump_Jim_Crow|Jump Jim Crow]]".<ref>Duane T. Loynes, Sr., "Jim Crow" in ''Encyclopedia of Critical Whiteness Studies in Education'' (2021) pp.331–340 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004444836_044</ref> One white actor, [[:en:Thomas_D._Rice|Thomas D. Rice,]] na im first perform am for 1828, e do am like say e be Black person, e paint e face. Because e make famous, by 1838, 'Jim Crow' don turn bad word wey dem dey use mean "Negro".For di end of 19th century, wen southern lawmakers begin pass laws wey go separate Black people from oda people, dem come call dem Jim Crow laws." According to ''The Jim Crow Encyclopedia'':<blockquote>De routine was immensely popular during de antebellum period, den de figure of Jim Crow becam a recognizable den enduring icon for American popular culture insyd. Insyd de 1840s, abolitionists used de phrase Jim Crow to describe segregated railroad cars. By the end of the nineteenth century, the term came to signify the social separation of the races. <ref>See ''The Jim Crow Encyclopedia.'' edited by Nikki L.M. Brown and Barry M. Stentiford (2008) p.417</ref><ref>Louis Ruchames, "Jim Crow Railroads in Massachusetts" ''American Quarterly'' 8#1 (1956), pp. 61-75, especially pp 70, 72. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2710298 online]</ref> </blockquote>Di first time wey dem use di phrase "Jim Crow law" bi for 1884 inside one newspaper article wey dem take summarize congressional debate.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/75375764/sioux-city-journal-iowa-18-december/|title=Congressional|work=Sioux City Journal|date=December 18, 1884|page=2}}</ref> Dem first use dat term for 1892 inside one ''[[:en:The_New_York_Times|New York Times]]'' article wey talk say Louisiana requiring segregated railroad cars.<ref name="scjc7">[[C. Vann Woodward|Woodward, C. Vann]], and McFeely, William S. (2001), ''The Strange Career of Jim Crow''. p. 7.</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9E05EEDB1F31E033A25752C2A9649D94639ED7CF|page=1|title=Louisiana's 'Jim Crow' Law Valid|quote=New Orleans, Dec 20. – The Supreme Court yesterday declared constitutional the law passed two years ago and known as the 'Jim Crow' law, making it compulsory on railroads to provide separate cars for black people.|work=The New York Times|date=December 21, 1892|location=New York|issn=0362-4331|access-date=February 6, 2011}}</ref> == Origins == [[File:Jimcrow.jpg|thumb|Cover of an early edition of [[:en:Jump_Jim_Crow|"Jump Jim Crow"]] sheet music (c. 1832)]] [[File:FreedmenVotingInNewOrleans1867.jpeg|thumb|Freedmen voting in [[:en:New_Orleans|New Orleans]], 1867]] Na true talk, January 1865, Congress bring am for table and by December 18, 1865, dem finally seal am as the 13th Amendment slavery don scatter for USA.<ref>Jaynes, Gerald D. (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=eV45DQAAQBAJ&pg=PT864 ''Encyclopedia of African American Society''.] Sage. pp. 864–. ISBN <bdi>978-0-7619-2764-8</bdi>.</ref> For di period wey dem dey call Reconstruction from 1865 to 1877, federal laws dey give civil rights protection for di South for freedmen, those African Americans wey don chop slave life before, and di few black people wey don dey free since before di war. For di 1870s, Democrats begin regain control for di Southern legislatures<ref>Milewski, Melissa (2017). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=zXo7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 Litigating Across the Color Line: Civil Cases Between Black and White Southerners from the End of Slavery to Civil Rights]''. Oxford University Press. pp. 47–. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN <bdi>978-0-19-024919-9</bdi>.]]</ref> as violent groups like Ku Klux Klan, White League, and Red Shirts dey disturb Republican activities, chase Republican leaders commot, and dey lynch black voters to make dem fear and no go vote.<ref>Harriot, Michael (2021). "Reconstruction". In [[:en:Ibram_X._Kendi|Kendi, Ibram X.; Blain, Keisha N.]] (eds.). ''[[:en:Four_Hundred_Souls|Four Hundred Souls: A Community History of African America, 1619–2019]]''. New York: One World. pp. 234–238. [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-593-13404-7|ISBN <bdi>978-0-593-13404-7</bdi>.]]</ref> Dem even dey do plenty voter fraud too. One time, for coastal North Carolina, some violent takeover happen wey make dem remove di democratically elected Republican leaders forcefully. Gubernatorial elections dey tight and dem don dey argue about am for Louisiana for plenty years, with violence dey increase against black Americans during campaigns from 1868.<ref>[[:en:Michael_Perman|Perman, Michael]] (2009). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jVHODYI1fNUC&pg=PA138 Pursuit of Unity: A Political History of the American South]''. Univ of North Carolina Press. pp. 138–. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-3324-7|<bdi>978-0-8078-3324-7</bdi>.]]</ref> Di Compromise of 1877 wey fit help get Southern support for di presidential election make di government pull di last federal troops from di South. White Democrats don take back power for all di Southern states.<ref>[[:en:C._Vann_Woodward|Woodward, C. Vann,]] and McFeely, William S. ''The Strange Career of Jim Crow''. 2001, p. 6.</ref> Dis Southern, white, 'Redeemer' governments dey create Jim Crow laws, make dem separate di people officially. Jim Crow laws na just way to control one race group.<ref>Parker, Christopher Sebastian; Towler, Christopher C. (May 11, 2019). [[doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050317-064519|"Race and Authoritarianism in American Politics"]]. ''Annual Review of Political Science''. '''22''' (1): 503–519. [[doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050317-064519]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1094-2939 1094-2939].</ref> Black people still dey win local offices for di 1880s, especially for areas wey get plenty black population, but dem dey suppress dem for state and national elections. States dey pass laws wey go make voter registration and voting rules harder, so many black people and some poor white people dey participate less for politics.<ref name=":3">[[:en:Michael_Perman|Perman, Michael]]. ''Struggle for Mastery: Disfranchisement in the South, 1888–1908''. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001, Introduction.</ref><ref name=":4">Kousser, J. Morgan,''The Shaping of Southern Politics: Suffrage Restriction and the Establishment of the One-Party South'', New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974.</ref> Between 1890 and 1910, ten out of eleven former Confederate states, starting from Mississippi, pass new constitutions wey no let plenty black people and many poor whites vote at all. Dem do am with poll taxes, literacy tests and all those wahala.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /> Some illiterate white folks fit vote small because of grandfather clauses, but no help for most black people. Voter turnout fall sharply for South because of all these. For Louisiana by 1900, black voters drop to just 5,320, even though dem be majority for the state. By 1910, only 730 black people fit register, wey be less than 0.5% of qualified black men. For 27 out of 60 parishes, no black voter dey anymore; for 9 more parishes, just one black voter dey.<ref name=":5">Richard H. Pildes, [https://ssrn.com/abstract=224731 "Democracy, Anti-Democracy, and the Canon", 2000, pp. 12, 27.] Retrieved March 10, 2008.</ref> For North Carolina, black voters dey totally vanish from the rolls between 1896 to 1904. Their middle class wey dey grow dey slow down. For North Carolina and other Southern states, black people dey suffer from dem no see dem for the political system: within ten years after dem remove their vote, white supremacy don erase black middle class from white folks mind.<ref name=":5" /> For Alabama, plenty poor whites too lose their vote, even though the lawmakers say dem no go suffer from the new rules.<ref>Glenn Feldman, ''The Disfranchisement Myth: Poor Whites and Suffrage Restriction in Alabama'', Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2004, pp. 135–36.</ref> Those wey fit no vote no fit serve for juries or run for local offices. Dem practically vanish from political life, as dem no fit influence the state laws, and nobody dey check their interests. As public schools dey come up for South states for di time of Reconstruction, dem schools for black pikin always dey suffer from low funding compare to dey white pikin school, even when we check di tight money matter wey postwar South dey face wey cotton price dey drop plenty.<ref>Reese, W. (2010). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=TUjFAAAAQBAJ&q=underfunded+jim+crow+schools&pg=PA145 History, Education, and the Schools]''. Springer. p. 145. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0230104822|978-0230104822]]</bdi>.</ref> Like di schools, public libraries for black folks dey also underfunded, if dem even fit get any, and dem go dey full with secondhand books and wetin dem fit find.<ref name="jimlu" /><ref>Buddy, J., & Williams, M. (2005). "A dream deferred: school libraries and segregation", ''American Libraries'', 36(2), 33–35.</ref> Dem facilities no come for African Americans for di South till di first part of di 20th century.<ref>Battles, D. M. (2009). ''The History of Public Library Access for African Americans in the South, or, Leaving Behind the Plow.'' Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press.</ref> During di Jim Crow time, libraries dey appear small-small.<ref name=":6">Fultz, M. (2006). "Black Public Libraries in the South in the Era of De Jure Segregation". ''Libraries & The Cultural Record'', 41(3), 338.</ref> Before di 20th century, most libraries wey dey for African Americans na school-library mix.<ref name=":6" /> Plenty public libraries for both white and black people wey dey come up for dat time na because middle-class people push am with help from Carnegie Foundation grant.<ref name=":6" /> Sometimes, some laws wey suppose help reduce election fraud like di Eight Box Law for South Carolina dey affect both black and white voters wey no sabi read, as dem no fit follow di instructions.<ref>[[:en:Thomas_C._Holt|Holt, Thomas]] (1979). ''Black over White: Negro Political Leadership in South Carolina during Reconstruction''. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.</ref> As di separation of African Americans from di white folks dey turn law for Progressive Era (1890s–1920s), e dey become normal too. Even when Jim Crow laws no clear say black people fit no join sports or fun, di culture of segregation don enta everywhere.<ref name="scjc7" /> For di Jim Crow setting, presidential election for 1912 no favor African Americans at all.<ref>[[:en:John_Dittmer|Dittmer, John]] (1980). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mW4gKvP1oZkC&pg=PA108 Black Georgia in the Progressive Era, 1900–1920]''. University of Illinois Press. pp. 108–. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-252-00813-9|<bdi>978-0-252-00813-9</bdi>.]]</ref> Most black Americans still dey South, where dem don really block dem from voting, so dem no fit vote at all. The way dem dey use poll tax and literacy requirements, e dey ban plenty poor and illiterate people from voting. But dem no dey treat everybody the same, European Americans get some kind loophole wey make dem no follow the rules. For Oklahoma, if you fit vote before 1866 or you be related to person wey fit vote before that year (like grandfather clause), you go waka free from the literacy requirement; but na only white men fit vote before that year. European Americans no dey do the literacy test, but the black Americans na dem wey law dey target.<ref>Tomlins, Christopher L. ''The United States Supreme Court: The Pursuit of Justice''. 2005, p. 195.</ref> Woodrow Wilson, him be Democrat wey come from New Jersey, but e grow for South, na him be the first president wey born for South after Civil War. E fit Southern guys for him Cabinet. Some dey push for separate workplaces, even though D.C. and federal offices don mix since after the war. For 1913, Secretary of the Treasury William Gibbs McAdoo, wey Wilson appoint, talk say white women no go like make black and white women dey work together for one office: 'I dey sure say e go dey pain white women. Wetin make white women no fit have only white women for front of dem?'<ref>King, Desmond. ''Separate and Unequal: Black Americans and the US Federal Government''. 1995, p. 3.</ref> Wilson administration bring segregation for federal offices, even though African-American leaders and white progressive groups dey protest.<ref>[[:en:Carol_Berkin|Berkin, Carol;]] Christopher Miller; Robert Cherny; James Gormly (2011). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=zhcIPxzRC9YC&pg=PT578 Making America: A History of the United States]''. Cengage Learning. pp. 578–. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-0-495-90979-8|978-0-495-90979-8]]</bdi>.</ref> E dey appoint Southern politicians wey believe in segregation because e think say e go benefit both black and European Americans.<ref>Schulte Nordholt, J. W. [nl], and [[:en:Herbert_H._Rowen|Rowen, Herbert H]]., ''[[iarchive:woodrowwilsonlif00schu|Woodrow Wilson: A Life for World Peace]]''. 1991, pp. 99–100.</ref> For the Great Reunion of 1913 for Gettysburg, Wilson address crowd for July 4, wey be the 50 years wey Abraham Lincoln talk say 'all men be equal.' See how this union don complete, e sweet us well, no wahala, e be grand and fine, as state dey join join our big family of free guys!<ref name=":7">[[:en:David_W._Blight|Blight, David W]]. (2001), ''[[:en:Race_and_Reunion:_The_Civil_War_in_American_Memory|Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory]]'', pp. 9–11.</ref> Dem talk say this 'reunion' wey happen for 1913 be for those wey fight to kill slavery or the ones wey fight to keep am, as dem dey use all sort of tricks and mouth talk to make freedom look like failure.<ref name=":7" /> Historian David W. Blight talk say the 'Peace Jubilee' wey Wilson run for Gettysburg for 1913 be Jim Crow reunion and e be white supremacy wey dey control everything wey happen.<ref name=":7" /> For Texas, many towns begin put segregation laws from 1910 to 1920s. Dem say make people drink water from different fountains and use different restrooms.<ref name=":7" /> E be the Republican lily-white movement wey dey support this exclusion of African Americans.<ref>Heersink, Boris; Jenkins, Jeffery A. (January 6, 2020). [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/studies-in-american-political-development/article/abs/whiteness-and-the-emergence-of-the-republican-party-in-the-early-twentiethcentury-south/899B4B98A78353683C3C6050DFA5771B "Whiteness and the Emergence of the Republican Party in the Early Twentieth-Century South"]. ''Studies in American Political Development''. '''34''' (1): 71–90. [[doi:10.1017/S0898588X19000208]]. [[:en:ISSN_(identifier)|ISSN]] [https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0898-588X 0898-588X]. [[:en:S2CID_(identifier)|S2CID]] [https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:213551748 213551748].</ref> == History wey don pass == === Early try wey people dey break Jim Crow === [[File:“COLORED WAITING ROOM” and “HITLER’S LOVE LIFE REVEALED” - Jim Crow in Durham, North Carolina (cropped).jpg|thumb|Sign for the "colored" waiting room at a bus station in [[:en:Durham,_North_Carolina|Durham, North Carolina]], May 1940]] Sign for di "colored" waiting area for bus station for Durham, North Carolina, May 1940 Di Civil Rights Act of 1875 wey Charles Sumner and Benjamin F. Butler bring come, talk say make everybody, no matter di color or wetin dem don go through, fit get di same treatment for public places like hotels, transport, theaters, and other fun spots. But dis Act no really do anything for reality.<ref>"Colored Methodists Indignant Over the Expulsion of Their Senior Bishop From a Florida Railway Car", ''The New York Times'', 30 March 1882: "Colored men of spirit and culture are resisting the conductors, who attempt to drive them into the 'Jim Crow cars,' and they sometimes succeed."</ref> One Supreme Court decision for 1883 talk say di act no dey constitutionally correct for some areas, say Congress no fit control private people or companies. Plus, white southern Democrats dey form strong voting bloc for Congress, because dem get extra power wit di seats wey dey divided based on total population for di South (even though many thousands don lose dem voting rights), Congress no pass another civil rights law until 1957.<ref name="usgov">{{cite web |title=Constitutional Amendments and Major Civil Rights Acts of Congress Referenced in Black Americans in Congress |url=http://history.house.gov/Exhibitions-and-Publications/BAIC/Historical-Data/Constitutional-Amendments-and-Legislation/ |access-date=27 January 2018 |website=History, Art & Archives |publisher=US House of Representatives}}</ref> For 1887, Rev. W. H. Heard file complaint with di Interstate Commerce Commission against Georgia Railroad wey dey discriminate, showing say dem dey provide different cars for white and black/colored passengers. Di company manage to win appeal because dem talk say dem dey offer "separate but equal" treatment.<ref>''New York Times'', 30 July 1887: "No 'Jim Crow' Cars": "The answer further avers that the cars provided for the colored passengers are equally as safe, comfortable, clean, well ventilated, and cared for as those provided for whites. The difference, it says, if any, relates to matters aesthetical only."</ref> For 1890, Louisiana pass law wey require separate places for colored and white passengers for trains. Louisiana law fit tell di difference between "white", "black" and "colored" (wey be people wey get mix of European and African blood). Di law don already say black people no fit ride wit white people, but colored people fit ride wit white people before 1890. One group of worried black, colored and white citizens for New Orleans form association wey fit cancel di law. Dem persuade Homer Plessy to test di law; him be man of color wey get fair skin and one-eighth "Negro" for him blood.<ref name="lou">{{cite web |title=Plessy v. Ferguson |url=http://www.knowlouisiana.org/entry/plessy-v-ferguson |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180730131859/http://www.knowlouisiana.org/entry/plessy-v-ferguson |archive-date=July 30, 2018 |access-date=27 January 2018 |website=Know Louisiana |publisher=Louisiana Endowment for the Humanities}}</ref> For 1892, Plessy buy first-class ticket wey come from New Orleans for East Louisiana Railway. When e enter train, e tell conductor sey him get black lineage and e sit for whites-only car. Dem direct am make e leave dat car and sit for 'coloreds only' car. Plessy no gree, and dem arrest am sharp-sharp. Citizens Committee of New Orleans fight dem case go Supreme Court wey dem lose for Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), wey Court talk sey 'separate but equal' facilities dey okay. Dis ruling carry 58 more years of legal wahala for black and colored people for United States.<ref name="lou" /> For 1908, Congress stop dem from bring segregated streetcars come capital.<ref>Congress rejected by a majority of 140 to 59 a transport bill amendment proposed by [[James Thomas Heflin]] (Ala.) to introduce racially segregated streetcars to the capital's transport system. ''The New York Times'', 23 February 1908: "'Jim Crow Cars' Denied by Congress".</ref> === Racism for United States den Jim Crow matter dey serious. === [[File:JimCrowCar2.jpg|thumb|1904 caricature of "White" and "Jim Crow" rail cars by [[:en:John_T._McCutcheon|John T. McCutcheon.]] Despite Jim Crow's legal pretense that the races be "separate but equal" under the law, non-whites were given inferior facilities and treatment.<ref>John McCutheon. The Mysterious Stranger and Other Cartoons by John T. McCutcheon, New York, McClure, Phillips & Co. 1905.</ref>]] White Southerners dey struggle learn free labor management after slavery done finish, and dem dey vex for African Americans, wey be reminder of Confederate defeat for Civil War: 'As white supremacy dey under challenge for South, plenty whites dey try hold on to dem old status by threatening African Americans wey dey use dem new rights.'<ref>[[Henry Louis Gates|Gates, Henry Louis]] and [[Kwame Anthony Appiah|Appiah, Anthony]]. ''Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience''. 1999, p. 1211.</ref> White Southerners dey use dem power to separate public spaces and facilities by law and take back social control over black people for South. One reason wey make dem want exclude African Americans from southern public life be sey na for their own protection. One early 20th-century scholar talk sey if dem allow black people enter white schools, e go mean sey dem go dey face bad feelings and opinion, wey fit lead to 'morbid race consciousness.'<ref>[[Edgar Gardner Murphy|Murphy, Edgar Gardner]]. ''The Problems of the Present South''. 1910, p. 37.</ref> Dis kind perspective no take anti-black wahala serious, kasi bigotry dey everywhere for South after slavery turn racial caste system. Scientists and bad vibes about African Americans give reasons why white people wan dey supreme. Dem use social segregation, from where people fit live to laws wey go stop interracial chess games, to justify am so that black guys no go dey chop white women, especially with dat one wey dem dey call Black Buck stereotype.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cashin |first=Sheryll |author-link= |title=Loving: Interracial Intimacy in America and the Threat to White Supremacy |date=June 6, 2017 |publisher=2017 Beacon Press |isbn=978-0807058275}}</ref> === World War II den after dem war era === For 1944, Associate Justice Frank Murphy bring the word "racism" come Supreme Court talk for Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214 (1944).<ref>{{cite web |title=Full text of Korematsu v. United States opinion |url=http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=323&invol=214 |work=Findlaw}}</ref> For him no gree opinion, Murphy talk say as dem dey uphold the forced move of Japanese Americans during World War II, the Court dey enter "the ugly abyss of racism". Dis na di first time dem use "racism" for Supreme Court talk (Murphy use am twice insyd a concurring opinion insyd ''[[:en:Steele_v_Louisville_&_Nashville_Railway_Co|Steele v Louisville & Nashville Railway Co]]'' [[:en:Case_citation|323 192]] (1944) wey issue am dat day).<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110628193058/http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=323&invol=192 Steele v. Louisville], Findlaw.</ref> After Murphy come drop the Court, dem no use "racism" again for opinion for two decades before e show face for dem landmark case of Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1 (1967).[[File:Educational separation in the US prior to Brown Map.svg|thumb|Educational segregation in the US prior to ''Brown''. All the states of the "South" or with the longest histories of slavery (in red) segregated schools by law statewide.]] Plenty boycotts den demonstrations against segregation happen from 1930s to 1940s. Di National Association for di Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) dey fight many law cases since early 20th century to stop laws wey dey disenfranchise black voters for South. Some early demonstrations bring positive outcome, boost political activism, especially for di time after World War II. Black veterans no get patience for social wahala after dem don fight for USA and freedom everywhere. For 1947, K. Leroy Irvis from Pittsburgh Urban League, lead dem to protest against job discrimination wey city department stores dey show. Na so hin start hin own strong political career.<ref name="pg">{{cite web |title=Former Pa. House speaker K. Leroy Irvis dies |url=http://old.post-gazette.com/pg/06075/671363.stm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319080058/http://old.post-gazette.com/pg/06075/671363.stm |archive-date=March 19, 2022 |access-date=27 January 2018 |website=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette}}</ref> After World War II, people wey no be white dey challenge segregation plenty, dem feel say dem don earn the right to dey treated like full citizens because of wetin dem sacrifice for military. Civil rights movement start to gather pace from some hot points, like the 1946 police beating wey dem give WWII veteran Isaac Woodard while e dey wear U.S. Army uniform. For 1948, President Harry S. Truman come issue Executive Order 9981, wey end racial discrimination for armed services.<ref name="Truman9881">{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Jon E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8qS8gCz6gHAC&q=Executive%20Order%209981&pg=PA159 |title=Freedom to Serve: Truman, Civil Rights, and Executive Order 9981 |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-89449-4 |pages=159}}</ref> Dat same year, Silas Herbert Hunt go enroll for University of Arkansas, nah so education for South begin dey desegregate.<ref name="Buckelew">{{cite web |last1=Buckelew |first1=Richard A. |title=Silas Herbert Hunt |url=http://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?search=1&entryID=1676 |access-date=June 4, 2018 |website=Encyclopedia of Arkansas History and Culture |publisher=Butler Center}}</ref> As civil rights movement rise, dem dey use federal courts to fight Jim Crow laws, but the white governments for South dey counter with better tactics.<ref>Bartley, Numan V., ''The Rise of Massive Resistance: Race and Politics in the South during the 1950s'' (LSU Press, 1999).</ref> ==Decline den removal== Historian William Chafe don explore de defensive techniques wey dem develop insyd de African American community to avoid de worst features of Jim Crow as dem express am for de legal system, unbalanced economic power, den intimidation den psychological pressure. Chafe talk say "protective socialization by black people demselves" dem create insyd de community for order to accommodate white-imposed sanctions while subtly encouraging challenges to those sanctions. Known as "walking de tightrope", such efforts for bringing about change be only slightly effective before de 1920s. However, dis build de foundation for later generations to advance racial equality den de-segregation. Chafe argue say de places wey be essential for change to begin be institutions, particularly black churches, wich function as centers for community-building den discussion of politics. Additionally, chaw all-black communities, such as Mound Bayou, Mississippi den Ruthville, Virginia serve as sources of pride den inspiration for black society as whole. Over time, pushback den open defiance of de oppressive existing laws grow, until e reach boiling point for de aggressive, large-scale activism of de 1950s civil rights movement.<ref>Chafe, William H., "Presidential Address: 'The Gods Bring Threads to Webs Begun'." ''Journal of American History'' 86.4 (2000): 1531–51. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2567576 Online]</ref> ===''Brown v. Board of Education''=== [[File:Warren Supreme Court.jpg|thumb|For de landmark case ''Brown v. Board of Education'' (1954), de U.S. Supreme Court under Chief Justice Earl Warren rule unanimously say public school segregation be unconstitutional.]] De NAACP Legal Defense Committee (group wey become independent of de NAACP) – den ein lawyer, Thurgood Marshall – bring de landmark case ''Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka'', before de U.S. Supreme Court under Chief Justice Earl Warren.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> For ein pivotal 1954 decision, de Warren Court unanimously (9–0) overturn de 1896 ''Plessy'' decision.<ref name=":1" /> De Supreme Court find say legally mandated (''de jure'') public school segregation be unconstitutional. De decision get far-reaching social ramifications.<ref>Patterson, James T., ''Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy'' (2002).</ref> ===Integrating collegiate sports=== Racial integration of all-white collegiate sports teams dey high for de Southern agenda for de 1950s den 1960s. Involved be issues of equality, racism, den de alumni demand for de top players wey dem need to win high-profile games. De Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) of flagship state universities for de Southeast take de lead. First dem start to schedule integrated teams from de North. Finally, ACC schools{{snd}}typically under pressure from boosters den civil rights groups{{snd}}integrate dem teams.<ref>Martin, Charles H., "The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow in Southern College Sports: The Case of the Atlantic Coast Conference". ''North Carolina Historical Review'', 76.3 (1999): 253–84. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23522657 online]</ref> Plus alumni base wey dominate local den state politics, society den business, de ACC schools be successful for dem endeavor{{snd}}as Pamela Grundy argue, dem don learn how to win: : De widespread admiration wey athletic ability inspire go help transform athletic fields from grounds of symbolic play to forces for social change, places where wide range of citizens fit publicly den for times effectively challenge de assumptions wey cast dem as unworthy of full participation for U.S. society. While athletic successes no go rid society of prejudice or stereotype – black athletes go continue to confront racial slurs...[minority star players demonstrate] de discipline, intelligence, den poise to contend for position or influence for every arena of national life.<ref>Pamela Grundy, ''Learning to win: Sports, education, and social change in twentieth-century North Carolina'' (University of North Carolina Press, 2003), p. 297, [https://web.archive.org/web/20181215171453/https://www.questia.com/read/101457616/learning-to-win-sports-education-and-social-change online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215171453/https://www.questia.com/read/101457616/learning-to-win-sports-education-and-social-change |date=December 15, 2018 }}.</ref> ===Public arena=== For 1955, Rosa Parks refuse to give up her seat for city bus to white man for Montgomery, Alabama. Dis no be de first time dis happen – for example, Parks dem inspire by 15-year-old Claudette Colvin wey do de same thing nine months earlier<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.democracynow.org/2013/3/29/the_other_rosa_parks_now_73|title=The Other Rosa Parks: Now 73, Claudette Colvin Was First to Refuse Giving Up Seat on Montgomery Bus|website=Democracy Now!}}</ref> – but de Parks act of civil disobedience dem choose, symbolically, as important catalyst for de growth of de post-1954 civil rights movement; activists build de Montgomery bus boycott around am, wich last more dan year den result for desegregation of de privately run buses for de city. Civil rights protests den actions, together plus legal challenges, result for series of legislative den court decisions wich contribute to undermining de Jim Crow system.<ref name="vcu">{{cite web|title=Jim Crow Laws and Racial Segregation|url=https://socialwelfare.library.vcu.edu/eras/civil-war-reconstruction/jim-crow-laws-andracial-segregation/|access-date=27 January 2018|website=VCU Libraries Social Welfare History Project|date=January 20, 2011|publisher=Virginia Commonwealth University}}</ref> ===End of legal segregation=== [[File:Lyndon Johnson signing Civil Rights Act, July 2, 1964.jpg|thumb|President Johnson sign de Civil Rights Act of 1964.]] De decisive action wey end segregation come when Congress for bipartisan fashion overcome Southern filibusters to pass de Civil Rights Act of 1964 den de Voting Rights Act of 1965. Complex interaction of factors come together unexpectedly for de period 1954–1965 to make de momentous changes possible. De Supreme Court don take de first initiative for ''Brown v. Board of Education'' (1954), declaring segregation of public schools unconstitutional. Enforcement be rapid for de North den border states, but dem deliberately stop am for de South by de movement wey dem call Massive Resistance, wey rural segregationists sponsor who largely control de state legislatures. Southern liberals, who counsel moderation, dem shout down by both sides den get limited impact. Much more significant be de civil rights movement, especially de Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) wey Martin Luther King Jr. head. E largely displace de old, much more moderate NAACP for taking leadership roles. King organize massive demonstrations, wey seize massive media attention for era when network television news be innovative den universally watched phenomenon.<ref>Allison, Graham, [https://www.amazon.com/Framing-South-Hollywood-Television-Struggle/dp/0801866154/ ''Framing the South: Hollywood, television, and race during the Civil Rights Struggle''] (2001).</ref> SCLC, student activists den smaller local organizations stage demonstrations across de South. National attention focus for Birmingham, Alabama, where protesters (mostly young teenagers), face off against Commissioner of Public Safety Bull Connor, Connor arrest 900 for one day alone. De next day Connor unleash billy clubs, police dogs, den high-pressure water hoses to disperse den punish de young demonstrators plus brutality wey horrify de nation. De brutality undermine de image of modernizing progressive urban South. President John F. Kennedy, who don dey call for moderation, threaten to use federal troops to restore order for Birmingham. De result for Birmingham be compromise by wich de new mayor open de library, golf courses, den other city facilities to both races, against de backdrop of church bombings den assassinations.<ref>McWhorter, Diane, ''Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama: The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution'' (2001), [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780743217729 online free to borrow]</ref> For summer 1963, der be 800 demonstrations for 200 southern cities den towns, plus over 100,000 participants, den 15,000 arrests. For Alabama for June 1963, Governor George Wallace escalate de crisis by defying court orders to admit de first two black students to de University of Alabama.<ref>Carter, Dan T. ''The politics of rage: George Wallace, the origins of the new conservatism, and the transformation of American politics'' (LSU Press, 2000).</ref> Kennedy respond by sending Congress comprehensive civil rights bill, den order Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy to file federal lawsuits against segregated schools, den to deny funds for discriminatory programs. Martin Luther King launch huge march for Washington for August 1963, bringing out 200,000 demonstrators for front of de Lincoln Memorial, for de time de largest political assembly for de nation ein history. De Kennedy administration now give full-fledged support to de civil rights movement, but powerful southern congressmen block any legislation.<ref>Robert E. Gilbert, "John F. Kennedy and civil rights for black Americans." ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 12.3 (1982): 386–99. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/27547837 Online]</ref> After Kennedy dem assassinate, President Lyndon B. Johnson call for immediate passage of Kennedy ein civil rights legislation as memorial to de martyred president. Johnson form coalition plus Northern Republicans wey lead to passage for de House, den plus de help of Republican Senate leader Everett Dirksen plus passage for de Senate early for 1964. For de first time for history, de southern filibuster dem break den de Senate finally pass ein version for June 19 by vote of 73 to 27.<ref>Pauley, Garth E., "Presidential rhetoric and interest group politics: Lyndon B. Johnson and the Civil Rights Act of 1964." ''Southern Journal of Communication'' 63.1 (1997): 1–19.</ref> De Civil Rights Act of 1964 be de most powerful affirmation of equal rights wey Congress ever make. E guarantee access to public accommodations such as restaurants den places of amusement, authorize de Justice Department to bring suits to desegregate facilities for schools, give new powers to de Civil Rights Commission; den allow federal funds to be cut off for cases of discrimination. Furthermore, racial, religious den gender discrimination dem outlaw for businesses plus 25 or more employees, as well as apartment houses. De South resist until de last moment, but as soon as de new law dem sign by President Johnson for July 2, 1964, e be widely accept across de nation. Der be only scattering of diehard opposition, typify by restaurant owner Lester Maddox for Georgia.<ref>Grantham, Dewey W., ''The South in Modern America '' (1994), 228–45.</ref><ref>Barrow, David, ''Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference'' (1989).</ref><ref>Theoharis, Jeanne, ''A More Beautiful and Terrible History: The Uses and Misuses of Civil Rights History'' (2018).</ref><ref>For primary sources see John A. Kirk, ed., ''The Civil Rights Movement: A Documentary Reader'' (2020).</ref> Insyd January 1964, President Lyndon Johnson meet plus civil rights leaders. On January 8, during ein first State of de Union address, Johnson asked Congress to ''"let this session of Congress be known as the session which did more for civil rights than the last hundred sessions combined."'' On June 21, civil rights workers Michael Schwerner, Andrew Goodman, den James Chaney disappear for Neshoba County, Mississippi insyd, wer dem dey volunteer insyd de registration of African American voters as part of de Freedom Summer project. De disappearance of de three activists capture national attention den de Johnson den civil rights activists use ensuing outrage to dey build a coalition of northern den western Democrats den Republicans den push Congress to pass de Civil Rights Act of 1964.''<ref name="cra64">{{cite web |title=Civil Rights Act of 1964 – CRA – Title VII – Equal Employment Opportunities – 42 US Code Chapter 21 |url=http://finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111229033506/http://finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21 |archive-date=December 29, 2011 |access-date=October 2, 2008}}</ref>'' For July 2, 1964, Johnson sign de historic Civil Rights Act of 1964.<ref name="cra64" /><ref>{{cite web |title=LBJ for Kids – Civil rights during the Johnson Administration |url=http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/johnson/lbjforkids/civil_timeline.shtm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120720111358/http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/johnson/lbjforkids/civil_timeline.shtm |archive-date=July 20, 2012 |publisher=[[University of Texas]] |df=mdy-all}}</ref> It invoke de Commerce Clause<ref name="cra64" /> to outlaw discrimination for public accommodations insyd (privately owned restaurants, hotels, den stores, den for private schools den workplaces insyd). De Warren Court uphold dis use of de Commerce Clause insyd de landmark case ''Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States'' 379 US 241 (1964).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lopez |first=Ian F. Haney |author-link= |date=February 1, 2007 |title=A nation of minorities: race, ethnicity, and reactionary colorblindness |url=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-30274716_ITM |journal=Stanford Law Review}}</ref> By 1965, efforts to break de grip of state disenfranchisement by education give voter registration for southern counties insyd had been underway for some time, but had achieve only modest success overall. For some areas of de Deep South insyd, white resistance made dem efforts almost entirely ineffectual. De murder of de three voting-rights activists insyd Mississippi for 1964 insyd den de state ein refusal to prosecute de murderers, along plus numerous oda acts of violence den terrorism against black people, had gained national attention. Finally, de unprovoked attack for March 7, 1965, by county den state troopers on peaceful Alabama marchers wey dey cross de Edmund Pettus Bridge en route from Selma to de state capital of Montgomery, persuaded de President den Congress to ovacam Southern legislators ein resistance to effective voting rights enforcement legislation. President Johnson issue a call give a strong voting rights law den hearings soon began for de bill top dat would becam de Voting Rights Act.<ref>[http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/voting/intro/intro_b.htm "Introduction To Federal Voting Rights Laws"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070304111738/http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/voting/intro/intro_b.htm|date=March 4, 2007}}. United States Department of Justice.</ref> De Voting Rights Act of 1965 end legally sanctioned state barriers to voting for all federal, state den local elections. E sanso provide for federal oversight den monitoring of counties plus historically low minority voter turnout. Years of enforcement don be needed to overcome resistance, den additional legal challenges dem make for de courts to ensure de ability of voters to elect candidates of dem choice. For instance, many cities den counties introduce at-large election of council members, wich result for many cases of diluting minority votes den preventing election of minority-supported candidates. After passage of de act, Martin Luther King, Jr., begin to turn ein attentions to fledgling Poor People's Campaign. Ein ill-fated proposal for Economic Bills of Rights dem meet plus hostility from southern Democrats as well as northern den southern Republicans for Congress.<ref>Patterson, '' Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy'' (2002)</ref> For 2013, de Roberts Court, for ''Shelby County v. Holder'', remove de requirement wey de Voting Rights Act establish say Southern states need Federal approval for changes for voting policies. Several states immediately make changes for dem laws restricting voting access.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2018/07/how-shelby-county-broke-america/564707/|title=How a Pivotal Voting Rights Act Case Broke America|first=Vann R. |last=Newkirk II|author-link=Vann R. Newkirk II|date=July 10, 2018|magazine=The Atlantic}}</ref> De decisive action wey end segregation come when Congress for bipartisan fashion overcome Southern filibusters to pass de Civil Rights Act of 1964 den de Voting Rights Act of 1965. Complex interaction of factors come together unexpectedly for de period 1954–1965 to make de momentous changes possible. De Supreme Court don take de first initiative for ''Brown v. Board of Education'' (1954), declaring segregation of public schools unconstitutional. Enforcement be rapid for de North den border states, but dem deliberately stop am for de South by de movement wey dem call Massive Resistance, wey rural segregationists sponsor who largely control de state legislatures. Southern liberals, who counsel moderation, dem shout down by both sides den get limited impact. Much more significant be de civil rights movement, especially de Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) wey Martin Luther King Jr. head. E largely displace de old, much more moderate NAACP for taking leadership roles. King organize massive demonstrations, wey seize massive media attention for era when network television news be innovative den universally watched phenomenon.<ref>Allison, Graham, [https://www.amazon.com/Framing-South-Hollywood-Television-Struggle/dp/0801866154/ ''Framing the South: Hollywood, television, and race during the Civil Rights Struggle''] (2001).</ref> ==Influence den aftermath== ===African American life=== [[File:Negro drinking at "Colored" water cooler in streetcar terminal, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma by Russell Lee.jpg|thumb|An African American man drinking at a "colored" drinking fountain in a streetcar terminal in [[:en:Oklahoma_City|Oklahoma City]], Oklahoma, 1939]] De Jim Crow laws den de high rate of lynchings for de South be major factors wey lead to de Great Migration during de first half of de 20th century. Secof opportunities be very limited for de South, African Americans move for great numbers go cities for Northeastern, Midwestern, den Western states make dem seek better lives. African American athletes face plenty discrimination during de Jim Crow era plus white opposition wey lead to dem exclusion from most organized sporting competitions. De boxers Jack Johnson den Joe Louis (both of dem become world heavyweight boxing champions) den track and field athlete Jesse Owens (wey win four gold medals for de 1936 Summer Olympics for Berlin) gain prominence during de era. For baseball, color line wey dem institute for de 1880s informally bar black people from playing for de major leagues, wey lead to de development of de Negro leagues, wey feature many famous players. Major breakthrough occur for 1947, when Jackie Robinson get hired as de first African American wey play for Major League Baseball; e permanently break de color bar. Baseball teams continue to integrate for de following years, wey lead to de full participation of black baseball players for de Major Leagues for de 1960s. === Interracial marriage === Although sometimes dem count am among Jim Crow laws of de South, statutes such as anti-miscegenation laws dem also pass by other states. Anti-miscegenation laws no be repeal by de Civil Rights Act of 1964, but dem declare am unconstitutional by de U.S. Supreme Court (de Warren Court) for unanimous ruling Loving v. Virginia (1967).<ref name="cra64" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sollors |first=Werner |author-link= |title=Interracialism black-white intermarriage in American history, literature, and law |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=1-280-65507-0 |location=New York; Oxford |pages=26–34}}</ref><ref name=":32" /> Chief Justice Earl Warren write for de court opinion say "de freedom to marry, anaa no marry, person of another race dey reside plus de individual, den e no fi infringe by de State."<ref name=":32">{{Cite web |title=Loving v. Virginia |url=https://www.oyez.org/cases/1966/395 |access-date=2019-09-29 |website=Oyez |language=en}}</ref> ===Jury trials=== De Sixth Amendment to de United States Constitution grant criminal defendants de right to trial by jury of dem peers. While federal law require say convictions fi only grant by unanimous jury for federal crimes, states be free to set dem own jury requirements. All but two states, Oregon den Louisiana, opt for unanimous juries for conviction. Oregon den Louisiana, however, allow juries of at least 10–2 to decide criminal conviction. Louisiana ein law get amend for 2018 to require unanimous jury for criminal convictions, effective for 2019. Prior to dat amendment, de law be seen as remnant of Jim Crow laws, secof e allow minority voices for jury to dey marginalize.<ref>Sarah Lambert, "A Call for Legislative Action: Five Reasons to Say Yes to Unanimous Criminal Jury Verdicts in Louisiana." ''Journal of Race Gender & Poverty'' 9 (2017): 1+.</ref> For 2020 insyd, de Supreme Court find, for Ramos v. Louisiana, say unanimous jury votes dey require for criminal convictions for state levels, thereby nullifying Oregon ein remaining law, den overturning previous cases for Louisiana.<ref name="vox">{{cite news|last1=Lopez|first1=German|title=Louisiana votes to eliminate Jim Crow jury law with Amendment 2|url=https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2018/11/6/18052540/election-results-louisiana-amendment-2-unanimous-jim-crow-jury-law|access-date=20 April 2020|work=Vox|date=6 November 2018|language=en}}</ref> ===Later court cases=== For 1971 insyd, de U.S. Supreme Court (de Burger Court), for Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education, uphold desegregation busing of students to achieve integration. Interpretation of de Constitution den ein application to minority rights continue to dey controversial as Court membership dey change. Observers such as Ian F. Lopez believe say for de 2000s, de Supreme Court become more protective of de status quo.<ref>[[Ian Haney López|Lopez, Ian F. Haney]] (February 1, 2007), [http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-30274716_ITM "A nation of minorities: race, ethnicity, and reactionary colorblindness"], ''Stanford Law Review''</ref> ===Felony disenfranchisement=== Mississippi Today discuss de present-day Jim Crow legacy of felony disenfranchisement, den state say part of Mississippi ein 1890 constitution no be erase by de Civil Rights Movement during de 1960s. De article state de constitutional felony disenfranchisement clause "take away – for life – de right to vote upon conviction for several low-level crimes, lyk theft den bribery, wey de 1890 drafters feel go mostly commit by Black people."<ref>{{cite web |date=April 12, 2024 |title=How Mississippi's Jim Crow Laws Still Haunt Black Voters Today |url=https://mississippitoday.org/2024/04/12/mississippi-voting-rights-history-disenfranchisement/}}</ref> ===International=== For 2017 insyd, Ford Foundation Professor of Law James Whitman provide records say, during 1934 drafting sessions wey culminate for de Nuremberg Laws, Nazi officials such as Franz Gürtner den Bernhard Lösener cite den discuss memorandum by Heinrich Krieger, former German graduate student for de University of Arkansas. Krieger previously publish article for "Principles of Indian [Native American] law" for de United States, particularly de Dawes Act den Indian Reorganization Act. De memorandum, wey base for preliminary research into de history of U.S. immigration den Jim Crow laws, become de basis for Krieger ein Race Law in the United States (Das Rassenrecht in den Vereinigten Staaten) almost two years later. Reviewers praise dis passage for Whitman ein study as well as ein comparative analyses of state-sponsored eugenics legislation. Conversely, number of scholars grow critical of contentions elsewhere for de book, demanding more evaluation den evidence.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Whitman |first1=James Q. |title=Hitler's American model: the United States and the making of Nazi race law |date=2017 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=9780691172422 |location=Princeton (N. J.) |pages=76–113}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Americans and the Nazis: Who Copied Whom? |url=https://athenaeumreview.org/review/the-americans-and-the-nazis-who-copied-whom/#_ftnref2 |website=Athenaeum Review}}</ref> For 2023 insyd, Darren Walker, president of de Ford Foundation endowment for Whitman ein chair, note say "Henry Ford, our founder, be among de twentieth century ein most virulent American antisemites. Den yet, to me, our past confer special obligation to engage, no to retreat—no matter de complications anaa de consequences."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Walker |first1=Darren |date=15 September 2023 |title=Rejecting the Rising Tide of Antisemitism |url=https://www.fordfoundation.org/news-and-stories/stories/rejecting-the-rising-tide-of-antisemitism/ |website=Ford Foundation}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Walker |first1=Darren |date=23 October 2023 |title=Holding Fast to Our Shared Humanity |url=https://www.fordfoundation.org/news-and-stories/stories/holding-fast-to-our-shared-humanity/ |website=Ford Foundation}}</ref> == Remembrance == Ferris State University for Big Rapids, Michigan get Jim Crow Museum wey dey hold plenty items wey promote racial segregation or show stereotype about African Americans, all for academic research den to educate people about di cultural influence.<ref>{{cite web |last=Carter |first=Kelley L. |date=February 5, 2001 |title=RELICS OF RACISM: BIG RAPIDS MUSEUM LETS ITS MEMORABILIA TELL THE UGLY STORY OF JIM CROW IN AMERICA |url=http://www.ferris.edu/jimcrow/links/newslist/freep/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071224104659/http://www.ferris.edu/jimcrow/links/newslist/freep/ |archive-date=December 24, 2007 |access-date=March 21, 2008}}</ref> == Sanso see == * [[:en:Portal:Civil_rights_movement|Civil rights movement portal]] * [[:en:Portal:Law|Law portal]] * [[:en:Portal:United_States|United States portal]] * [[:en:Anti-miscegenation_laws|Anti-miscegenation laws]] * [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] * [[:en:Black_Codes_(United_States)|Black Codes in the United States]] * [[:en:Casta|Casta]] * [[:en:Convict_leasing|Convict leasing]] * [[:en:Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era|Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction era]] * [[:en:Group_Areas_Act|Group Areas Act]] * [[:en:Indian_Act|Indian Act]] * [[:en:Israeli_apartheid|Israeli apartheid]] * [[:en:Jim_Crow_economy|Jim Crow economy]] * [[:en:Juan_Crow|Juan Crow]] * [[:en:List_of_Jim_Crow_law_examples_by_state|List of Jim Crow law examples by state]] * [[:en:Lynching|Lynching]] * [[:en:Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States|Mass racial violence in the United States]] * [[:en:Native_Lands_Act_1865|Native Lands Act 1865]] * [[:en:Natives_Land_Act,_1913|Natives Land Act, 1913]] * [[:en:Pass_law|Pass law]] * [[:en:Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States|Racial segregation in the United States]] * [[:en:Racism_in_the_United_States|Racism in the United States]] * [[:en:Second-class_citizen|Second-class citizen]] * [[:en:Sharecropping|Sharecropping]] * [[:en:Sundown_town|Sundown town]] * ''[[:en:The_New_Jim_Crow|The New Jim Crow]]'' * [[:en:Timeline_of_the_civil_rights_movement|Timeline of the civil rights movement]] * [[:en:White_Australia_policy|White Australia Policy]] == Footnotes == <references /> ==Read further== * {{cite book |last=Alexander |first=Michelle |author-link= |title=The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness |publisher=New Press |year=2012 |orig-year=2010 |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781595581037/page/n11/mode/2up |isbn=978-1-59558-103-7}} * Ayers, Edward L. ''The Promise of the New South: Life After Reconstruction.'' New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. {{ISBN|0-1950-3756-1}} * Barnes, Catherine A. ''Journey from Jim Crow: The Desegregation of Southern Transit.'' New York: Columbia University Press, 1983. {{ISBN|0-2310-5380-0}} * Bartley, Numan V. ''The Rise of Massive Resistance: Race and Politics in the South during the 1950s.'' Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1969. * Bond, Horace Mann. "The Extent and Character of Separate Schools in the United States." ''Journal of Negro Education'' vol. 4 (July 1935), pp.&nbsp;321–327. * Brown, Nikki L.M., and Barry M. Stentiford, eds. ''The Jim Crow Encyclopedia'' (Greenwood, 2008) * Chin, Gabriel, and Karthikeyan, Hrishi. ''Preserving Racial Identity: Population Patterns and the Application of Anti-Miscegenation Statutes to Asians, 1910 to 1950'', [https://ssrn.com/abstract=283998&high=%20Gabriel%20CHin 9 Asian L.J. 1 (2002)] * Campbell, Nedra. ''More Justice, More Peace: The Black Person's Guide to the American Legal System''. Lawrence Hill Books, 2002. {{ISBN|1-5565-2468-4}} * Cole, Stephanie and Natalie J. Ring (eds.), ''The Folly of Jim Crow: Rethinking the Segregated South''. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 2012. {{ISBN|1-6034-4582-X}} * Dailey, Jane; Gilmore, Glenda Elizabeth and Simon, Bryant (eds.), ''Jumpin' Jim Crow: Southern Politics from Civil War to Civil Rights''. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000. {{ISBN|0-6910-0192-8}} * Fairclough, Adam. "'Being in the Field of Education and Also Being a Negro ... Seems ... Tragic': Black Teachers in the Jim Crow South." ''The Journal of American History'' vol. 87 (June 2000), pp.&nbsp;65–91. * Feldman, Glenn. ''Politics, Society, and the Klan in Alabama, 1915–1949''. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, 1999. {{ISBN|0-8173-0984-5}} * Fireside, Harvey. ''Separate and Unequal: Homer Plessy and the Supreme Court Decision That Legalized Racism''. New York: Carroll & Graf, 2003. {{ISBN|0-7867-1293-7}} * Foner, Eric. ''Reconstruction, America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877''. New York: Harper & Row, 1988. {{ISBN|0-0601-5851-4}} * Gaines, Kevin. ''Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century''. University of North Carolina Press, 1996. {{ISBN|0-8078-2239-6}} * Gaston, Paul M. ''The New South Creed: A Study in Southern Mythmaking''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970. * Gates, Henry Louis Jr. ''Stony the Road: Reconstruction, White Supremacy, and the Rise of Jim Crow''. New York: Penguin Press, 2019. {{ISBN|0-5255-5953-1}} * Gilmore, Glenda Elizabeth. ''Gender and Jim Crow: Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896–1920''. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1996. {{ISBN|0-8078-2287-6}} * Griffin, John Howard. ''Black Like Me''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1961. * Haws, Robert, ed. ''The Age of Segregation: Race Relations in the South, 1890–1945'' University Press of Mississippi, 1978. * Hackney, Sheldon. ''Populism to Progressivism in Alabama''. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969. * Johnson, Charles S. ''Patterns of Negro Segregation''. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1943. * Klarman, Michael J. ''From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality''. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. {{ISBN|0-1951-2903-2}} * Litwack, Leon F. ''Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998. {{ISBN|0-3945-2778-X}} * Lopez, Ian F. Haney. [http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-30274716_ITM "A nation of minorities": race, ethnicity, and reactionary colorblindness]. ''Stanford Law Review'', February 1, 2007. * Kantrowitz, Stephen. ''Ben Tillman & the Reconstruction of White Supremacy'' (2000) * McMillen, Neil R. ''Dark Journey: Black Mississippians in the Age of Jim Crow''. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1989. * Medley, Keith Weldon. ''We As Freemen: Plessy v. Ferguson''. Pelican. March, 2003. * Murray, Pauli. ''States' Law on Race and Color''. University of Georgia Press. 2d ed. 1997 (Davison Douglas ed.). {{ISBN|978-0-8203-1883-7}} * Myrdal, Gunnar. ''An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy.'' New York: Harper and Row, 1944. * Newby, I.A. ''Jim Crow's Defense: Anti-Negro Thought in America, 1900–1930.'' Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1965. * {{cite book|last=Oshinsky|first=David M.|url=https://archive.org/details/worsethanslavery0000oshi/page/n3/mode/2up|title=Worse than Slavery: Parchman Farm and the Ordeal of Jim Crow Justice|publisher=Free Press|year=1996|isbn=0-684-82298-9|location=New York}} * Percy, William Alexander. ''Lanterns on the Levee: Recollections of a Planter's Son.'' 1941. Reprint, Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1993. * Pye, David Kenneth. [http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=27955258&site=eds-live&scope=site "Complex Relations: An African-American Attorney Navigates Jim Crow Atlanta".] ''Georgia Historical Quarterly'', Winter 2007, vol. 91, issue 4, 453–477. * Rabinowitz, Howard N. ''Race Relations in the Urban South, 1856–1890'' (1978) * Smith, J. Douglas. ''Managing: Race, Politics, and Citizenship in Jim Crow Virginia'' University of North Carolina Press, 2002. * Smith, J. Douglas. "The Campaign for Racial Purity and the Erosion of Paternalism in Virginia, 1922–1930: "Nominally White, Biologically Mixed, and Legally Negro." ''Journal of Southern History'' vol. 68 (February 2002), pp.&nbsp;65–106. * Smith, J. Douglas. "Patrolling the Boundaries of Race: Motion Picture Censorship and Jim Crow in Virginia, 1922–1932." ''Historical Journal of Film, Radio, and Television'' 21 (August 2001): 273–91. * Richard Sterner. ''The Negro's Share'' (1943) detailed statistics * {{cite news|first=Casey|last=Toth|newspaper=News & Observer|title=Churches once abandoned by Jim Crow are being rediscovered|date=December 26, 2017|url=https://www.newsobserver.com/news/local/counties/orange-county/article191603129.html}} * Wood, Amy Louise and Natalie J. Ring (eds.), ''Crime and Punishment in the Jim Crow South.'' Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2019. * Woodward, C. Vann. ''The Strange Career of Jim Crow: A Brief Account of Segregation''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1955. * Woodward, C. Vann. ''The Origins of the New South: 1877–1913''. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1951. [[iarchive:strangecareerofj0000wood_m0h2|online]] === Sports === * {{cite journal |last=Blackman |first=Dexter Lee |year=2016 |title="The Negro Athlete and Victory": Athletics and Athletes as Advancement Strategies in Black America, 1890s–1930s |journal=Sport History Review |publisher=Human Kinetics |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=46–68 |doi=10.1123/shr.2015-0006 |issn=1087-1659}} * Demas, Lane. “Beyond Jackie Robinson: Racial Integration in American College Football and New Directions in Sport History.” ''History Compass'' 5.2 (2007): 675–90. * Essington, Amy. ''The Integration of the Pacific Coast League: Race and Baseball on the West Coast'' (U of Nebraska Press, 2018). * Hawkins, Billy. ''The new plantation: Black athletes, college sports, and predominantly white NCAA institutions'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013). * Clement, Rufus E. "Racial integration in the field of sports." ''Journal of Negro Education'' 23.3 (1954): 222– [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2293219 online] * Fitzpatrick, Frank. ''And the Walls Came Tumbling Down: The Basketball Game That Changed American Sports'' (2000) * Hutchison, Phillip. "The legend of Texas Western: journalism and the epic sports spectacle that wasn’t." ''Critical Studies in Media Communication'' 33.2 (2016): 154–67. * Lopez, Katherine. ''Cougars of Any Color: The Integration of University of Houston Athletics, 1964–1968'' (McFarland, 2008). * Martin, Charles H. "Jim Crow in the gymnasium: the integration of college basketball in the American South." ''International Journal of the History of Sport'' 10.1 (1993): 68–86. * Miller, Patrick B. "[https://journals.ku.edu/amsj/article/view/2664/2623 Slouching toward a new expediency: College football and the color line during the depression decade]" ''American Studies'' 40.3 (1999): 5–30. * Pennington, Richard. ''Breaking the Ice: The Racial Integration of Southwest Conference Football'' (McFarland, 1987). * Romero, Francine Sanders. "'There are only white champions': The rise and demise of segregated boxing in Texas." ''Southwestern Historical Quarterly'' 108.1 (2004): 26–41. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/30239493 online] * Sacks, Marcy S. ''Joe Louis: Sports and Race in Twentieth-Century America'' (Routledge, 2018). * Spivey, Donald. "The black athlete in big-time intercollegiate sports, 1941–1968." ''Phylon'' 44.2 (1983): 116–25. [http://www.pages.drexel.edu/~rosenl/sports%20Folder/The%20Black%20Athlete%20in%20Big-Time%20Intercollegiate%20Sports%2041-68.pdf online] [https://web.archive.org/web/20220319080059/http://www.pages.drexel.edu/~rosenl/sports%20Folder/The%20Black%20Athlete%20in%20Big-Time%20Intercollegiate%20Sports%2041-68.pdf Archived] March 19, 2022, at the Wayback Machine * White, Derrick E. "[https://stars.library.ucf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4541&context=fhq From desegregation to integration: Race, football, and 'Dixie' at the University of Florida]" ''Florida Historical Quarterly'' 88.4 (2010): 469–96. == External links == {{Library resources box}} {{sister project links||d=Q865365|c=Category:Jim Crow laws|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20230423165820/https://www.ferris.edu/HTMLS/news/jimcrow/index.htm The Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia] * [https://www.nps.gov/subjects/africanamericanheritage/reconstruction.htm/ Jim Crow and Reconstruction] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20021004051643/http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/history/history.htm The History of Jim Crow], Ronald L. F. Davis – A series of essays on the history of Jim Crow. [https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/history/history.htm Archive index] at the Wayback Machine ** [https://web.archive.org/web/20070601223741/http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/history/creating2.htm Creating Jim Crow] – Origins of the term and system of laws. ** [https://web.archive.org/web/20040203140654/http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/resources/lessonplans/hs_es_etiquette.htm Racial Etiquette: The Racial Customs and Rules of Racial Behavior in Jim Crow America] – The basics of Jim Crow etiquette. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050407215126/http://www.robinwashington.com/jimcrow/1_home.html "You Don't Have to Ride Jim Crow!"] PBS documentary on first Freedom Ride, in 1947. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040618111006/http://www.ferris.edu/news/jimcrow/what.htm Ferris University page] about Jim Crow * [http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/focus/antisemitism/voices/transcript/?content=20090423 ''Voices on Antisemitism'' Interview with David Pilgrim, founder of Jim Crow Museum] [https://web.archive.org/web/20090506001428/http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/focus/antisemitism/voices/transcript/?content=20090423 Archived] May 6, 2009, at the Wayback Machine from the US Holocaust Memorial Museum * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160330213342/http://www.pbs.org/jazz/time/time_jim_crow.htm Jim Crow Era, History in the Key of Jazz], Gerald Early, Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri (esp. see section "Jim Crow is Born") * {{cite web|title=Jim Crow Laws|url=http://www.nps.gov/malu/forteachers/jim_crow_laws.htm|url-status=live|access-date=November 17, 2010|publisher=National Park Service}} Examples of Jim Crow laws * [https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221118/http://www.thedailybeast.com/reports-of-the-death-of-jim-crow-prove-greatly-exaggerated Reports of the Death of Jim Crow Prove Greatly Exaggerated.] Bill Morris, ''The Daily Beast##.'' * [https://stars.library.ucf.edu/ahistoryofcentralfloridapodcast/43/ Jim Crow Signs] at [http://stars.library.ucf.edu/ahistoryofcentralfloridapodcast/ A History of Central Florida Podcast] * [https://www.aclu.org/publications/aclus-1931-black-justice-report Black Justice] – American Civil Liberties Union, 1931 {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Jim Crow}} [[Category:Jim Crow| ]] [[Category:1870s establishments insyd de United States]] [[Category:1960s disestablishments insyd de United States]] [[Category:Debt bondage]] [[Category:Democratic backsliding insyd de interwar period]] [[Category:Democratic backsliding insyd de United States]] [[Category:Discrimination insyd de United States]] [[Category:History of African-American civil rights]] [[Category:History of racial segregation insyd de United States]] [[Category:Human rights abuses insyd de United States]] [[Category:Legal history of de United States]] [[Category:Native American history]] [[Category:Political terminology of de United States]] [[Category:Politics den race insyd de United States]] [[Category:Race den law insyd de United States]] [[Category:Reconstruction Era]] [[Category:Repealed United States legislation]] [[Category:White supremacy insyd de United States]] cdig8sscqwgp3540sxbod0vzk3g9nr4 0 16786 103947 84403 2026-06-19T02:57:19Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103947 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Edward Mitchell Bannister''' (November 2, 1828 - January 9, 1901) na he be a Canadian–American oil painter of de American Barbizon school. Na dem born am insyd colonial New Brunswick, he spend ein adult life insyd New England insyd de United States. Der, along plus ein wifey [[Christiana Carteaux Bannister|Christiana Carteaux]], na he be a prominent member of African-American cultural den political communities, such as de Boston abolition movement. Na Bannister receive national recognition after he win a first prize insyd painting at de 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition.<ref name="cbc202311">{{cite news|last1=Nelson|first1=Charmaine A.|title=This Canadian won a global art prize in 1876. When the judges found out he was Black, they tried to reverse it|url=https://www.cbc.ca/documentaries/black-life/edward-mitchell-bannister-black-life-1.7034183|access-date=28 August 2024|publisher=CBC|date=22 November 2023}}</ref> N he sanso be a founding member of de Providence Art Club den de Rhode Island School of Design. Na Bannister ein style den predominantly pastoral subject matter reflect ein admiration give de French artist Jean-François Millet den de French Barbizon school. A lifelong sailor, na he sanso look to de Rhode Island seaside for inspiration. Bannister continually experiment, den ein artwork dey display ein Idealist philosophy den ein control of color den atmosphere. Na he begin ein professional practice as a photographer den portraitist before he develop ein better-known landscape style. Later insyd ein life, na Bannister ein style of landscape painting fall out of favor. Plus decreasing painting sales, na he den Christiana Carteaux move out of College Hill insyd Providence to Boston den then a smaller house on Wilson Street insyd Providence. Na dem overlook Bannister insyd American art historical studies den exhibitions after ein death insyd 1901, til institutions like de National Museum of African Art return am to national attention insyd de 1960s den 1970s. == Biography == === Early life === Na dem Bannister on November 2, 1828, insyd Saint Andrews, a settlement insyd de Colony of New Brunswick near de St. Croix River. Na dem born ein poppie, Edward Bannister, insyd Barbados.<ref name="Holland&Jennings">Holland and Jennings, Edward Mitchell Bannister, 1828–1901, 17; and Bearden and Henderson, A History of African-American Artists, 41.</ref> Na dem sanso born ein mommie, Hannah Bannister (), insyd colonial New Brunswick, according to Bannister, "a stone's throw of my birthplace on de banks of de St. Croix River." Na Hannah ein parents probably komot from Barbados.<ref>"United States Census, 1880", FamilySearch (https://www.familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:M4SD-165 : Fri Oct 06 23:50:11 UTC 2023), Entry for E.M. Bannister and Christina Bannister, 1880.</ref><ref>"United States Census, 1900", FamilySearch (https://www.familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:M97T-ZQ2 : Thu Oct 05 00:59:35 UTC 2023), Entry for Edward M Bannister and Christiana Bannister, 1900.</ref> Although na both of ein parents be black, na Bannister sam times be identified as "Mulatto." At de time, na dis designation dey base on skin color as perceived by de Census taker, wey na e no reflect self-identity anaa family history.<ref>Hochschild, J. L., & Powell, B. M. (2008). </ref>Na Bannister ein poppie die insyd 1832, so na Edward den ein younger bro William be raised by dema mommie. Early on, na Bannister be apprenticed to a cobbler, buh na ein drawing skill already be noted among ein paddies den family.<sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 67">&#x200A;</span></sup> Na Bannister credit ein mommie plus igniting ein early interest insyd art. Na she die insyd 1844, after wich Bannister den ein bro live on de farm of de wealthy lawyer den merchant Harris Hatch.Der, na he practice drawing by reproducing Hatch family portraits den dey copy British engravings insyd de family library. [[File:The_Liberator_masthead,_1861_Jan_11.jpg|alt=Newspaper masthead with "The Liberator" in large letters, with background scenes of a slave auction, Jesus freeing a slave under the words "I Have Come to Break the Bonds of the Oppressor", and an emancipated family living on their own farm.|thumb|Masthead of ''The Liberator'', 1861]] === Boston activist, artist, den student === [[File:Edward_Mitchell_Bannister_-_Portrait_of_Christiana_Carteaux_Bannister_-_2016.38.1_-_Rhode_Island_School_of_Design_Museum.jpg|alt=Oil painting portrait of Christiana Bannister. She sits on an upholstered chair and wears a brown skirt and blouse, with a red bow at her throat. She is clasping her hands and resting them on a nearby table.|thumb|''Portrait of Christiana Carteaux Bannister'', Edward Mitchell Bannister, {{circa|1860}}]] Na Bannister meet [[Christiana Carteaux Bannister|Christiana Carteaux]], a hairdresser den businesswoman dem born insyd Rhode Island to African American den Narragansett parents, insyd 1853 wen na he apply to be a barber insyd ein salon. Na both be members of Boston ein diverse abolitionist movement, wey na barbershops be important meeting places for African American abolitionists.Na dem marry on June 10, 1857, wey na she cam be, in effect, ein most important patron.<sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 103">&#x200A;</span></sup> Na de couple board for two years plus Lewis Hayden den Harriet Bell Hayden at 66 Southac Street, a stop on Boston's [[Underground Railroad]] (a support network give escaped slaves). === Providence === [[File:Oak_Trees_SAAM-1983.95.155_1.tif|alt=A pastoral oil painting with a small pond in the foreground, with cows grazing nearby. A man is walking down a path toward the pond, with oars carried over his shoulder. A copse of oak trees darken the center and left side of the background, while further back at right another body of water and hills are visible.|thumb|Painting dem plete around de time of ''Under the Oaks'' den thought to resemble ein composition. ''Oak Trees'', oil on canvas, 1876]] [[File:2021_Seril_Dodge_House,_Providence_Art_Club,_11_Thomas_Street.jpg|alt=A color photograph of buildings along Thomas Street in Providence, Rhode Island. The brick Seril Dodge House at right has three stories. It has a large wooden door, over which a lamp hangs. A small iron sign saying "Providence Art Club" hangs from side of the building, over the sidewalk. A small brick archway connects it to the other Seril Dodge House at left, just out of view.|thumb|Facade of de Seril Dodge House at right, wer na de Providence Art Club first be permanently wey dey locate insyd 1886]] === Death === Na Bannister die of a heart attack on January 9, 1901, while he dey attend an evening prayer meeting at ein church, Elmwood Avenue Free Baptist Church. Na he experience heart trouble for sam time buh na he plete two paintings per de previous day. During de service, na he offer a prayer wey he shortly after sit down, gasping. Na ein last words reportedly be "Jesus, help me".<sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 53">&#x200A;</span></sup> == Artistic style == [[File:Edward_Mitchell_Bannister_-_Approaching_Storm_-_1983.95.62_-_Smithsonian_American_Art_Museum.jpg|alt=A pastoral oil painting. In the foreground, a small figuring carrying an ax over its shoulder holds onto its hat in a high wind as it makes its way along a country path. In the background, several trees are bent by the wind and the sky above, while still somewhat sunny, contains dark clouds on the horizon.|thumb|''Approaching Storm'', Edward Mitchell Bannister, 1886, oil on canvas, 102.2 cm x 152.4 cm]] Na de young Bannister advertise einself as a portraitist, buh later he cam be popular for ein landscapes den seascapes.Drawing on ein knowledge of poetry, classics, den English literature as an autodidact, na he sanso paint biblical, mythological, den [[genre]] scenes. Much like George Inness, na ein work reflect de composition, mood, den influences of French Barbizon painters Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, Jean-François Millet, den Charles-François Daubigny. Defending Millet insyd ''The Artist and His Critics'', na Bannister see am as de most "spiritual artist of wona time" wey dem voice "de sad, uncomplaining life na he see about am den plus wich na he sympathize so deeply." Na historian Joseph Skerrett note de influence of de Hudson River School on Bannister, while dey maintain dat na he consistently experiment thru out ein career: "na Bannister manage to please a conservative New England taste insyd art while dey continue to try new methods den styles." For dema mutual affinity plus de Hudson River School, na dem compare Bannister to ein contemporary, de Ohio-based African American painter Robert S. Duncanson.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Appiah-Duffell|first1=Salima|date=February 26, 2015|title=African American Artists and the Hudson River School|url=https://blog.library.si.edu/blog/2015/02/26/african-american-artists-and-the-hudson-river-school/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201218065154/https://blog.library.si.edu/blog/2015/02/26/african-american-artists-and-the-hudson-river-school/|archive-date=December 18, 2020|access-date=January 12, 2021|website=Unbound|publisher=Smithsonian Libraries and Archives}}</ref> Unlike Hudson River School artists, na Bannister no create meticulous landscapes buh na he pay more attention to creating "massive but revealing shapes of trees and mountains" den works more picturesque dan sublime.Na Bannister sanso avoid de "nationalist grandeur" dem often find insyd Hudson River School paintings. [[File:Edward_Mitchell_Bannister_-_Boston_Street_Scene_(Boston_Common)_-_Walters_372766.jpg|alt=A bright painting of a Boston street scene, rendered with blurred impressionistic strokes. A woman pushes a baby carriage along a sidewalk in the foreground, and in the background several carts, store fronts, and people walking on the opposite side of the street are visible. Leafy trees stretch into the visible, blue sky from the right side of the painting.|thumb|''Boston Street Scene (Boston Common)'', (1898–99). The Walters Art Museum.]] Na Bannister often make pencil anaa pastel studies insyd preparation for larger oil paintings. Na chaw of ein compositions refer to classical, mathematical methods like de Golden Ratio anaa "Harmonic Grid", wey he make careful use of symmetry den asymmetry. Insyd oda paintings, ein contrast of darks den lights create dynamic diagonals anaa circles wey dey divide de composition.<sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 13">&#x200A;</span></sup> Ein paintings be known for dema delicate use of color to depict shadow den atmosphere den dema loose brushwork. Ein later palette exhibit lighter, more muted colors: de Boston Common scene na he paint late insyd ein life be a notable example. Dis change in style dey stand in contrast to ein earlier stated disapproval of Impressionist painting.<sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 53">&#x200A;</span></sup> Na art historian Traci Lee Costa argue dat a "reductive" emphasis on na Bannister ein biography take attention away from scholarly analysis of ein artwork.<sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 89">&#x200A;</span></sup> Insyd de lecture ''The Artist and His Critics'' dem give to de Anne Eliza Club on April 15, 1886, wey dem publish afterward, na Bannister spell out ein belief wey dey make art be a highly spiritual practice de pinnacle of human achievement. == Legacy == Na Bannister be de major African American artist of de late nineteenth century wey develop ein talents widout European exposure; na he be well known insyd de artistic community of Providence wey be admired within de wider East Coast art world.<sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 40">&#x200A;</span></sup> After ein death, na he be largely forgotten by art history for almost a century, principally secof racial prejudice.<sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 70">&#x200A;</span></sup> Na dem often dey omit ein art from 20th-century art histories, den ein style of melancholic, serene landscapes sanso fall out of fashion.Still, he den ein paintings be an indelible part of a refigured relationship between African American culture den de landscapes of Reconstruction-era America.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Armstead |first1=Myra B. Young |date=2005 |title=Revisiting Hotels and Other Lodgings: American Tourist Spaces through the Lens of Black Pleasure-Travelers, 1880–1950 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40007722 |url-status=live |journal=The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts |volume=25 |pages=136–159 |issn=0888-7314 |jstor=40007722 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107042403/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40007722 |archive-date=January 7, 2021 |access-date=January 5, 2021}}</ref> Na Bannister ein art continue to be supported by galleries like de Barnett-Aden Gallery<ref>{{cite web|last1=Mann|first1=Lina|date=August 7, 2020|title=Diversity in White House Art: Alma Thomas|url=https://www.whitehousehistory.org/diversity-in-white-house-art-alma-thomas|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210714205519/https://www.whitehousehistory.org/diversity-in-white-house-art-alma-thomas|archive-date=July 14, 2021|access-date=July 14, 2021|publisher=White House Historical Association|language=en}}</ref> den de Art Institute of Chicago.Dey follow de civil rights movement insyd de 1960s, na dem san celebrate den widely collect ein work. In collaboration plus de Rhode Island School of Design den de Frederick Douglass Institute, na de National Museum of African Art hold an exhibition dem title ''Edward Mitchell Bannister, 1828–1901: Providence Artist'' insyd 1973.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cook |first1=Karen |date=1973 |title=The Museum of African Art |journal=African Arts |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=21–63 |doi=10.2307/3334690 |jstor=3334690}}</ref> Na de Rhode Island Heritage Hall of Fame induct Bannister insyd 1976,<ref>{{cite web|title=Edward Mitchell Bannister|url=http://www.riheritagehalloffame.org/inductees_detail.cfm?iid=219|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225090838/http://riheritagehalloffame.org/inductees_detail.cfm?iid=219|archive-date=February 25, 2017|access-date=August 12, 2021|website=Rhode Island Heritage Hall of Fame}}</ref> wey Rhode Island College create de Bannister Gallery insyd 1978 plus an inaugural exhibition ''Four from Providence : Bannister, Prophet, Alston, Jennings''.<ref name="gallbio">{{cite web|date=2021|title=Edward Mitchell Bannister|url=https://www.ric.edu/department-directory/bannister-gallery/about-edward-mitchell-bannister|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627014738/https://www.ric.edu/department-directory/bannister-gallery/about-edward-mitchell-bannister|archive-date=June 27, 2021|access-date=June 26, 2021|publisher=Rhode Island College}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Four from Providence: Bannister, Prophet, Alston, Jennings|date=1978|publisher=Rhode Island College|location=Providence, Rhode Island|oclc=81435712}}</ref> Na de New York-based Kenkebala Gallery hold two exhibitions of Bannister ein work, one insyd 1992 wey be curated by Corrinne Jennings in collaboration plus de Whitney den one insyd 2001 on de centennial of Bannister ein death. From June 9 to October 8, 2018, na de Gilbert Stuart Museum hold an exhibition wey dey honor Bannister den Carteaux dema relationship, ''"My Greatest Successes Have Come Through Her": The Artistic Partnership of Edward and Christiana Bannister'', as part of ein Rhode Island Masters exhibition series.<ref>{{cite web|date=June 4, 2018|title=Edward Mitchell Bannister: June 9 – October 8, 2018|url=http://www.gilbertstuartmuseum.org/june-9-october-8-2018-edward-mitchell-bannister/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813174415/https://www.gilbertstuartmuseum.org/june-9-october-8-2018-edward-mitchell-bannister/|archive-date=August 13, 2021|access-date=September 13, 2020|work=Gilbert Stuart Birthplace & Museum &#124; North Kingstown, Rhode Island|publisher=Gilbert Stuart Birthplace & Museum}}</ref> Na [[:File:Christiana Carteaux Bannister Portrait.jpeg|Bannister ein portrait of Christiana Carteaux]] be de center of de exhibition. [[File:Edward_Mitchell_Bannister_statue_by_Prentiss.jpg|right|thumb|Bannister statue insyd Providence ein Market Square]] Insyd September 2017, na a Providence City Council committee unanimously vote make dem rename Magee Street (wich na dem name after a Rhode Island slave trader) to Bannister Street, in honor of Edward den Christiana Bannister.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Mitra|first1=Mili|title=Mitra '18: In Support of Bannister Street|url=https://www.browndailyherald.com/2017/11/01/mitra-18-support-bannister-street/|work=The Brown Daily Herald|access-date=September 13, 2020|date=November 1, 2017|archive-date=November 2, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171102052612/http://www.browndailyherald.com/2017/11/01/mitra-18-support-bannister-street/|url-status=live}}</ref> Na de Providence Art Club unveil a bronze bust of Bannister wey Providence artist Gage Prentiss make insyd May 2021.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Botelho|first1=Jessica A.|title=Providence Art Club Showcases Bronze Bust of Prolific Black Co-founder|date=May 12, 2021|url=https://turnto10.com/news/local/providence-art-club-showcases-bronze-bust-of-prolific-black-co-founder|access-date=June 10, 2021|work=WJAR|archive-date=June 10, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610185948/https://turnto10.com/news/local/providence-art-club-showcases-bronze-bust-of-prolific-black-co-founder|url-status=live}}</ref> As of 2018, art historian Anne Louise Avery dey compile de first catalogue raisonné den a major biography of Bannister ein work.<ref>{{cite web|title=Artist: Bannister, Edward Mitchell (1828–1901)|url=http://ifar.org/artist_book_detail_in_progress.php?id=50352&nameid=2126|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180724032159/http://ifar.org/artist_book_detail_in_progress.php?id=50352&nameid=2126|archive-date=July 24, 2018|access-date=September 13, 2020|website=Catalogues Raisonnés in Preparation|publisher=International Foundation for Art Research}}</ref> Insyd September 2023, na dem unveil a bronze sculpture of Bannister by artist Gage Prentiss insyd Providence ein Market Square.<ref name="ProJo20230908">{{cite news|last1=Russo|first1=Amy|title=City unveils statue of Black painter Edward Bannister. Here's the story behind it.|url=https://www.providencejournal.com/story/news/local/2023/09/08/sculpture-of-black-painter-edward-mitchell-bannister-unveiled-in-providence/70778537007/|access-date=September 9, 2023|publisher=The Providence Journal|date=September 8, 2023}}</ref> Bannister be depicted insyd life size, wey dey tap on a bench. == House == Insyd 1884 na Bannister den Carteaux move from de boarding house of Ransom Parker to 93 Benevolent Street, wey na dem live der til 1899.Na dem build de two-and-a-half-story wooden house circa 1854 by engineer Charles E. Paine wey e now be known as "The Vault" anaa "The Bannister House".<ref name="VaultBrown">{{cite news|last=Rufa|first=Zach|title="The Vault" on Benevolent St. Remains Closed, for Now|url=http://www.browndailyherald.com/the-vault-on-benevolent-st-remains-closed-for-now-1.2347170|date=September 29, 2010|work=The Brown Daily Herald|access-date=September 30, 2010|archive-date=June 22, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110622015031/http://www.browndailyherald.com/the-vault-on-benevolent-st-remains-closed-for-now-1.2347170|url-status=live}}</ref> Na Euchlin Reeves den Louise Herreshoff purchase de house insyd de late 1930s wey na dem renovate am make dem add a brick exterior. Na dem make de renovation make e create consistency plus dema next-door property, so both houses fi hold dema "little museum" of antiques. Na Herreshoff die insyd 1967 wey na dem donate de porcelain collection wey dey fill de Bannister House to Washington and Lee University.<ref>{{cite web|last=Fuchs II|first=Ron|date=January 28, 2014|title=The Reeves Collection Of Ceramics At Washington And Lee University|url=https://www.incollect.com/articles/the-reeves-collection-of-ceramics-at-washington-and-lee-university|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109204027/https://www.incollect.com/articles/the-reeves-collection-of-ceramics-at-washington-and-lee-university|archive-date=January 9, 2021|access-date=June 26, 2021|website=InCollect|language=en}}</ref> Drm now list de house as e dey contribute to College Hill ein historical designation. Na Brown University buy de property insyd 1989 wey na dem use am take store refrigerators. Secof a lack of plans for ein preservation den use, na de Providence Preservation Society put de Bannister House on ein 2001 list of most endangered buildings insyd Providence. Na Brown University presido Ruth Simmons assure historian den former Rhode Island deputy secretary of state Ray Rickman say dem go preserve de house,<ref>{{cite news|last1=Downing|first1=Neil|title=Black Contributions Kept Alive|url=https://marilynrichardson.art/2009/03/01/save-edward-bannisters-providence-home/|access-date=January 7, 2021|work=The Providence Journal|date=March 1, 2009|archive-date=January 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210115143720/https://marilynrichardson.art/2009/03/01/save-edward-bannisters-providence-home/|url-status=live}}</ref> although na de university debate whether make dem sell de house to a third party. Secof ein disrepair den long disuse make de house unsuitable for residence, na Brown renovate de property insyd 2015 wey na dem restore am to ein original appearance.<ref name="House">{{cite news|url=https://news.brown.edu/articles/2015/05/bannister|title=Brown to Renovate Historic Bannister House|date=May 13, 2015|work=News from Brown|publisher=Brown University|quote=The house at 93 Benevolent Street, once home to African American artist Edward Mitchell Bannister and currently owned by Brown University, will be fully renovated, returned to its original wood exterior{{spaces}}...|last1=Coelho|first1=Courtney|access-date=May 15, 2015|archive-date=March 25, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190325014334/https://news.brown.edu/articles/2015/05/bannister|url-status=live}}</ref> Na dem sell am insyd 2016 as part of de Brown to Brown Home Ownership Program - na de program dey specify say if dem ever sell de house, dem for sell am back to de university.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Young|first1=Shawn|title=Brown reveals Bannister House after completed renovations|url=https://www.browndailyherald.com/2016/02/25/u-reveals-bannister-house-after-completed-renovations/|access-date=August 31, 2021|work=Brown Daily Herald|date=February 25, 2016}}</ref> ==Artworks dem select== <gallery widths="165" heights="165" style="line-height:140%"> File:Newspaper Boy 1983.95.85 1a.jpg|alt=An oil painting portrait of a young African American boy, who wears a newsboy cap and carries a newspaper in his right hand.|''Newspaper Boy'', 1869, oil on canvas, Smithsonian American Art Museum File:'Governor Sprague's White Horse' by Edward Mitchell Bannister, 1869.jpg|alt=Oil painting of a horse groom, with his back to the viewer, brushing a large, white horse that is pawing the ground and turning to look at the groom.|''Governor Sprague's White Horse'', 1869, oil on canvas, Rhode Island Historical Society File:'Fort Dumpling, Jamestown, Rhode Island' by Edward Mitchell Bannister.jpg|alt=A seaside scene of groups of people relaxing on the side of a grassy hill. A round fort rises further back, with two people standing atop it. A two-masted boat and a small spritsail sloop are sailing past the fort in the background.|''Fort Dumpling, Jamestown, Rhode Island'', {{circa|1890}}, private collection File:'Palmer River' by Edward Mitchell Bannister, 1885.jpg|alt=An oil painting of the woody landscape along a river. Large clouds fill the sky, but the light is clear and sunny. Little orange flowers grow in the grass that slopes down from the left side of the painting toward the river.|''Palmer River'', 1885, oil on canvas, private collection<ref>{{cite news|last1=Gagosz|first1=Alexa|title=Painting by Edward Mitchell Bannister, a Black Artist and Cultural Leader in R.I., Sold for $277k|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/2021/05/25/metro/painting-by-edward-mitchell-bannister-black-artist-cultural-leader-ri-sold-277k/|access-date=26 May 2021|work=The Boston Globe|date=25 May 2021|archive-date=May 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526012846/https://www.bostonglobe.com/2021/05/25/metro/painting-by-edward-mitchell-bannister-black-artist-cultural-leader-ri-sold-277k/|url-status=live}}</ref> File:'The Woodsman' by Edward Mitchell Bannister, 1885, graphite .jpg|alt=A graphite drawing on laid paper of a man walking along a forest trail, carrying a walking stick. The trees loom over him, filling most of the page, but there is a small clearing in the trees visible up ahead.|''The Woodsman'', 1885, graphite, Providence Art Club File:Edward Mitchell Bannister - Neutakonkanut - 1983.95.10 - Smithsonian American Art Museum.jpg|alt=A bright watercolor of a thin blue river, surrounded by greenery and rocks. A small, twisted tree sits along the river bank.|''Neutakonkanut'', 1891, watercolor, Smithsonian American Art Museum </gallery> == References == <references /> ==Read further== *{{cite book |title=Edward M. Bannister: A Centennial Retrospective |location=Newport, Rhode Island |publisher=Roger King Gallery of Fine Art |date=2001 |oclc=49568395}} *{{cite book |last1=Gonzalez |first1=Aston |title=Visualizing equality: African American champions of race, rights and visual culture |date=2020 |publisher=The University of North Carolina Press |location=Chapel Hill |isbn=978-1-4696-5996-1 |chapter=Freedom and Citizenship: Conflicting Views of Wartime}} *{{cite journal |last1=Grant |first1=John N. |title=Edward Mitchell Bannister: The New Brunswick Years |journal =ArtsAtlantic |volume=20 |issue=2 |date=Summer 2002 |pages=17–23}} *{{cite journal |ref=none |last1=Ott |first1=Joseph K. |title=The Barbizon School in Providence | journal = Edward Mitchell Bannister, 1828–1901, an Exhibition Sponsored by the Olney Street Baptist Church |date=August 1965 |publisher=Olney Street Baptist Church |location=Providence, Rhode Island}} *{{cite book |last1=Simmons |first1=William J. |title=Men of Mark: Eminent, Progressive and Rising |date=1887 |publisher=Rewell |location=Cleveland |pages=1127–1131 |url=https://archive.org/details/menmarkeminentp00turngoog/ |author-link=}} == External links == {{Commons}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20150518022853/http://americanartgallery.org/artist/home/id/136 Edward Mitchell Bannister at American Art Gallery] *[https://www.bedfordfineartgallery.com/edward_mitchell_bannister_river.html Artwork by Edward Mitchell Bannister] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20121008030221/http://wwar.com/masters/b/bannister-edward_mitchell.html Biographical sketch and images at World Wide Art Resources] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20060830113144/http://www.artgallery.umd.edu/driskell/exhibition/sec1/bann_e_01.htm Narratives of Art and Identity: The David C. Driskell Collection] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Bannister, Edward Mitchell}} [[Category:1828 births]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:1901 deaths]] [[Category:19th-century American painters]] [[Category:19th-century American male artists]] [[Category:African-American painters]] [[Category:American landscape painters]] [[Category:American male painters]] [[Category:Artists wey komot New Brunswick]] [[Category:Artists wey komot Providence, Rhode Island]] [[Category:Burials at North Burying Ground (Providence)]] [[Category:Canadian people of Barbadian descent]] [[Category:Painters wey komot Rhode Island]] [[Category:People wey komot Saint Andrews, New Brunswick]] [[Category:People of Massachusetts insyd de American Civil War]] [[Category:Emigrants wey komot pre-Confederation New Brunswick to de United States]] [[Category:African-American abolitionists]] [[Category:Abolitionists wey komot Massachusetts]] h6t9uxtfkpppxip5bxo3p5cd7mkb8xq 0 17778 103953 71778 2026-06-19T06:40:29Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103953 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Habib Bourguiba''' (3 August 1903 – 6 April 2000) na he be a Tunisian politician den statesman wey serve as de prime minister of de Kingdom of Tunisia from 1956 to 1957, den then as de first presido of Tunisia from 1957 to 1987. Prior to ein presidency, na he lead de nation to independence from [[France]], wey dey end de 75-year-old protectorate den dey earn de title of "Supreme Combatant". Dem born am insyd Monastir to a poor family, na he attend Sadiki College den Lycée Carnot insyd Tunis before he obtain ein baccalaureate insyd 1924. Na he graduate from de University of Paris den de Paris Institute of Political Studies (Sciences Po) insyd 1927 wey he return to Tunis make he practice law. Insyd de early 1930s, he cam be involve insyd anti-colonial den Tunisian national politics, joining de Destour party wey na he co-found de Neo Destour insyd 1934. He cam be a key figure of de independence movement wey na dem repeatedly arrest am by de colonial administration. Na ein involvement insyd de riots of 9 April 1938 result in ein exile to Marseille during World War II. Insyd 1945, following Bourguiba ein release, na he move go Cairo, [[Egypt]] make he seek de support of de Arab League. He return to Tunisia insyd 1949 wey na he rise to prominence as de leader of de national movement. Although initially na he commit to peaceful negotiations plus de French government, he get an effective role insyd de armed unrest wey start insyd 1952 wen na dem prove to be unsuccessful. Na dem arrest den imprison am on La Galite Island for two years, before dem exile am insyd France. Der, na he lead negotiations plus Prime Minister Pierre Mendès France wey he obtain internal autonomy agreements in exchange for de end of de unrest. Bourguiba return victorious to Tunis on 1 June 1955, buh na he be challenged by Salah Ben Youssef for de party leader position. Na Ben Youssef den ein supporters disagree plus Bourguiba ein "soft" policies wey na dem demand full independence of de Maghreb. Na dis result in a civil war wey pitted Bourguibists, wey na dem favor a gradual policy den modernism, against Youssefists, de conservative Arab nationalist supporters of Ben Youssef. Na de conflict end in favor of Bourguiba plus de Sfax Congress of 1955. Following de country ein independence insyd 1956, na dem appoint Bourguiba prime minister by king Muhammad VIII al-Amin wey na he act as ''de facto'' ruler before proclaiming de Republic on 25 July 1957. Na dem elect am interim Presido of Tunisia by Parliament til de ratification of de Constitution. During ein rule, na he implement a strong education system, he work on developing de economy, he support gender equality, wey na he proclaim a neutral foreign policy, wey make am an exception among Arab leaders. De main reform wey na dem pass be de Code of Personal Status wich implement a modern society. Na he establish a strong presidential system wich turn into a twenty-year one-party state wey be dominated by ein own party, de Socialist Destourian Party. Na a cult of personality sanso develop around am, before na he proclaim einself presido for life insyd 1975, during ein fourth 5-year term. Na de end of ein 30-year rule be marked by ein declining health, a war of succession, den de rise of clientelism den Islamism. On 7 November 1987, na dem remove am from power by ein prime minister, Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, wey na he keep am under house arrest insyd a residence insyd Monastir. Na he remain der til ein death wey na dem bury am insyd a mausoleum he previously build. == Ein life matter == Insyd 1925, while a student insyd Paris, Habib Bourguiba meet Mathilde Lorrain plus whom he settle.<ref name="famille">{{cite news|url=http://www.jeuneafrique.com/Articles/Dossier/ARTJAJA2569p024-035.xml6/famille-habib-bourguiba-habib-bourguiba-jr-mahdi-bourguibades-descendants-si-discrets.html|author=Barrouhi, Abdelaziz|title=Des descendants si discrets|work=Jeune Afrique|date=12 April 2010}}</ref> During summer vacations back insyd Tunis, he learn say na she dey preg: Habib Bourguiba Jr., ein kiddie per, na dem born am on 9 April 1927 insyd Paris. Na de couple marry insyd August of de same year, after dema return to Tunisia.<ref name="famille" /> After independence, Mathilde obtain Tunisian citizenship, wey she convert to [[Islam]] wey na she adopt de name of Moufida. On 21 July 1961, na dem end up divorcing.<ref>''Jeune Afrique'', Paris: Jeune Afrique n° 1973–1981, 1998, p. 53</ref> On 12 April 1962, na Bourguiba marry Wassila Ben Ammar, a woman wey komot a family of Tunis bourgeoisie wey na he know am for 18 years. Togeda, na dem adopt a girl dem name Hajer.<ref name="famille" /> Na Wassila take a larger part insyd politics over de deteriorating health of ein husby, wich na go give am de title of ''Majda'' (Venerable). Na de couple divorce on 11 August 1986, plus a mere statement den widout any respected legal proceedings. == Honours den decorations == === Tunisian national honours === * Tunisia : ** Grand Master & Grand Collar of de Order of Independence (automatic upon taking presidential office) ** Grand Master & Grand Collar of de Order of the Republic (automatic upon taking presidential office) ** Grand Master & Grand Cordon of de National Order of Merit (automatic upon taking presidential office) ** Grand Cordon of Nichan Iftikar (1956) === Foreign honors === * Denmark : Knight of de Order of the Elephant (1963) * [[Egypt]] : Collar of de Order of the Nile (1965) * [[Ethiopia]] : Grand Cross of de Order of the Star of Ethiopia (1963) * [[Ghana]] : Companion of de [[Order of the Star of Ghana]] (1966) * Netherlands : Knight Grand Cross of de Order of the Netherlands Lion (1966) * Iran : Collar of de Order of Pahlavi (1969) * Italy : Knight Grand Cross plus Collar of de Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (25 May 1962) * [[Ivory Coast]] : Grand Cross of de National Order of the Ivory Coast (1966) * Jordan : Collar of de Order of Al-Hussein bin Ali (1973) * [[Saudi Arabia]] : Collar of de Order of Abdulaziz Al Saud (1975) * [[Liberia]] : Grand Croce of de Order of the Pioneers of Liberia (1966) * [[Libya]] : Collar of de Order of Idris I * Malaysia : Honorary Grand Commander of de Order of the Defender of the Realm (1969) * [[Mauritania]] : Grand Cordon of de National Order of Merit of Mauritania (1966) * [[Morocco]] : Collar of de Order of Muhammad * Morocco : Grand Cordon of de Order of Ouissam Alaouite (1956) * [[Niger]] : Grand Cross of de Order of the Niger (1966) * Oman : Special Class of de Order of Oman (1973) * [[Senegal]] : Grand Cross of de National Order of the Lion (1966) * Spain : Collar of de Order of Civil Merit (24 May 1968) * Spain : Knight of de Collar of de Order of Isabella the Catholic (16 November 1983) * Sweden : Knight of de Royal Order of the Seraphim (22 May 1963) * [[Turkey]] : Collar of de Order of the State of Republic of Turkey (1960) * United Arab Emirates : Collar of de Order of the Federation (1973) * [[United Kingdom]] : Honorary Knight Grand Cross of de Order of the Bath (1980) * Yugoslavia : Yugoslav Great Star (1965) == Awards den recognition == * Honorary Degree from [[Cheikh Anta Diop University]] * Honorary Degree from Cairo University * Honorary Degree from Lebanese University * [[Nelson Mandela]] Supreme Fighter Prize * Order of Independence == Publications == * ''Le Destour et la France'', ed. Berg, Paris, 1937 * ''La Tunisie et la France : vingt-cinq ans de lutte pour une coopération libre'', ed. Julliard, Tunis, 1954 * ''La Tunisie de Bourguiba'', ed. Plon, Paris, 1958 * ''Le Drame algérien'', ed. Publications du secrétariat d’État à l’Information, Tunis, 1960 * ''La Bataille économique'', ed. Publications du secrétariat d’État à l’Information, Tunis, 1962 * ''La Promotion de l’Afrique'', ed. Publications du secrétariat d’État à l’Information, Tunis, 1965 * ''Éducation et développement'', ed. Publications du secrétariat d’État à l’Information, Tunis, 1966 * ''9 avril 1938. Le procès Bourguiba'', ed. Centre de documentation nationale, Tunis, 1970 * ''Propos et réflexions'', ed. Publications du secrétariat d’État à l’Information, Tunis, 1974 * ''Ma vie, mes idées, mon combat'', ed. Publications du secrétariat d’État à l’Information, Tunis, 1977 * ''Citations'', ed. Dar El Amal, Tunis, 1978 * ''Articles de presse (1929-1933)'', ed. Dar El Amal, Tunis, 1982 * ''Les Lettres du prisonnier de La Galite'', ed. Dar El Amal, Tunis, 1983 * ''Ma vie, mon œuvre'', ed. Plon, Paris, 1985 == References == <references /> == Read further == * {{cite book|last1=Bessis|first1=Sophie|title=Bourguiba|last2=Belhassen|first2=Souhayr|publisher=[[:fr:Éditions Elyzad|Elyzad]]|year=2012|isbn=978-9973-58-044-3|location=Tunis|language=fr|author-link1=:fr:Sophie Bessis|author-link2=:fr:Souhayr Belhassen}} * {{cite book|last=Martel|first=Pierre-Albin|title=Habib Bourguiba. Un homme, un siècle|publisher=Éditions du Jaguar|year=1999|isbn=978-2-86950-320-5|location=Paris|language=fr}} * {{cite book|last1=Le Pautremat|first1=Pascal|title=La politique musulmane de la France au XXe siècle. De l'Hexagone aux terres d'Islam : espoirs, réussites, échecs|last2=Ageron|first2=Charles-Robert|publisher=Maisonneuve et Larose|year=2003|location=Paris|language=fr|author-link1=:fr:Pascal Le Pautremat|author-link2=:fr:Charles-Robert Ageron}} * {{cite book|last=Casemajor|first=Roger|title=L'action nationaliste en Tunisie|publisher=MC-Editions|year=2009|location=Carthage|language=fr}} * {{cite book|last=Mestiri|first=Saïd|title=Moncef Mestiri: aux sources du Destour|publisher=Sud Editions|year=2011|location=Tunis|language=fr}} * {{cite book|last=Khlifi|first=Omar|title=L'assassinat de Salah Ben Youssef|publisher=MC-Editions|year=2005|location=Carthage|language=fr}} * {{cite book|last=El Materi Hached|first=Anissa|title=Mahmoud El Materi, pionnier de la Tunisie moderne|publisher=Les Belles Lettres|year=2011|location=Paris|language=fr}} * {{cite book|last=Arnoulet|first=François|title=Résidents généraux de France en Tunisie... ces mal aimés|publisher=Narration Editions|year=1995|location=Carthage|language=fr}} * {{cite book|last=Ounaies|first=Ahmed|title=Histoire générale de la Tunisie, L'Époque contemporaine (1881–1956)|publisher=Sud Editions|year=2010|volume=5|location=Tunis|language=fr|author-link=}} * {{cite book|last=Julien|first=Charles-André|title=L'Afrique du Nord en marche|publisher=Julliard Edition|year=1952|location=Paris|language=fr}} * {{cite book|last=El Mechat|first=Samya|title=Tunisie. Les chemins vers l'indépendance (1945–1956)|publisher=L'Harmattan Editions|year=1992|location=Paris|language=fr}} * {{cite book|last=Mestiri|first=Saïd|title=Le ministère Chenik à la poursuite de l'autonomie interne|publisher=Arcs Editions|year=1991|location=Tunis|language=fr}} * {{cite book|last=Grimal|first=Henri|title=La décolonisation de 1919 à nos jours|publisher=Complexe Editions|year=1985|location=Paris|language=fr}} * {{cite book|last=Julien|first=Charles-André|title=Et la Tunisie devint indépendante… (1951–1957)|publisher=Jeune Afrique Editions|year=1985|location=Paris|language=fr}} * {{cite book|last1=Camau|first1=Michel|title=Habib Bourguiba. La trace et l'héritage|last2=Geisser|first2=Vincent|publisher=[[:fr:Éditions Karthala|Karthala]]|year=2004|isbn=978-2-84586-506-8|location=Paris|language=fr|author-link2=:fr:Vincent Geisser}} * {{cite book|last=Belkhodja|first=Tahar|url=https://archive.org/details/lestroisdecennie0000belk|title=Les trois décennies Bourguiba. Témoignage|publisher=[[:fr:Publisud|Publisud]]|year=1998|isbn=978-2-84342-011-5|location=Paris|language=fr|author-link=:fr:Tahar Belkhodja|url-access=registration}} * {{cite book|last=Caïd Essebsi|first=Béji|title=Bourguiba. Le bon grain et l'ivraie|publisher=Sud Éditions|year=2009|isbn=978-9973-844-99-6|location=Tunis|language=fr|author-link=}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q643348|c=Category:Habib Bourguiba|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20020609003745/http://bourguiba.com/ Official Website run by his family] * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/obituaries/703907.stm History of his life by the BBC] * [http://www.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/bourgnyt.htm Obituary from ''The New York Times''] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121209184347/http://www.terra.es/personal2/monolith/tunisia.htm Leaders of Tunisia – Ministers of Foreign Affairs] 19 September 2012 at archive.today {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Bourguiba, Habib}} [[Category:Habib Bourguiba| ]] [[Category:Tunisian people]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:1903 births]] [[Category:2000 deaths]] [[Category:Presidents for life]] [[Category:Presidents of Tunisia]] [[Category:Prime ministers of Tunisia]] [[Category:Alumni of Sadiki College]] [[Category:Carnot high school Tunis alumni]] [[Category:University of Paris alumni]] [[Category:Sciences Po alumni]] [[Category:Critics of Islamism]] [[Category:Destour politicians]] [[Category:Socialist Destourian Party politicians]] [[Category:Foreign ministers of Tunisia]] [[Category:Defence ministers of Tunisia]] [[Category:Speakers of de Assembly of the Representatives of the People]] [[Category:Leaders dem oust by a coup]] [[Category:Neo Destour politicians]] [[Category:People wey komot Monastir Governorate]] [[Category:Gandhians]] [[Category:Foreign nationals dem imprison insyd France]] [[Category:Tunisian people dem imprison abroad]] [[Category:Tunisian revolutionaries]] [[Category:Tunisian independence activists]] [[Category:Heads of government wey dem later imprison]] [[Category:20th-century Tunisian people]] [[Category:Tunisian expatriates insyd France]] q4dkt6q7kicjn5h2c96gclpc18l4hb9 0 18829 103940 82443 2026-06-19T01:57:16Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103940 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Decolonization''' be de undoing of colonialism, de latter be de process wer by imperial nations dey establish den dey dominate foreign territories, often overseas.<ref>Note however discussion of (for example) the Russian and Nazi empires below.</ref> De meanings den applications of de term be disputed. Sam scholars of decolonization dey focus especially on independence movements insyd de colonies den de collapse of global colonial empires.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book| title = International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences |last = Hack |first = Karl |publisher = Macmillan Reference |year = 2008 |isbn = 978-0028659657 |location = Detroit |pages = 255–257}}</ref><ref> John Lynch, ed. ''Latin American Revolutions, 1808–1826: Old and New World Origins'' (1995). </ref> As a movement to establish independence for colonized territories from dema respective metropoles, na decolonization begin insyd 1775 plus de American Revolution insyd [[North America]] against de British Empire. Na de Napoleonic Wars insyd de 19th century see de [[French colonial empire]], de Spanish Empire, den Portugal face decolonization plus de [[Haitian Revolution]], de Spanish American wars of independence, den de independence of Brazil from Portugal. Na a major wave of decolonization occur insyd de aftermath of de First World War, wey dey include insyd de United States den de Empire of Japan. Na anoda wave of decolonization occur after de Second World War, wey na chaw countries gain dema independence insyd de following years. Seventeen territories remain under de [[United Nations]] classification of non-self-governing territories. == By area == === American Revolution === Na Great Britain ein Thirteen North American colonies be de first to declare independence, wey dey form de [[United States|United States of America]] insyd 1776, wey dem defeat Britain insyd de Revolutionary War.<ref>Robert R. Palmer, ''The age of the Democratic Revolution: a political history of Europe and America, 1760–1800'' (1965)</ref><ref>Richard B. Morris, ''The emerging nations and the American Revolution'' (1970).</ref> === Haitian Revolution === {{Main|Haitian Revolution}} === Spanish America === [[File:Spanish_Empire_(diachronic).svg|alt=Map of Spanish Colonial Empire|thumb|Map of Spanish Colonial Empire]] === Portuguese America === === British Empire === [[File:British_Empire_in_February_1952.png|thumb|British Empire insyd 1952]] ==== Violence, civil warfare, den partition ==== === French Empire === {{Further|French colonial empire}} === After 1918 === ==== United States ==== ==== Japan ==== [[File:US_Army_in_Korea_under_Japanese_Rule.JPG|thumb|U.S. troops insyd Korea, September 1945]] === After 1945 === ==== Planning for decolonization ==== ===== U.S. den Philippines ===== ===== Portugal ===== ===== Belgium ===== ===== Netherlands ===== [[File:Dutch_Empire_preWWII.PNG|thumb|De territory of de Dutch empire before World War II]] ==== United Nations trust territories ==== ==== De emergence of de Third World (1945–present) ==== ==== Decolonization of Africa ==== * United Kingdom: [[Sudan]] (1956); [[Ghana]] (1957); [[Nigeria]] (1960); [[Sierra Leone]] den Tanganyika (1961); [[Uganda]] (1962); [[Kenya]] den Sultanate of Zanzibar (1963); [[Malawi]] den [[Zambia]] (1964); [[The Gambia|Gambia]] den Rhodesia (1965); [[Botswana]] den [[Lesotho]] (1966); [[Mauritius]] den Swaziland (1968); [[Seychelles]] (1976) * {{flagcountry|France}}: [[Morocco]] den [[Tunisia]] (1956); [[Guinea]] (1958); [[Cameroon]], [[Togo]], [[Mali]], [[Senegal]], [[Madagascar]], [[Benin]], [[Niger]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Ivory Coast]], [[Chad]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Gabon]] den [[Mauritania]] (1960); [[Algeria]] (1962); [[Comoros]] (1975); [[Djibouti]] (1977) * Spain: [[Equatorial Guinea]] (1968) * Portugal: [[Guinea-Bissau]] (1974); [[Mozambique]], [[Cape Verde]], [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] den [[Angola]] (1975) * {{flagcountry|Belgium}}: [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (1960); [[Burundi]] den [[Rwanda]] (1962) ==== Decolonization insyd de Americas after 1945 ==== * United Kingdom: Newfoundland (formerly an independent dominion buh under direct British rule since 1934) (1949, union plus Canada); Jamaica den Trinidad and Tobago (1962); Barbados den Guyana (1966); Bahamas (1973); Grenada (1974); Trinidad and Tobago (1976, removal of Queen Elizabeth II as head of state, transition to republic); Dominica (1978); Saint Lucia den St. Vincent and the Grenadines (1979); Antigua and Barbuda den Belize (1981); Saint Kitts and Nevis (1983); Barbados (2021, removal of Queen Elizabeth II as head of state, transition to republic).<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/prince-charles-travels-barbados-celebrate-creation-republic-2021-11-29/|title=Barbados ditches Britain's Queen Elizabeth to become a republic|newspaper=Reuters|date=30 November 2021|last1=Faulconbridge|first1=Guy|last2=Ellsworth|first2=Brian}}</ref> * Netherlands: Netherlands Antilles, Suriname (1954, both cam be constituent countries of de Kingdom of the Netherlands), 1975 (independence of Suriname) * Denmark: Greenland (1979, cam be an autonomous territory of de Kingdom of Denmark). ==== Decolonization of Asia ==== [[File:Colonization_1945.png|right|thumb|Western European colonial empires insyd Asia den Africa na dem all collapse insyd de years after 1945]] [[File:Partition_of_India.PNG|thumb|Four nations ([[India]], Pakistan, Dominion of Ceylon, den Union of Burma) wey gain independence insyd 1947 den 1948]] * United Kingdom: Transjordan (1946), British India den Pakistan (1947); British Mandate of Palestine, Burma den Ceylon (1948); British Malaya (1957); Kuwait (1961); Kingdom of Sarawak, North Borneo den [[Singapore]] (1963); Maldives (1965); Aden (1967); Bahrain, Qatar den United Arab Emirates (1971); [[Brunei]] (1984); [[Hong Kong]] (1997) * {{flagcountry|France}}: French India (1954) den Indochina wey dey comprise Vietnam (1954), Cambodia (1953) den Laos (1953) * Portugal: Portuguese India (1961); East Timor (1975); Macau (1999) * {{flagcountry|United States}}: Philippines (1946) * Netherlands: [[Indonesia]] (1949) ==== Decolonization insyd Europe ==== ==== Decolonization of Oceania ==== * United Kingdom: Tonga den Fiji (1970); Solomon Islands den Tuvalu (1978); Kiribati (1979) * United Kingdom den {{flagcountry|France}}: Vanuatu (1980) * Australia: Nauru (1968); Papua New Guinea (1975) * New Zealand: Samoa (1962) * {{flagcountry|United States}}: Marshall Islands den Federated States of Micronesia (1986); Palau (1994) == Anti-colonialist leaders dem assassinate == [[File:Gandhi_with_Lord_and_Lady_Mountbatten_1947.jpg|thumb|Gandhi insyd 1947, plus Lord Louis Mountbatten, Britain ein last Viceroy of India, den ein wifey Vicereine Edwina Mountbatten]] [[File:Patrice_Lumumba_official_portrait.jpg|thumb|[[Patrice Lumumba]], first democratically elected Prime Minister of de Congo-Léopoldville, wey be murdered by Belgian-supported Katangan separatists insyd 1961.]] A ''non-exhaustive'' list of assassinated leaders go include: {| class="wikitable" !Leader !Title !Assassin !Place of death !Date of death |- |Tiradentes |Colonial Brazilian revolutionary |Portuguese colonial admiministration |Rio de Janeiro, Portuguese Colony of Brazil |21 April 1792 |- |Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla |Leader of de Mexican War of Independence |Spanish colonial admiministration |Chihuahua, Nueva Vizcaya, Viceroyalty of New Spain |30 July 1811 |- |Ruben Um Nyobé<ref>Gabriel Périès and David Servenay, ''Une guerre noire: Enquête sur les origines du génocide rwandais (1959-1994)'' (''A Black War: Investigation into the origins of the Rwandan genocide (1959-1994)''), Éditions La Découverte, 2007, p. 88. (Another account claims, without supporting citation, that Nyobe "was killed in a plane crash on September 13, 1958. No clear cause has ever been ascertained for the mysterious crash. Assassination has been alleged with the French SDECE being blamed.")</ref><ref>"Power of the dead and language of the living: The Wanderings of Nationalist Memory in Cameroon", ''African Policy'' (June 1986), pp. 37-72</ref> |Leader of de Union of the Peoples of Cameroon |French army |Nyong-et-Kellé [[French Cameroon]] |13 September 1958 |- |[[Barthélemy Boganda]] |Leader of de independence movement in the [[Central African Republic]] |Plane crash. Sam believe say na de crash be deliberate wey dem suspect say expatriate businessmen, possibly be aided by de French secret service, na dem be responsible. |Boda District, Central African Republic |29 March 1959 |- |[[Félix-Roland Moumié]].<ref>Jacques Foccart, counsellor to Charles de Gaulle, Georges Pompidou and Jacques Chirac for African matters, recognized it in 1995 to ''Jeune Afrique'' review. See also ''Foccart parle, interviews with Philippe Gaillard'', Fayard – ''Jeune Afrique'' (French) and also [https://web.archive.org/web/20150924052053/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2751/is_n49/ai_20319603 "The man who ran Francafrique – French politician Jacques Foccart's role in France's colonization of Africa under the leadership of Charles de Gaulle – Obituary"] in ''The National Interest'', Fall 1997</ref> |Leader of de Cameroon's People Union |French secret police SDECE |Geneva, Switzerland |3 November 1960 |- |[[Patrice Lumumba]] |First Prime Minister of de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] |De separatist Katangan authorities of Moïse Tshombe execute am after Joseph-Désiré Mobutu hand am over. |Élisabethville, [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] |17 January 1961 |- |Louis Rwagasore | rowspan="2" |[[Burundi]] nationalist |Dem assassinate am at de direction of leaders of a rival political party (PDC) plus potential support from de Belgian Resident insyd Burundi. |Usumbura, Ruanda-Urundi |13 October 1961 |- |Pierre Ngendandumwe |Rwandan Tutsi refugee |Bujumbura, [[Burundi]] |15 January 1965 |- |Sylvanus Olympio |First presido of Togo |Dem assassinate am during de 1963 Togolese coup d'état. |Lomé, Togo |13 January 1963 |- |Mehdi Ben Barka |Leader of de Moroccan National Union of Popular Forces (UNPF) |Moroccan secret service |Paris, [[France]] |29 October 1965 |- |Ahmadu Bello |First premier of Northern Nigeria |Dem kill am during de 1966 Nigerian coup d'état. |Kaduna, Nigeria |15 January 1966 |- |Eduardo Mondlane |Leader of FRELIMO |Unknown. Possibly de Portuguese secret police (PIDE) |Dar es Salaam, [[Tanzania]] |3 February 1969 |- |Mohamed Bassiri |Leader of de Movement for the Liberation of Saguia el Hamra and Wadi el Dhahab |Spanish Legion |El Aaiun, Spanish Sahara |18 June 1970 |- |[[Amílcar Cabral]] |Leader of PAIGC |Portuguese secret police DGS/PIDE |Conakry, [[Guinea]] |20 January 1973 |} == References == <references /> == Read further == * Bailey, Thomas A. ''A diplomatic history of the American people'' (1969) [[iarchive:diplomatichistor00bail_0|online free]] * Betts, Raymond F. ''Decolonisation'' (2nd ed. 2004) * Betts, Raymond F. ''France and Decolonisation, 1900–1960'' (1991) * {{cite book |last1=Butler |first1=L. |title=The Wind of Change: Harold Macmillan and British Decolonization |last2=Stockwell |first2=S. |date=2013 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-137-31800-8}} * Chafer, Tony. ''The end of empire in French West Africa: France's successful decolonisation'' (Bloomsbury, 2002). * Chamberlain, Muriel E. ed. ''Longman Companion to European Decolonisation in the Twentieth Century'' (Routledge, 2014) * Clayton, Anthony. ''The wars of French decolonisation'' (Routledge, 2014). * {{cite journal |last1=Cooper |first1=Frederick |date=2014 |title=French Africa, 1947–48: Reform, Violence, and Uncertainty in a Colonial Situation |journal=Critical Inquiry |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=466–478 |doi=10.1086/676416 |jstor=10.1086/676416 |s2cid=162291339}} * Darwin, John. "Decolonisation and the End of Empire" in Robin W. Winks, ed., ''The Oxford History of the British Empire – Vol. 5: Historiography'' (1999) 5: 541–557. * Gerits, Frank. ''The Ideological Scramble for Africa: How the Pursuit of Anticolonial Modernity Shaped a Postcolonial Order (1945–1966)'' (Cornell University Press, 2023). ISBN13: 9781501767913. Major scholarly coverage of British, French and Portuguese colonies. [https://hdiplo.org/to/RT26-4 see online reviews and reply by author] * Grimal, Henri. ''Decolonisation: The British, Dutch, and Belgian Empires, 1919–1963'' (1978). * {{cite book |last1=Hyam |first1=Ronald |title=Britain's Declining Empire: The Road to Decolonisation, 1918–1968 |date=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-02565-9}} * Ikeda, Ryo. ''The Imperialism of French Decolonisation: French Policy and the Anglo-American Response in Tunisia and Morocco'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2015) * Jansen, Jan C. & Jürgen Osterhammel. ''Decolonisation: A Short History'' (Princeton UP, 2017). [http://press.princeton.edu/titles/10963.html online] * Jones, Max, et al. "Decolonising imperial heroes: Britain and France." ''Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History'' 42#5 (2014): 787–825. * Klose, Fabian (2014), [http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-and-the-world/european-overseas-rule/fabian-klose-decolonization-and-revolution?set_language=en&-C= ''Decolonization and Revolution''], [http://www.ieg-ego.eu/ EGO – European History Online], Mainz: [https://web.archive.org/web/20160219021834/http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/index.php Institute of European History], retrieved: March 17, 2021 ([https://d-nb.info/1061112594/34 pdf]). * Lawrence, Adria K. ''Imperial Rule and the Politics of Nationalism: Anti-Colonial Protest in the French Empire'' (Cambridge UP, 2013) [https://issforum.org/roundtables/7-18-imperial-rule-nationalism online reviews] * {{cite journal |last1=McDougall |first1=James |date=December 2017 |title=The Impossible Republic: The Reconquest of Algeria and the Decolonization of France, 1945–1962 |url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:3fcec5a2-738d-4cc7-ae7d-0e8acd9adae7 |journal=The Journal of Modern History |volume=89 |issue=4 |pages=772–811 |doi=10.1086/694427 |s2cid=148602270}} * MacQueen, Norrie. ''The Decolonisation of Portuguese Africa: Metropolitan Revolution and the Dissolution of Empire'' (1997). * Milford, Ismay. ''African Activists in a Decolonising World: The Making of an Anticolonial Culture, 1952–1966'' (Cambridge University Press, 2023) [https://hdiplo.org/to/RT26-14 online reviews of this book] * Monroe, Elizabeth. ''Britain's Moment in the Middle East, 1914–1956'' (1963) * O'Sullivan, Christopher. FDR and the End of Empire: The Origins of American Power in the Middle East (2012). * Rothermund, Dietmar. ''The Routledge companion to decolonisation'' (Routledge, 2006), comprehensive global coverage; 365pp * {{cite book |last1=Rothermund |first1=Dietmar |title=Memories of Post-Imperial Nations |date=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-10229-3}} Compares the impact on Great Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Portugal, Italy and Japan * Shepard, Todd. ''The Invention of Decolonisation: The Algerian War and the Remaking of France'' (2006) * Simpson, Alfred William Brian. ''Human Rights and the End of Empire: Britain and the Genesis of the European Convention'' (Oxford University Press, 2004). * Smith, Simon C. ''Ending empire in the Middle East: Britain, the United States and post-war decolonisation, 1945–1973'' (Routledge, 2013) * {{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Tony |date=January 1978 |title=A Comparative Study of French and British Decolonization |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=70–102 |doi=10.1017/S0010417500008835 |s2cid=145080475}} * {{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Tony |date=1974 |title=The French Colonial Consensus and People's War, 1946-58 |journal=Journal of Contemporary History |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=217–247 |doi=10.1177/002200947400900410 |jstor=260298 |s2cid=159883569}} * Strayer, Robert. "Decolonisation, Democratisation, and Communist Reform: The Soviet Collapse in Comparative Perspective," Journal of World History 12#2 (2001), 375–406. [http://www.learner.org/courses/worldhistory/support/reading_26_3.pdf online] [https://web.archive.org/web/20150224051615/http://www.learner.org/courses/worldhistory/support/reading_26_3.pdf Archived] 2015-02-24 at the Wayback Machine * Thomas, Martin, Bob Moore, and Lawrence J. Butler. ''Crises of Empire: Decolonisation and Europe's imperial states'' (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2015) * {{cite book |last1=White |first1=Nicholas |title=Decolonisation: The British Experience since 1945 |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-88789-8}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q230533|c=Category:Decolonization|n=no|b=Public International Law/History of International Law/Decolonization|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} {{Library resources box}} * Works related to [[wikisource:United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_66|United Nations General Assembly Resolution 66]] at Wikisource * Works related to [[wikisource:United_Nations_Trusteeship_Agreements_listed_by_the_General_Assembly_as_Non-Self-Governing|United Nations Trusteeship Agreements listed by the General Assembly as Non-Self-Governing]] at Wikisource * Works related to [[wikisource:United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_1514|United Nations General Assembly Resolution 1514]] at Wikisource * Works related to [[wikisource:United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_1541|United Nations General Assembly Resolution 1541]] at Wikisource * James E. Kitchen: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/colonial_empires_after_the_wardecolonisation/ Colonial Empires after the First World War/Decolonisation], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/ 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War]. {{Authority control}} [[Category:History of colonialism]] [[Category:Sovereignty]] [[Category:Decolonization]] [[Category:Aftermath of World War II]] 00pdkmaztlrquijmlyznptg6fm1htze 0 19702 103995 85179 2026-06-19T09:20:53Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103995 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Jeremy Patrick Cronin''' (born 12 September 1949) be a South African writer, author, den noted poet. A longtime activist insyd politics, Cronin is a member of de South African Communist Party den a former member of de National Executive Committee of de African National Congress.<ref name="who">{{Cite web |title=whoswhosa.co.za |url=http://www.whoswhosa.co.za/Pages/profilefull.aspx?IndID=2646 |access-date=2025-10-28 |website=www.whoswhosa.co.za}}</ref> He serve as de South African Deputy Minister of Public Works from 2012 until ein retirement insyd 2019.<ref name="shuffle2012">{{cite press release|title=Changes to National Executive and South African Police Service|publisher=Government of South Africa|date=12 June 2012|url=http://www.info.gov.za/speech/DynamicAction?pageid=461&sid=28277&tid=72299|access-date=12 June 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120623115059/http://www.info.gov.za/speech/DynamicAction?pageid=461&sid=28277&tid=72299|archive-date=23 June 2012}}</ref> == Early life == Cronin be brought up insyd a White middle-class Roman Catholic family insyd Rondebosch insyd Cape Town, South Africa. During adolescence, he consider de idea of he go enter de priesthood. After a year's military service, when he be conscript insyd de South African Navy, Cronin win a bursary to study at de University of Cape Town insyd 1968; there he become a member of de Radical Student Society den be subsequently recruit into then-ban South African Communist Party (SACP). Insyd de early 1970s, Cronin study for ein Master's degree insyd Philosophy insyd France den return to South Africa, where he begin lecture insyd de Philosophy department at de University of Cape Town. == Activism den imprisonment == Cronin ein work insyd de propaganda unit of de SACP bring ein to de attention of de South African Bureau of State Security; he be arrest on charges under de Terrorism den Internal Security Acts den try insyd de Cape Town Supreme Court insyd September 1976, along plus David Rabkin den ein wife Sue. De charges include conspire plus members of de African National Congress (sanso a ban organisation) den de SACP, den prepare den distribute pamphlets on these organisations' behalf (activities commemorate insyd Cronin's poem "A Step Away from Them," model on a poem of de same title by American poet Frank O'Hara). Cronin plead guilty to all charges den be sentenced to seven years' imprisonment (1976–1983). He serve ein time insyd Pretoria Local, or Pretoria Prison, which be part of de Pretoria Central Prison complex, along plus Denis Goldberg, Raymond Suttner den others. He participate insyd de plan of a daring escape insyd 1979 by Tim Jenkin, Stephen Lee den Alex Moumbaris.<ref name="Jenkin">{{cite web |last=Jenkin |first=Tim |year=1987 |title=Escape from Pretoria |url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/escape-pretoria-tim-jenkin |access-date=26 March 2019 |website=South African History Online |pages=67–69 |format=PDF}}</ref> Ein wife Anne Marie die of a brain tumour during ein imprisonment.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sheehan |first=Helena |year=2001 |title=Interview with Jeremy Cronin |url=https://www.academia.edu/41267805 |website=Academia}}</ref> == Poetry == Cronin ein first book of poetry, ''Inside'', be published in 1984 following ein release from prison.<ref>[http://www.umuzi-randomhouse.co.za/jcronin.html Jeremy Cronin] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061004200233/http://www.umuzi-randomhouse.co.za/jcronin.html|date=4 October 2006}} ''Random House''</ref> Subsequent volumes include ''Even the Dead'' (1997) den ''Inside and Out'' (1999). Ein most recent collection, ''More Than A Casual Contact'', be published insyd 2006. Among ein best known poems be "Motho Ke Motho Ka Batho Babang", whose title be taken from de Sotho aphorism "A person be a person because of oda people". === Collected poems === * ''More than a Casual Contact'' (2006) * ''Inside and Out'' (1999) * ''Even the Dead: Poems, Parables and a Jeremiad'' (1997) == Politics == Follow Cronin ein release from prison he begin work plus de United Democratic Front (UDF), found insyd 1983, where he work as de editor of its theoretical journal ''Isizwe'' (De Nation). He sanso be involve insyd various kinds of popular education, but insyd de late 1980s, increase harassment from de security forces force ein den ein wife to leave South Africa den move first to London, den to Lusaka insyd Zambia, where he work close plus Joe Slovo for de ANC/SACP alliance. Insyd de 1990s, he work insyd de SACP head office insyd Johannesburg, where he be deputy general secretary of de party. He become a member of parliament insyd 1999. Ein interviews plus Helena Sheehan<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sheehan |first=Helena |date=2002 |title=Interviews with Jeremy Cronin |url=https://www.academia.edu/41267805 |website=Academia}}</ref> insyd 2001 den 2002 meet plus a storm of controversy, because of ein left critique of de ANC during de presidency of Thabo Mbeki. He be forced to apologise to de ANC insyd 2002.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marais |first=Hein |title=South Africa Pushed to the Limit |publisher=Zed Books |year=2011 |location=London / New York}}</ref> He deliver de Chris Hani memorial lecture, title ''Why South Africa will never be like Zimbabwe'', insyd Durban on 4 May 2008. On 10 May 2009, President Jacob Zuma appoint ein Deputy Minister of Transport, den insyd 2012 he move to become Deputy Minister of Public Works. Insyd May 2019, he retire from parliament den government office. ==Political writings== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20211104220456/http://digital.lib.msu.edu/projects/africanjournals/pdfs/transformation/tran002/tran002007.pdf "The national democratic struggle and the question of transformation", 1986] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110725083052/http://archive.lib.msu.edu/DMC/African%20Journals/pdfs/transformation/tran010/tran010007.pdf "Inside which circle, a reply to Colin Bundy, 1989] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100820011445/http://www.csvr.org.za/wits/papers/papcron.htm "For the sake of our lives: Guidelines for the creation of people's self-defence units", 1991] * [https://www.nelsonmandela.org/omalley/index.php/site/q/03lv02424/04lv02730/05lv03005/06lv03006/07lv03030/08lv03039.htm "The boat, the tap and the Leipzig way", 1992] * [http://www.nelsonmandela.org/omalley/index.php/site/q/03lv02424/04lv02730/05lv03005/06lv03006/07lv03041/08lv03048.htm "Dreaming of final showdown – a reply to Jordan and Nzimande", 1992] * [http://www.nathannewman.org/EDIN/.mags/.cross/.43/.sa/sacron2.doc.html "A Mass-Driven Transformation", 1994] * [http://www.nelsonmandela.org/omalley/index.php/site/q/03lv02424/04lv02730/05lv03005/06lv03006/07lv03096/08lv03102.htm "Challenging the neo-liberal agenda in South Africa", 1995] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110605010727/http://www.anc.org.za/show.php?doc=ancdocs%2Fpubs%2Fmayibuye%2Fmayi9506.html "Tragic lessons of the Algerian Revolution", June 1995] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120229144331/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?include=pubs%2Fumsebenzi2%2F1996%2Fumseb9605.html "A Patriotic Bourgeoisie?", May 1996] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120229144347/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?include=pubs%2Fumsebenzi2%2F1996%2Fumseb9611.html "Masakhane and Socialism", November 1996] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110605010740/http://www.anc.org.za/show.php?doc=ancdocs%2Fpubs%2Fmayibuye%2Fmayi9611.html "Let us build together", November 1996] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120229134847/http://www.anc.org.za/show.php?doc=ancdocs%2Fpubs%2Fumrabulo%2Fumrabulo1.html#art2 "Thinking about the Concept "National Democratic Revolution", 1996] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120229144115/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?include=pubs%2Facommunist%2F1997%2Fissue146.html "We Need Transformation, Not A Balancing Act", 1997] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120229144403/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?include=pubs%2Fumsebenzi2%2F1997%2Fumseb9705.html "The New Imperialism", May 1997] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20120229144429/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?include=pubs%2Fumsebenzi2%2F1997%2Fumseb9706.html "Labour Landslide and the Left", June 1997] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110605010826/http://www.anc.org.za/show.php?doc=ancdocs%2Fpubs%2Fmayibuye%2Fmayi9712.html "More than ever – SACP perspective on the Alliance", December 1997] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120229144331/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?include=pubs%2Fumsebenzi2%2F1996%2Fumseb9605.html "Communist Manifesto, 150 years", February 1998] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120229144200/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?include=docs%2Farticles%2F2005%2Fnz0401.html "Chris Hani", 1999] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120229144442/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?include=pubs%2Fumsebenzi2%2F1999%2Fumsb_july99.html "Transforming Legislatures into Tributes of the people", July 1999] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120229144224/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?include=pubs%2Facommunist%2F2000%2Fac153b.html "Morality is relevant in economic policy", 2000] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110605010408/http://www.anc.org.za/show.php?doc=ancdocs%2Fpubs%2Fumrabulo%2Fumrabulo19%2Fhistory.html "Review of ''The UDF- History of the United Democratic Front 1983–1991''", 2000] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110605010544/http://www.anc.org.za/show.php?doc=ancdocs%2Fpubs%2Fumrabulo%2F9%2Fumrabulo9c.html "Liberation movements, governance and bureaucratisation", November 2001] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110317032053/http://www.monthlyreview.org/1202cronin.htm "Post-Apartheid South Africa: A Reply to John S. Saul", December 2002] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120229144307/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?include=pubs%2Facommunist%2F2003%2Fac163g.html "Here Comes The Sun – drawing lessons from Slovo's ''No Middle Road'', January 2003] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120229144459/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?include=pubs%2Fumsebenzi%2F2003%2Fuol018.htm "Preparations to celebrate the first decade of freedom, June 26 2003] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120229144239/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?include=docs%2Fsp%2F2003%2Fsp0908.html "Contemporary challenge for left progressive forces in Africa and Europe", September 2003] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120229144258/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?include=docs%2Farticles%2F2005%2Fnz0711.html "Living in Joe Slovo", 11 July 2005] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060326231459/http://amadlandawonye.wikispaces.com/2005-08-28%2C+Cronin%2C+Neo-liberalism%2C+reformism%2C+populism+and+ultra-leftism "Neo-liberalism, reformism, populism and ultra-leftism", 28 August 2005] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060326231459/http://amadlandawonye.wikispaces.com/2005-08-28%2C+Cronin%2C+Neo-liberalism%2C+reformism%2C+populism+and+ultra-leftism |date=26 March 2006 }} * [http://www.pppsa.org.za/uploads/files/Cronin.pdf "The people shall govern – class struggles and post-1994 state in South Africa", 2005] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171115201151/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=1871 "Chris Hani", 1 April 2005] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115201151/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=1871 |date=15 November 2017 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20161116033811/http://amadlandawonye.wikispaces.com/Blank+pages+in+history+should+not+be+allowed+-+Cronin+on+Mzala "Blank pages in history should be allowed – the role of revolutionary intellectuals"m, February 25, 2006] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120229144535/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?include=pubs%2Fumsebenzi%2F2006%2Fno60.html " The SACP, eighty-five years of unbroken communist struggle in South Africa", 17 July 2006] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070714175409/http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/pubs/umrabulo/umrabulo25/pages.html "the role of revolutionary intellectuals", 2006] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120213134012/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?include=docs%2Fdocs%2F2007%2Fjoeslovo.html "Joe Slovo{{spaced ndash}}Democracy and Socialism",18 January 2007] - * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120229144102/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?include=docs%2Fmisc%2F2007%2Fmisc1001.html " A post-1994 South African state", 2007] * [http://www.politicsweb.co.za/politicsweb/view/politicsweb/en/page71654?oid=86463&sn=Detail "In defence of the new ANC", 18 February 2008] * [http://www.politicsweb.co.za/politicsweb/view/politicsweb/en/page71619?oid=91772&sn=Detail "Netshitenzhe misses the point", 12 June 2009] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120229144549/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?include=pubs%2Fumsebenzi%2F2008%2Fvol7-10.html "For the SACP recall of President Mbeki is not an obsession", 18 June 2008] * [http://www.politicsweb.co.za/politicsweb/view/politicsweb/en/page71619?oid=116244&sn=Detail:"The present economic crisis in the world capitalist system – and prospects for the left", 28 January 2009] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120229144616/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?include=pubs%2Fumsebenzi2%2F2009%2Fvol8-06.html "Debunking Dalai Lama", 1 April 2009] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120229144151/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?include=pubs%2Fumsebenzi%2F2009%2Fvol8-15.html "Defend the parastatal sector!", 2 September, 2009] * [https://www.ru.ac.za/documents/RU%20Home/Cronin%20Speech%2017-09-2009.pdf "Some thoughts on the global economic crisis", 7 September 2009] * [http://www.mg.co.za/article/2009-10-23-the-future-of-state "The future of the state", 23 October 2009] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130311080245/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?include=pubs%2Fumsebenzi%2F2009%2Fvol8-20.html "Should we nationalise the mines?", 18 November 2009] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120229144140/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?include=pubs%2Fumsebenzi%2F2009%2Fvol8-22.html#one "Nationalisation debate...more and more curious",December 2009] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120229144700/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?include=pubs%2Fumsebenzi%2F2010%2Fvol9-05.html "Let us close ranks against factionalism. Let us close ranks against corruption", 17 March 2010] * [http://www.sacp.org.za/pubs/umsebenzi/2011/vol10-07.html "Response to Mondli Makhanya, 6 April 2011] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171115201147/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=3593 "The E-toll saga – ideological confusions and strange bedfellows", 15 March 2012] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115201147/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=3593 |date=15 November 2017 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171115143451/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=3829 "Let's not get pushed into opposing corners by those who don't have interests of our Alliance and our country at heart", 13 December 2012] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115143451/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=3829 |date=15 November 2017 }} * "[https://web.archive.org/web/20171115143601/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=4334 Why Chris Hani's killer Clive Derby-Lewis should not get a parole", 3 July 2014] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115143601/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=4334 |date=15 November 2017 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171115143524/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=4560 "What lies behind the current turmoil within COSATU?, 27 November 2014] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115143524/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=4560 |date=15 November 2017 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171115143559/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=4632 "What is going on in South Africa's Parliament?" 20 February 2015] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115143559/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=4632 |date=15 November 2017 }} * [http://www.sacp.org.za/docs/suppmsgs/2015/support0604.html "Message of Solidarity to National Union of Mineworkers", 4 June 2015] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171115201052/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=3242 "Do we need an independent media tribunal?" 20 August 2015] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115201052/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=3242 |date=15 November 2017 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171115201154/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=5074 "Former President Mbeki doesn't get it", 20 January 2016] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115201154/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=5074 |date=15 November 2017 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171115143454/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=5676 "Corporate Capture, Money and Politics – Part Two", 3 November 2016] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115143454/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=5676 |date=15 November 2017 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171115201330/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=6197 "No slightest glimmer of reciprocal self-reflection on Ratshitinga's side", 19 June 2017] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115201330/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=6197 |date=15 November 2017 }} == References == <references /> == External links == *[https://www.academia.edu/41267805/Jeremy_Cronin_Helena_Sheehan_Interviews_2001_and_2002 Interview with Jeremy Cronin] by Dr Helena Sheehan, 2002. {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Cronin, Jeremy}} [[Category:1949 births]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:South African people]] [[Category:Marxist writers]] [[Category:Writers wey komot Cape Town]] [[Category:Academic staff of de University of Cape Town]] [[Category:South African democracy activists]] [[Category:20th-century South African poets]] [[Category:South African revolutionaries]] [[Category:South African people of Irish descent]] [[Category:University of Cape Town alumni]] [[Category:African National Congress politicians]] [[Category:South African Communist Party politicians]] [[Category:South African communists]] [[Category:White South African anti-apartheid activists]] [[Category:South African anti-apartheid activists]] [[Category:Members of de National Assembly of South Africa 1999–2004]] [[Category:Members of de National Assembly of South Africa 2004–2009]] [[Category:Members of de National Assembly of South Africa 2009–2014]] [[Category:Members of de National Assembly of South Africa 2014–2019]] [[Category:Politicians wey komot Cape Town]] [[Category:Ministers of transport of South Africa]] [[Category:21st-century South African politicians]] 25qq6oj6txbcdbsjln0kslob7qslqkh 0 23393 103941 84696 2026-06-19T02:04:39Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103941 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Depersonalization-derealization disorder''' ('''DPDR''', '''DDD''')<ref name="DSM5">{{cite book |title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5. |date=2013 |publisher=American Psychiatric Association |isbn=9780890425541 |edition=5th |location=Arlington, VA |pages=302–306}}</ref><ref name="ICD11">{{cite web |title=Mortality and Morbidity Statistics - 6B66 Depersonalization-derealization disorder |url=https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en#/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/253124068 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20180801205234/https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en%23/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/294762853#/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/253124068 |archive-date=1 August 2018 |access-date=15 September 2020 |website=ICD-11}}</ref> be a [[dissociative disorder]] insyd wich de person get persistent anaa recurrent feelings of depersonalization den/anaa derealization. Depersonalization be described as feeling disconnected anaa detached from one ein self. Individuals fi report feeling as if dem be an outsyd observer of dema own thoughts anaa body, den often report feeling a loss of control over dema thoughts anaa actions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url =http://www.uptodate.com/contents/depersonalization-derealization-disorder-epidemiology-pathogenesis-clinical-manifestations-course-and-diagnosis |first1=Daphne |last1=Simeon |website=UpToDate |title =Depersonalization derealization disorder: Epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, course, and diagnosis|url-status =live|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20150518085934/http://www.uptodate.com/contents/depersonalization-derealization-disorder-epidemiology-pathogenesis-clinical-manifestations-course-and-diagnosis|archive-date =18 May 2015|df =dmy-all}}</ref> Derealization be described as detachment from one ein surroundings. Individuals dey experience derealization fi report perceiving de world around dem as foggy, dreamlike, surreal, den/anaa visually distorted.<ref name=":0" /> Dem dey think depersonalization-derealization disorder to be caused largely by interpersonal trauma such as early childhood abuse.<ref name="Si2014">{{cite journal |last1=Simeon |first1=D |date=2004 |title=Depersonalisation disorder: a contemporary overview. |journal=CNS Drugs |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=343–54 |doi=10.2165/00023210-200418060-00002 |pmid=15089102 |s2cid=18506672}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Simeon |first1=Daphne |last2=Guralnik |first2=Orna |last3=Schmeidler |first3=James |last4=Sirof |first4=Beth |last5=Knutelska |first5=Margaret |date=July 2001 |title=The Role of Childhood Interpersonal Trauma in Depersonalization Disorder |url=https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.ajp.158.7.1027 |url-status=live |journal=American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=158 |issue=7 |pages=1027–1033 |doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.158.7.1027 |issn=0002-953X |pmid=11431223 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240511172849/https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.ajp.158.7.1027 |archive-date=11 May 2024 |access-date=11 May 2024}}</ref> Adverse childhood experiences, specifically emotional abuse den neglect, na dem be linked to de development of depersonalization symptoms.<ref name="Thomson 143–161">{{Cite journal |last1=Thomson |first1=Paula |last2=Jaque |first2=S. Victoria |date=2018-03-15 |title=Depersonalization, adversity, emotionality, and coping with stressful situations |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2017.1329770 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Trauma & Dissociation |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=143–161 |doi=10.1080/15299732.2017.1329770 |issn=1529-9732 |pmid=28509616 |s2cid=3431258 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240126211156/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15299732.2017.1329770 |archive-date=26 January 2024 |access-date=11 December 2020}}</ref> Feelings of depersonalization den derealization be common from significant [[Psychological stress|stress]], anxiety, anaa [[Panic attack|panic attacks]].<ref name=Si2014/> Individuals fi remain insyd a depersonalized state for de duration of a typical panic attack. However, insyd sam cases, de dissociated state fi last for hours, days, weeks, anaa even months at a time.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Depersonalization-derealization disorder - Symptoms and causes |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/depersonalization-derealization-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20352911 |access-date=2024-01-25 |website=Mayo Clinic |language=en |archive-date=8 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171008030114/https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/depersonalization-derealization-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20352911 |url-status=live }}</ref> Insyd rare cases, symptoms of a single episode fi last for years.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sierra |first=Mauricio |date=2008-01-01 |title=Depersonalization disorder: pharmacological approaches |url=https://doi.org/10.1586/14737175.8.1.19 |journal=Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=19–26 |doi=10.1586/14737175.8.1.19 |issn=1473-7175 |pmid=18088198 |s2cid=22180718 |access-date=27 October 2022 |archive-date=29 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200529123749/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1586/14737175.8.1.19 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Diagnostic criteria for depersonalization-derealization disorder dey include persistent anaa recurrent feelings of detachment from one ein mental anaa bodily processes anaa from one ein surroundings.<ref name="DSM-IV_300.62">Depersonalization Disorder, ([https://web.archive.org/web/20111001003037/http://www.psychiatryonline.com/content.aspx?aID=9816 DSM-IV 300.6, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition])</ref> Dem dey make a diagnosis wen de dissociation be persistent, dey interfere plus de social anaa occupational functions of daily life, den/anaa causes marked distress insyd de patient.<ref name="DSM5" /> Na while depersonalization-derealization disorder once be considered rare, lifetime experiences plus am dey occur insyd about 1–2% of de general population.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book |author=Sadock, Benjamin J. |title=Kaplan & Sadock's comprehensive textbook of psychiatry |author2=Sadock, Virginia A. |author3=Ruiz, Pedro |date=11 May 2017 |publisher=[[Wolters Kluwer]] |isbn=978-1-4963-8915-2 |edition=Tenth |location=Philadelphia |oclc=988106757}}</ref><ref name="SimeonAbugel20082">{{cite book |author1=Daphne Simeon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ONLyq-mVLuIC&pg=PA3 |title=Feeling Unreal: Depersonalization Disorder and the Loss of the Self |author2=Jeffrey Abugel |date=7 November 2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-976635-2 |page=3 |access-date=17 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801020628/https://books.google.com/books?id=ONLyq-mVLuIC&pg=PA3 |archive-date=1 August 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Na de chronic form of de disorder get a reported prevalence of 0.8 to 1.9%.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hürlimann|first1=F|last2=Kupferschmid|first2=S|last3=Simon|first3=AE|title=Cannabis-induced depersonalization disorder in adolescence.|journal=Neuropsychobiology|date=2012|volume=65|issue=3|pages=141–6|pmid=22378193|quote=Although depersonalization disorder has a low prevalence, with a reported prevalence ranging from 0.8 to 1.9%|doi=10.1159/000334605|s2cid=30668662}}</ref><ref name="Blevins 539–553">{{cite journal |last=Blevins |first=Christy A. |author2=Weathers, Frank W. |author3=Mason, Elizabeth A. |date=1 October 2012 |title=Construct Validity of Three Depersonalization Measures in Trauma-Exposed College Students |journal=Journal of Trauma & Dissociation |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=539–553 |doi=10.1080/15299732.2012.678470 |pmid=22989242 |s2cid=9683966}}</ref> While brief episodes of depersonalization anaa derealization fi be common insyd de general population, de disorder only be diagnosed wen dese symptoms cause substantial distress anaa impair social, occupational, anaa oda important areas of functioning.<ref name="Sierra 123–127">{{cite journal |last=Sierra |first=Mauricio |author2=Medford, Nick |author3=Wyatt, Geddes |author4=David, Anthony S. |date=1 May 2012 |title=Depersonalization disorder and anxiety: A special relationship? |journal=Psychiatry Research |volume=197 |issue=1–2 |pages=123–127 |doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2011.12.017 |pmid=22414660 |s2cid=7108552}}</ref><ref name="Symptoms and causes - Mayo Clinic">{{Cite web |title=Symptoms and causes - Mayo Clinic |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/depersonalization-derealization-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20352911?p=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191010215327/https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/depersonalization-derealization-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20352911?p=1 |archive-date=10 October 2019 |access-date=2019-11-20 |website=www.mayoclinic.org}}</ref> == References == <references /> [[Category:Dissociative disorders]] qeir6auiu6c39agihuet5rr8co65uj6 0 24498 103847 89166 2026-06-18T20:53:31Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103847 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Al-Shafi'i''' (;767–820 CE) na he be a Muslim scholar, jurist, muhaddith, traditionist, theologian, ascetic, den eponym of de Shafi'i school of [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] [[Fiqh|Islamic jurisprudence]]. He be known to be de first to wrep a book upon de principles of Islamic jurisprudence, wey he author one of de earliest work on de subject: ''al-Risala''. Ein legacy den teaching on de matter provide am plus a systematic form, thereby "fundamentally influencing de succeeding generations wich be under ein direct den obvious impact,"<ref name="IJ" />{{rp|270}} den "dey begin a new phase of de development of legal theory."<ref name="IJ">{{cite journal |last=Hasan |first=Ahmad |date=Sep 1966 |title=AL-S̱H̱ĀFI'Ī'S ROLE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAMIC JURISPRUDENCE |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20832846 |journal=Islamic Studies |publisher=Islamic Research Institute, International Islamic University |volume=5 |issue=3 |jstor=20832846 |access-date=21 Jan 2024}}</ref>{{rp|239–273}} Dem born am insyd Gaza, Palestine, to de Banu Muttalib clan of de [[Quraysh]] tribe, he relocate at de age of two wey dem raise am insyd [[Mecca]]. He later reside insyd [[Medina]], Yemen, Baghdad insyd [[Iraq]], den [[Egypt]], wey he sanso serve as a judge for some time insyd Najran.<ref>{{cite book |last=Day |first=Stephen W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7dqsHiTOr_YC&dq=shafi'i+najran+yemen&pg=PA30 |title=Regionalism and Rebellion in Yemen: A Troubled National Union |date=25 June 2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-02215-7 |page=30}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Islam |first1=M. R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=15YYAgAAQBAJ&dq=shafi'i+najran+judge&pg=PT331 |title=Reconstituting the Curriculum |last2=Zatzman |first2=Gary M. |last3=Islam |first3=Jaan S. |date=13 November 2013 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-86790-7}}</ref> == Legacy == De Shafi'i school, one of de four Sunni schools of Islamic jurisprudence, dem know as [[Madhhab|madhhabs]], be named give Al-Shāfi'ī, wey sanso be credited setting up de framework of Islamic jurisprudence by establishing de relative importance order of ein different sources as follows: # De [[Quran|Qur'an]]; # [[Hadith]]. i.e. collections of de words, actions, den silent approval of [[Muhammad]]. (Together plus de Qur'an dese make up "revealed sources"); # [[Ijma]]. i.e. de consensus of de (pure traditional) Muslim community; # Qiyas. i.e. de method of analogy.<ref name="Schacht-OoMJ-1959-1">{{cite book |last1=Schacht |first1=Joseph |title=The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1959 |page=1 |orig-year=1950}}</ref><ref>Snouck Hurgronje, C. ''Verspreide Geschriften''. v.ii. 1923-7, page 286-315</ref><ref>''Étude sur la théorie du droit musulman'' (Paris : Marchal et Billard, 1892–1898.)</ref><ref>Margoliouth, D.S., ''The Early Development of Mohammedanism'', 1914, page 65ff</ref><ref>Schacht, Joseph in ''Encyclopedia of Islam'', 1913 v.IV, sv ''Usul''</ref> ; Structures [[Saladin]] build a ''madrasa'' den a shrine on de site of ein tomb. Saladin ein bro Afdal build a mausoleum give am insyd 1211 after de defeat of de Fatimids. E remain a site wer people petition for justice.<ref>Ruthven Malise, ''Islam in the World''. 3rd edition Granta Books London 2006 ch. 4, page 122</ref> ; Followers Among de followers of Imam al-Shāfi‘ī ein school be: * Bayhaqi<ref>The Levels of the Shafiee scholars by Imam As-Subki طبقات الشافعية للسبكي</ref> * Al-Suyuti<ref>Nahyan Fancy, ''Science and Religion in Mamluk Egypt'' (2013, {{ISBN|1136703616}}), page 23: "... highlighted by the latter-day Shafi'i authority, Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti."</ref> * Al-Dhahabi<ref>Scott C. Lucas, ''Constructive Critics, Ḥadīth Literature, and the Articulation of Sunni Islam'' (2004, {{ISBN|9004133194}}), page 72: "It is somewhat astonishing that al-Dhahabi, ''a purported adherent'' to the Shafi'i madhhab, does not honor al-Shafi'i with the sobriquet Shayk al-Islam." (Emphasis added.)</ref> * Al-Ghazali * Ibn Hajar Asqalani * [[Ibn Kathir]] * Yahya ibn Sharaf al-Nawawi * Al-Mawardi * Al Muzani === Works === He author more dan 100 books, buh few survive to dis day.<ref>David Waines, ''An Introduction to Islam'', Cambridge University Press, 2003, p. 68</ref> De extant works of am wey be accessible today be: * Al-Risala * Kitab al-Umm – ein main surviving text on Shafi'i [[fiqh]] * Musnad al-Shafi'i (on [[hadith]]) – e be available plus arrangement, Arabic 'Tartib', by Ahmad ibn Abd ar-Rahman al-Banna * [https://shamela.ws/book/9348 Ikhtilaf al-Hadith] * [https://shamela.ws/book/13033 Al-Sunan al-Ma’thour] * [https://shamela.ws/book/3197 Jima’ al-’Ilm] In addition to this, Al-Shāfi‘ī was an eloquent poet, who composed many short poems aimed at addressing morals and behaviour. The most famous of which is his Al-Diwan. === Quotations === * ''He who seeks pearls immerses himself in the sea''.<ref>Diwan al-Imam al-shafi'i, (book of poems – al-shafi'i) p. 100; Dar El-Mrefah Beirut – Lebanon 2005. {{ISBN|9953-429-33-2}}</ref> * ''He said to the effect that no knowledge of Islam can be gained from books of kalam, as it "is not from knowledge"<ref>Dhammul-Kalaam (Q/213)</ref><ref>[[Dhahabi]], [[Siyar A'lam al-Nubala']] (10/30)</ref> and that "it is better for a man to spend his whole life doing whatever [[Allah]] has prohibited—besides shirk with Allah—rather than spending his whole life involved in kalam."''<ref name=":2">Ibn Abi Hatim, Manaaqibush-Shaafi'ee, pg. 39</ref> * ''If a hadith is authenticated as coming from the Prophet, we have to resign ourselves to it, and your talk and the talk of others about why and how, is a mistake.''<ref name="Schacht-OoMJ-1959-13">{{cite book |last1=Schacht |first1=Joseph |title=The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1959 |page=13 |orig-year=1950}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q294281|c=Category:Al-Shafi‘i|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Shafi`i|wikt=no|species=no}} * [http://www.muslimscholars.info/manage.php?submit=scholar&ID=20002 Biodata at MuslimScholars.info] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120420061442/http://www.shafiifiqh.com/the-biography-of-imam-ash-shafii/ The Biography of Imam ash-Shafi'i] * [A concise guide to Arkan ul Iman and Arkan ul Islam:https://archive.org/details/Salah_Guide] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171214064844/http://lostislamichistory.com/imam-al-shafii-the-father-of-usul-al-fiqh/ The Life of Imam al-Shafi'i at Lost Islamic History] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190113035858/http://www.haqislam.org/biographies/imam-shafiee.htm Short Biography of Imam Shafi'i] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080507170603/http://www.al-inaam.com/library/shaafiee.htm Concise Summary of Imam Shafi'i] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20140102081739/http://www.happy-books.co.uk/muhammad-ibn-abdullah-lineage-and-family-tree/students-sheikhs-and-teachers-of-famous-muslim-imams-and-scholars-in-muslim-history.php?id=418 Diagram of teachers and students of Imam Shafi'i] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20131215102706/http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=3417 The Mausoleum of Imam al-Shafi'i] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Shafii}} [[Category:767 births]] [[Category:820 deaths]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:8th-century Arabic-language writers]] [[Category:9th-century Arabic-language writers]] [[Category:9th-century clergy]] [[Category:9th-century Muslim scholars of Islam]] [[Category:8th-century jurists]] [[Category:9th-century jurists]] [[Category:Scholars wey komot de Abbasid Caliphate]] [[Category:Maliki fiqh scholars]] [[Category:Mujaddid]] [[Category:People wey komot Gaza City]] [[Category:Shafi'is]] [[Category:Sunni imams]] [[Category:Arab Sunni Muslim scholars of Islam]] [[Category:8th-century Arab people]] [[Category:9th-century Arab people]] [[Category:2026 Wiki Dey Love Ramadan Contributions]] [[ace:Syafi'iy]] e0yamkpflnc81fzl7xkglae600l5z3z 0 26736 103933 103605 2026-06-19T00:16:43Z DaSupremo 9 Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-35508-81|~2026-35508-81]] ([[User talk:~2026-35508-81|talk]]) to last revision by [[User:DaSupremo|DaSupremo]] 97682 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Lisinopril''' be a medication wey dey belong to de drug class of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors wey e be used to treat [[hypertension]] (high blood pressure), [[heart failure]], den [[myocardial infarction|heart attacks]].<ref name="AHFS20182">{{cite web |title=Lisinopril Monograph for Professionals |url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/lisinopril.html |access-date=23 December 2018 |website=Drugs.com |publisher=American Society of Health-System Pharmacists}}</ref> For high blood pressure e usually be a first-line treatment. Dem sanso dey use am to prevent kidney problems insyd people plus [[diabetes]] mellitus.<ref name="AHFS20182" /> Dem dey take lisinopril orally (dem swallow by mouth).<ref name="AHFS20182" /> Full effect fi take up to four weeks to occur.<ref name="AHFS20182" /> Common side effects dey include headache, dizziness, feeling tired, cough, nausea, den rash.<ref name="AHFS20182" /> Serious side effects fi include low blood pressure, liver problems, hyperkalemia (high blood potassium), den angioedema.<ref name="AHFS20182" /> Ein use no be recommended during de entire duration of pregnancy as e fi harm de baby.<ref name="AHFS20182" /> Lisinopril dey work by inhibiting de renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system.<ref name="AHFS20182" /> Dem patent lisinopril insyd 1978 wey dem approve am for medical use insyd de [[United States]] insyd 1987.<ref name="AHFS20182" /><ref name=Fis2006>{{cite book | vauthors = Fischer J, Ganellin CR |title=Analogue-based Drug Discovery |date=2006 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-3-527-60749-5 |page=467 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FjKfqkaKkAAC&pg=PA467 }}</ref> E be available as a generic medication.<ref name="AHFS20182" /> Insyd 2023, na e be de fourth most commonly prescribed medication insyd de United States, plus more dan 76{{nbsp}}million prescriptions.<ref name="Top 300 of 2023">{{cite web | title=The Top 300 of 2023 | url=https://clincalc.com/DrugStats/Top300Drugs.aspx | website=ClinCalc | access-date=12 August 2025 | archive-date=12 August 2025 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250812130026/https://clincalc.com/DrugStats/Top300Drugs.aspx | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Lisinopril Drug Usage Statistics, United States, 2014 - 2023 | website = ClinCalc | url = https://clincalc.com/DrugStats/Drugs/Lisinopril | access-date = 12 August 2025 }}</ref> E be available in combination plus [[amlodipine]] (as lisinopril/amlodipine) den in combination plus hydrochlorothiazide (as lisinopril/hydrochlorothiazide). == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Fogari R, Zoppi A, Corradi L, Lazzari P, Mugellini A, Lusardi P | title = Comparative effects of lisinopril and losartan on insulin sensitivity in the treatment of non diabetic hypertensive patients | journal = Br J Clin Pharmacol | volume = 46 | issue = 5 | pages = 467–71 |date=November 1998 | pmid = 9833600 | pmc = 1873694 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2125.1998.00811.x }} * {{cite journal | vauthors = Bussien JP, Waeber B, Nussberger J, Gomez HJ, Brunner HR | title = Once-daily lisinopril in hypertensive patients: Effect on blood pressure and the renin–angiotensin system | journal = Curr Therap Res | volume = 37 | pages = 342–51 | year = 1985 }} [[Category:ACE inhibitors]] [[Category:Alpha-Amino acids]] [[Category:Amino acid derivatives]] [[Category:Drugs wey AstraZeneca develop]] [[Category:Carboxamides]] [[Category:Carboxylic acids]] [[Category:Embryotoxicants]] [[Category:Enantiopure drugs]] [[Category:Drugs wey Merck & Co. develop]] [[Category:Pyrrolidines]] [[Category:Teratogens]] [[Category:Translated from MDWiki]] pbfd98hhtbjcb44kofhepofqppwz2dd 0 27202 103674 103091 2026-06-18T15:12:40Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 103674 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] t1sy4cy06smhf61fckmvw88e5ovfm3h 103675 103674 2026-06-18T15:13:36Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 103675 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] kpufi022h486mwlz7lu3bizjrbkgcb1 103676 103675 2026-06-18T15:14:16Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 103676 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] jdjzd2gai939mufsmj2x10ynbos4hzb 103677 103676 2026-06-18T15:14:56Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 103677 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 4njjyf0dih4y81uk72y7su570v31p6u 103678 103677 2026-06-18T15:15:33Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 103678 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 4pdl9ekzwuxskolhexf8d6xlunu8kr0 103679 103678 2026-06-18T15:16:53Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 103679 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] awy8bkfugyjes63kq3nueec22bapjcw 103680 103679 2026-06-18T15:17:33Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 103680 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] h154i5g6wqh7te4ynm4t55czrh05021 103681 103680 2026-06-18T15:18:16Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 103681 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) wey don further decentralise the utilities give local jurisdictions. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] k9xbz0nseiqsedcbp38a53qo8bdu2hj 103682 103681 2026-06-18T15:20:03Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added citation 103682 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) wey don further decentralise the utilities give local jurisdictions.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] imzctxdvzbxy5wspu1cmih3rh88l2ih 103683 103682 2026-06-18T15:22:25Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added subheading 103683 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) wey don further decentralise the utilities give local jurisdictions.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> === Urban areas === == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] nakabelzvykw6lgwmqyuqxmc9wduun3 103684 103683 2026-06-18T15:23:08Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added databox 103684 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) wey don further decentralise the utilities give local jurisdictions.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> === Urban areas === [[Image:Legal status and ownership of the Sub-Saharan water utilities.png|thumb|450px|Involvement of the private sector in the Sub-Saharan water utilities. AICD Background Paper 12]] == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 2bpjxkcdvyvzwqrwqzpna4mzouupnhi 103685 103684 2026-06-18T15:25:08Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 103685 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) wey don further decentralise the utilities give local jurisdictions.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> === Urban areas === For the last twenty years, the management of water supply and sanitation for towns dey increasingly go inside the hands of utilities wey dem newly create.[[Image:Legal status and ownership of the Sub-Saharan water utilities.png|thumb|450px|Involvement of the private sector in the Sub-Saharan water utilities. AICD Background Paper 12]] == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] eh9jvk9ndd72v56ndthh1775aradz47 103686 103685 2026-06-18T15:25:46Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 103686 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) wey don further decentralise the utilities give local jurisdictions.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> === Urban areas === For the last twenty years, the management of water supply and sanitation for towns dey increasingly go inside the hands of utilities wey dem newly create.For some cases, these water supply and sanitation utilities dey also supply electricity.[[Image:Legal status and ownership of the Sub-Saharan water utilities.png|thumb|450px|Involvement of the private sector in the Sub-Saharan water utilities. AICD Background Paper 12]] == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 86h18m3txk23lxrz979grmf0t5c21u9 103687 103686 2026-06-18T15:26:22Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 103687 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) wey don further decentralise the utilities give local jurisdictions.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> === Urban areas === For the last twenty years, the management of water supply and sanitation for towns dey increasingly go inside the hands of utilities wey dem newly create.For some cases, these water supply and sanitation utilities dey also supply electricity.Most of these utilities dey corporatized, wey mean say dem dey try act like private company in terms of how dem dey produce and how dem dey manage their own money.[[Image:Legal status and ownership of the Sub-Saharan water utilities.png|thumb|450px|Involvement of the private sector in the Sub-Saharan water utilities. AICD Background Paper 12]] == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] k531qm9xln80nkn184ioty2fs1cqimh 103688 103687 2026-06-18T15:26:56Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 103688 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) wey don further decentralise the utilities give local jurisdictions.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> === Urban areas === For the last twenty years, the management of water supply and sanitation for towns dey increasingly go inside the hands of utilities wey dem newly create.For some cases, these water supply and sanitation utilities dey also supply electricity.Most of these utilities dey corporatized, wey mean say dem dey try act like private company in terms of how dem dey produce and how dem dey manage their own money.But still, dem dey different waa for legal status and who dey own them.[[Image:Legal status and ownership of the Sub-Saharan water utilities.png|thumb|450px|Involvement of the private sector in the Sub-Saharan water utilities. AICD Background Paper 12]] == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 09bung2i818jyyw0buict9dmf2pyqzz 103689 103688 2026-06-18T15:29:26Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 made some changes to the content 103689 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) wey don further decentralise the utilities give local jurisdictions.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> === Urban areas === [[Image:Legal status and ownership of the Sub-Saharan water utilities.png|thumb|450px|Involvement of the private sector in the Sub-Saharan water utilities. AICD Background Paper 12]]For the last twenty years, the management of water supply and sanitation for towns dey increasingly go inside the hands of utilities wey dem newly create.For some cases, these water supply and sanitation utilities dey also supply electricity.Most of these utilities dey corporatized, wey mean say dem dey try act like private company in terms of how dem dey produce and how dem dey manage their own money.But still, dem dey different waa for legal status and who dey own them. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] lwcq1kjl66fhvbru5amxogn15l621hy 103690 103689 2026-06-18T15:38:22Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 103690 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) wey don further decentralise the utilities give local jurisdictions.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> === Urban areas === [[Image:Legal status and ownership of the Sub-Saharan water utilities.png|thumb|450px|Involvement of the private sector in the Sub-Saharan water utilities. AICD Background Paper 12]]For the last twenty years, the management of water supply and sanitation for towns dey increasingly go inside the hands of utilities wey dem newly create.For some cases, these water supply and sanitation utilities dey also supply electricity.Most of these utilities dey corporatized, wey mean say dem dey try act like private company in terms of how dem dey produce and how dem dey manage their own money.But still, dem dey different waa for legal status and who dey own them. Dem had hopes say if dem create independent utilities, the business fit become commercially sustainable and attract private money. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] o6lo5035yaab8hnqtiwuz0wx342iyhy 103691 103690 2026-06-18T15:39:17Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 103691 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) wey don further decentralise the utilities give local jurisdictions.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> === Urban areas === [[Image:Legal status and ownership of the Sub-Saharan water utilities.png|thumb|450px|Involvement of the private sector in the Sub-Saharan water utilities. AICD Background Paper 12]]For the last twenty years, the management of water supply and sanitation for towns dey increasingly go inside the hands of utilities wey dem newly create.For some cases, these water supply and sanitation utilities dey also supply electricity.Most of these utilities dey corporatized, wey mean say dem dey try act like private company in terms of how dem dey produce and how dem dey manage their own money.But still, dem dey different waa for legal status and who dey own them. Dem had hopes say if dem create independent utilities, the business fit become commercially sustainable and attract private money.Almost half of the sub-Saharan countries don try some kind of private sector participation for the utility sector since the early 1990s, and the World Bank largely support this. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] o7z8tdqwtiu9ct8neg32w5b70b2mlbj 103692 103691 2026-06-18T15:41:36Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 103692 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) wey don further decentralise the utilities give local jurisdictions.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> === Urban areas === [[Image:Legal status and ownership of the Sub-Saharan water utilities.png|thumb|450px|Involvement of the private sector in the Sub-Saharan water utilities. AICD Background Paper 12]]For the last twenty years, the management of water supply and sanitation for towns dey increasingly go inside the hands of utilities wey dem newly create.For some cases, these water supply and sanitation utilities dey also supply electricity.Most of these utilities dey corporatized, wey mean say dem dey try act like private company in terms of how dem dey produce and how dem dey manage their own money.But still, dem dey different waa for legal status and who dey own them. Dem had hopes say if dem create independent utilities, the business fit become commercially sustainable and attract private money.Almost half of the sub-Saharan countries don try some kind of private sector participation for the utility sector since the early 1990s, and the World Bank largely support this.. The experience with these private sector contracts dey mixed. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] oeswr7cfdpey3axdg1u2ppmukbuv4v9 103693 103692 2026-06-18T15:42:10Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 103693 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) wey don further decentralise the utilities give local jurisdictions.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> === Urban areas === [[Image:Legal status and ownership of the Sub-Saharan water utilities.png|thumb|450px|Involvement of the private sector in the Sub-Saharan water utilities. AICD Background Paper 12]]For the last twenty years, the management of water supply and sanitation for towns dey increasingly go inside the hands of utilities wey dem newly create.For some cases, these water supply and sanitation utilities dey also supply electricity.Most of these utilities dey corporatized, wey mean say dem dey try act like private company in terms of how dem dey produce and how dem dey manage their own money.But still, dem dey different waa for legal status and who dey own them. Dem had hopes say if dem create independent utilities, the business fit become commercially sustainable and attract private money.Almost half of the sub-Saharan countries don try some kind of private sector participation for the utility sector since the early 1990s, and the World Bank largely support this.. The experience with these private sector contracts dey mixed.Even though dem no succeed to attract plenty private money, some of dem still improve performance. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] hw5i0dnb13an9qwihfrn0nrjb8mlrr6 103694 103693 2026-06-18T15:43:24Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 103694 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) wey don further decentralise the utilities give local jurisdictions.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> === Urban areas === [[Image:Legal status and ownership of the Sub-Saharan water utilities.png|thumb|450px|Involvement of the private sector in the Sub-Saharan water utilities. AICD Background Paper 12]]For the last twenty years, the management of water supply and sanitation for towns dey increasingly go inside the hands of utilities wey dem newly create.For some cases, these water supply and sanitation utilities dey also supply electricity.Most of these utilities dey corporatized, wey mean say dem dey try act like private company in terms of how dem dey produce and how dem dey manage their own money.But still, dem dey different waa for legal status and who dey own them. Dem had hopes say if dem create independent utilities, the business fit become commercially sustainable and attract private money.Almost half of the sub-Saharan countries don try some kind of private sector participation for the utility sector since the early 1990s, and the World Bank largely support this.. The experience with these private sector contracts dey mixed.Even though dem no succeed to attract plenty private money, some of dem still improve performance.But almost one third of them end before the time wey dem suppose end, like the one for Dar es-Salaam for Tanzania. Others no renew. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 45dtnsysmfkygckeembrz02xv21l14f 103695 103694 2026-06-18T15:45:05Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added link and citations 103695 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) wey don further decentralise the utilities give local jurisdictions.<ref name=":8">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> === Urban areas === [[Image:Legal status and ownership of the Sub-Saharan water utilities.png|thumb|450px|Involvement of the private sector in the Sub-Saharan water utilities. AICD Background Paper 12]]For the last twenty years, the management of water supply and sanitation for towns dey increasingly go inside the hands of utilities wey dem newly create.For some cases, these water supply and sanitation utilities dey also supply electricity.Most of these utilities dey corporatized, wey mean say dem dey try act like private company in terms of how dem dey produce and how dem dey manage their own money.But still, dem dey different waa for legal status and who dey own them. Dem had hopes say if dem create independent utilities, the business fit become commercially sustainable and attract private money.Almost half of the sub-Saharan countries don try some kind of private sector participation for the utility sector since the early 1990s, and the World Bank largely support this.. The experience with these private sector contracts dey mixed.Even though dem no succeed to attract plenty private money, some of dem still improve performance.But almost one third of them end before the time wey dem suppose end, like the one for Dar es-Salaam for [[Tanzania]]. Others no renew.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] f56eg6psayl3su6k1kknxicylb3rdgr 103696 103695 2026-06-18T15:47:34Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 103696 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) wey don further decentralise the utilities give local jurisdictions.<ref name=":8">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> === Urban areas === [[Image:Legal status and ownership of the Sub-Saharan water utilities.png|thumb|450px|Involvement of the private sector in the Sub-Saharan water utilities. AICD Background Paper 12]]For the last twenty years, the management of water supply and sanitation for towns dey increasingly go inside the hands of utilities wey dem newly create.For some cases, these water supply and sanitation utilities dey also supply electricity.Most of these utilities dey corporatized, wey mean say dem dey try act like private company in terms of how dem dey produce and how dem dey manage their own money.But still, dem dey different waa for legal status and who dey own them. Dem had hopes say if dem create independent utilities, the business fit become commercially sustainable and attract private money.Almost half of the sub-Saharan countries don try some kind of private sector participation for the utility sector since the early 1990s, and the World Bank largely support this.. The experience with these private sector contracts dey mixed.Even though dem no succeed to attract plenty private money, some of dem still improve performance.But almost one third of them end before the time wey dem suppose end, like the one for Dar es-Salaam for [[Tanzania]]. Others no renew.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> Today almost half of the utilities be public enterprises wey the central government dey own majority of am. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 6g5h10h17632k1zgbgp97htx6avxhn1 103697 103696 2026-06-18T15:48:34Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 103697 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) wey don further decentralise the utilities give local jurisdictions.<ref name=":8">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> === Urban areas === [[Image:Legal status and ownership of the Sub-Saharan water utilities.png|thumb|450px|Involvement of the private sector in the Sub-Saharan water utilities. AICD Background Paper 12]]For the last twenty years, the management of water supply and sanitation for towns dey increasingly go inside the hands of utilities wey dem newly create.For some cases, these water supply and sanitation utilities dey also supply electricity.Most of these utilities dey corporatized, wey mean say dem dey try act like private company in terms of how dem dey produce and how dem dey manage their own money.But still, dem dey different waa for legal status and who dey own them. Dem had hopes say if dem create independent utilities, the business fit become commercially sustainable and attract private money.Almost half of the sub-Saharan countries don try some kind of private sector participation for the utility sector since the early 1990s, and the World Bank largely support this.. The experience with these private sector contracts dey mixed.Even though dem no succeed to attract plenty private money, some of dem still improve performance.But almost one third of them end before the time wey dem suppose end, like the one for Dar es-Salaam for [[Tanzania]]. Others no renew.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> Today almost half of the utilities be public enterprises wey the central government dey own majority of am.Senegal be example where private involvement work well: == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] qfv5ccfqe4hc3v49zgwt0t92zk6owdk 103698 103697 2026-06-18T15:50:18Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 103698 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) wey don further decentralise the utilities give local jurisdictions.<ref name=":8">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> === Urban areas === [[Image:Legal status and ownership of the Sub-Saharan water utilities.png|thumb|450px|Involvement of the private sector in the Sub-Saharan water utilities. AICD Background Paper 12]]For the last twenty years, the management of water supply and sanitation for towns dey increasingly go inside the hands of utilities wey dem newly create.For some cases, these water supply and sanitation utilities dey also supply electricity.Most of these utilities dey corporatized, wey mean say dem dey try act like private company in terms of how dem dey produce and how dem dey manage their own money.But still, dem dey different waa for legal status and who dey own them. Dem had hopes say if dem create independent utilities, the business fit become commercially sustainable and attract private money.Almost half of the sub-Saharan countries don try some kind of private sector participation for the utility sector since the early 1990s, and the World Bank largely support this.. The experience with these private sector contracts dey mixed.Even though dem no succeed to attract plenty private money, some of dem still improve performance.But almost one third of them end before the time wey dem suppose end, like the one for Dar es-Salaam for [[Tanzania]]. Others no renew.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> Today almost half of the utilities be public enterprises wey the central government <ref name=":8" />dey own majority of am.Senegal be example where private involvement work well: == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] kh0eae18zbh7mtdfl2e45wr3zkui6av 103699 103698 2026-06-18T15:52:37Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 103699 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) wey don further decentralise the utilities give local jurisdictions.<ref name=":8">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> === Urban areas === [[Image:Legal status and ownership of the Sub-Saharan water utilities.png|thumb|450px|Involvement of the private sector in the Sub-Saharan water utilities. AICD Background Paper 12]]For the last twenty years, the management of water supply and sanitation for towns dey increasingly go inside the hands of utilities wey dem newly create.For some cases, these water supply and sanitation utilities dey also supply electricity.Most of these utilities dey corporatized, wey mean say dem dey try act like private company in terms of how dem dey produce and how dem dey manage their own money.But still, dem dey different waa for legal status and who dey own them. Dem had hopes say if dem create independent utilities, the business fit become commercially sustainable and attract private money.Almost half of the sub-Saharan countries don try some kind of private sector participation for the utility sector since the early 1990s, and the World Bank largely support this.. The experience with these private sector contracts dey mixed.Even though dem no succeed to attract plenty private money, some of dem still improve performance.But almost one third of them end before the time wey dem suppose end, like the one for Dar es-Salaam for [[Tanzania]]. Others no renew.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> Today almost half of the utilities be public enterprises wey the central government <ref name=":8" />dey own majority of am.Senegal be example where private involvement work well: the affermage (leasing) of the network give private operator don increase efficiency well well and help increase access. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 323gl7vwvnsuxzo40dyfa2af6wux7b2 103700 103699 2026-06-18T15:53:34Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 103700 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) wey don further decentralise the utilities give local jurisdictions.<ref name=":8">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> === Urban areas === [[Image:Legal status and ownership of the Sub-Saharan water utilities.png|thumb|450px|Involvement of the private sector in the Sub-Saharan water utilities. AICD Background Paper 12]]For the last twenty years, the management of water supply and sanitation for towns dey increasingly go inside the hands of utilities wey dem newly create.For some cases, these water supply and sanitation utilities dey also supply electricity.Most of these utilities dey corporatized, wey mean say dem dey try act like private company in terms of how dem dey produce and how dem dey manage their own money.But still, dem dey different waa for legal status and who dey own them. Dem had hopes say if dem create independent utilities, the business fit become commercially sustainable and attract private money.Almost half of the sub-Saharan countries don try some kind of private sector participation for the utility sector since the early 1990s, and the World Bank largely support this.. The experience with these private sector contracts dey mixed.Even though dem no succeed to attract plenty private money, some of dem still improve performance.But almost one third of them end before the time wey dem suppose end, like the one for Dar es-Salaam for [[Tanzania]]. Others no renew.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> Today almost half of the utilities be public enterprises wey the central government <ref name=":8" />dey own majority of am.Senegal be example where private involvement work well: the affermage (leasing) of the network give private operator don increase efficiency well well and help increase access. Senegal also receive outside funding for their water treatment and distribution network, that is a €64.5 million loan from the European Investment Bank plus a €5.55 million European Union grant give the Republic of Senegal for 2023. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] 51kwhzweed03d55aes9ytk7bb3lpavb 103701 103700 2026-06-18T15:54:22Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 103701 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) wey don further decentralise the utilities give local jurisdictions.<ref name=":8">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> === Urban areas === [[Image:Legal status and ownership of the Sub-Saharan water utilities.png|thumb|450px|Involvement of the private sector in the Sub-Saharan water utilities. AICD Background Paper 12]]For the last twenty years, the management of water supply and sanitation for towns dey increasingly go inside the hands of utilities wey dem newly create.For some cases, these water supply and sanitation utilities dey also supply electricity.Most of these utilities dey corporatized, wey mean say dem dey try act like private company in terms of how dem dey produce and how dem dey manage their own money.But still, dem dey different waa for legal status and who dey own them. Dem had hopes say if dem create independent utilities, the business fit become commercially sustainable and attract private money.Almost half of the sub-Saharan countries don try some kind of private sector participation for the utility sector since the early 1990s, and the World Bank largely support this.. The experience with these private sector contracts dey mixed.Even though dem no succeed to attract plenty private money, some of dem still improve performance.But almost one third of them end before the time wey dem suppose end, like the one for Dar es-Salaam for [[Tanzania]]. Others no renew.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> Today almost half of the utilities be public enterprises wey the central government <ref name=":8" />dey own majority of am.Senegal be example where private involvement work well: the affermage (leasing) of the network give private operator don increase efficiency well well and help increase access. Senegal also receive outside funding for their water treatment and distribution network, that is a €64.5 million loan from the European Investment Bank plus a €5.55 million European Union grant give the Republic of Senegal for 2023. The funding dey aim to provide drinking water for Saint-Louis people, reservoir units, and to make the distribution network bigger, wey important well well to prevent people from relocating because water no dey. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] e3p0baifhnbremmk4hyh1ut56nahi7m 103702 103701 2026-06-18T15:55:22Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 103702 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) wey don further decentralise the utilities give local jurisdictions.<ref name=":8">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> === Urban areas === [[Image:Legal status and ownership of the Sub-Saharan water utilities.png|thumb|450px|Involvement of the private sector in the Sub-Saharan water utilities. AICD Background Paper 12]]For the last twenty years, the management of water supply and sanitation for towns dey increasingly go inside the hands of utilities wey dem newly create.For some cases, these water supply and sanitation utilities dey also supply electricity.Most of these utilities dey corporatized, wey mean say dem dey try act like private company in terms of how dem dey produce and how dem dey manage their own money.But still, dem dey different waa for legal status and who dey own them. Dem had hopes say if dem create independent utilities, the business fit become commercially sustainable and attract private money.Almost half of the sub-Saharan countries don try some kind of private sector participation for the utility sector since the early 1990s, and the World Bank largely support this.. The experience with these private sector contracts dey mixed.Even though dem no succeed to attract plenty private money, some of dem still improve performance.But almost one third of them end before the time wey dem suppose end, like the one for Dar es-Salaam for [[Tanzania]]. Others no renew.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> Today almost half of the utilities be public enterprises wey the central government <ref name=":8" />dey own majority of am.Senegal be example where private involvement work well: the affermage (leasing) of the network give private operator don increase efficiency well well and help increase access. Senegal also receive outside funding for their water treatment and distribution network, that is a €64.5 million loan from the European Investment Bank plus a €5.55 million European Union grant give the Republic of Senegal for 2023. The funding dey aim to provide drinking water for Saint-Louis people, reservoir units, and to make the distribution network bigger, wey important well well to prevent people from relocating because water no dey.The €5.55 million European Union fund, wey dem mobilize as part of Team Europe through the European Investment Bank, go help Senegal water utility speed up their 35000 subsidised drinking water connections for 350000 consumers across the country. Besides Senegal, private operators still dey play role for South Africa (four utilities), Cameroon, Cape Verde, Ivory Coast, Gabon, Ghana, Mozambique, Niger and Uganda (for small towns). == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] ov3iurvdvy0hm31v0t9otopll5i2vnk 103703 103702 2026-06-18T15:56:01Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 103703 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) wey don further decentralise the utilities give local jurisdictions.<ref name=":8">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> === Urban areas === [[Image:Legal status and ownership of the Sub-Saharan water utilities.png|thumb|450px|Involvement of the private sector in the Sub-Saharan water utilities. AICD Background Paper 12]]For the last twenty years, the management of water supply and sanitation for towns dey increasingly go inside the hands of utilities wey dem newly create.For some cases, these water supply and sanitation utilities dey also supply electricity.Most of these utilities dey corporatized, wey mean say dem dey try act like private company in terms of how dem dey produce and how dem dey manage their own money.But still, dem dey different waa for legal status and who dey own them. Dem had hopes say if dem create independent utilities, the business fit become commercially sustainable and attract private money.Almost half of the sub-Saharan countries don try some kind of private sector participation for the utility sector since the early 1990s, and the World Bank largely support this.. The experience with these private sector contracts dey mixed.Even though dem no succeed to attract plenty private money, some of dem still improve performance.But almost one third of them end before the time wey dem suppose end, like the one for Dar es-Salaam for [[Tanzania]]. Others no renew.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> Today almost half of the utilities be public enterprises wey the central government <ref name=":8" />dey own majority of am.Senegal be example where private involvement work well: the affermage (leasing) of the network give private operator don increase efficiency well well and help increase access. Senegal also receive outside funding for their water treatment and distribution network, that is a €64.5 million loan from the European Investment Bank plus a €5.55 million European Union grant give the Republic of Senegal for 2023. The funding dey aim to provide drinking water for Saint-Louis people, reservoir units, and to make the distribution network bigger, wey important well well to prevent people from relocating because water no dey.The €5.55 million European Union fund, wey dem mobilize as part of Team Europe through the European Investment Bank, go help Senegal water utility speed up their 35000 subsidised drinking water connections for 350000 consumers across the country. Besides Senegal, private operators still dey play role for South Africa (four utilities), Cameroon, Cape Verde, Ivory Coast, Gabon, Ghana, Mozambique, Niger and Uganda (for small towns). For Uganda and Burkina Faso, dem strengthen the public national utilities through short-term public-private partnerships wey be performance-based service contracts. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] rdllt8vgbae6yn4wdgusdtpb95w40vp 103704 103703 2026-06-18T16:02:25Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added links and citations 103704 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) wey don further decentralise the utilities give local jurisdictions.<ref name=":8">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> === Urban areas === [[Image:Legal status and ownership of the Sub-Saharan water utilities.png|thumb|450px|Involvement of the private sector in the Sub-Saharan water utilities. AICD Background Paper 12]]For the last twenty years, the management of water supply and sanitation for towns dey increasingly go inside the hands of utilities wey dem newly create.For some cases, these water supply and sanitation utilities dey also supply electricity.Most of these utilities dey corporatized, wey mean say dem dey try act like private company in terms of how dem dey produce and how dem dey manage their own money.But still, dem dey different waa for legal status and who dey own them. Dem had hopes say if dem create independent utilities, the business fit become commercially sustainable and attract private money.Almost half of the sub-Saharan countries don try some kind of private sector participation for the utility sector since the early 1990s, and the World Bank largely support this.. The experience with these private sector contracts dey mixed.Even though dem no succeed to attract plenty private money, some of dem still improve performance.But almost one third of them end before the time wey dem suppose end, like the one for Dar es-Salaam for [[Tanzania]]. Others no renew.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> Today almost half of the utilities be public enterprises wey the central government <ref name=":8" />dey own majority of am.[[Senegal]] be example where private involvement work well: the affermage (leasing) of the network give private operator don increase efficiency well well and help increase access. Senegal also receive outside funding for their water treatment and distribution network, that is a €64.5 million loan from the [[:en:European_Investment_Bank|European Investment Bank]] plus a €5.55 million [[:en:European_Union|European Union]] grant give the [[:en:Senegal|Republic of Senegal]] for 2023. The funding dey aim to provide drinking water for [[:en:Saint-Louis,_Senegal|Saint-Louis]] people, reservoir units, and to make the distribution network bigger, wey important well well to prevent people from relocating because water no dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref>The €5.55 million European Union fund, wey dem mobilize as part of Team Europe through the European Investment Bank, go help Senegal water utility speed up their 35000 subsidised drinking water connections for 350000 consumers across the country. Besides Senegal, private operators still dey play role for South Africa (four utilities), Cameroon, Cape Verde, Ivory Coast, Gabon, Ghana, Mozambique, Niger and Uganda (for small towns). For Uganda and Burkina Faso, dem strengthen the public national utilities through short-term public-private partnerships wey be performance-based service contracts. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] szla3c41883j0rkxahvmx6wkut6lpsi 103706 103704 2026-06-18T16:06:46Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added citations 103706 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) wey don further decentralise the utilities give local jurisdictions.<ref name=":8">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> === Urban areas === [[Image:Legal status and ownership of the Sub-Saharan water utilities.png|thumb|450px|Involvement of the private sector in the Sub-Saharan water utilities. AICD Background Paper 12]]For the last twenty years, the management of water supply and sanitation for towns dey increasingly go inside the hands of utilities wey dem newly create.For some cases, these water supply and sanitation utilities dey also supply electricity.Most of these utilities dey corporatized, wey mean say dem dey try act like private company in terms of how dem dey produce and how dem dey manage their own money.But still, dem dey different waa for legal status and who dey own them. Dem had hopes say if dem create independent utilities, the business fit become commercially sustainable and attract private money.Almost half of the sub-Saharan countries don try some kind of private sector participation for the utility sector since the early 1990s, and the World Bank largely support this.. The experience with these private sector contracts dey mixed.Even though dem no succeed to attract plenty private money, some of dem still improve performance.But almost one third of them end before the time wey dem suppose end, like the one for Dar es-Salaam for [[Tanzania]]. Others no renew.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> Today almost half of the utilities be public enterprises wey the central government <ref name=":8" />dey own majority of am.[[Senegal]] be example where private involvement work well: the affermage (leasing) of the network give private operator don increase efficiency well well and help increase access. Senegal also receive outside funding for their water treatment and distribution network, that is a €64.5 million loan from the [[:en:European_Investment_Bank|European Investment Bank]] plus a €5.55 million [[:en:European_Union|European Union]] grant give the [[:en:Senegal|Republic of Senegal]] for 2023. The funding dey aim to provide drinking water for [[:en:Saint-Louis,_Senegal|Saint-Louis]] people, reservoir units, and to make the distribution network bigger, wey important well well to prevent people from relocating because water no dey.<ref name=":9">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref>The €5.55 million European Union fund, wey dem mobilize as part of Team Europe through the European Investment Bank, go help Senegal water utility speed up their 35000 subsidised drinking water connections for 350000 consumers across the country.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" /><ref name=":11" /> Besides Senegal, private operators still dey play role for South Africa (four utilities), Cameroon, Cape Verde, Ivory Coast, Gabon, Ghana, Mozambique, Niger and Uganda (for small towns). For Uganda and Burkina Faso, dem strengthen the public national utilities through short-term public-private partnerships wey be performance-based service contracts. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] livnflsozltev3tqimsmtqkle0qt1f7 103708 103706 2026-06-18T16:08:36Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 Added content 103708 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) wey don further decentralise the utilities give local jurisdictions.<ref name=":8">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> === Urban areas === [[Image:Legal status and ownership of the Sub-Saharan water utilities.png|thumb|450px|Involvement of the private sector in the Sub-Saharan water utilities. AICD Background Paper 12]]For the last twenty years, the management of water supply and sanitation for towns dey increasingly go inside the hands of utilities wey dem newly create.For some cases, these water supply and sanitation utilities dey also supply electricity.Most of these utilities dey corporatized, wey mean say dem dey try act like private company in terms of how dem dey produce and how dem dey manage their own money.But still, dem dey different waa for legal status and who dey own them. Dem had hopes say if dem create independent utilities, the business fit become commercially sustainable and attract private money.Almost half of the sub-Saharan countries don try some kind of private sector participation for the utility sector since the early 1990s, and the World Bank largely support this.. The experience with these private sector contracts dey mixed.Even though dem no succeed to attract plenty private money, some of dem still improve performance.But almost one third of them end before the time wey dem suppose end, like the one for Dar es-Salaam for [[Tanzania]]. Others no renew.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> Today almost half of the utilities be public enterprises wey the central government <ref name=":8" />dey own majority of am.[[Senegal]] be example where private involvement work well: the affermage (leasing) of the network give private operator don increase efficiency well well and help increase access. Senegal also receive outside funding for their water treatment and distribution network, that is a €64.5 million loan from the [[:en:European_Investment_Bank|European Investment Bank]] plus a €5.55 million [[:en:European_Union|European Union]] grant give the [[:en:Senegal|Republic of Senegal]] for 2023. The funding dey aim to provide drinking water for [[:en:Saint-Louis,_Senegal|Saint-Louis]] people, reservoir units, and to make the distribution network bigger, wey important well well to prevent people from relocating because water no dey.<ref name=":9">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref>The €5.55 million European Union fund, wey dem mobilize as part of Team Europe through the European Investment Bank, go help Senegal water utility speed up their 35000 subsidised drinking water connections for 350000 consumers across the country.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" /><ref name=":11" /> Besides Senegal, private operators still dey play role for South Africa (four utilities), Cameroon, Cape Verde, Ivory Coast, Gabon, Ghana, Mozambique, Niger and Uganda (for small towns). For Uganda and Burkina Faso, dem strengthen the public national utilities through short-term public-private partnerships wey be performance-based service contracts.The utilities never reach all households for their territory. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] ee51mgo30uqdkud4ovz269qe0sx2vyr 103853 103708 2026-06-18T21:23:24Z Dinnani Hamdia 3237 added content 103853 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Although access to '''water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa''' be steadily improving over de last two decades, de region still dey lag behind all oda developing regions. Access to improved water supply increase from 49% insyd 1990 to 68% insyd 2015,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Millennium Development Goals Report 2015|url=https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf |website=United Nations }}</ref> while access to improved sanitation only rise from 28% to 31% insyd dat same period. Sub-Saharan Africa no meet de Millennium Development Goals (MDGs, 1990–2015) of halving de share of de population widout access to safe drinking water den sanitation between 1990 den 2015.<ref name="JMP">WHO/UNESCO (2010). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2010 Update. Geneva: WHO press.[https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf JMP 2010 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111124090651/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/1278061137-JMP_report_2010_en.pdf |date=2011-11-24 }}</ref> Der still dey exist large disparities among sub-Saharan African countries, den between de urban den rural areas. Usually, water be provided by utilities insyd urban areas den municipalities anaa community groups insyd rural areas. Sewerage networks no be common den wastewater treatment be even less common. Sanitation often be insyd de form of individual pit latrines anaa shared toilets. 70% of investments insyd water supply den sanitation insyd sub-Saharan Africa be financed internally den only 30% be financed externally (2001–2005 average). Chaw of de internal financing be household self-finance ($2.1bn), wich be primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) be almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). De contribution of private commercial financing be negligible at $10 million only. == Water resources == [[File:Communal_tap_(standpost)_for_drinking_water_in_Soweto,_Johannesburg,_South_Africa_(2941729790).jpg|thumb|Communal tap (standpost) for drinking water in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa. May 2005]] === Groundwater === Groundwater dey do big work for how people for sub-Saharan Africa take get water and survive especially because e dey everywhere waa,generally e dey clean pass, and e get the power to hold body when drought come and weather dey change anyhow.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Yet the sources wey dey provide clean water to drink for Africa no plenty, one research wey dem do for 2007 show say more than 40% of Africans dey use groundwater as their main drinking water, especially for the North and Southern parts of Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> [[:en:Tap_water|Pipe water]] still be the biggest source of drinking water (39%) for town, but borehole dey become more important small small (24%).<ref name=":0" /> WHO (2006) talk say, for 2004, only 16% of people for sub-Saharan Africa get water for their house through pipe or tap wey dey inside or outside the house.Even when water dey for some of these places, e no easy to get clean drinking water because plenty things fit make the water dirty.Things like poor maintenance because money no dey, pollution and bad sanitation, sometimes also because money no dey.When dem build wells and water sanitation places, sometimes dem no dey test the water as often as dem suppose to, and the people wey dey use the water no get enough education about am.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Surface water === [[File:Congobasinmap.png|right|thumb|300x300px|Congo Basin is the world's second largest river basin covering over 12% of the African continent]] World Health Organisation (WHO) for 2015 report say about 159 million people for the whole world dey fetch water wey no treat from lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.Surface water for Africa sometimes dey very dirty waa.Things like sewage wey dem pour anyhow, oil pollution, factory waste and other things like that.For example, one study wey dem do for Nigeria show say plenty dirty things dey inside the water around there, like chemicals from farm wey flow inside, waste from town, and dirty water from factories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>For another case study wey dem do for Madagascar, Uganda and Rwanda, the researchers find say there were important things wey dey pollute the water bodies across all the places.These dirty things include E. coli, nitrates, and heavy metals. All these things wey dem find inside the water cause big concern for the safety of the water wey the people for those areas dey drink.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> === Impacts of climate change === ''Make you read more about am:'' [[Climate change in Africa]] The way climate change dey affect how water move around go also affect how much water dey available for people to use for Africa.For example, the way rain dey fall, how much e fall, when and where e fall go change. Climate change go make the problem of getting water for Africa worse, but this go be small small compared to other things like population growth, people moving to town, farming growing and how land dey be used.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Even though plenty things go affect water for Africa, climate change go cause water shortage for North Africa and Southern Africa. For North Africa alone, climate change fit be responsible for 22% of the total water shortage for that area.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change and the way society and economy dey move also go make water scarcity worse for Southern Africa as temperature dey increase and rain no dey fall steady, the water wey dey flow inside rivers for that area go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>Climate change fit also cause more extreme water problems like droughts, wey go last longer and happen more often for Southern Africa, and this go put plenty pressure on water supply.<ref name=":1" /> For East Africa, how water go change no clear at all, because the climate models for that area some dey say rain go increase and some dey say e go decrease.As temperature dey increase, e fit make water evaporate more and cause glaciers and ice to melt small small, and this fit put pressure on water resources.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref>But future projections show say the rain wey go fall go be more heavy, and this fit cause more water to flow inside rivers for places like the [[:en:Lake_Victoria|Lake Victoria Basin]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> This part na summary from [[:en:Climate_change_in_Africa#Temperature_and_weather_changes|Climate change in Africa § Temperature and weather changes''.'']] The temperature wey dem measure for Africa don increase small small since late 19th century reach early 21st century by about 1°C, but for some places like the Sahel, the lowest temperature fit increase reach 3°C at the end of the dry season.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-05 |language=en}}</ref> Africa don dey get hotter faster, as the warming increase by +0.3°C from 1991 to 2021 compared to +0.2°C from 1961 to 1910.Dem estimate say by 2030, the people of Africa go face sea level rising because of how temperature dey increase.This go then cause farm production to go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The rain patterns wey dem observe show differences from place to place and time to time, just as dem expect.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The changes wey dem see for temperature and rain dey different depending on which part of Africa you dey.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The current climate models wey dem summarise for the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report dey predict say drought and heavy rain go happen more often and become more intense.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>They also predict say the normal amount of rain go reduce for almost everywhere for Africa, and dem get medium to high confidence for this.But the way rain dey fall for different local areas and how society and climate dey affect each other go show different patterns for different places.So the combined effects of climate change go be different across the whole continent.For the villages, the way rain dey fall dey affect how people dey use water.<ref name=":2" /> One study for 2019 predict say the dry periods inside the rainy season go last longer and extreme heavy rain go increase for Africa.<ref name=":3">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In other words, the two sides of Africa's bad weather go become more serious.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>The research find say most climate models no go fit capture how big these changes go be because their grid scales no be fine enough to allow convection.<ref name=":3" /> === Water-related gender inequality === For [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|sub-Saharan Africa]], getting clean water still be big problem, and e dey affect women pass because dem be the ones wey dey go fetch water for the house. One study wey dem do for rural [[Zimbabwe]] find say women dey walk average of 4km every day just to fetch water.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>When drought come, these trips fit become even longer because water go be harder to find.Drought conditions don also be linked to more violence at water points, and this dey affect women more because dem be the majority of the ones wey dey go fetch water.To reduce the dangers wey come with walking long distances and violence at water points, dem don suggest say policymakers make dem invest in water infrastructure wey dey closer to where people dey live.<ref name=":4" />One study wey dem do for Ghana find say when women no get easy access to water, their health no dey good and dem no get time to rest, because dem be the ones wey dey fetch water for most houses for Ghana and other places for Sub-Saharan Africa.The findings show say for every extra hour wey women spend fetching water, the number of women wey say dem dey feel healthy go reduce.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> == Access == === General trends === [[Image:Access to Improved Water Sources and Sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa.png|thumb|550px|Access to improved water supply and sanitation, in 7 Sub-Saharan countries, from 1990 until 2008. Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (2010)]] For sub-Saharan Africa, access to water and sanitation don improve, but the region still dey behind all the other developing regions:access to clean drinking water increase from 49% for 1990 reach 60% for 2008, but for the same time, access to better sanitation only go up small small from 28% reach 31%.Sub-Saharan Africa no fit meet the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]] wey say dem suppose cut by half the number of people wey no get access to clean drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015.<ref name="JMP" /> These trends for water supply and sanitation dey show directly for people's health:the number of children wey dey die before they reach five years don reduce for the whole world, but [[:en:Sub-Saharan_Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] dey show the slowest progress.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> The targets wey dem set under the [[:en:Sustainable_Development_Goals|Sustainable Development Goals]] for 2015, unlike the [[:en:Millennium_Development_Goals|Millennium Development Goals]], dey report drinking water and sanitation separately -that is, targets for access to clean and affordable drinking water (target 6.1) and proper and fair sanitation and hygiene (target 6.2).<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa - Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa#cite_note-Roche_et_al_2017-29 |access-date=2026-06-06 |website=en.wikipedia.org |language=en}}</ref>In particular, Sustainable Development Goal SDG6 dey focus on making sure water and sanitation dey available for everybody and dem manage am well for a long time.<ref name=":5" /> The SDGs also include reporting on hygiene, which the MDGs no include before. Access to hygiene facilities in particular is a major barrier to achieving combined SDG access, reducing coverage in SSA from 19.7% to 4.4% (data from 2017).<ref name=":5" /> For 2020, 65% of people for the whole world dey use pipe water (83% for town and 42% for village).<ref name=":6">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>Pipe water dey count as an improved water source:<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> Overall, sub-Saharan Africa still dey behind, as only 35% of the people dey use pipe water (56% for town and 20% for village).Inside these numbers, the access to clean and safe drinking water dey different from place to place, whether na big city, medium town or small town.<ref name=":6" /> For [[:en:WASH|WASH]] (water, sanitation and hygiene) for schools, data from 2019 show say for Africa, only 44% of schools get basic drinking water, 47% get basic sanitation and 26% get basic hygiene.<ref name=":7">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref>In general, children wey dey go school for village get less access to good WASH services than children wey dey go school for town.<ref name=":7" />When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways. When children no get enough access to clean water, e dey affect them for different ways.One case study for Ghana find say when children no get enough access to water, dem no dey go school as often as dem suppose to.On top of that, when children no get enough water and cooking fuel, e dey affect their school performance, as the study show say their test scores for subjects like mathematics and English go down.<ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-05 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1357895707 |access-date=2026-06-06 |language=en}}</ref> === National differences === The differences between countries for Sub-Saharan Africa dey very big. Access to clean drinking water dey range from 38% for Ethiopia reach 91% for South Africa, while access to better sanitation dey move from 11% for Burkina Faso reach 77% for South Africa.The situation for Ivory Coast dey better pass, as 82% of the people get access to improved drinking water source. === The urban-rural disparities === [[File:Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015.jpg|thumb|Urban and rural piped water coverage in Africa and Asia in 2015: Access to piped water in rural areas of Africa is consistently lower than in urban areas of Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hope |first1=Rob |last2=Thomson |first2=Patrick |last3=Koehler |first3=Johanna |last4=Foster |first4=Tim |date=2020 |title=Rethinking the economics of rural water in Africa |url=https://academic.oup.com/oxrep/article/36/1/171/5696680 |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/grz036 |issn=0266-903X|doi-access=free|hdl=10453/142771 |hdl-access=free }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License]</ref>]] For the whole sub-Saharan region, the number of people wey get water supply and sanitation for town is almost double the number for village, both for water (83% for town, 47% for village) and for sanitation (44% against 24%).But the villages dey improve faster, while for the towns, the water supply and sanitation infrastructure no fit keep up with how fast people dey move to town.<ref name="JMP" /> === Different interpretations of access === Note say the words 'access' and 'improved' no get one clear meaning for everybody.The definitions wey WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation dey use no always match with the ones wey other surveys or national policies dey use.The government of Burkina Faso for example dey also look at things like how long you wait and the quality of the water.In fact, almost half of the households for Sub-Saharan Africa wey WHO/UNICEF say dem "get access to improved water supply" dey spend more than 30 minutes every day just to fetch water. Even though WHO/UNICEF mention this time wey dem waste for their report, e no affect their "improved" versus "non-improved" classification. == National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation == Since the 1990s, almost all African countries don start to move their political powers from the central government give local authorities:for Mali e start for 1993, for Ethiopia for 1995, for Rwanda for 2002, for Burkina Faso for 2004, ...Together with the decentralisation process, dem also reform the water supply and sanitation sector. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation wey come out of it dey different across the continent. Dem fit make two general distinctions. The first distinction wey dem suppose make na between water supply and sanitation responsibilities for (i) towns and (ii) villages. Most governments don create corporatised utilities to handle water supply and sanitation for the towns.For the villages, the responsibilities usually dey with the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies.The central government work generally dey limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation. The second distinction, wey concern the towns, dey between those countries (mostly francophone) wey still keep one national utility wey dey work for all the towns for the whole country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) wey don further decentralise the utilities give local jurisdictions.<ref name=":8">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> === Urban areas === [[Image:Legal status and ownership of the Sub-Saharan water utilities.png|thumb|450px|Involvement of the private sector in the Sub-Saharan water utilities. AICD Background Paper 12]]For the last twenty years, the management of water supply and sanitation for towns dey increasingly go inside the hands of utilities wey dem newly create.For some cases, these water supply and sanitation utilities dey also supply electricity.Most of these utilities dey corporatized, wey mean say dem dey try act like private company in terms of how dem dey produce and how dem dey manage their own money.But still, dem dey different waa for legal status and who dey own them. Dem had hopes say if dem create independent utilities, the business fit become commercially sustainable and attract private money.Almost half of the sub-Saharan countries don try some kind of private sector participation for the utility sector since the early 1990s, and the World Bank largely support this.. The experience with these private sector contracts dey mixed.Even though dem no succeed to attract plenty private money, some of dem still improve performance.But almost one third of them end before the time wey dem suppose end, like the one for Dar es-Salaam for [[Tanzania]]. Others no renew.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref> Today almost half of the utilities be public enterprises wey the central government <ref name=":8" />dey own majority of am.[[Senegal]] be example where private involvement work well: the affermage (leasing) of the network give private operator don increase efficiency well well and help increase access. Senegal also receive outside funding for their water treatment and distribution network, that is a €64.5 million loan from the [[:en:European_Investment_Bank|European Investment Bank]] plus a €5.55 million [[:en:European_Union|European Union]] grant give the [[:en:Senegal|Republic of Senegal]] for 2023. The funding dey aim to provide drinking water for [[:en:Saint-Louis,_Senegal|Saint-Louis]] people, reservoir units, and to make the distribution network bigger, wey important well well to prevent people from relocating because water no dey.<ref name=":9">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Citation |title=Water supply and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa |date=2026-06-16 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_sub-Saharan_Africa&oldid=1359677676 |access-date=2026-06-18 |language=en}}</ref>The €5.55 million European Union fund, wey dem mobilize as part of Team Europe through the European Investment Bank, go help Senegal water utility speed up their 35000 subsidised drinking water connections for 350000 consumers across the country.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" /><ref name=":11" /> Besides Senegal, private operators still dey play role for South Africa (four utilities), Cameroon, Cape Verde, Ivory Coast, Gabon, Ghana, Mozambique, Niger and Uganda (for small towns). For Uganda and Burkina Faso, dem strengthen the public national utilities through short-term public-private partnerships wey be performance-based service contracts. The utilities never reach all households for their territory. The number of urban households wey no get connection dey range from over 80% for poor countries like Uganda, Mozambique, Rwanda, Nigeria, and Madagascar, to 21% for Namibia and 12% for South Africa. == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20220601215942/https://www.ib-net.org/ The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities] * [https://www.infrastructureafrica.org Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program] * [http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/private-operators-and-rural-water-supplies-desk-review-experience/ The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities] The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4–6. {{DEFAULTSORT:Water Supply And Sanitation In Sub-Saharan Africa}} [[Category:Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water insyd Africa| Sub-Saharan Africa]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country|Sub-Saharan Africa]] erfpt9ujkmi9xv1wt0iwsbl6l9jodan 0 27256 103937 101233 2026-06-19T00:53:44Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 103937 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Limpopo River''' (/lɪmˈpoʊpoʊ/) dey rise for [[South Africa]] wey edey flow generally eastward thru [[Mozambique]] go de Indian Ocean. De river be like 1,750 km (1,090 mi) long, wey eget drainage basin of like 415,000 km2 (160,000 mi2) for ein size insyd. De mean discharge dey measure over a year be 170 m3/s (6,000 cu ft/s) to 313 m3/s (11,100 cu ft/s) for ein morf.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nakayama |first=Mikiyasu |title=International Waters in Southern Africa |publisher=United Nations University Press |year=2003 |isbn=92-808-1077-4 |pages=9}}</ref> De Limpopo be de second largest river for Africa wey dey drain go de Indian Ocean insyd after de [[Zambezi]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Zhu |first=Tingju |last2=Ringler |first2=Claudia |title=Climate change impact on water availability and use in the Limpopo river basin |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232271837 |access-date=2021-09-20 |website=Researchgate.net}}</ref> Na de first European to sight de river be Vasco da Gama, wey anchor off ein mouth insyd 1498 wey he name am {{lang|pt|Rio do Espírito Santo}} (<abbr>lit.</abbr> 'River of the Holy Spirit'). Ein lower course be explored by St Vincent Whitshed Erskine insyd 1868–69, den Captain J F Elton travel down ein middle course insyd 1870. Na de river be called de Vhembe by local Venda communities of de area wer now dat name be adopted by de South African government as ein District Municipality insyd de north. De drainage area of de Limpopo really decrease over geological time. Up to Late Pliocene anaa Pleistocene times, de upper course of de Zambezi River drain go de Limpopo River insyd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goudie |first=A.S. |author-link=Andrew Goudie (geographer) |date=2005 |title=The drainage of Africa since the Cretaceous |journal=[[Geomorphology (journal)|Geomorphology]] |volume=67 |issue=3–4 |pages=437–456 |bibcode=2005Geomo..67..437G |doi=10.1016/j.geomorph.2004.11.008}}</ref> De change of de drainage divide be de result of epeirogenic movement wey uplift de surface north of present-day Limpopo River, wey dey divert waters go de Zambezi River<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Moore |first=A.E. |date=1999 |title=A reapprisal of epeirogenic flexure axes in southern Africa |journal=[[South African Journal of Geology]] |volume=102 |issue=4 |pages=363–376}}</ref> insyd. == Course == Di river dey flow for one big curve. E first dey move north and north-east, then e turn go east before e finally go south-east. Di river dey serve as border for about {{convert|640|km|mi|0}}, wey dey separate South Africa for southeast from Botswana for northwest and Zimbabwe for north. For where Marico River and Crocodile River join, na from there di river dey get di name Limpopo River. Di river get plenty rapids because e dey flow down from Southern Africa ein inland escarpment. Notwane River be one important tributary of Limpopo River. E start from di edge of Kalahari Desert for Botswana and dey flow go north-east.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/y5744e/y5744e07.htm|title=Drought impact mitigation and prevention in the Limpopo River Basin|website=www.fao.org|access-date=17 September 2021|archive-date=30 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180830192830/http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/y5744e/y5744e07.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Di biggest tributary of Limpopo River be Olifants River (Elephant River), wey dey contribute about 1,233 million&nbsp;m³ of water every year.<ref name=Boroto>Görgens, A.H.M. and Boroto, R.A. 1997. Limpopo River: flow balance anomalies, surprises and implications for integrated water resources management. In: Proceedings of the 8th South African National Hydrology Symposium, Pretoria, South Africa.</ref> Oda important tributaries include Shashe River, Mzingwane River, Crocodile River, Mwenezi River and Luvuvhu River.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/y5744e/y5744e07.htm|title=Drought impact mitigation and prevention in the Limpopo River Basin|website=www.fao.org|access-date=5 April 2018|archive-date=30 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180830192830/http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/y5744e/y5744e07.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> For di north-eastern corner of South Africa, di river dey form part of di border of Kruger National Park. Di port town of Xai-Xai for Mozambique dey on top of di river near where e enter di sea. From below Olifants River, people fit use di river for transport go sea, but one sandbar dey block big ships from passing unless high tide dey. == Tributaries == {| class="wikitable" |+ ! Left hand ! Right hand |- | *Notwane River *Bonwapitse River *Mahalapswe River *Lotsane River *Motloutse River *Shashe River *Umzingwani River *Bubi River *Mwenezi River *Changane River | *Marico River *Crocodile River *Matlabas River *Mokolo River *Palala River *Mogalakwena River *Kolope River *Sand River *Nwanedi River *Luvuvhu River *Olifants River |} == Gallery == <gallery mode="packed"> File:Crook's corner.jpg|De river as dem see from Crook's Corner insyd Kruger National Park, [[South Africa]]. Straight ahead of de river be [[Mozambique]]. Across de river be [[Zimbabwe]]. File:Limpopo - Over the river we go 5.jpg|Crossing Limpopo insyd Mozambique </gallery> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} *[http://www.ifpri.org/publication/climate-change-implications-water-resources-limpopo-river-basin Climate change implications for water resources in the Limpopo River Basin], study by IFPRI *[http://www.ifpri.org/publication/green-and-blue-water-accounting-limpopo-and-nile-basins Green and blue water accounting in the Limpopo and Nile Basins], study by IFPRI *[https://web.archive.org/web/20110219043758/http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission (LIMCOM) www.limcom.org] *[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/iwqs/rhp/eco/froc.asp FROC - Reference frequency of occurrence of fish species in South Africa] * {{cite news |url=https://news.iwlearn.net/bolstering-sustainable-groundwater-development-in-the-limpopo-basin |title=Bolstering sustainable groundwater development in the Limpopo Basin |work=IW:Learn |date=27 March 2024 |access-date=1 April 2024}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Limpopo River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Botswana]] [[Category:Rivers of Zimbabwe]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Rivers of Mozambique]] [[Category:Mozambique Channel]] [[Category:Border rivers]] [[Category:Botswana–South Africa border]] [[Category:South Africa–Zimbabwe border]] [[Category:Rivers of North West (South African province)]] [[Category:Rivers of Limpopo]] 6d7ddsb1knwv9j3itusbmk99oa4sc4p 3 27320 103669 100741 2026-06-18T14:31:08Z MediaWiki message delivery 110 /* Thank you for being a part of Feminism and Folklore 2026 */ new section 103669 wikitext text/x-wiki == Congratulations to the Local Winners of Feminism and Folklore 2026 == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> [[File:Feminism and Folklore 2026 logo.svg|right|350px]] Dear {{PAGENAME}}, The Feminism and Folklore International Organizing Team is pleased to congratulate the Local Winners of '''[[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2026|Feminism and Folklore 2026]]'''. 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Congratulations once again on your achievement. —''Feminism and Folklore International Organizing Team'' </div> --[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 17:25, 7 June 2026 (GMT) <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tiven2240/wlf2026&oldid=30649454 --> == Thank you for being a part of Feminism and Folklore 2026 == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> [[File:Feminism and Folklore 2026 logo.svg|right|350px]] Dear {{PAGENAME}}, Your contributions helped make this year's [[:Feminism and Folklore 2026|Feminism and Folklore]] campaign a great success, and we are truly grateful for your time, knowledge, and dedication to documenting women's stories and folklore on Wikimedia projects. As we reflect on this year's campaign and prepare for the next edition, we'd love to hear about your experience. 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Best regards, Feminism and Folklore international Team. --[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 14:31, 18 June 2026 (GMT) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tiven2240/wlf2026&oldid=30704478 --> o8f1ypzk5nvso1gbo7c3irzh3lhpxy1 0 27375 103945 103543 2026-06-19T02:35:49Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 2 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103945 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Sahel rainfall timeseries en.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|More dan 100 years of rainfall data for Sahel show say from 1950 reach 1970, rain fall plenty pass normal (positive index values). After that, from 1970 reach 1991, the area face very serious dry years (negative index values). From 1990 come reach now, rainfall return close to de average level wey dey between 1898 den 1993, buh de amount of rain dey change plenty from year to year.]] [[File:Map of the Sahel.png|thumb|Map wey show de size den location of de Sahel region]] De Sahel region of [[Africa]] get long experienced a series of historic droughts, wey dey date back to at least de 17th century. De Sahel region be a climate zone dem sandwich between de Sudanian Savanna to de south den de Sahara desert to de north, across [[West Africa|West]] den Central Africa. While de frequency of drought insyd de region be thought e increase from de end of de 19th century, na three long droughts get dramatic environmental den societal effects upon de Sahel nations. Famine follow severe droughts insyd de 1910s, de 1940s, den de 1960s, 1970s den 1980s, although a partial recovery occur from 1975-80. De most recent drought occur insyd 2012. While at least one particularly severe drought be confirmed each century since de 17th century, de frequency den severity of recent Sahelian droughts dey stand out. Famine den dislocation on a massive scale—from 1968 to 1974 den again insyd de early den mid-1980s—be blamed on two spikes insyd de severity of de 1960-1980s drought period.<ref name=Batterbury2001>[https://web.archive.org/web/20200218192202/http://www.simonbatterbury.net/pubs/geogmag.html The Sahel region; assessing progress twenty-five years after the great drought]. Simon Batterbury, republished paper from 1998 RGS-IBG conference. Global Environmental Change (2001) v11, no 1, 1-95.</ref> From de late 1960s to early 1980s famine kill 100,000 people, e lef 750,000 dependent on food aid, wey e affect chaw of de Sahel ein 50&nbsp;million people.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304061348/http://www.unep.org/dewa/Africa/publications/AEO-1/056.htm AFRICA ENVIRONMENT OUTLOOK. Past, present and future perspectives] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130416015442/http://www.unep.org/dewa/Africa/publications/AEO-1/056.htm |date=2013-04-16 }}. United Nations Environmental Programme (2002). Retrieved 2009-02-13.</ref> De economies, agriculture, livestock den human populations of much of [[Mauritania]], [[Mali]], [[Chad]], [[Niger]] den [[Burkina Faso]] (dem know as Upper Volta during de time of de drought) be severely impacted. As disruptive as de droughts of de late 20th century be, evidence of past droughts dem record insyd Ghanaian lake sediments suggest say multi-decadal megadroughts be common insyd West Africa over de past 3,000 years den dat several droughts last far longer wey be far more severe.<ref name="shanahan2">{{Cite journal |last1=Shanahan |first1=T. M. |last2=Overpeck |first2=J. T. |last3=Anchukaitis |first3=K. J. |last4=Beck |first4=JW |last5=Cole |first5=JE |last6=Dettman |first6=DL |last7=Peck |first7=JA |last8=Scholz |first8=CA |last9=King |first9=JW |year=2009 |title=Atlantic Forcing of Persistent Drought in West Africa |journal=Science |volume=324 |issue=5925 |pages=377–380 |bibcode=2009Sci...324..377S |citeseerx=10.1.1.366.1394 |doi=10.1126/science.1166352 |pmid=19372429 |s2cid=2679216}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20091107172707/http://www.jsg.utexas.edu/news/rels/041609.html Severity, Length of Past Megadroughts Dwarf Recent Drought in West Africa]. Jackson School of Geosciences Online, April 16, 2009.</ref> Since de 1980s, summer rainfall insyd de Sahel be increasing; na dis be associated plus an increase insyd vegetation, wey dey form wat be called a 'greening' of de Sahel. De observed increase insyd rainfall be accounted for by enhancements insyd de African easterly jet, wich be known to induce wet anomalies. Na a 2011 study find say de positional shifts insyd de African easterly jet den African easterly waves accompany de northward migration of de Sahel rainband.<ref name="hindawi.com">[http://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijge/2011/259529/abs/ Wang and Gillies (2011)]</ref> == References == <references /> ==Read further== * {{Cite journal | last1=Dai | first1=A. | last2=Lamb | first2=P.J. | last3=Trenberth | first3=K.E. | last4=Hulme | first4=M. | last5=Jones | first5=P.D. | last6=Xie | first6=P. | year=2004 | title=The recent Sahel drought is real | journal=International Journal of Climatology | volume=24 | issue=11 | pages=1323–1331 | url= http://www.mikehulme.org/wp-content/uploads/2007/04/2004-dai-et-al-sahel.pdf | doi= 10.1002/joc.1083 |bibcode = 2004IJCli..24.1323D | s2cid=6955930 }}. * {{Cite journal |last1=Folland |first1=C. K. |last2=Palmer |first2=T. N. |last3=Parker |first3=D. E. |year=1986 |title=Sahel rainfall and worldwide sea temperatures, 1901−85 |journal=Nature |volume=320 |issue=6063 |pages=602&ndash;607 |doi=10.1038/320602a0 |bibcode = 1986Natur.320..602F |s2cid=4231823 }} * {{Cite journal |last1=Giannini |first1=A. |last2=Saravanan |first2=R. |last3=Chang |first3=P. |year=2003 |title=Oceanic Forcing of Sahel Rainfall on Interannual to Interdecadal Time Scales |journal=Science |volume=302 |issue=5647 |pages=1027&ndash;1030 |doi=10.1126/science.1089357 |pmid=14551320 |bibcode = 2003Sci...302.1027G |s2cid=25009125 }} * {{Cite book |editor-first=Michael H. |editor-last=Glantz |title=The Politics of Natural Disasters: The Case of the Sahel Drought |location=New York |publisher=Praeger |year=1976 }} == External links == * [http://www.unccd.int/ United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification home page] * Climate research summary -[http://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/research/climate/highlights/index.html#sahel Sahel drought: past problems, an uncertain future] Text, graphics and [http://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/research/climate/highlights/images/ani/SahelPR_ANN5yr_CM2Q_h1_A1B_6fps_720x480.mov animations] from NOAA / Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory {{Authority control}} [[Category:1820s famines]] [[Category:1830s famines]] [[Category:1910s famines]] [[Category:1960s famines]] [[Category:1970s famines]] [[Category:2010s famines]] [[Category:18th-century droughts]] [[Category:19th-century droughts]] [[Category:20th-century droughts]] [[Category:21st-century droughts]] [[Category:Droughts insyd Africa]] [[Category:Economic history of Africa]] [[Category:Sahel]] g6n4kw0q4gno3398t0jylyix2txg8bg 0 27390 103630 101216 2026-06-18T12:06:19Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 103630 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}}De '''Akaki Stormwater Channel''' be stormwater drainage infrastructure wey dey connect to Akaki River basin for Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Dis channel system be part of de bigger stormwater drainage network wey dey serve Akaki Kality area for Addis Ababa. == Background == Akaki River be de biggest river system for Addis Ababa, wey e get Little Akaki den Great Akaki rivers as part of am.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-08-31 |title=Updates {{!}} ReliefWeb |url=https://reliefweb.int/updates |access-date=2026-05-31 |website=reliefweb.int |language=en}}</ref> Fast urbanisation den lack of enough drainage infrastructure contribute to flooding problems for Akaki Kality sub-city.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ENA - ENA English - ENA |url=https://www.ena.et/web/eng/ |access-date=2026-05-31 |website=ENA English |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite thesis |last=Shimelis |first=Eyerusalem |title=Investigating the Causes of Stormwater Drain Failure: The Case of Akaki Kality Subcity, |date=2024-05-01 |publisher=Addis Ababa University |url=https://etd.aau.edu.et/handle/123456789/3855 |language=en}}</ref> == Drainage Issues == Research wey [[Addis Ababa University]] do show say drainage channels for Akaki Kality dey get problems secof poor design, poor construction practices, den improper waste disposal.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Teshome |first=Beakal |date=2022-02-24 |title=Ethiopian News {{!}} The Reporter - #1 Top News Site In Ethiopia |url=https://www.thereporterethiopia.com/ |access-date=2026-05-31 |website=www.thereporterethiopia.com |language=en-US}}</ref> De study sanso talk say stormwater overflow fi flood roads, block traffic movement, den create transportation hazards insyd de sub-city.<ref name=":1" /> == Flood Risk == Flood-mapping research for Great Akaki River identify serious flood exposure for sam parts of Akaki Kality wey dem recommend flood-protection infrastructure plus risk-management measures.<ref name=":0" /> == References == <references /> [[Category:Addis Ababa]] [[Category:Buildings den structures insyd Addis Ababa]] [[Category:Drainage canals]] [[Category:Water insyd Ethiopia]] qtbhf1ph8vs5zpn3lo8lsuwkn96glr0 0 27392 103657 101218 2026-06-18T13:43:22Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 103657 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Yopougon Stormwater Drain''' be stormwater drainage infrastructure project wey dey for Yopougon commune insyd Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2024-12-10 |title=Yopougon : Une délégation de la Banque mondiale visite le chantier canaux de drainage des eaux pluviales du PARU {{!}} AbidjanTV.net {{!}} AbidjanTV.net |url=https://abidjantv.net/societe/yopougon-une-delegation-de-la-banque-mondiale-visite-le-chantier-canaux-de-drainage-des-eaux-pluviales-du-paru/,%20https://abidjantv.net/societe/yopougon-une-delegation-de-la-banque-mondiale-visite-le-chantier-canaux-de-drainage-des-eaux-pluviales-du-paru/ |access-date=2026-05-31 |language=en-US}}</ref> Dem dey carry out de drainage works under de ''Projet d’Assainissement et de Résilience Urbaine'' (PARU), one flood-management den urban resilience programme wey get support from de Government of Côte d'Ivoire den de World Bank.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |title=La Banque mondiale salue les progrès des travaux de drainage à Yopougon - Abidjan.net News |url=https://news.abidjan.net/articles/737509/la-banque-mondiale-salue-les-progres-des-travaux-de-drainage-a-yopougon |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20260305204725/https://news.abidjan.net/articles/737509/la-banque-mondiale-salue-les-progres-des-travaux-de-drainage-a-yopougon |archive-date=2026-03-05 |access-date=2026-05-31 |language=fr}}</ref> == Background == Yopougon face flooding problems chaw times, wey affect local people den urban infrastructure for de area.<ref name=":1" /> According to World Bank infrastructure director Franz Drees-Gross, serious flooding issues for de commune be one of de main reasons why dem start dis new drainage infrastructure project.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2026-05-26 |title=Côte d’Ivoire-AIP/ La Banque mondiale salue les progrès des travaux de drainage à Yopougon – AIP – Agence Ivoirienne de Presse |url=https://www.aip.ci/134447/cote-divoire-aip-la-banque-mondiale-salue-les-progres-des-travaux-de-drainage-a-yopougon/ |access-date=2026-05-31 |language=fr-FR}}</ref> == Construction == For December 2024, officials from de World Bank visit de drainage construction site for Yopougon.<ref name=":0" /> During de visit, Franz Drees-Gross talk say de project include one drainage canal wey get almost four kilometres length.<ref name=":1" /> Project officials sanso talk say about 230,000 people fi benefit from de improved drainage infrastructure den flood-protection measures.<ref name=":2" /> == References == <references /> [[Category:Water insyd Ivory Coast]] [[Category:Abidjan]] [[Category:Buildings den structures insyd Abidjan]] k36dlttzgznz9psysse4h8qdvrfbopr 0 27393 103660 101219 2026-06-18T13:58:43Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 103660 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Guédiawaye Stormwater Channel''' (French: ''Canal d'évacuation des eaux pluviales de Guédiawaye'') be drainage infrastructure wey dey for Guédiawaye, one suburban department insyd Dakar Region for Senegal. De channel be important part of de Peri-Urban Stormwater Management Program (''Programme de Gestion des Eaux Pluviales Périurbaines'') wey dem implement to solve de long-time flooding problem for Dakar ein densely populated suburbs.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2023-03-13 |title=Senegal {{!}} AFD - Agence Française de Développement |url=https://www.afd.fr/en/countries-regions/senegal |access-date=2026-05-31 |website=www.afd.fr |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Development Projects : DRC Catalytic Project to Strengthen the INS - P125509 |url=https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/project-detail/P125509 |access-date=2026-05-31 |website=World Bank |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Development Projects : Stormwater Mgt. and Climate Change Adaptation Project - P122841 |url=https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/project-detail/P122841 |access-date=2026-05-31 |website=World Bank |language=en}}</ref> == Background == Guédiawaye be one of de most densely populated areas for Senegal, plus estimated population of more dan 400,000 people for relatively small area.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Guédiawaye |date=2025-01-23 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gu%C3%A9diawaye&oldid=1271314145 |access-date=2026-05-31 |language=en}}</ref> De department dey experience serious flooding during de annual rainy season (July to October), wey dey come plus heavy rainfall within short periods.<ref name=":0" /> Rapid urbanisation since de 1970s, togeda plus inadequate drainage infrastructure den low-lying landform, make Guédiawaye one of de areas wey flooding affect pass for de Dakar metropolitan region.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Senegal |url=https://unhabitat.org/senegal/ |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150426145210/https://unhabitat.org/senegal/ |archive-date=2015-04-26 |access-date=2026-05-31 |website=unhabitat.org}}</ref> == De PROGEP project == De Guédiawaye stormwater channel be constructed as part of de Projet de Gestion des Eaux Pluviales et d'adaptation au changement climatique (PROGEP), one major flood-management initiative wey de World Bank, de French Development Agency (AFD), den de Senegalese government fund.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> PROGEP, wey start for 2012, aim to reduce flood risk for peri-urban Dakar thru:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ministère de l'Environnement et de la Transition Écologique |url=https://environnement.gouv.sn/?password-protected=login&redirect_to=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.environnement.gouv.sn%2F |access-date=2026-05-31 |website=environnement.gouv.sn}}</ref> * Construction of primary drainage channels den retention basins * Rehabilitation of existing stormwater infrastructure * Improvement of solid waste management to prevent channel blockages * Community-based early warning systems == Infrastructure design == De channel system insyd Guédiawaye dey consist of: * Primary canals – Large-capacity concrete-lined channels wey convey stormwater to de [[Atlantic Ocean]] via de Mbao den Malika natural outlets * Secondary collectors – Smaller drains wey dey collect runoff from individual neighborhoods * Retention basins – Temporary water storage areas dem design to reduce peak flows during heavy rainfall De infrastructure be designed to handle rainfall events plus return periods of up to 10 years, though extreme events continue to challenge system capacity.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ScienceDirect.com {{!}} Science, health and medical journals, full text articles and books. |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/ |access-date=2026-05-31 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref> == Challenges den flood events == Despite de PROGEP investments, Guédiawaye continue to experience flooding. Key challenges dey include: * Sedimentation den sand accumulation insyd channels * Solid waste disposal wey dey block drainage inlets * Unauthorized construction on drainage easements * Groundwater table rise insyd low-lying areas * Increasing rainfall intensity dem potentially link to climate change Insyd September 2020, heavy rains cause flooding wey dey affect thousands of residents insyd Guédiawaye den neighboring Pikine, wey dey highlight de ongoing vulnerability of de drainage system. == References == <references /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Guediawaye Stormwater Channel}} [[Category:Water insyd Senegal]] [[Category:Buildings den structures insyd Senegal]] [[Category:Drainage canals]] m1aowf4y8chd2dq3lo66rx98oauvgqc 0 27394 103663 101220 2026-06-18T14:09:52Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 103663 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Pikine Drainage Network''' be one large-scale stormwater management system wey dey serve de densely populated suburban areas of Pikine, Keur Massar, den Guédiawaye, wey dey for de outskirts of Dakar.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=AYOBA |date=2026-03-11 |title=Gestion des inondations : Cheikh Tidiane DIEYE satisfait des résultats du PROGEP 2 |url=https://walf-groupe.com/blog/2026/03/11/gestion-des-inondations-cheikh-tidiane-dieye-satisfait-des-resultats-du-progep-2/ |access-date=2026-05-30 |website=Walf NET |language=fr-FR}}</ref> Dis network be de main physical output of de ''Projet de Gestion des Eaux Pluviales et d’Adaptation au Changement Climatique (PROGEP 2)'', wey de World Bank, de African Development Bank, den de Nordic Development Fund co-finance.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Visite de terrain: l’ADM s’engage pour une gestion durable des inondations |url=https://www.pressafrik.com/Visite-de-terrain-l-ADM-s-engage-pour-une-gestion-durable-des-inondations_a155548.html?print=1 |access-date=2026-05-30 |website=www.pressafrik.com}}</ref> By 2026, reports show say de project construct 46,000 linear metres of drainage canals insyd de "Pikine–Keur Massar–Guédiawaye triangle".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seneweb |date=2026-03-11 |title=Second Steering Committee meeting of PROGEP 2: ADM unveils satisfactory results |url=https://www.seneweb.com/fr/news/Societe/second-steering-committee-meeting-of-progep-2-adm-unveils-satisfactory-results_n_486111.html |access-date=2026-05-30 |website=Seneweb |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> == History den design == De first phase of de project start around 2012, plus focus on reducing flooding for de low-lying suburbs of Dalifort, Wakhinane, den Nimzatt.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sustainably Managing Flood Risks in Dakar’s Outer Suburbs |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2016/02/03/sustainably-managing-flood-risks-in-dakars-outer-suburbs |access-date=2026-05-30 |website=World Bank |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> De system mainly dey use gravity-fed mechanism wey direct stormwater go natural outlets widout de need for constant pumping. E dey take advantage of de area ein topography to make water flow naturally go de sea.<ref name=":1" /> Apart from de open canals, de network sanso dey include 30 kilometres of self-locking paved roads wey dem design to help water infiltrate into de groundwater table, thereby reducing surface runoff.<ref name=":0" /> === Operational Impact === Hydrological engineers report say de system fit effectively manage rainfall events wey exceed 130 millimetres, wey dey allow water to flow by gravity widout causing major urban backflow problems.<ref name=":1" /> Despite de success, officials note say de work never fini completely. Dem still need extend collector pipes to nearby areas such as de Technopôle den continue regular maintenance to prevent sediment from blocking de drainage system.<ref name=":1" /> De World Bank cite de PROGEP 2 model as an "innovation benchmark" for urban flood management across [[West Africa|West]] den Central Africa.<ref name=":0" /> == References == <references /> [[Category:Drainage canals]] [[Category:Infrastructure insyd Senegal]] [[Category:Dakar]] [[Category:World Bank Group]] [[Category:Flood control]] [[Category:Water supply den sanitation by country]] [[Category:Stormwater management]] [[Category:Water insyd Senegal]] 7s9ix583bekamda3nva514mq7b7udrw 0 27402 103672 101241 2026-06-18T14:33:07Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 103672 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Drinking water''' anaa '''potable water''' be [[water]] wey be safe for ingestion, either wen dem drink directly insyd liquid form anaa consumed indirectly thru food preparation. E often be supplied thru taps, insyd wich case e sanso be called tap water. De amount of drinking water dem require to maintain good health dey vary, den dey depend on physical activity, age, health-related issues, den environmental conditions.<ref name="WHO2004">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/nutrientschap3.pdf |title=Water Requirements, Impinging Factors, & Recommended Intakes |author1=Ann C. Grandjean |date=August 2004 |publisher=World Health Organization |pages=25–34 |chapter=3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222003438/http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/nutrientschap3.pdf |archive-date=22 February 2016 |url-status=live }} Dis 2004 article dey focus on de USA context den dey use data dem collect from de US military.</ref><ref name="EPA2011">{{cite book |url=http://www.epa.gov/ncea/efh/pdfs/efh-complete.pdf |title=Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition |date=September 2011 |publisher=National Center for Environmental Assessment |access-date=24 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924093656/http://www.epa.gov/ncea/efh/pdfs/efh-complete.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2015 }}</ref> For those wey dey work insyd a hot climate, up to {{Convert|16|L|USgal|sp=us}} a day fi be required.<ref name=WHO2004/> As many as two billion people dey lack safe drinking water.<ref name="WHO2018">{{cite web |date=March 2018 |title=Drinking-water |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs391/en/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605071028/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs391/en/ |archive-date=5 June 2015 |access-date=23 March 2018 |website=World Health Organization}}</ref> Unsafe water fi [[Waterborne diseases|carry disease]] wey be a major cause of death den illness worldwide.<ref name=":3">{{cite news|title=Unsafe water kills more people than war, Ban says on World Day|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2010/03/333182-unsafe-water-kills-more-people-war-ban-says-world-day|access-date=10 May 2018|publisher=UN News|date=22 March 2010|archive-date=11 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180511014214/https://news.un.org/en/story/2010/03/333182-unsafe-water-kills-more-people-war-ban-says-world-day|url-status=live}}</ref> Developing countries most be affected by unsafe drinking water.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gadgil, Ashok J. |date=1998 |title=Drinking Water in Developing Countries |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.energy.23.1.253 |url-status=live |journal=Annual Review of Energy and the Environment |publisher=Annual Reviews |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=253–286 |doi=10.1146/annurev.energy.23.1.253 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260219071710/https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.energy.23.1.253 |archive-date=19 February 2026 |access-date=26 March 2026 |quote=Unsafe drinking water remains a major issue in developing countries..}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == [[Category:Drinking water]] [[Category:Sanitation]] n5lj53dz0smzyasmf0agrwvrsvqxkzb 103673 103672 2026-06-18T14:40:09Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 103673 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Drinking water''' anaa '''potable water''' be [[water]] wey be safe for ingestion, either wen dem drink directly insyd liquid form anaa consumed indirectly thru food preparation. E often be supplied thru taps, insyd wich case e sanso be called tap water. De amount of drinking water dem require to maintain good health dey vary, den dey depend on physical activity, age, health-related issues, den environmental conditions.<ref name="WHO2004">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/nutrientschap3.pdf |title=Water Requirements, Impinging Factors, & Recommended Intakes |author1=Ann C. Grandjean |date=August 2004 |publisher=World Health Organization |pages=25–34 |chapter=3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222003438/http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/nutrientschap3.pdf |archive-date=22 February 2016 |url-status=live }} Dis 2004 article dey focus on de USA context den dey use data dem collect from de US military.</ref><ref name="EPA2011">{{cite book |url=http://www.epa.gov/ncea/efh/pdfs/efh-complete.pdf |title=Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition |date=September 2011 |publisher=National Center for Environmental Assessment |access-date=24 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924093656/http://www.epa.gov/ncea/efh/pdfs/efh-complete.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2015 }}</ref> For those wey dey work insyd a hot climate, up to {{Convert|16|L|USgal|sp=us}} a day fi be required.<ref name=WHO2004/> As many as two billion people dey lack safe drinking water.<ref name="WHO2018">{{cite web |date=March 2018 |title=Drinking-water |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs391/en/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605071028/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs391/en/ |archive-date=5 June 2015 |access-date=23 March 2018 |website=World Health Organization}}</ref> Unsafe water fi [[Waterborne diseases|carry disease]] wey be a major cause of death den illness worldwide.<ref name=":3">{{cite news|title=Unsafe water kills more people than war, Ban says on World Day|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2010/03/333182-unsafe-water-kills-more-people-war-ban-says-world-day|access-date=10 May 2018|publisher=UN News|date=22 March 2010|archive-date=11 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180511014214/https://news.un.org/en/story/2010/03/333182-unsafe-water-kills-more-people-war-ban-says-world-day|url-status=live}}</ref> Developing countries most be affected by unsafe drinking water.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gadgil, Ashok J. |date=1998 |title=Drinking Water in Developing Countries |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.energy.23.1.253 |url-status=live |journal=Annual Review of Energy and the Environment |publisher=Annual Reviews |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=253–286 |doi=10.1146/annurev.energy.23.1.253 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260219071710/https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.energy.23.1.253 |archive-date=19 February 2026 |access-date=26 March 2026 |quote=Unsafe drinking water remains a major issue in developing countries..}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q7892|c=Category:Drinking water|n=no|q=no|b=Drinking water|v=no|voy=Water|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=drinking water|species=no}} * {{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/drinking-water|title=Drinking-water|website=www.who.int}} - WHO fact sheet on drinking water * {{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064|title=Guidelines for drinking-water quality: fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda|website=www.who.int}} - WHO Guidelines for drinking-water quality (2022) * {{Cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/drinking/ |title=Drinking Water &#124; Drinking Water &#124; Healthy Water &#124; CDC |access-date=9 September 2017 |archive-date=21 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221121224602/https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/drinking/ |url-status=live }} - Drinking Water – US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. General info, data and publications. * {{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water|title=Ground Water and Drinking Water|first=OW|last=US EPA|date=20 February 2013|website=www.epa.gov}} - Ground water and drinking water – US Environmental Protection Agency. General info, regulations & technical publications. {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Drinking Water}} [[Category:Drinking water| ]] [[Category:Sanitation]] 5mv8r2fq91kuedvu6gbz7b3wb2k1ylu 103938 103673 2026-06-19T01:25:03Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 103938 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Drinking water''' anaa '''potable water''' be [[water]] wey be safe for ingestion, either wen dem drink directly insyd liquid form anaa consumed indirectly thru food preparation. E often be supplied thru taps, insyd wich case e sanso be called tap water. De amount of drinking water dem require to maintain good health dey vary, den dey depend on physical activity, age, health-related issues, den environmental conditions.<ref name="WHO2004">{{cite book |chapter-url=https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/nutrientschap3.pdf |title=Water Requirements, Impinging Factors, & Recommended Intakes |author1=Ann C. Grandjean |date=August 2004 |publisher=World Health Organization |pages=25–34 |chapter=3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222003438/http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/nutrientschap3.pdf |archive-date=22 February 2016 |url-status=live }} Dis 2004 article dey focus on de USA context den dey use data dem collect from de US military.</ref><ref name="EPA2011">{{cite book |url=http://www.epa.gov/ncea/efh/pdfs/efh-complete.pdf |title=Exposure Factors Handbook: 2011 Edition |date=September 2011 |publisher=National Center for Environmental Assessment |access-date=24 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924093656/http://www.epa.gov/ncea/efh/pdfs/efh-complete.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2015 }}</ref> For those wey dey work insyd a hot climate, up to {{Convert|16|L|USgal|sp=us}} a day fi be required.<ref name=WHO2004/> As many as two billion people dey lack safe drinking water.<ref name="WHO2018">{{cite web |date=March 2018 |title=Drinking-water |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs391/en/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605071028/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs391/en/ |archive-date=5 June 2015 |access-date=23 March 2018 |website=World Health Organization}}</ref> Unsafe water fi [[Waterborne diseases|carry disease]] wey be a major cause of death den illness worldwide.<ref name=":3">{{cite news|title=Unsafe water kills more people than war, Ban says on World Day|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2010/03/333182-unsafe-water-kills-more-people-war-ban-says-world-day|access-date=10 May 2018|publisher=UN News|date=22 March 2010|archive-date=11 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180511014214/https://news.un.org/en/story/2010/03/333182-unsafe-water-kills-more-people-war-ban-says-world-day|url-status=live}}</ref> Developing countries most be affected by unsafe drinking water.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gadgil, Ashok J. |date=1998 |title=Drinking Water in Developing Countries |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.energy.23.1.253 |url-status=live |journal=Annual Review of Energy and the Environment |publisher=Annual Reviews |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=253–286 |doi=10.1146/annurev.energy.23.1.253 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260219071710/https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.energy.23.1.253 |archive-date=19 February 2026 |access-date=26 March 2026 |quote=Unsafe drinking water remains a major issue in developing countries..}}</ref> == Sources == {{Further|Water resources|Water security}} [[File:E8661-Pattaya-water-vending-machines.jpg|thumb|Drinking water vending machines for Thailand. Dem dey sell one litre of clean drinking water (inside customer ein own bottle) for 1 baht.]] [[File:Water well types wiki.svg|thumb|Diagram we dey show different types of water wells]] [[File:Water system.pdf|thumb|Simple diagram of water supply network]] Almost all places wey people dey live for world get drinking water, although e fit cost plenty money and sometimes the supply no dey stable. Common places wey people dey get drinking water from include springs, hyporheic zones, aquifers (groundwater), rainwater harvesting, surface water from rivers, streams and glaciers, plus desalinated seawater. Before people fit drink water from any of these sources safely, dem for treat am well and make e meet drinking water quality standards.<ref>Hall, Ellen L.; Dietrich, Andrea M. (2000). [http://www.wrb.ri.gov/data_education/Education_Drinking_Water_History.pdf "A Brief History of Drinking Water."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208023718/http://www.wrb.ri.gov/data_education/Education_Drinking_Water_History.pdf|date=8 February 2015}} Washington: American Water Works Association. Product No. OPF-0051634, Accessed 13 June 2012.</ref> One experimental source of drinking water be solar-powered atmospheric water generators.<ref name="10.1038/s41586-021-03900-w">{{cite journal |last1=Lord |first1=Jackson |last2=Thomas |first2=Ashley |last3=Treat |first3=Neil |last4=Forkin |first4=Matthew |last5=Bain |first5=Robert |last6=Dulac |first6=Pierre |last7=Behroozi |first7=Cyrus H. |last8=Mamutov |first8=Tilek |last9=Fongheiser |first9=Jillia |last10=Kobilansky |first10=Nicole |last11=Washburn |first11=Shane |last12=Truesdell |first12=Claudia |last13=Lee |first13=Clare |last14=Schmaelzle |first14=Philipp H. |date=October 2021 |title=Global potential for harvesting drinking water from air using solar energy |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=598 |issue=7882 |pages=611–617 |bibcode=2021Natur.598..611L |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03900-w |issn=1476-4687 |pmc=8550973 |pmid=34707305}}</ref> [[Bottled water]] too be source of drinking water, especially when people believe say other water sources no safe.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hu |first1=Zhihua |last2=Morton |first2=Lois Wright |last3=Mahler |first3=Robert L. |date=February 2011 |title=Bottled water: United States consumers and their perceptions of water quality |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=565–578 |doi=10.3390/ijerph8020565 |doi-access=free |issn=1660-4601 |pmc=3084479 |pmid=21556204}}</ref> Although most bottled water be treated tap water, some companies dey also collect water from natural springs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Doria |first=Miguel F. |date=June 2006 |title=Bottled water versus tap water: understanding consumers' preferences |url=https://watermark02.silverchair.com/271.pdf?token=AQECAHi208BE49Ooan9kkhW_Ercy7Dm3ZL_9Cf3qfKAc485ysgAAA_4wggP6BgkqhkiG9w0BBwagggPrMIID5wIBADCCA-AGCSqGSIb3DQEHATAeBglghkgBZQMEAS4wEQQMEXaaSEGgtOIX_yFGAgEQgIIDsZPSU_-e8yEElFbjD_En7OuipSXYMWBEvm2Ra7rq1yV4ocdCN7ebUk8UcKDo6sBwPbXETgKY314lFlKKZHOmvILh2oCAg-ZV9wNLBZ4t4mC4LSkyXOhtgcvxzmpvgTmzd8xbm9DUN9hNs7JkwsIsywDhZd_9O-c98hQAKmiv2Lk6UPKJHHeLIgoC3b80TrcW33nYJ0nFu4oKA1BNcpjOcdf4w6Co6LUoBUelfTjninhnzWWqK3kDHNPsfY792CFoCh18jU0o-zE3B0xLfYHS4sl1qx-hWs_lp188XW07eL67WN8WJFUpAbIr-gbG8NrMHZpEnBTc5Wv5nDFofk_nTlGnjnBTNvqw2baFF7N1njAO19fhM3RAdJrwF4x2PqIizseT-XS78YJUotUtxedbGPTgeSRvqlQTfXu8sh2vGLBi5sTEIJ983uXK23Oco5EZ1u9n1Npq8MT-kRolHXxHuWSzLXUSyn-iJ6MZUxzaKWZZBSYbiXIDyl6n0FfEo-1BieMCLVFkSjzb03ZWTAMmxGLRg5WbtD325M6n1AhEhf3G9D3gfBY9RnD_6FoQFssnG2KDx62UK6sRYkb5OFRx2Ooz9uaE2ecl_J_hsR1smU1Wx-kD9ldqGNJcyyYQ-KD1WsUZqCyB8RQC1BWLrIzZMv8rp6xmTImQRHZAaWjzvT3XsqOtodhhE-7mntGq_Y4t3pCwJHTMPMnaZoA20k076VSoB4jyJQUL6rrnStl-Z_2EX9b0CWgtMKMnrobBDbKpHId0LKMFc-ZXp5LVVoG-DSXL2ytZHC_GK3ZlbX9yrSMo7t4NFDEshMGnRQYqJbtCjj4Rdql-H0WATaMMoulHsKq7tftwmIzDrGbP7VUtD3QXBZ7AJIRkpNKoE-qYMiAEI5nGbPTLUzxcz7br0aae3-m00PHt1MJp7j2biJo7-ZJcf-Tdu_nPp-vwl6aR3jxSDgNsai3h9gN4QGDLF3egTNN3BDK5wTkj462BBd7z83Hhva70JZL6XHCRnGVzpFfzaavt8AIy9yk2j6z4iNnMHgx2KkiT4MzNZM5DR7xCaN3uZQAAJYG7BREpEcAwe1DwHd7I-3XZBhZSZFnEKd3To1j6KvrxuxytzEGyL9J1cR46Acs1sr4qEFV9JEaaQtSygvWCQCNp9CKSUGtANUTpQJbXRA-d8SCBSg1qRwkaKo1m1CCkQIbZjYrATqLaD9ETkZEsl0caNI4qCYD9R-SvaHIi_RZo54CId1ceXmLFT86fg |journal=Journal of Water & Health |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=271–276 |doi=10.2166/wh.2006.0023 |pmid=16813019 |bibcode=2006JWH.....4..271D }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Schardt, David |date=2000 |title=Water, Water Everywhere |url=http://www.cspinet.org/nah/water |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090516005745/http://www.cspinet.org/nah/water |archive-date=16 May 2009 |publisher=Center for Science in the Public Interest |location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref> == Sources == {{Further|Water resources|Water security}} [[File:E8661-Pattaya-water-vending-machines.jpg|thumb|Drinking water vending machines for Thailand. Dem dey sell one liter of clean drinking water (inside customer ein own bottle) for 1 baht.]] [[File:Water well types wiki.svg|thumb|Diagram wey dey show different types of water wells]] [[File:Water system.pdf|thumb|Simple diagram of one water supply network]] Clean drinking water dey available for almost all places wey people dey live around the world, although e fit cost plenty money, and supply no dey always stable or sustainable. Common places wey people dey get drinking water from include springs, groundwater from aquifers, rainwater harvesting, surface water from rivers, streams and glaciers, plus desalinated seawater. Before people fit drink water from these sources safely, dem for treat am well and make e meet drinking water quality standards.<ref>Hall, Ellen L.; Dietrich, Andrea M. (2000). [http://www.wrb.ri.gov/data_education/Education_Drinking_Water_History.pdf "A Brief History of Drinking Water."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208023718/http://www.wrb.ri.gov/data_education/Education_Drinking_Water_History.pdf|date=8 February 2015}} Washington: American Water Works Association. Product No. OPF-0051634, Accessed 13 June 2012.</ref> Another experimental source be solar-powered atmospheric water generators wey fit collect water from air.<ref name="10.1038/s41586-021-03900-w">{{cite journal |last1=Lord |first1=Jackson |last2=Thomas |first2=Ashley |last3=Treat |first3=Neil |last4=Forkin |first4=Matthew |last5=Bain |first5=Robert |last6=Dulac |first6=Pierre |last7=Behroozi |first7=Cyrus H. |last8=Mamutov |first8=Tilek |last9=Fongheiser |first9=Jillia |last10=Kobilansky |first10=Nicole |last11=Washburn |first11=Shane |last12=Truesdell |first12=Claudia |last13=Lee |first13=Clare |last14=Schmaelzle |first14=Philipp H. |date=October 2021 |title=Global potential for harvesting drinking water from air using solar energy |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=598 |issue=7882 |pages=611–617 |bibcode=2021Natur.598..611L |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03900-w |issn=1476-4687 |pmc=8550973 |pmid=34707305}}</ref> Bottled water too be source of drinking water, especially for places wey consumers believe say other water sources no safe.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hu |first1=Zhihua |last2=Morton |first2=Lois Wright |last3=Mahler |first3=Robert L. |date=February 2011 |title=Bottled water: United States consumers and their perceptions of water quality |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=565–578 |doi=10.3390/ijerph8020565 |doi-access=free |issn=1660-4601 |pmc=3084479 |pmid=21556204}}</ref> Although most bottled water na treated tap water, some companies still dey use spring water.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Doria |first=Miguel F. |date=June 2006 |title=Bottled water versus tap water: understanding consumers' preferences |url=https://watermark02.silverchair.com/271.pdf?token=AQECAHi208BE49Ooan9kkhW_Ercy7Dm3ZL_9Cf3qfKAc485ysgAAA_4wggP6BgkqhkiG9w0BBwagggPrMIID5wIBADCCA-AGCSqGSIb3DQEHATAeBglghkgBZQMEAS4wEQQMEXaaSEGgtOIX_yFGAgEQgIIDsZPSU_-e8yEElFbjD_En7OuipSXYMWBEvm2Ra7rq1yV4ocdCN7ebUk8UcKDo6sBwPbXETgKY314lFlKKZHOmvILh2oCAg-ZV9wNLBZ4t4mC4LSkyXOhtgcvxzmpvgTmzd8xbm9DUN9hNs7JkwsIsywDhZd_9O-c98hQAKmiv2Lk6UPKJHHeLIgoC3b80TrcW33nYJ0nFu4oKA1BNcpjOcdf4w6Co6LUoBUelfTjninhnzWWqK3kDHNPsfY792CFoCh18jU0o-zE3B0xLfYHS4sl1qx-hWs_lp188XW07eL67WN8WJFUpAbIr-gbG8NrMHZpEnBTc5Wv5nDFofk_nTlGnjnBTNvqw2baFF7N1njAO19fhM3RAdJrwF4x2PqIizseT-XS78YJUotUtxedbGPTgeSRvqlQTfXu8sh2vGLBi5sTEIJ983uXK23Oco5EZ1u9n1Npq8MT-kRolHXxHuWSzLXUSyn-iJ6MZUxzaKWZZBSYbiXIDyl6n0FfEo-1BieMCLVFkSjzb03ZWTAMmxGLRg5WbtD325M6n1AhEhf3G9D3gfBY9RnD_6FoQFssnG2KDx62UK6sRYkb5OFRx2Ooz9uaE2ecl_J_hsR1smU1Wx-kD9ldqGNJcyyYQ-KD1WsUZqCyB8RQC1BWLrIzZMv8rp6xmTImQRHZAaWjzvT3XsqOtodhhE-7mntGq_Y4t3pCwJHTMPMnaZoA20k076VSoB4jyJQUL6rrnStl-Z_2EX9b0CWgtMKMnrobBDbKpHId0LKMFc-ZXp5LVVoG-DSXL2ytZHC_GK3ZlbX9yrSMo7t4NFDEshMGnRQYqJbtCjj4Rdql-H0WATaMMoulHsKq7tftwmIzDrGbP7VUtD3QXBZ7AJIRkpNKoE-qYMiAEI5nGbPTLUzxcz7br0aae3-m00PHt1MJp7j2biJo7-ZJcf-Tdu_nPp-vwl6aR3jxSDgNsai3h9gN4QGDLF3egTNN3BDK5wTkj462BBd7z83Hhva70JZL6XHCRnGVzpFfzaavt8AIy9yk2j6z4iNnMHgx2CkiT4MzNZM5DR7xCaN3uZQAAJYG7BREpEcAwe1DwHd7I-3XZBhZSZFnEKd3To1j6KvrxuxytzEGyL9J1cR46Acs1sr4qEFV9JEaaQtSygvWCQCNp9CKSUGtANUTpQJbXRA-d8SCBSg1qRwkaKo1m1CCkQIbZjYrATqLaD9ETkZEsl0caNI4qCYD9R-SvaHIi_RZo54CId1ceXmLFT86fg |journal=Journal of Water & Health |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=271–276 |doi=10.2166/wh.2006.0023 |pmid=16813019 |bibcode=2006JWH.....4..271D }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Schardt, David |date=2000 |title=Water, Water Everywhere |url=http://www.cspinet.org/nah/water |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090516005745/http://www.cspinet.org/nah/water |archive-date=16 May 2009 |publisher=Center for Science in the Public Interest |location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref> == Supply == {{Main|Water supply|Water supply network}} The easiest and most efficient way to carry clean drinking water go people ein homes na through pipes. Plumbing systems need big investment before dem fit build am. Plenty water supply systems too dey cost plenty money to maintain. For many industrialized countries, replacing old water and sanitation infrastructure fit cost about US$200 billion every year. Water wey dey leak from broken pipes, whether e be treated or untreated, dey reduce access to clean water. For some cities, about half of all water fit leak from the system before e reach users.<ref>United Nations. World Water Assessment Programme (2009). [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/water/wwap/wwdr/wwdr3-2009/downloads-wwdr3/ "Water in a Changing World: Facts and Figures."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120624080709/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/water/wwap/wwdr/wwdr3-2009/downloads-wwdr3|date=24 June 2012}} World Water Development Report 3. p. 58 Accessed 13 June 2012.</ref> Tap water be water wey water supply systems carry through pipes enter homes, where people fit collect am from taps or spigots. == Quantity == === Usage for general household use === {{Further|Water use|Residential water use in the U.S. and Canada}} For the United States, the average person dey use about {{Convert|69.3|USgal|sp=us}} of water every day for house.<ref>Mayer, P.W.; DeOreo, W.B.; Opitz, E.M.; Kiefer, J.C.; Davis, W.Y.; Dziegielewski, B.; & Nelson, J.O., 1999. Residential End Uses of Water. AWWARF and AWWA, Denver.</ref><ref>William B. DeOreo, Peter Mayer, Benedykt Dziegielewski, Jack Kiefer. 2016. Residential End Uses of Water, Version 2. Water Research Foundation. Denver, Colorado.</ref> Out of all this water, only about 1% people use am for drinking and cooking.<ref name=":0">Joseph Cotruvo, Victor Kimm, Arden Calvert. [http://www.epaalumni.org/hcp/drinkingwater.pdf "Drinking Water: A Half Century of Progress."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731153608/http://www.epaalumni.org/hcp/drinkingwater.pdf |date=31 July 2020 }} EPA Alumni Association. 1 March 2016.</ref> Most of the water dey go toilets, washing machines, showers, baths, sinks and leakages. [[File:Total Renewable Water Resources Per Capita (2020).svg|thumb|Total renewable water resources per capita in 2020]] === Usage for drinking{{anchor|Requirements}} === {{Further|Daily consumption of drinking water}} The amount of water wey person suppose drink every day no be the same for everybody.<ref name="WHO2004"/> E depend on the person ein age, health, physical activity and the environment. For the United States, the recommended Adequate Intake of total water for adults be {{Convert|4.0|L|floz|sigfig=3}} every day for men above 18 years and {{Convert|3.0|L|floz|sigfig=3}} every day for women above 18 years. This estimate assume say about 80% of the water come from drinks and the remaining 20% come from food.<ref>{{cite web |title=US daily reference intake values |url=http://iom.edu/Reports/2004/Dietary-Reference-Intakes-Water-Potassium-Sodium-Chloride-and-Sulfate.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006174858/http://www.iom.edu/Reports/2004/Dietary-Reference-Intakes-Water-Potassium-Sodium-Chloride-and-Sulfate.aspx |archive-date=6 October 2011 |access-date=5 December 2011 |publisher=Iom.edu}}</ref> The European Food Safety Authority too recommend {{convert|2.0|L|floz}} total water every day for women and {{convert|2.5|L|floz}} every day for men.<ref name="efsa">{{cite journal |author=EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition, and Allergies |year=2010 |title=Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for water |journal=EFSA Journal |volume=8 |issue=3 |page=1459 |doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1459 |doi-access=free}}</ref> === Animals === People wey dey rear animals too dey consider both the quality and quantity of drinking water wey animals need. For example, one dairy cow fit need about {{Convert|35|gal|liter}} of water every day. One horse fit need about one-third of that amount, while one pig fit need about one-tenth.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Average Daily Water Needs |url=https://aermotorwindmill.com/pages/windmills-and-water-needs |access-date=16 November 2024 |website=Aermotor Windmill Company |archive-date=7 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241207083911/https://aermotorwindmill.com/pages/windmills-and-water-needs |url-status=live }}</ref> Even though researchers don study drinking water needs for domestic animals well, studies about how wild animals drink water still no plenty. == Sources == {{Further|Water resources|Water security}} [[File:E8661-Pattaya-water-vending-machines.jpg|thumb|Drinking water vending machines for Thailand. One liter of clean water dem dey sell am (you fit use your own bottle) for 1 baht.]] [[File:Water well types wiki.svg|thumb|Diagram wey show different types of water well]] [[File:Water system.pdf|thumb|Simple diagram wey show how water supply network dey work]] Clean potable water dey available for almost every populated place for world, even though e fit be expensive, and sometimes supply no dey steady. Places wey people dey normally collect drinking water include springs, underground water (aquifers/hyporheic zones), rainwater harvesting, surface water like rivers, streams, glaciers, and even desalinated sea water. For people to fit drink these water sources safe, dem must undergo proper water treatment and also meet drinking water quality standards.<ref>Hall, Ellen L.; Dietrich, Andrea M. (2000). "A Brief History of Drinking Water." {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208023718/http://www.wrb.ri.gov/data_education/Education_Drinking_Water_History.pdf|date=8 February 2015}} Washington: American Water Works Association. Product No. OPF-0051634, Accessed 13 June 2012.</ref> One experimental source be solar-powered atmospheric water generators.<ref name="10.1038/s41586-021-03900-w">{{cite journal ... }}</ref> Bottled water also be source of drinking water especially when people feel say other sources no safe.<ref>{{Cite journal ... }}</ref> Even though many bottled water na just treated tap water, some dey come from natural springs.<ref>{{Cite journal ... }}</ref><ref>{{cite web ... }}</ref> == Supply == {{Main|Water supply|Water supply network}} Best and easiest way to move clean water be through pipes. Plumbing system dey cost plenty money to build. Some systems also get high maintenance cost. For industrial countries, cost to replace old water and sanitation system fit reach $200 billion every year. When pipes dey leak, clean water dey waste and access reduce. Some cities fit lose up to 50% water through leakage.<ref>United Nations. World Water Assessment Programme (2009)...</ref> Tap water na water wey dey come through pipe go house and e dey come out for tap or spigot. == Quantity == === Usage for general household use === {{Further|Water use|Residential water use in the U.S. and Canada}} For United States, average person dey use about {{Convert|69.3|USgal|sp=us}} of water every day for house.<ref>Mayer, P.W.; DeOreo, W.B. ...</ref> From this amount, only small part (about 1%) dem dey use am for drinking and cooking.<ref name=":0">Joseph Cotruvo ...</ref> Most water usage dey go toilet flushing, washing machine, shower, bath, faucet use and leakages. [[File:Total Renewable Water Resources Per Capita (2020).svg|thumb|Total renewable water resources per person in 2020]] === Usage for drinking === {{Further|Daily consumption of drinking water}} How much water person suppose drink every day no be fixed. E dey depend on age, health, activity and environment. For US, adult men suppose take about {{Convert|4.0|L|floz|sigfig=3}} per day, women about {{Convert|3.0|L|floz|sigfig=3}}.<ref>{{cite web ... }}</ref> Europe recommendation be {{convert|2.0|L|floz}} for women and {{convert|2.5|L|floz}} for men.<ref name="efsa">{{cite journal ... }}</ref> === Animals === Animals also need water for survival. For example, farmer fit plan about {{Convert|35|gal|liter}} per day for dairy cow, less for horse, and even less for pig.<ref>{{Cite web ... }}</ref> But for wild animals, research about their water drinking behavior no plenty. == Quality == {{main|Water quality}} {{further|Water pollution|Hard water}} According to WHO, safe drinking water na water wey no go cause health problem even if person drink am all life long.<ref name="WHO_2017" /> Finland dey rank as country with best drinking water quality for world according to UNICEF and UNESCO report.<ref>{{cite web ... }}</ref> === Parameters to monitor quality === Water quality get three main areas: microbiological, chemical, and physical. Microbiological things include bacteria like E. coli, viruses, protozoa like Giardia and Cryptosporidium, and others wey fit cause disease. These ones dey very dangerous because dem fit affect health quick. Chemical and physical parameters include heavy metals, organic compounds, suspended solids, turbidity. Some chemicals dey cause long-term illness like arsenic or nitrates. Pesticides also fit enter water source even in small amount and e depend on toxicity and exposure level.<ref>{{cite web ... }}</ref> PFAS chemicals also dey found everywhere in environment including water and dem fit affect immune system, liver and growth.<ref>{{cite web ... }}</ref> == Health issues due to low quality == {{Further|WASH#Health aspects|Waterborne diseases}} WHO talk say access to safe drinking water na human right. Dirty water dey cause over 500,000 deaths every year.<ref name="WHO2014" /> E dey also cause diseases like cholera, diarrhea, typhoid, hepatitis A and polio.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web ... }}</ref> Main cause for dirty water for developing countries na poor sanitation and hygiene (WASH system). === Diarrhea, malnutrition and stunting === Poor water and sanitation dey cause diarrhea especially for children. This one fit lead to malnutrition and slow growth. === Consumption of contaminated groundwater === Some underground water get fluoride or arsenic wey too much fit cause serious health problem like bone deformity and dental fluorosis.<ref name="Pearce">{{cite book ... }}</ref> == Examples of poor drinking water quality incidents == Some incidents include: * 1854 cholera outbreak for London wey John Snow trace to contaminated water pump. * Flint water crisis for USA (lead contamination). * Walkerton E. coli outbreak for Canada where people die. * Many other outbreaks linked to bacteria, viruses and chemicals. == Treatment == {{Main|Water purification|Water treatment}} Water treatment dey necessary before people fit drink am. Methods include filtration, boiling, chemical disinfection and UV treatment. Boiling fit kill germs but e need fuel and storage problem. Solar disinfection also dey used for poor areas. Chlorination na common method but e fit create by-products wey also get health risk. == Point of use methods == Small household systems also dey used to treat water at home especially for low-income areas. Solar water disinfection (SODIS) na cheap method wey people dey use sunlight kill germs in water bottles.<ref>{{Cite journal ... }}</ref> == Global access == [[File:Share of the population using safely managed drinking water, OWID.svg|thumb|World map showing access to safe drinking water]] WHO talk say access to safe drinking water na basic human right.<ref name="WHO_2017" /> By 2015, about 5.2 billion people get safe drinking water. But still millions no get access especially for sub-Saharan Africa. Dirty water still dey affect billions of people and cause diseases. == Regulations == Countries dey set rules to control water quality based on WHO guidelines. === European Union === EU get water framework directive wey control water quality and protection across member states. === Japan === Japan improve water standards and monitoring systems to ensure safe drinking water. === New Zealand === New Zealand establish Taumata Arowai as regulator for drinking water and wastewater. === Singapore === Singapore dey import water from Malaysia but also dey recycle wastewater into NEWater and maintain strict water quality standards. === Singapore === Singapore na big importer of water from neighboring Malaysia, but dem also dey recycle plenty wastewater to make sure say water supply steady for di country. Dem dey call di reclaimed water NEWater. Singapore improve dem water quality rules for 2019, align am with WHO recommended standards. Monitoring dey handled by Environmental Public Health Department under Singapore government.<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Drinking Water Quality |url=https://www.pub.gov.sg/Documents/Singapore_Drinking_Water_Quality.pdf |access-date=28 June 2022 |publisher=Singapore National Water Agency |archive-date=18 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718210326/https://www.pub.gov.sg/Documents/Singapore_Drinking_Water_Quality.pdf }}</ref> == Global access == {{Further|WASH|List of countries by access to clean water}} WHO talk say access to safe drinking water na basic human right and e dey important for public health. [[File:Share of the population using safely managed drinking water, OWID.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|World map for SDG 6 Indicator 6.1.1 in 2022: "Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services"]] [[File:Population in survey regions living without safely managed drinking water.webp|thumb|Population in different regions wey no get safely managed drinking water]] In 1990, only about 76% of people for world get access to drinking water. By 2015, e don increase reach about 91%.<ref name="ourworldindata_Hannah_2018">{{citation|last1=Ritchie|first1=Hannah|title=Water Access, Resources & Sanitation|url=https://ourworldindata.org/water-access-resources-sanitation#access-to-improved-water-sources|work=OurWorldInData.org|year=2018}}</ref> Sub-Saharan Africa still dey struggle pass, with access rates between 40% to 80% depending on country. By 2015, about 5.2 billion people (71%) get safely managed drinking water services.<ref name="WHO_UNICEF_Progress_2017">{{cite report|url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/258617/9789241512893-eng.pdf?sequence=1|title=Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene|publisher=WHO and UNICEF|isbn=978-92-4-151289-3}}</ref> But still about 1.8 billion people dey use water sources wey fit get fecal contamination.<ref name="WHO2014" /> In many developed countries like Europe, North America, Australia and New Zealand, access to safe drinking water almost universal. However, in poorer countries, people sometimes spend large part of income just for water access. == Global monitoring of access == WHO and UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) dey monitor global progress for water and sanitation goals. Dem dey track improved water sources like piped water, protected wells, boreholes, and rainwater systems. Unimproved sources include rivers, unprotected wells, and vendor-supplied water. Even improved sources still fit get contamination problems in some areas. == Regulations == Different countries dey use WHO guidelines to set dem own drinking water standards. === European Union === EU Water Framework Directive dey guide how member countries manage water resources and protect drinking water quality.<ref name="waterframework">{{cite journal |last=Kaika |first=Maria |date=April 2003 |title=The Water Framework Directive |journal=European Planning Studies}}</ref> Each country get enforcement body to make sure water companies follow rules. === Japan === Japan Ministry of Health dey set strict water quality standards and regularly revise dem to reduce contamination risks.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare: Water Supply in Japan |url=https://www.mhlw.go.jp/english/policy/health/water_supply/4.html }}</ref> === New Zealand === New Zealand Water Services Act 2021 establish Taumata Arowai as regulator for drinking water and wastewater services. Dem dey monitor suppliers and test water quality through certified laboratories. === Singapore === Singapore get strict regulation system and continuous monitoring. Dem also invest heavily in water recycling (NEWater) to reduce dependency on imports. == Conclusion == Clean drinking water na basic need for human life. Even though global access don improve over time, still millions of people no get safe water. Poor water quality still dey cause disease, death, and economic hardship especially for developing countries. To solve this problem, countries need better infrastructure, stronger regulation, improved sanitation, and continuous monitoring of water sources. == Health issues due to low quality == {{Further|WASH#Health aspects|Waterborne diseases}} World Health Organization (WHO) emphasize say access to safe drinking water na basic human right and key part of public health protection. Contaminated water dey cause more than 500,000 deaths every year globally.<ref name="WHO2014" /> These deaths mainly come from diseases like cholera, diarrhea, dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid, and polio.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Drinking-water |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/drinking-water }}</ref> Most times, water contamination for developing countries come from poor sanitation, open defecation, and lack of hygiene systems. This one dey grouped under WASH (Water, Sanitation and Hygiene). === Diarrhea, malnutrition and stunting === [[File:Slum_and_dirty_river.jpg|thumb|Poverty and poor sanitation fit lead to dirty living conditions like this one for India Himalayas]] Poor water quality and sanitation dey strongly linked to diarrhea disease, especially for children under five years. Repeated diarrhea fit lead to malnutrition and stunted growth. Children wey dey grow under such conditions often suffer weak immunity and poor physical development. === Consumption of contaminated groundwater === {{Main|Groundwater pollution|Arsenic contamination of groundwater}} Some groundwater sources contain high levels of fluoride or arsenic. These substances naturally dissolve from rocks into water. Long-term exposure to high fluoride (above 1.5 ppm F) fit cause dental fluorosis and skeletal fluorosis, leading to bone deformities in children.<ref name="Pearce">{{cite book |last=Pearce |first=Fred |title=When the Rivers Run Dry}}</ref> Arsenic contamination also be global problem affecting about 140 million people worldwide, especially in Asia and parts of Africa. Treatment methods include membrane filtration, adsorption, precipitation, and electrocoagulation.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last=Ahuja |first=Satinder |title=Advances in Water Purification Techniques |date=2018}}</ref> == Examples of poor drinking water quality incidents == {{More citations needed|section|date=June 2026}} Some major drinking water contamination incidents include: * 1854 cholera outbreak in Soho, London where John Snow trace disease to contaminated water pump — one of the foundation events of epidemiology. * Arsenic contamination of groundwater in Bangladesh affecting millions of people. * Hinkley groundwater contamination (chromium-6) in United States. * Walkerton E. coli outbreak in Canada (2000) causing several deaths.<ref name="walkon">{{cite web |title=Canada's worst-ever E. coli contamination |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/walkerton/ }}</ref> * Flint water crisis in Michigan, United States (lead contamination). * Jackson, Mississippi water crisis (2022). Other outbreaks linked to water include: * Cryptosporidiosis outbreak in Milwaukee (1993) * Giardia outbreak in Norway (2004) * Campylobacter outbreak in Finland (1998) * Typhoid outbreak in Israel (1998) Chemical contamination cases include: * Camelford incident (UK) where aluminium sulphate mistake affect water supply * Fluoride poisoning outbreak in Mississippi (1993) * Sodium hydroxide contamination in Massachusetts (2007) * Transformer oil contamination in Greenland water system (2019) == Treatment == {{Main|Water purification|Water treatment}} Most drinking water need treatment before human consumption. Treatment level depend on water source quality. Common methods include: * Filtration * Boiling * Chemical disinfection (chlorination) * UV treatment Boiling fit kill pathogens but e require fuel and proper storage system. Chlorination be most widely used method globally, although e fit produce disinfection by-products wey also get health concerns. In emergency situations, boiling and household disinfection methods fit reduce waterborne diseases significantly.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Clasen|first1=T.|title=Interventions to improve water quality for preventing diarrhoea}}</ref> Desalination dey used in coastal and dry regions where freshwater no dey enough. == Point of use methods == {{Main|Portable water purification|Self-supply of water and sanitation}} Point-of-use (POU) systems dey help households treat water directly at home, especially for low-income communities. Solar water disinfection (SODIS) be one low-cost method where people dey use sunlight for plastic bottles to kill microorganisms.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Conroy|first1=R.M.|title=Solar disinfection of water reduces diarrhoeal disease}}</ref> POU systems get challenge like user compliance, cultural acceptance, and maintenance. == Addition of fluoride == In some countries, small amount of fluoride dey add to tap water to improve dental health. This process na water fluoridation, and e still remain controversial in some communities. {{excerpt|water fluoridation|paragraphs=1|file=no}} == Global access summary == Access to safe drinking water don improve globally over decades, but inequality still remain. Developed regions like Europe, North America, and Oceania almost reach universal access. However, Sub-Saharan Africa and parts of South Asia still dey face major challenges in coverage, infrastructure, and contamination control. Millions of people still depend on unsafe sources like unprotected wells, rivers, and vendor-supplied water. == Final note == Safe drinking water na foundation for health, development, and human survival. Improving access require investment in infrastructure, sanitation, governance, and environmental protection worldwide. == Treatment (continued) == {{Main|Water purification|Water treatment}} In many urban systems, water treatment dey happen for large centralized plants before e reach households through pipe networks. These plants fit include multiple stages like coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, and disinfection. In rural areas, small-scale or household systems dey more common because infrastructure limited. Tap water wey reach homes through plumbing systems dey usually meet national drinking water standards, even though small portion of am actually dey used for drinking and cooking. Most of am dey go toilet flushing, bathing, cleaning, and irrigation. Leakage for old pipe systems fit reduce supply significantly. In some cities, up to 50% of treated water fit lost through leaks before e reach consumers. == Point of use methods (continued) == POU technologies include ceramic filters, biosand filters, chlorine tablets, and solar disinfection systems. Although these systems dey effective in lab conditions, real-life success depend on user behavior, maintenance, and affordability. Many NGOs and international organizations dey promote these technologies to improve access for low-income households, especially for rural communities. However, scaling these solutions to national level still remain challenge due to cost, education, and supply chain issues. == Addition of fluoride (continued) == Water fluoridation dey practiced in many countries to reduce tooth decay. The idea be say low level fluoride help strengthen teeth enamel. However, some communities oppose the practice due to concerns about health effects and personal choice. Scientific research generally show say controlled fluoridation safe within recommended limits, but monitoring still important to avoid overexposure. == Global monitoring of access (continued) == JMP data show say access to safe drinking water improve significantly since 1990, but progress no be equal across regions. Urban areas usually get better access compared to rural communities. Climate change, population growth, and conflict fit also reduce access to safe water in some regions. Countries affected by war or political instability often experience breakdown of water infrastructure, leading to outbreaks of waterborne diseases. == Regulations (continued) == Water quality regulations normally include limits for: * Microbial contaminants like E. coli * Chemical substances like arsenic, lead, and nitrates * Physical properties like turbidity and taste Monitoring agencies dey regularly test water systems to ensure compliance. Failure to meet standards fit lead to public health advisories, including boil-water notices or complete shutdown of water supply systems. == Environmental and infrastructure challenges == Old water infrastructure dey big problem for many developed countries too. Aging pipelines fit leak or introduce contaminants into treated water. Climate change also dey affect water availability through droughts, floods, and changes in rainfall patterns. These environmental changes fit reduce reliability of traditional water sources like rivers, reservoirs, and groundwater. == Conclusion (final continuation) == Safe drinking water provision na continuous global challenge wey need cooperation between governments, scientists, engineers, and communities. Even though technology and treatment systems don improve well, inequality in access still remain major issue worldwide. Sustainable water management, investment in infrastructure, and strong regulation remain key to ensuring say everybody get access to clean and safe drinking water in future. == Health issues due to low quality (continued) == {{Further|WASH#Health aspects|Waterborne diseases}} Waterborne diseases still remain major global health burden, especially for low-income countries. Children under five years old dey suffer most from diarrhea-related deaths linked to unsafe water and poor sanitation. Repeated infections no only cause death but also affect long-term growth, cognitive development, and school performance. Malnutrition and stunting often happen together with poor water access, forming a cycle of poverty and ill health. Public health interventions like handwashing promotion, sanitation improvement, and water treatment education dey important to break this cycle. == Consumption of contaminated groundwater (continued) == {{Main|Groundwater pollution|Arsenic contamination of groundwater}} Groundwater contamination no dey always visible, so many communities dey drink unsafe water without knowing. Besides fluoride and arsenic, other contaminants like nitrates, heavy metals, and industrial chemicals fit also enter groundwater through farming and industrial activities. Long-term exposure to these chemicals fit cause cancer, organ damage, and developmental problems. Defluoridation and arsenic removal technologies dey improve over time, but cost and maintenance still remain challenge in rural areas. == Examples of poor drinking water quality incidents (continued) == Water contamination incidents usually lead to major policy changes and infrastructure reforms in affected countries. For example, Flint water crisis increase global attention on aging water infrastructure and environmental justice issues. Walkerton outbreak also lead to stronger regulation and monitoring systems in Canada. Many countries now dey invest in early warning systems and water safety planning to prevent future outbreaks. == Treatment (final continuation) == Advanced treatment systems like reverse osmosis, ozonation, and membrane filtration dey used in high-income countries and desalination plants. These technologies fit remove even microscopic contaminants but require high energy and cost. Because of this, simple low-cost methods still remain very important for developing regions. Combining centralized treatment with household-level solutions often give the best results for public health protection. == Point of use methods (final continuation) == Education and behavior change be key part of point-of-use water treatment success. Even when clean technology available, improper use fit reduce effectiveness and allow contamination. Community involvement and training improve adoption rates and long-term sustainability of water treatment programs. == Global access (final continuation) == Despite progress, inequality still dey very clear between urban and rural populations. Rural communities more likely to depend on unsafe or distant water sources. Women and children often bear the burden of collecting water, sometimes walking long distances daily. This affects education, productivity, and health. International development goals like SDG 6 dey aim to achieve universal access to safe and affordable drinking water for all by 2030. == Final conclusion (full wrap-up) == Drinking water access remain one of the most important global development issues. Safe water no be only health matter but also economic, environmental, and social development issue. Improving water systems require investment, governance, innovation, and community participation. If global efforts continue, access to safe drinking water fit become universal and sustainable for future generations. == References == <references /> == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q7892|c=Category:Drinking water|n=no|q=no|b=Drinking water|v=no|voy=Water|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=drinking water|species=no}} * {{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/drinking-water|title=Drinking-water|website=www.who.int}} - WHO fact sheet on drinking water * {{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064|title=Guidelines for drinking-water quality: fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda|website=www.who.int}} - WHO Guidelines for drinking-water quality (2022) * {{Cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/drinking/ |title=Drinking Water &#124; Drinking Water &#124; Healthy Water &#124; CDC |access-date=9 September 2017 |archive-date=21 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221121224602/https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/drinking/ |url-status=live }} - Drinking Water – US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. General info, data and publications. * {{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water|title=Ground Water and Drinking Water|first=OW|last=US EPA|date=20 February 2013|website=www.epa.gov}} - Ground water and drinking water – US Environmental Protection Agency. General info, regulations & technical publications. {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Drinking Water}} [[Category:Drinking water| ]] [[Category:Sanitation]] rj0ywvjk7n0yk2oaaz854c38jyeq8dn 0 27413 103752 101667 2026-06-18T17:55:55Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 103752 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:ManMadeRiverLibya-7A.jpg|thumb|300px|De transport of pipe segments for de Great Man-Made River(GMMR) insyd de Sahara desert, [[Libya]], during de 1980s. A network of pipes wey dey supply water from de Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System, a fossil aquifer insyd de Sahara desert of Libya, de GMMR be de world ein largest [[irrigation]] project.]] De '''Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System''' ('''NSAS''') be de world ein largest known fossil water aquifer system. E dey locate underground insyd de eastern end of de Sahara desert den dey span de political boundaries of four countries insyd northeastern [[Africa]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20071020163247/http://www-naweb.iaea.org/napc/ih/Nubian/IHS_nubian.html International Atomic Energy Agency: NSAS Project] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071020163247/http://www-naweb.iaea.org/napc/ih/Nubian/IHS_nubian.html |date=2007-10-20 }}</ref> De NSAS dey cover a land area wey dey spann just over two million km², wey dey include northwestern [[Sudan]], northeastern [[Chad]], southeastern [[Libya]], den most of [[Egypt]]. E dey contain an estimated 150,000&nbsp;km³ of groundwater,<ref>Center for Environmental and Development for the Arab Region and Europe (CEDARE) 2000</ref> de significance of de NSAS as a potential [[Water resources|water resource]] give future development programs insyd dese countries be immense. De Great Man-Made River (GMMR) project insyd Libya dey make use of de system, wey dey extract substantial amounts of water from dis aquifer, removing an estimated 2.4&nbsp;km³ of fresh water for consumption den agriculture per year. ==Characteristics== [[File:Acuifero arenito nubio.jpg|thumb|Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System]] Since 2001, de Nubian Sandstone aquifer wey dey situate between de Toshka den Abu Simbel areas of Egypt undergo intensive drilling den development as part of a land reclamation project. Drilling information dem use to conduct a variety of studies wey dey regard de hydrogeological setting of de area ein aquifer. Results dey indicate dat lithological characteristics den tectonic settings get a substantial effect on groundwater flow patterns den de area ein overall aquifer potentiality, wich be considered relatively low wen dem compare to neighboring areas insyd eastern Oweinat anaa Dakhla. ===Geology=== De aquifer be largely composed of hard ferruginous sandstone plus great shale den clay intercalation, wey get a thickness wey dey range between 140 den 230 meters. Groundwater type dey vary from fresh to slightly brackish (salinity dey range from 240 to 1300 ppm). De ion dominance ordering dey show dat sodium cation be most commonly predominating over calcium den magnesium – whereas chloride be predominant over sulfate den bicarbonate. De groundwater be of meteoric origin<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs100400100140 | doi=10.1007/s100400100140 | title=Groundwater recharge and flow in the Lower Cretaceous Nubian Sandstone aquifer in the Sinai Peninsula, using isotopic techniques and hydrochemistry | year=2001 | last1=Samie | first1=S. Abd El | last2=M. | first2=Sadek | journal=Hydrogeology Journal | volume=9 | issue=4 | pages=378–389 | bibcode=2001HydJ....9..378E | s2cid=129513948 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> (de term meteoric water dey refer to water wey dey originate as precipitation; most groundwater be meteoric insyd origin). High concentrations of sodium, chloride, den sulfates reflect de leaching den dissolution processes of gypsiferous shales den clay, insyd addition to a lengthy duration of water residence.<ref>''A Study of Hydrogeological Conditions of the Nubian Sandstone Aguifer in the Area between Abu Simbel & Toschka, Western Desert, Egypt''. American Geophysical Union, Spring 2001</ref> Two recharge locations tie to specific epochs be identified by Reika Yokochj et al.: one 38,000 years ago wey dey originate from de Mediterranean, den de second dem date at around 361,000 years ago from de tropical Atlantic.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yokochi |first1=Reika |last2=Ram |first2=Roi |last3=Zappala |first3=Jake C. |last4=Jiang |first4=Wei |last5=Adar |first5=Eilon |last6=Bernier |first6=Ryan |last7=Burg |first7=Avihu |last8=Dayan |first8=Uri |last9=Lu |first9=Zheng-Tian |last10=Mueller |first10=Peter |last11=Purtschert |first11=Roland |last12=Yechieli |first12=Yoseph |title=Radiokrypton unveils dual moisture sources of a deep desert aquifer |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=13 August 2019 |volume=116 |issue=33 |pages=16222–16227 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1904260116|pmc=6697870 }}</ref> ==International development projects== Since 2006, de international Atomic Energy Agency dey work insyd cooperation plus de four NSAS countries to help increase understanding of de aquifer ein complexities thru de IAEA-UNDP-GEF Nubian Project.<ref name="Science and Diplomacy.">{{cite journal |url=http://www.sciencediplomacy.org/perspective/2015/international-atomic-energy-agency |journal=Science and Diplomacy |date=June 22, 2015 |title=The International Atomic Energy Agency: Linking Nuclear Science and Diplomacy |first=John |last=Brittain |access-date=June 22, 2015 |archive-date=June 23, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623002103/http://www.sciencediplomacy.org/perspective/2015/international-atomic-energy-agency |url-status=dead }}</ref> Project partners include de United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)/ Global Environment Facility (GEF), IAEA, United Nations Educational, Scientific den Cultural Organization ([[UNESCO]]) den government representatives from de NSAS countries. De project ein long-term goal be establishing rational den equitable management of de NSAS as a productive way of advancing socio-economic development insyd de region den protecting biodiversity den land resources.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www-naweb.iaea.org/napc/ih/Nubian/document/Nubian%20inception_report%20-may1107.pdf |title=IAEA/UNDP/GEF Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System Medium Sized Project: Inception Meeting Report. November 9, 2006 |access-date=September 20, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927190909/http://www-naweb.iaea.org/napc/ih/Nubian/document/Nubian%20inception_report%20-may1107.pdf |archive-date=September 27, 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == [[Category:Aquifers]] [[Category:Aquifers of Africa]] [[Category:Springs of Africa]] [[Category:Sahara]] [[Category:Geography of Libya]] [[Category:Geology of Libya]] [[Category:International aquifers]] [[Category:Springs of Libya]] [[Category:Springs of Chad]] [[Category:Springs of Egypt]] [[Category:Springs of Sudan]] [[Category:AWC2026]] 5w91azm32hbe38h8fr6cexk9l340nrx 103753 103752 2026-06-18T17:58:11Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 103753 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:ManMadeRiverLibya-7A.jpg|thumb|300px|De transport of pipe segments for de Great Man-Made River(GMMR) insyd de Sahara desert, [[Libya]], during de 1980s. A network of pipes wey dey supply water from de Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System, a fossil aquifer insyd de Sahara desert of Libya, de GMMR be de world ein largest [[irrigation]] project.]] De '''Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System''' ('''NSAS''') be de world ein largest known fossil water aquifer system. E dey locate underground insyd de eastern end of de Sahara desert den dey span de political boundaries of four countries insyd northeastern [[Africa]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20071020163247/http://www-naweb.iaea.org/napc/ih/Nubian/IHS_nubian.html International Atomic Energy Agency: NSAS Project] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071020163247/http://www-naweb.iaea.org/napc/ih/Nubian/IHS_nubian.html |date=2007-10-20 }}</ref> De NSAS dey cover a land area wey dey spann just over two million km², wey dey include northwestern [[Sudan]], northeastern [[Chad]], southeastern [[Libya]], den most of [[Egypt]]. E dey contain an estimated 150,000&nbsp;km³ of groundwater,<ref>Center for Environmental and Development for the Arab Region and Europe (CEDARE) 2000</ref> de significance of de NSAS as a potential [[Water resources|water resource]] give future development programs insyd dese countries be immense. De Great Man-Made River (GMMR) project insyd Libya dey make use of de system, wey dey extract substantial amounts of water from dis aquifer, removing an estimated 2.4&nbsp;km³ of fresh water for consumption den agriculture per year. ==Characteristics== [[File:Acuifero arenito nubio.jpg|thumb|Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System]] Since 2001, de Nubian Sandstone aquifer wey dey situate between de Toshka den Abu Simbel areas of Egypt undergo intensive drilling den development as part of a land reclamation project. Drilling information dem use to conduct a variety of studies wey dey regard de hydrogeological setting of de area ein aquifer. Results dey indicate dat lithological characteristics den tectonic settings get a substantial effect on groundwater flow patterns den de area ein overall aquifer potentiality, wich be considered relatively low wen dem compare to neighboring areas insyd eastern Oweinat anaa Dakhla. ===Geology=== De aquifer be largely composed of hard ferruginous sandstone plus great shale den clay intercalation, wey get a thickness wey dey range between 140 den 230 meters. Groundwater type dey vary from fresh to slightly brackish (salinity dey range from 240 to 1300 ppm). De ion dominance ordering dey show dat sodium cation be most commonly predominating over calcium den magnesium – whereas chloride be predominant over sulfate den bicarbonate. De groundwater be of meteoric origin<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs100400100140 | doi=10.1007/s100400100140 | title=Groundwater recharge and flow in the Lower Cretaceous Nubian Sandstone aquifer in the Sinai Peninsula, using isotopic techniques and hydrochemistry | year=2001 | last1=Samie | first1=S. Abd El | last2=M. | first2=Sadek | journal=Hydrogeology Journal | volume=9 | issue=4 | pages=378–389 | bibcode=2001HydJ....9..378E | s2cid=129513948 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> (de term meteoric water dey refer to water wey dey originate as precipitation; most groundwater be meteoric insyd origin). High concentrations of sodium, chloride, den sulfates reflect de leaching den dissolution processes of gypsiferous shales den clay, insyd addition to a lengthy duration of water residence.<ref>''A Study of Hydrogeological Conditions of the Nubian Sandstone Aguifer in the Area between Abu Simbel & Toschka, Western Desert, Egypt''. American Geophysical Union, Spring 2001</ref> Two recharge locations tie to specific epochs be identified by Reika Yokochj et al.: one 38,000 years ago wey dey originate from de Mediterranean, den de second dem date at around 361,000 years ago from de tropical Atlantic.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yokochi |first1=Reika |last2=Ram |first2=Roi |last3=Zappala |first3=Jake C. |last4=Jiang |first4=Wei |last5=Adar |first5=Eilon |last6=Bernier |first6=Ryan |last7=Burg |first7=Avihu |last8=Dayan |first8=Uri |last9=Lu |first9=Zheng-Tian |last10=Mueller |first10=Peter |last11=Purtschert |first11=Roland |last12=Yechieli |first12=Yoseph |title=Radiokrypton unveils dual moisture sources of a deep desert aquifer |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=13 August 2019 |volume=116 |issue=33 |pages=16222–16227 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1904260116|pmc=6697870 }}</ref> ==International development projects== Since 2006, de international Atomic Energy Agency dey work insyd cooperation plus de four NSAS countries to help increase understanding of de aquifer ein complexities thru de IAEA-UNDP-GEF Nubian Project.<ref name="Science and Diplomacy.">{{cite journal |url=http://www.sciencediplomacy.org/perspective/2015/international-atomic-energy-agency |journal=Science and Diplomacy |date=June 22, 2015 |title=The International Atomic Energy Agency: Linking Nuclear Science and Diplomacy |first=John |last=Brittain |access-date=June 22, 2015 |archive-date=June 23, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623002103/http://www.sciencediplomacy.org/perspective/2015/international-atomic-energy-agency |url-status=dead }}</ref> Project partners include de United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)/ Global Environment Facility (GEF), IAEA, United Nations Educational, Scientific den Cultural Organization ([[UNESCO]]) den government representatives from de NSAS countries. De project ein long-term goal be establishing rational den equitable management of de NSAS as a productive way of advancing socio-economic development insyd de region den protecting biodiversity den land resources.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www-naweb.iaea.org/napc/ih/Nubian/document/Nubian%20inception_report%20-may1107.pdf |title=IAEA/UNDP/GEF Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System Medium Sized Project: Inception Meeting Report. November 9, 2006 |access-date=September 20, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927190909/http://www-naweb.iaea.org/napc/ih/Nubian/document/Nubian%20inception_report%20-may1107.pdf |archive-date=September 27, 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20030723113049/http://geosys.bg.tu-berlin.de/archiv/downloads/NAS_syn.pdf Essay and Maps: Groundwater Resources of the Nubian Aquifer System] * Dahab, K.A., El Sayed, E.A. ''Study of Hydrogeological Conditions of the Nubian Sandstone Aguifer in the Area Between Abu Simbel & Toschka, Western Desert, Egypt''. American Geophysical Union, Spring 2001 [[Category:Aquifers]] [[Category:Aquifers of Africa]] [[Category:Springs of Africa]] [[Category:Sahara]] [[Category:Geography of Libya]] [[Category:Geology of Libya]] [[Category:International aquifers]] [[Category:Springs of Libya]] [[Category:Springs of Chad]] [[Category:Springs of Egypt]] [[Category:Springs of Sudan]] 325azu6soaxwse78gc3m7pg2fea7q4j 103754 103753 2026-06-18T18:01:42Z DaSupremo 9 Change image 103754 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:ManMadeRiverLibya-7A.jpg|thumb|300px|De transport of pipe segments for de Great Man-Made River(GMMR) insyd de Sahara desert, [[Libya]], during de 1980s. A network of pipes wey dey supply water from de Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System, a fossil aquifer insyd de Sahara desert of Libya, de GMMR be de world ein largest [[irrigation]] project.]] De '''Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System''' ('''NSAS''') be de world ein largest known fossil water aquifer system. E dey locate underground insyd de eastern end of de Sahara desert den dey span de political boundaries of four countries insyd northeastern [[Africa]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20071020163247/http://www-naweb.iaea.org/napc/ih/Nubian/IHS_nubian.html International Atomic Energy Agency: NSAS Project] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071020163247/http://www-naweb.iaea.org/napc/ih/Nubian/IHS_nubian.html |date=2007-10-20 }}</ref> De NSAS dey cover a land area wey dey spann just over two million km², wey dey include northwestern [[Sudan]], northeastern [[Chad]], southeastern [[Libya]], den most of [[Egypt]]. E dey contain an estimated 150,000&nbsp;km³ of groundwater,<ref>Center for Environmental and Development for the Arab Region and Europe (CEDARE) 2000</ref> de significance of de NSAS as a potential [[Water resources|water resource]] give future development programs insyd dese countries be immense. De Great Man-Made River (GMMR) project insyd Libya dey make use of de system, wey dey extract substantial amounts of water from dis aquifer, removing an estimated 2.4&nbsp;km³ of fresh water for consumption den agriculture per year. ==Characteristics== Since 2001, de Nubian Sandstone aquifer wey dey situate between de Toshka den Abu Simbel areas of Egypt undergo intensive drilling den development as part of a land reclamation project. Drilling information dem use to conduct a variety of studies wey dey regard de hydrogeological setting of de area ein aquifer. Results dey indicate dat lithological characteristics den tectonic settings get a substantial effect on groundwater flow patterns den de area ein overall aquifer potentiality, wich be considered relatively low wen dem compare to neighboring areas insyd eastern Oweinat anaa Dakhla. ===Geology=== De aquifer be largely composed of hard ferruginous sandstone plus great shale den clay intercalation, wey get a thickness wey dey range between 140 den 230 meters. Groundwater type dey vary from fresh to slightly brackish (salinity dey range from 240 to 1300 ppm). De ion dominance ordering dey show dat sodium cation be most commonly predominating over calcium den magnesium – whereas chloride be predominant over sulfate den bicarbonate. De groundwater be of meteoric origin<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs100400100140 | doi=10.1007/s100400100140 | title=Groundwater recharge and flow in the Lower Cretaceous Nubian Sandstone aquifer in the Sinai Peninsula, using isotopic techniques and hydrochemistry | year=2001 | last1=Samie | first1=S. Abd El | last2=M. | first2=Sadek | journal=Hydrogeology Journal | volume=9 | issue=4 | pages=378–389 | bibcode=2001HydJ....9..378E | s2cid=129513948 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> (de term meteoric water dey refer to water wey dey originate as precipitation; most groundwater be meteoric insyd origin). High concentrations of sodium, chloride, den sulfates reflect de leaching den dissolution processes of gypsiferous shales den clay, insyd addition to a lengthy duration of water residence.<ref>''A Study of Hydrogeological Conditions of the Nubian Sandstone Aguifer in the Area between Abu Simbel & Toschka, Western Desert, Egypt''. American Geophysical Union, Spring 2001</ref> Two recharge locations tie to specific epochs be identified by Reika Yokochj et al.: one 38,000 years ago wey dey originate from de Mediterranean, den de second dem date at around 361,000 years ago from de tropical Atlantic.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yokochi |first1=Reika |last2=Ram |first2=Roi |last3=Zappala |first3=Jake C. |last4=Jiang |first4=Wei |last5=Adar |first5=Eilon |last6=Bernier |first6=Ryan |last7=Burg |first7=Avihu |last8=Dayan |first8=Uri |last9=Lu |first9=Zheng-Tian |last10=Mueller |first10=Peter |last11=Purtschert |first11=Roland |last12=Yechieli |first12=Yoseph |title=Radiokrypton unveils dual moisture sources of a deep desert aquifer |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=13 August 2019 |volume=116 |issue=33 |pages=16222–16227 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1904260116|pmc=6697870 }}</ref> [[File:Nubia NASA-WW places german.jpg|thumb|Nubia NASA]] ==International development projects== Since 2006, de international Atomic Energy Agency dey work insyd cooperation plus de four NSAS countries to help increase understanding of de aquifer ein complexities thru de IAEA-UNDP-GEF Nubian Project.<ref name="Science and Diplomacy.">{{cite journal |url=http://www.sciencediplomacy.org/perspective/2015/international-atomic-energy-agency |journal=Science and Diplomacy |date=June 22, 2015 |title=The International Atomic Energy Agency: Linking Nuclear Science and Diplomacy |first=John |last=Brittain |access-date=June 22, 2015 |archive-date=June 23, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623002103/http://www.sciencediplomacy.org/perspective/2015/international-atomic-energy-agency |url-status=dead }}</ref> Project partners include de United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)/ Global Environment Facility (GEF), IAEA, United Nations Educational, Scientific den Cultural Organization ([[UNESCO]]) den government representatives from de NSAS countries. De project ein long-term goal be establishing rational den equitable management of de NSAS as a productive way of advancing socio-economic development insyd de region den protecting biodiversity den land resources.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www-naweb.iaea.org/napc/ih/Nubian/document/Nubian%20inception_report%20-may1107.pdf |title=IAEA/UNDP/GEF Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System Medium Sized Project: Inception Meeting Report. November 9, 2006 |access-date=September 20, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927190909/http://www-naweb.iaea.org/napc/ih/Nubian/document/Nubian%20inception_report%20-may1107.pdf |archive-date=September 27, 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20030723113049/http://geosys.bg.tu-berlin.de/archiv/downloads/NAS_syn.pdf Essay and Maps: Groundwater Resources of the Nubian Aquifer System] * Dahab, K.A., El Sayed, E.A. ''Study of Hydrogeological Conditions of the Nubian Sandstone Aguifer in the Area Between Abu Simbel & Toschka, Western Desert, Egypt''. American Geophysical Union, Spring 2001 [[Category:Aquifers]] [[Category:Aquifers of Africa]] [[Category:Springs of Africa]] [[Category:Sahara]] [[Category:Geography of Libya]] [[Category:Geology of Libya]] [[Category:International aquifers]] [[Category:Springs of Libya]] [[Category:Springs of Chad]] [[Category:Springs of Egypt]] [[Category:Springs of Sudan]] ke4x91uqn6gps6o4whutwaoxnpz8e47 0 27416 103751 101426 2026-06-18T17:44:52Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 103751 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Njoro''' be a third order stream wey dey flow into Lake Nakuru, [[Kenya]]. Ein source dey insyd de Mau Forest. E sanso be known as '''Ndarugu River'''. Efforts be made to address de significant (faecal) [[water pollution]] problems of de river, especially insyd de upper reaches.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://profiles.uonbi.ac.ke/maina_gichaba/publications/patterns-and-sources-faecal-pollution-heavily-impaired-river-njoro-waters|title=Proceedings of the Sumawa Mau Forest Complex Conference|year=2009|publisher=Sumawa|archive-date=2016-03-10|access-date=2016-02-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310072149/https://profiles.uonbi.ac.ke/maina_gichaba/publications/patterns-and-sources-faecal-pollution-heavily-impaired-river-njoro-waters|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="ke-undp"> {{cite web | url = http://www.ke.undp.org/GEF-SGP/Projects%20Elsewhere.htm | title = UNDP-Kenya, GEF-SGP — Kenya Community based Wetland Management for Waste Water Treatment | publisher = United Nations Development Programmeme | year = 2007 | accessdate = 2009-04-18 }}</ref><ref name="iapad"> {{cite web |url = http://www.iapad.org/applications/plup/njoro_watershed.htm |title = Njoro River Watershed, Kenya |publisher = Integrated Approaches to Participatory Development (IAPAD) |accessdate = 2009-04-18 |url-status = dead |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090603152911/http://www.iapad.org/applications/plup/njoro_watershed.htm |archivedate = 2009-06-03 }}</ref> Sam of dese address de subsistence farmer ein perceptions den techniques.<ref name="cdlib"> {{cite web | url = http://repositories.cdlib.org/uciaspubs/articles/3/ | title = Linking Farmer, Forest and Watershed: Agricultural Systems and Natural Resources Management Along the Upper Njoro River, Kenya | publisher = University of California — Global, Area, and International Archive | date = March 3, 2006 | accessdate = 2009-04-18 | last = Krupnik | first = Timothy J. |author2=Marion W. Jenkins }} </ref> == References == <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060928153351/http://www.nri.org/waterlaw/AWLworkshop/LELO-FK.pdf Managing the Njoro River Watershed] {{Authority control}} [[Category:Rivers of Kenya]] md4beju4nga7ddn8epbx6bnfou2k6bf 0 27423 103744 101462 2026-06-18T17:26:48Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 103744 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Komoé River''' anaa '''Comoé River''' be a river insyd [[West Africa]]. De river dey originate on de Sikasso Plateau of [[Burkina Faso]],<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|author1=Rupley, Lawrence A. |author2=Bangali, Lamissa |author3=Diamitani, Boureima |title=Sikasso Plateau|year=2013|encyclopedia=Historical Dictionary of Burkina Faso|location=Lanham, Maryland|publisher=Scarecrow Press|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HnRbA-pYcegC&pg=PA197 197]|isbn=978-0-8108-6770-3}}</ref> dey flow thru de Cascades de Karfiguéla, dey form a short section of de border between Burkina Faso den [[Ivory Coast]] before entering Ivory Coast. E dey serve as de major drainage give de northeastern portion of dat country before emptying into de [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]].<ref name="Mepham1991">{{cite book|last=Mepham|first=Robert|title=IUCN Directory of African Wetlands|publisher=Pinter Pub. Ltd.|year=1991|isbn=2-88032-949-3}}</ref> De banks of de Komoé be shaded by riparian forests along chaw of ein length, wey dey provide an important habitat give wildlife den a source of agricultural water.<ref name="Mepham1991" /> Wer reliable floodplains dey form insyd Ivory Coast, rice fi be grown.<ref name="Mepham1991" /> A portion of de river insyd northern Ivory Coast be de source of de vegetative richness wey earn dat area a [[UNESCO]] World Heritage Site designation, Comoé National Park.<ref name="Mepham1991" /> == Course == Komoé River get length of about 759 km. E source dey for Sikasso Plateau and Sindou Hills, then e dey flow go south pass plenty rocks and waterfalls like “Chutes de la Komoé” and [[:en:Cascades_de_Karfiguéla|Karifiguela Falls]].<ref name="Rupley-114">{{Cite encyclopedia|author1=Rupley, Lawrence A.|author2=Bangali, Lamissa|author3=Diamitani, Boureima|title=Komoé|year=2013|encyclopedia=Historical Dictionary of Burkina Faso|location=Lanham, Maryland|publisher=Scarecrow Press|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HnRbA-pYcegC&pg=PA114 114]|isbn=978-0-8108-6770-3}}</ref> Upstream of [[:en:Cascades_de_Karfiguéla|Karifiguela Falls]], people for the area dey call am Koba River.<ref name="Rupley-114" /> At 09°42′11″N 004°35′10″W / 9.70306°N 4.58611°W / 9.70306; -4.58611 E dey join from the right (west) by Léraba River, then after that e dey flow go southeast and form border between Burkina Faso and Ivory Coast for about 60 kilometres (37 mi). Then e enter Ivory Coast about 4 kilometres southwest of Balanfodougou village. For Ivory Coast, the river dey continue flow go southeast, pass Comoé National Park, and e dey form border between [[:en:Zanzan_District|Zanzan District]] and [[:en:Savanes_District|Savanes District]]. At 09°10′26″N 003°53′33″W / 9.17389°N 3.89250°W / 9.17389; -3.89250E dey turn go south, dey flow pass eastern Ivory Coast, then e enter the far eastern side of [[:en:Ébrié_Lagoon|Ébrié Lagoon]] complex, and finally e go end for [[:en:Gulf_of_Guinea|Gulf of Guinea]] near [[:en:Grand-Bassam|Grand-Bassam]] port<ref name="Mepham19912">{{Cite book |last=Mepham |first=Robert |title=IUCN Directory of African Wetlands |publisher=Pinter Pub. Ltd. |year=1991 |isbn=2-88032-949-3}}</ref> == Tributaries == * [[Léraba River]] at 09°42′11″N 004°35′10″W / 9.70306°N 4.58611°W / 9.70306; -4.58611 a right tributary from the west, * Boin River at 09°12′38″N 003°57′53″W / 9.21056°N 3.96472°W / 9.21056; -3.96472 a left tributary from the north in Comoé National Park. = References = dcdedh40se76qtlgzwumeag6l245qpq 103745 103744 2026-06-18T17:31:34Z DaSupremo 9 /* Course */ Make sum corrections 103745 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Komoé River''' anaa '''Comoé River''' be a river insyd [[West Africa]]. De river dey originate on de Sikasso Plateau of [[Burkina Faso]],<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|author1=Rupley, Lawrence A. |author2=Bangali, Lamissa |author3=Diamitani, Boureima |title=Sikasso Plateau|year=2013|encyclopedia=Historical Dictionary of Burkina Faso|location=Lanham, Maryland|publisher=Scarecrow Press|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HnRbA-pYcegC&pg=PA197 197]|isbn=978-0-8108-6770-3}}</ref> dey flow thru de Cascades de Karfiguéla, dey form a short section of de border between Burkina Faso den [[Ivory Coast]] before entering Ivory Coast. E dey serve as de major drainage give de northeastern portion of dat country before emptying into de [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]].<ref name="Mepham1991">{{cite book|last=Mepham|first=Robert|title=IUCN Directory of African Wetlands|publisher=Pinter Pub. Ltd.|year=1991|isbn=2-88032-949-3}}</ref> De banks of de Komoé be shaded by riparian forests along chaw of ein length, wey dey provide an important habitat give wildlife den a source of agricultural water.<ref name="Mepham1991" /> Wer reliable floodplains dey form insyd Ivory Coast, rice fi be grown.<ref name="Mepham1991" /> A portion of de river insyd northern Ivory Coast be de source of de vegetative richness wey earn dat area a [[UNESCO]] World Heritage Site designation, Comoé National Park.<ref name="Mepham1991" /> == Course == De Komoé River approximately be 759&nbsp;km long. E dey rise on de Sikasso Plateau den insyd de Sindou Hills wey dey flow south over several cataracts plus several falls wey dey include de "Chutes de la Komoé" den Karifiguela Falls.<ref name="Rupley-114">{{Cite encyclopedia|author1=Rupley, Lawrence A. |author2=Bangali, Lamissa |author3=Diamitani, Boureima |title=Komoé|year=2013|encyclopedia=Historical Dictionary of Burkina Faso|location=Lanham, Maryland|publisher=Scarecrow Press|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HnRbA-pYcegC&pg=PA114 114]|isbn=978-0-8108-6770-3}}</ref> Upstream of de Karifiguela Falls e be known locally as de Koba River.<ref name="Rupley-114" /> At {{Coord|09|42|11|N|004|35|10|W|display=inline}} e be joined from de right (west) by de Léraba River, whereafter e dey flow southeast den dey form de border between Burkina Faso den Ivory Coast for sam {{convert|60|km|mi}}, before e dey enter Ivory Coast four kilometres southwest of de village of Balanfodougou. Insyd Ivory Coast, e dey continue southeast, past de Comoé National Park, wey dey form de border between ein Zanzan District den Savanes District. At {{Coord|09|10|26|N|003|53|33|W|display=inline}} e dey turn south dey flow thru eastern Ivory Coast den dey empty into de far eastern end of de Ébrié Lagoon complex den ultimately de [[Gulf of Guinea]] near de port of Grand-Bassam.<ref name="Mepham1991" /> == Tributaries == * [[Léraba River]] at 09°42′11″N 004°35′10″W / 9.70306°N 4.58611°W / 9.70306; -4.58611 a right tributary from the west, * Boin River at 09°12′38″N 003°57′53″W / 9.21056°N 3.96472°W / 9.21056; -3.96472 a left tributary from the north in Comoé National Park. = References = nrbrqu1pyhkcr0abcs1qs40nlvidzw0 103746 103745 2026-06-18T17:33:39Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 103746 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Komoé River''' anaa '''Comoé River''' be a river insyd [[West Africa]]. De river dey originate on de Sikasso Plateau of [[Burkina Faso]],<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|author1=Rupley, Lawrence A. |author2=Bangali, Lamissa |author3=Diamitani, Boureima |title=Sikasso Plateau|year=2013|encyclopedia=Historical Dictionary of Burkina Faso|location=Lanham, Maryland|publisher=Scarecrow Press|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HnRbA-pYcegC&pg=PA197 197]|isbn=978-0-8108-6770-3}}</ref> dey flow thru de Cascades de Karfiguéla, dey form a short section of de border between Burkina Faso den [[Ivory Coast]] before entering Ivory Coast. E dey serve as de major drainage give de northeastern portion of dat country before emptying into de [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]].<ref name="Mepham1991">{{cite book|last=Mepham|first=Robert|title=IUCN Directory of African Wetlands|publisher=Pinter Pub. Ltd.|year=1991|isbn=2-88032-949-3}}</ref> De banks of de Komoé be shaded by riparian forests along chaw of ein length, wey dey provide an important habitat give wildlife den a source of agricultural water.<ref name="Mepham1991" /> Wer reliable floodplains dey form insyd Ivory Coast, rice fi be grown.<ref name="Mepham1991" /> A portion of de river insyd northern Ivory Coast be de source of de vegetative richness wey earn dat area a [[UNESCO]] World Heritage Site designation, Comoé National Park.<ref name="Mepham1991" /> == Course == De Komoé River approximately be 759&nbsp;km long. E dey rise on de Sikasso Plateau den insyd de Sindou Hills wey dey flow south over several cataracts plus several falls wey dey include de "Chutes de la Komoé" den Karifiguela Falls.<ref name="Rupley-114">{{Cite encyclopedia|author1=Rupley, Lawrence A. |author2=Bangali, Lamissa |author3=Diamitani, Boureima |title=Komoé|year=2013|encyclopedia=Historical Dictionary of Burkina Faso|location=Lanham, Maryland|publisher=Scarecrow Press|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HnRbA-pYcegC&pg=PA114 114]|isbn=978-0-8108-6770-3}}</ref> Upstream of de Karifiguela Falls e be known locally as de Koba River.<ref name="Rupley-114" /> At {{Coord|09|42|11|N|004|35|10|W|display=inline}} e be joined from de right (west) by de Léraba River, whereafter e dey flow southeast den dey form de border between Burkina Faso den Ivory Coast for sam {{convert|60|km|mi}}, before e dey enter Ivory Coast four kilometres southwest of de village of Balanfodougou. Insyd Ivory Coast, e dey continue southeast, past de Comoé National Park, wey dey form de border between ein Zanzan District den Savanes District. At {{Coord|09|10|26|N|003|53|33|W|display=inline}} e dey turn south dey flow thru eastern Ivory Coast den dey empty into de far eastern end of de Ébrié Lagoon complex den ultimately de [[Gulf of Guinea]] near de port of Grand-Bassam.<ref name="Mepham1991" /> == Tributaries == * [[Léraba River]] at 09°42′11″N 004°35′10″W / 9.70306°N 4.58611°W / 9.70306; -4.58611 a right tributary from the west, * Boin River at 09°12′38″N 003°57′53″W / 9.21056°N 3.96472°W / 9.21056; -3.96472 a left tributary from the north in Comoé National Park. = References = <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Komoe River}} [[Category:Rivers of Burkina Faso]] [[Category:Rivers of Ivory Coast]] [[Category:Burkina Faso–Ivory Coast border]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] nyx0c54kevq6nw96wu6qzduz2wibe68 103748 103746 2026-06-18T17:36:07Z DaSupremo 9 /* Tributaries */ Make sum corrections 103748 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Komoé River''' anaa '''Comoé River''' be a river insyd [[West Africa]]. De river dey originate on de Sikasso Plateau of [[Burkina Faso]],<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|author1=Rupley, Lawrence A. |author2=Bangali, Lamissa |author3=Diamitani, Boureima |title=Sikasso Plateau|year=2013|encyclopedia=Historical Dictionary of Burkina Faso|location=Lanham, Maryland|publisher=Scarecrow Press|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HnRbA-pYcegC&pg=PA197 197]|isbn=978-0-8108-6770-3}}</ref> dey flow thru de Cascades de Karfiguéla, dey form a short section of de border between Burkina Faso den [[Ivory Coast]] before entering Ivory Coast. E dey serve as de major drainage give de northeastern portion of dat country before emptying into de [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]].<ref name="Mepham1991">{{cite book|last=Mepham|first=Robert|title=IUCN Directory of African Wetlands|publisher=Pinter Pub. Ltd.|year=1991|isbn=2-88032-949-3}}</ref> De banks of de Komoé be shaded by riparian forests along chaw of ein length, wey dey provide an important habitat give wildlife den a source of agricultural water.<ref name="Mepham1991" /> Wer reliable floodplains dey form insyd Ivory Coast, rice fi be grown.<ref name="Mepham1991" /> A portion of de river insyd northern Ivory Coast be de source of de vegetative richness wey earn dat area a [[UNESCO]] World Heritage Site designation, Comoé National Park.<ref name="Mepham1991" /> == Course == De Komoé River approximately be 759&nbsp;km long. E dey rise on de Sikasso Plateau den insyd de Sindou Hills wey dey flow south over several cataracts plus several falls wey dey include de "Chutes de la Komoé" den Karifiguela Falls.<ref name="Rupley-114">{{Cite encyclopedia|author1=Rupley, Lawrence A. |author2=Bangali, Lamissa |author3=Diamitani, Boureima |title=Komoé|year=2013|encyclopedia=Historical Dictionary of Burkina Faso|location=Lanham, Maryland|publisher=Scarecrow Press|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HnRbA-pYcegC&pg=PA114 114]|isbn=978-0-8108-6770-3}}</ref> Upstream of de Karifiguela Falls e be known locally as de Koba River.<ref name="Rupley-114" /> At {{Coord|09|42|11|N|004|35|10|W|display=inline}} e be joined from de right (west) by de Léraba River, whereafter e dey flow southeast den dey form de border between Burkina Faso den Ivory Coast for sam {{convert|60|km|mi}}, before e dey enter Ivory Coast four kilometres southwest of de village of Balanfodougou. Insyd Ivory Coast, e dey continue southeast, past de Comoé National Park, wey dey form de border between ein Zanzan District den Savanes District. At {{Coord|09|10|26|N|003|53|33|W|display=inline}} e dey turn south dey flow thru eastern Ivory Coast den dey empty into de far eastern end of de Ébrié Lagoon complex den ultimately de [[Gulf of Guinea]] near de port of Grand-Bassam.<ref name="Mepham1991" /> == Tributaries == * Léraba River at {{Coord|09|42|11|N|004|35|10|W|display=inline}} a right tributary from de west, * Boin River at {{Coord|09|12|38|N|003|57|53|W|display=inline}} a left tributary from de north insyd Comoé National Park. = References = <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Komoe River}} [[Category:Rivers of Burkina Faso]] [[Category:Rivers of Ivory Coast]] [[Category:Burkina Faso–Ivory Coast border]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] 9t43gagordnb5vn29v6wzoj4eppbfab 0 27431 103926 101468 2026-06-18T23:33:23Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 103926 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''Dakar Flood Drainage Canal''' be one major infrastructure project for de metropolitan region of Dakar, Senegal. De canal network be mainly developed to tackle de serious den repeated flooding wey dey affect de densely populated suburbs of Pikine, Guédiawaye, Dalifort, den Yeumbeul since 2005.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mitchell |first=Tara |date=2015-07-01 |title=So fresh and so clean: Urban community engagement to keep streets trash-free and improve the functioning and sustainability of drainage infrastructure in peri-urban Dakar |url=https://doi.org/10.1257/rct.754-1.0 |access-date=2026-05-30 |website=AEA Randomized Controlled Trials}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Visite de terrain: l’ADM s’engage pour une gestion durable des inondations |url=https://www.pressafrik.com/Visite-de-terrain-l-ADM-s-engage-pour-une-gestion-durable-des-inondations_a155548.html?print=1 |access-date=2026-05-30 |website=www.pressafrik.com}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Sage Journals: Discover world-class research |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/action/cookieAbsent |access-date=2026-05-30 |website=Sage Journals |language=en |doi=10.1177/09562478251317976}}</ref> == History den context == Dey follow devastating floods insyd 2009 wey affect 44% of Pikine ein population den caused an estimated US $42 million in damages, de Senegalese government prioritize flood management.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Senegal– 2009– PDNA undertaken after 2009 flooding {{!}} GFDRR {{!}} GFDRR |url=https://www.gfdrr.org/en/senegal-2009-pdna-undertaken-after-2009-flooding |access-date=2026-05-30 |website=www.gfdrr.org |language=en}}</ref> De 2012 presidential election lead to a new administration dey announce a 10-year, CFA 720 billion flood management plan. De initial phase dem allocate CFA 66 billion specifically for de construction of drainage canals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gestion durable des inondations : De la nécessité d'un assainissement à la place de solutions urgentistes. |url=https://www.dakaractu.com/Gestion-durable-des-inondations-De-la-necessite-d-un-assainissement-a-la-place-de-solutions-urgentistes_a193259.html |access-date=2026-05-30 |website=DAKARACTU.COM |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Programme décennal de lutte contre les inondations (pdli) : la réponse structurante de Son Excellence le Président Macky SALL contre les inondations {{!}} OFFICE NATIONAL DE L'ASSAINISSEMENT DU SENEGAL (ONAS) |url=https://onas.sn/actualites/actualites-onas/programme-decennal-de-lutte-contre-les-inondations-pdli-la-reponse? |access-date=2026-05-30 |website=onas.sn}}</ref> === Technical Features === De drainage system dey emphasize "gravitary" flow, wey dey allow water to move naturally towards de sea widout reliance on pumping stations. Dis method dey reduce maintenance costs den energy dependency. {| class="wikitable" !Project Phase !Key Achievements !Funding Sources |- |PROGEP 1 |23 km of canals, 8 basins (315,000 m³ capacity)<ref name=":0" /> |State of Senegal, World Bank, Nordic Development Fund<ref name=":0" /> |- |PROGEP 2 |46 km of linear drainage, 30 km of paved roads<ref>{{Cite web |last=SANE |first=Irama |date=2025-08-19 |title=L'ADM EN PREMIÈRE LIGNE CONTRE LES INONDATIONS : LE PROGEP 2 DÉLIVRE DES RÉSULTATS CONCRETS |url=https://dakarmedias.com/ladm-en-premiere-ligne-contre-les-inondations-le-progep-2-delivre-des-resultats-concrets/ |access-date=2026-05-30 |website=DakarMedias.com -L'info en temps réel |language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=AYOBA |date=2026-03-11 |title=Gestion des inondations : Cheikh Tidiane DIEYE satisfait des résultats du PROGEP 2 |url=https://walf-groupe.com/blog/2026/03/11/gestion-des-inondations-cheikh-tidiane-dieye-satisfait-des-resultats-du-progep-2/ |access-date=2026-05-30 |website=Walf NET |language=fr-FR}}</ref> |World Bank, African Development Bank, Nordic Development Fund<ref name=":2" /> |} === Socio-Political Impact === De success of de Dakar canals be attributed no be to engineering per buh sanso to political activism. Research dey highlight de role of SAABA (''Synergie des Acteurs pour l’Assainissement de la Banlieue''), a coalition of youth associations dem form insyd de lead-up to de 2012 elections. Dese groups use technical knowledge to challenge government policies, dey shift de focus from emergency relocation to permanent drainage infrastructure.<ref name=":1" /> == References == <references /> [[Category:Senegal]] [[Category:Infrastructure by country]] [[Category:Buildings den structures insyd Dakar]] [[Category:Drainage canals]] gd5slpye6g2xbfv4pm2o66ko3k9s4nd 0 27433 103929 101471 2026-06-18T23:50:54Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 103929 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Bantyiketu River''' be urban river wey dey Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, wey e dey form part of de [[Akaki River]] basin, wey dey collect water from plenty parts of de capital city den nearby highlands.<ref>{{cite web |title=System structure study area including the Bantyiketu River |url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/System-structure-study-area-including-the-Bantyiketu-river_fig4_268596018 |website=ResearchGate |access-date=7 June 2026}}</ref><ref name="gorebet">{{Cite web |date=2020-03-25 |title=Rivers in Ethiopia: A Simple guide for 11 Best-Known rivers |url=https://www.gorebet.com/rivers-in-ethiopia/ |access-date=7 June 2026 |website=www.gorebet.com |language=en-US}}</ref> == Course den location == Bantyiketu River be one of de small rivers wey dey insyd Akaki River basin for Addis Ababa. E dey flow thru urban den peri-urban areas of de city before e join oda tributaries wey later go enter Akaki River system den sanso Aba Samuel Reservoir. De river system for Addis Ababa get chaw small streams wey dey cam from surrounding highlands like Mount Entoto den Wechecha, wey dey drain enter de Akaki River system. Bantyiketu dey among dese tributaries as hydrological studies show.<ref name="gorebet" /><ref>{{cite journal |title=Article |journal=Applied Sciences |publisher=MDPI |volume=11 |issue=13 |article-number=6011 |year=2021 |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/11/13/6011 |access-date=7 June 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite conference|title=Urban Storm Water Drainage System in the Central Part of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia – Present State and Proposals for the Improvements |author1=Dirk Muschalla|author2=Manfred Ostrowski |year=2002 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268596018_Urban_Storm_Water_Drainage_System_in_the_Central_Part_of_Addis_Ababa_Ethiopia-Present_State_and_Proposals_for_the_Improvements |access-date=7 June 2026}}</ref> == Hydrology == De river dey strongly depend on de tropical highland climate of central Ethiopia. Water flow dey change plus seasons—rainy season (June to September) dey bring high flow, while dry season fit reduce flow anaa make sam parts almost dry. Like oda rivers inysyd Akaki system, Bantyiketu dey carry stormwater runoff insyd de city wey e dey react quick to rainfall secof urban development reduce natural ground absorption.<ref>{{cite journal |title = Applied Sciences |journal = Applied Sciences |publisher = MDPI |year = 2021 |volume = 11 |issue = 13 |pages = 6011 |url = https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/11/13/6011 |access-date=7 June 2026}}</ref> == Environmental condition == Bantyiketu River, like chaw urban rivers for Addis Ababa, dey suffer from environmental pressure wey cam from urbanization. Dis dey include dumping of solid waste, untreated wastewater discharge, den erosion from construction activities. Studies about Akaki River system show say chaw tributaries dey function like channels for urban waste, wey dey cause serious water quality degradation across de basin.<ref>{{Cite web |title=(PDF) Contamination of Rivers and Water Reservoirs in and Around Addis Ababa City and Actions to Combat It |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317572799_Contamination_of_Rivers_and_Water_Reservoirs_in_and_Around_Addis_Ababa_City_and_Actions_to_Combat_It |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20200701040852/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317572799_Contamination_of_Rivers_and_Water_Reservoirs_in_and_Around_Addis_Ababa_City_and_Actions_to_Combat_It |archive-date=1 July 2020 |access-date=7 June 2026 |website=ResearchGate |language=en}}</ref> == References == [[Category:Rivers of Ethiopia]] [[Category:Geography of Addis Ababa]] t4t3stzae8ep7homma01t3telk1tctc 0 27434 103828 102843 2026-06-18T19:48:34Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey correct am 103828 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Boy drinks from a tap at a NEWAH WASH water project in Puware Shikhar, Udayapur District, Nepal. (10677936093).jpg|thumb|A boy dey drink from tap for NEWAH WASH water project for Nepal]] [[File:Sanitation work 3.jpg|thumb|People dey sanitize environment for Nigeria]] De '''human right to water den sanitation''' ('''HRWS''') na principle wey talk say clean [[drinking water]] den [[sanitation]] be universal [[Human rights|human right]] because dem very important for supporting every person life.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|title=International Decade for Action 'Water for Life' 2005-2015. Focus Areas: The human right to water and sanitation|url=https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/human_right_to_water.shtml|access-date=12 December 2020|website=United Nations|language=EN}}</ref> United Nations General Assembly recognize am as human right on 28 July 2010.<ref name="HRWS">{{cite web|url=http://undocs.org/A/RES/64/292|title=Resolution 64/292: The human right to water and sanitation|date=August 2010|website=United Nations|access-date=13 October 2018}}</ref> HRWS dey recognized inside international law through human rights treaties, declarations and other standards. Some commentators don argue say human right to water dey exist independent of 2010 General Assembly resolution, based on things like Article 11.1 of International Covenant on Economic, Social den Cultural Rights (ICESCR); among those wey accept international ''[[ius cogens]]'', dem believe say dis right be binding principle of international law. Other treaties wey explicitly recognize HRWS include 1979 Convention on de Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) den 1989 Convention on de Rights of de Child (CRC). De clearest definition of human right to water come from United Nations Committee on Economic, Social den Cultural Rights for General Comment 15 wey dem draft for 2002.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Refugees |first=United Nations High Commissioner for |title=Refworld {{!}} General Comment No. 15: The Right to Water (Arts. 11 and 12 of the Covenant) |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/4538838d11.html |access-date=27 November 2020 |website=Refworld |language=en}}</ref> E be non-binding interpretation wey explain say access to water be condition for enjoying the right to adequate standard of living, and e closely link to right to highest attainable health standard, so e be human right. E talk say: "de human right to water entitle everybody to enough, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic use."<ref name=":3" /> De first resolutions about HRWS come from UN General Assembly and UN Human Rights Council for 2010.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Resolution adopted by the General Assembly|url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/berkley-center/100308UNARES64292.pdf|access-date=27 November 2020}}</ref> Dem state say sanitation right dey connected to water right, because poor sanitation fit spoil water quality downstream, so later discussions continue to treat both together. For July 2010, UN General Assembly Resolution 64/292 confirm again say people get human right to safe, affordable, clean and accessible water and sanitation services.<ref>Baer, M. 2015. From Water Wars to Water Rights: Implementing the Human Right to Water in Bolivia, Journal of Human Rights, 14:3, 353-376, {{doi|10.1080/14754835.2014.988782}}</ref> During that General Assembly, dem emphasize say for people to enjoy life and all other human rights well, safe clean drinking water and sanitation be necessary human right.<ref>UN (United Nations). 2010. Resolution adopted by the general assembly. 64/292. The human right to water and sanitation. A/RES/64/292. New York: United Nations.</ref> This resolution raise questions about how government suppose manage and provide water and sanitation responsibilities. United Nations Development Programme talk say when access to clean water and sanitation become widely recognized, e go improve people life quality and health.<ref>UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 1997. Governance for Sustainable Human Development: A UNDP Policy Document. UNDP, New York, NY, USA. See http://mirror.undp.org/magnet/policy/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010713151912/http://mirror.undp.org/magnet/policy/ |date=13 July 2001 }} (accessed 21 June 2012)</ref><ref>[[World Health Organization]] (WHO) and United Nation Children's Fund (UNICEF). 2011. Drinking water: Equity, Satefy and sustainability. New York: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water and Sanitation.</ref><ref>[[World Health Organization]] (WHO) and United Nation Children's Fund (UNICEF). 2012. Progress on drinking water and sanitation. 2012 update. New York: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation.</ref> Revised UN resolution for 2015 emphasize say the two rights separate but equal.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=The human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation|url=http://www.endwaterpoverty.org/sites/endwaterpoverty.org/files/The%20Human%20Rights%20To%20Water%20And%20Sanitation%20UN%20resolution.pdf|access-date=27 November 2020|archive-date=25 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170825141743/http://www.endwaterpoverty.org/sites/endwaterpoverty.org/files/The|url-status=dead}}</ref> HRWS dey put obligation on governments make dem ensure say people fit enjoy quality, available, acceptable, accessible and affordable water and sanitation.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Water/Handbook/Book1_intro_.pdf|title=Realising the human rights to water and sanitation: A Handbook by the UN Special Rapporteur|last=de Albuquerque|first=Catarina|publisher=United Nations|year=2014|location=Portugal|pages=Introduction}}</ref> Water affordability dey look how cost fit become burden wey go force people sacrifice other basic needs.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last1=Roaf|first1=Virginia|title=The Human Rights to Water and Sanitation|date=26 July 2018|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315471532-2|series=Equality in Water and Sanitation Services|pages=26–43|location=Abingdon, Oxon; New York |publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-315-47153-2|access-date=29 October 2020|last2=Albuquerque|first2=Catarina de|last3=Heller|first3=Léo|doi=10.4324/9781315471532-2|s2cid=204491938}}</ref> Normally, guideline for water affordability be say e no suppose pass 3–5% of household income.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=III.S.8 United Nations General Assembly Resolution 64/292 (On the Right to Water and Sanitation) (28 July 2010) |title=International Law & World Order|year=2012|pages=1–2|publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers|doi=10.1163/ilwo-iiis8|isbn=978-90-04-20870-4}}</ref> Accessibility of water dey consider time wey person take reach source, convenience, and risk involved.<ref name=":4" /> Water suppose be reachable for every citizen, meaning say e no suppose be more than 1,000 meters or 3,280 feet away and must fit be accessed within 30 minutes.<ref>{{Cite web|title=International Decade for Action 'Water for Life' 2005-2015. Focus Areas: The human right to water and sanitation|url=https://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/human_right_to_water.shtml|access-date=27 April 2021|publisher=United Nations}}</ref> Availability of water dey consider whether supply dey enough, reliable and sustainable.<ref name=":4" /> Water quality dey check whether e safe for drinking and other use.<ref name=":4" /> For acceptability, water no suppose get bad smell or strange color.<ref name=":8" /> ICESCR require say countries wey sign am must progressively achieve and respect all human rights, including water and sanitation rights.<ref name=":1" /> Dem suppose work fast and effective to improve access and service.<ref name=":1" /> {{TOC limit|3}} == International context == The WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation report say 663 million people no get access to improved drinking water sources and more than 2.4 billion people no get basic sanitation services for 2015.<ref name="JMP report 2013">[https://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMPreport2013.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703112631/https://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMPreport2013.pdf|date=3 July 2017}} ,2015 report of the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> Clean water access still be big global problem. Acceptable water sources include "household connections, public standpipes, boreholes, protected dug wells, protected springs and rainwater collections."<ref name="ref1">General Assembly Declares Access to Clean Water and Sanitation Is a Human Right." UN News Center. 28 July 2010. Accessed 20 March 2014.</ref> Even though about 9% of global population no get water access, some regions still lag behind, especially Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name="ref1" /> UN also highlight say "about 1.5 million children under five dey die every year and 443 million school days dey lost because of water and sanitation related diseases."<ref name="ref2">Global Issues at the United Nations." UN News Center. n.d. Accessed 20 March 2014.</ref> For 2022, over 2 billion people (25% of world population) no get steady access to clean drinking water.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Drinking-water |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/drinking-water |access-date=16 June 2023 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transforming Water Access: How the "World's Lifeblood" is Under Attack. |url=https://www.usglc.org/blog/transforming-water-access-how-the-worlds-lifeblood-is-under-attack/ |access-date=16 June 2023 |website=USGLC |language=en-US}}</ref> 4.2 billion people no get access to safe sanitation services.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=SeventhQueen |last2=Wolf |first2=Jared |date=8 June 2022 |title=The truth behind clean water in Africa 2022 |url=https://sustainablereview.com/billions-still-lack-access-to-clean-water-2022/ |access-date=16 June 2023 |website=Sustainable Review |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Advocacy |first=W. V. |date=22 March 2022 |title=How Improving Clean Water Access Can Fight Global Hunger |url=https://worldvisionadvocacy.org/2022/03/22/clean-water-global-hunger/ |access-date=16 June 2023 |website=World Vision Advocacy |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Building access to clean water in support of Sustainable Development Goal 6 {{!}} UNICEF Supply Division |url=https://www.unicef.org/supply/stories/building-access-clean-water-support-sustainable-development-goal-6 |access-date=16 June 2023 |website=www.unicef.org |language=en}}</ref> By 2024, new estimates show say about 4.4 billion people for low and middle income countries no get access to safe household drinking water.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Greenwood |first1=Esther E. |last2=Lauber |first2=Thomas |last3=van den Hoogen |first3=Johan |last4=Donmez |first4=Ayca |last5=Bain |first5=Robert E. S. |last6=Johnston |first6=Richard |last7=Crowther |first7=Thomas W. |last8=Julian |first8=Timothy R. |date=16 August 2024 |title=Mapping safe drinking water use in low- and middle-income countries |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adh9578 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=385 |issue=6710 |pages=784–790 |doi=10.1126/science.adh9578 |pmid=39146419 |bibcode=2024Sci...385..784G |issn=0036-8075}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ford |first=Celia |date=15 August 2024 |title=More than 4 billion people don't have access to clean water at home |url=https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/367224/clean-drinking-water-access-four-billion-science-study |access-date=30 August 2024 |website=Vox |language=en-US}}</ref> ==Legal foundations and recognition== The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) of 1966 na document wey bring together the economic, social and cultural rights wey dey inside the Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR) of 1948. None of these early documents explicitly recognize human rights to water and sanitation. But later international human rights conventions come include provisions wey directly recognize water and sanitation rights. The 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) get Article 14.2 wey talk say "parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in rural areas to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, that they participate in and benefit from rural development and, in particular shall ensure to women the right: ... (h) To enjoy adequate living conditions, particularly in relation to housing, sanitation, electricity and water supply, transport and communications."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Text of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women |publisher=United Nations |url=https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/cedaw.htm |access-date=27 November 2020}}</ref> The 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) get Article 24 wey recognize say children get right to enjoy highest attainable standard of health and access to facilities for treatment of illness and rehabilitation… and states must take steps like provision of adequate nutritious food and clean drinking water…<ref>The full text of the Convention on the rights of the child is available at: {{cite web |title=Convention on the Rights of the Child |publisher=Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights |date=20 November 1989 |url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/crc.htm |access-date=21 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611182141/http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/crc.htm |archive-date=11 June 2010 }}.</ref> The 2006 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) get Article 28(2)(a) wey require say persons with disabilities must get equal access to social protection and clean water services, plus access to appropriate and affordable services and support devices.<ref>The text of the Convention is available here: https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/convention-rights-persons-disabilities</ref> "The International Bill of Human Rights"—wey include the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), 1966 Articles 11 and 12 of ICESCR, and 1948 Article 25 of UDHR—don help show how human right to water and sanitation evolve come become recognized worldwide.<ref>Gupta, J., Ahlers, R., and Ahmed, L. 2010. The human right to water: Moving towards consensus in a fragmented world. Review of European Community and International Environmental Law, 19(3), 294–305</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Meier|first1=Benjamin Mason|last2=Kayser|first2=Georgia|last3=Amjad|first3=Urooj|last4=Bartram|first4=Jamie|date=15 November 2012|title=Implementing an Evolving Human Right Through Water and Sanitation Policy |journal=Water Policy |volume=15 |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2015424|language=en|location=Rochester, N.Y.|ssrn=2015424}}</ref> Scholars also emphasize importance of UN recognition of water and sanitation rights near end of 20th century. Early definitions come from law professor Stephen McCaffrey of University of the Pacific in 1992<ref name=":2">[http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/gintenlr5&div=7&id=&page=], McCaffrey, S.C. "A Human Right to Water: Domestic and International Implications" (1992) V Georgetown International Environmental Law Review, Issue 1, pp.1-24.</ref> and Dr. Peter Gleick in 1999.<ref name="pacinst.org">[http://pacinst.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/21/2012/10/basic_water_needs_human_right_to_water.pdf], Gleick, P.H. "The Human Right to Water" (1999) Water Policy, Vol. 1, Issue 5, pp. 487-503.</ref> McCaffrey talk say this right fit link to right to food, health or even right to life.<ref name=":2" /> Gleick add say access to basic water requirement be human right supported by international law and state practice.<ref name="pacinst.org" /> The UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) wey dey monitor ICESCR compliance come agree with these scholars through General Comment 15 for 2002.<ref name=":0" /> Dem conclude say right to water dey part of right to adequate standard of living and also connect to health, housing and food rights.<ref name=":0" /> E define say: "The human right to water entitles everyone to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic uses..."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Resources and Information|url=http://ww1.unhchr.ch/|access-date=27 November 2020|website=ww1.unhchr.ch}}</ref> Some countries formally accept say water right be part of ICESCR obligations, like Germany, United Kingdom,<ref>{{Cite web|title=righttowater - Just another WordPress site|url=https://www.righttowater.info/|access-date=27 November 2020|website=righttowater|language=en-US}}</ref> and Netherlands.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Human rights: the Netherlands officially recognises the right to water|url=http://www.irc.nl/page/39765|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090222211635/http://www.irc.nl/page/39765|archive-date=22 February 2009|access-date=27 November 2020}}</ref> For 2005, UN Sub-Commission on Promotion and Protection of Human Rights issue guidelines to help governments implement water and sanitation rights.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Realization of the right to drinking water and sanitation Report of the Special Rapporteur, El Hadji Guissé|url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/water/docs/SUb_Com_Guisse_guidelines.pdf|access-date=27 November 2020}}</ref> This lead Human Rights Council to appoint Catarina de Albuquerque as independent expert in 2008.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Independent Expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to access to safe drinking water and sanitation|url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/water/iexpert/overview.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100706011034/http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/water/iexpert/overview.htm|archive-date=6 July 2010|access-date=27 November 2020}}</ref> She later report in 2009 and CESCR confirm say sanitation must be recognized by all states.<ref name=":1" /> After long negotiation, 122 countries accept “Human Right to Water and Sanitation” through UN General Assembly Resolution 64/292 for 28 July 2010.<ref>{{Cite web|title=United Nations Official Document |publisher=United Nations |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/64/292 |access-date=27 November 2020}}</ref> E recognize say every person suppose get access to enough water for personal and domestic use (50–100 liters per person per day), safe, acceptable, affordable (cost no pass 3% of income), and accessible (source no pass 1,000 meters or 30 minutes collection time).<ref name= ref2 /> UN General Assembly also declare say clean drinking water be "essential to the full enjoyment of life and all other human rights".<ref name= ref2 /> For September 2010, UN Human Rights Council pass resolution wey confirm say water and sanitation be part of right to adequate standard of living.<ref>{{Cite press release |title=UN united to make the right to water and sanitation legally binding |date=1 October 2010 |publisher=Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights |url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=10403&LangID=E |access-date=27 November 2020 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101129163313/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=10403&LangID=E |archivedate=29 November 2010}}</ref> Catarina de Albuquerque later become Special Rapporteur and continue report on issues like non-state service provision (2010), financing (2011), wastewater management (2013), and sustainability/non-retrogression (2013).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://newsarchive.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=10356&LangID=E|title=Statement by the Independent Expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to safe drinking water and sanitation, Ms Catarina de Albuquerque at the 15th session of the Human Rights Council|website=newsarchive.ohchr.org|access-date=19 November 2019|archive-date=2 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102053934/https://newsarchive.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=10356&LangID=E|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://newsarchive.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=11542&LangID=E|title=Statement by the Special Rapporteur on the right to access to safe drinking water and sanitation at the 66th Session of the General Assembly|website=newsarchive.ohchr.org|access-date=19 November 2019|archive-date=26 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026102841/https://newsarchive.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=11542&LangID=E|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/WaterAndSanitation/SRWater/Pages/WasteWaterManagement.aspx|title=OHCHR {{!}} Wastewater management|website=www.ohchr.org|access-date=19 November 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/WaterAndSanitation/SRWater/Pages/Sustainabilityretrogressionrealisationofwaterandsanitation.aspx|title=OHCHR {{!}} Sustainability and non-retrogression in the realisation of the rights to water and sanitation|website=www.ohchr.org|access-date=19 November 2019}}</ref> Léo Heller later take over as Special Rapporteur in 2014. Later General Assembly Resolution 7/169 of 2015 confirm distinction between right to water and right to sanitation, because sanitation matter dey get less attention compared to water.<ref name=":3" /> --- International jurisprudence Inter-American Court of Human Rights Right to water appear for Inter-American Court of Human Rights case of Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay.<ref name=para>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170329234132/https://www.escr-net.org/sites/default/files/Judgment,%20Case%20of%20the%20Sawhoyamaxa%20Indigenous%20Community%20v.%20Paraguay.pdf ''Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329234132/https://www.escr-net.org/sites/default/files/Judgment,%20Case%20of%20the%20Sawhoyamaxa%20Indigenous%20Community%20v.%20Paraguay.pdf |date=29 March 2017 }} (Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 29 March 2006).</ref> The case involve state failure to recognize indigenous land rights. For 1991, government remove Sawhoyamaxa community from their land, and dem lose access to water, food, education and health services.<ref name=para/> This fall under American Convention on Human Rights and affect right to life.<ref>{{cite web |title=American Convention on Human Rights |publisher=Inter-American Commission on Human Rights |date=22 November 1969 |url=http://www.cidh.org/Basicos/English/Basic3.American%20Convention.htm |access-date=26 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618195529/http://www.cidh.org/Basicos/English/Basic3.American%20Convention.htm |archive-date=18 June 2013 }}</ref> Water form part of this right as access to land. Court order say land must return and basic services provide during transition period.<ref>[http://www.escr-net.org/node/365163f] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140507013122/http://www.escr-net.org/node/365163f|date=7 May 2014}}, International Network for Economic, Social & Cultural RIghts, Case of Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay.</ref> International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) ICSID cases concern contracts between governments and private companies for water services. Even though cases be about investment, some commentators note say right to water influence outcomes indirectly.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=hUwgAwAAQBAJ&dq=Azurix+Corp+v+Argentina+right+to+water&pg=PA296], Global Public Interest in International Investment Law, Andreas Kulick, 2012 at 303.</ref> Water privatization increase sharply from 1990s according to World Bank data.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bakker|first=Karen|date=27 February 2013|title=Neoliberal Versus Postneoliberal Water: Geographies of Privatization and Resistance|journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers|volume=103|issue=2|pages=253–260|doi=10.1080/00045608.2013.756246|bibcode=2013AAAG..103..253B |s2cid=143834419}}</ref> ==== Azurix Corp v. Argentina ==== This case involve dispute between Argentine Republic and Azurix Corporation over 30-year water contract.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003503/https://icsid.worldbank.org/ICSID/FrontServlet?requestType=CasesRH&actionVal=showDoc&docId=DC507_En&caseId=C5 ''Azurix Corp v. Argentina''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003503/https://icsid.worldbank.org/ICSID/FrontServlet?requestType=CasesRH&actionVal=showDoc&docId=DC507_En&caseId=C5 |date=4 March 2016 }}, ICSID Case No ARB/01/12.</ref> Tribunal decide say Azurix deserve fair return on investment but reject full claim of US$438.6 million because expectation for profit must be reasonable given water pricing limits and service obligations.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003503/https://icsid.worldbank.org/ICSID/FrontServlet?requestType=CasesRH&actionVal=showDoc&docId=DC507_En&caseId=C5] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003503/https://icsid.worldbank.org/ICSID/FrontServlet?requestType=CasesRH&actionVal=showDoc&docId=DC507_En&caseId=C5|date=4 March 2016}}, Azurix Corp v Argentina ICSID Case No ARB/01/12 at 149.</ref> ==== Biwater Gauff Ltd v. Tanzania ==== This case involve private water company dispute with Tanzania government over Dar es Salaam water system contract.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003519/https://icsid.worldbank.org/ICSID/FrontServlet?requestType=CasesRH&actionVal=showDoc&docId=DC1590_En&caseId=C67 ''Biwater Gauff (Tanzania) Ltd v. Tanzania''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003519/https://icsid.worldbank.org/ICSID/FrontServlet?requestType=CasesRH&actionVal=showDoc&docId=DC1590_En&caseId=C67 |date=4 March 2016 }}, ICSID Case No ARB/05/22.</ref> Government cancel contract in 2005 over performance issues. Tribunal later rule say government breach agreement but no award damages to company due to public interest concerns.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Biwater v. Tanzania|url=https://investmentpolicy.unctad.org/investment-dispute-settlement/cases/202/biwater-v-tanzania|access-date=12 December 2020|website=UNCTAD Investment Policy Hub}}</ref> --- Right to water in domestic law Without international enforcement body, human right to water depend on national courts.<ref>[http://lawecommons.luc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1020&context=lucilr], McGraw, George S. "Defining and Defending the Right to Water and its Minimum Core: Legal Construction and the Role of National Jurisprudence" ''Loyola University Chicago International Law Review'' Vol. 8, No. 2, 127-204 (2011) at 137.</ref> Countries implement am through constitutions and laws, either as non-justiciable principles or enforceable rights.<ref>[http://www.kaupapature.org.nz/store/doc/Pickard_-Poole.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129135516/http://www.kaupapature.org.nz/store/doc/Pickard-_Poole.pdf|date=29 January 2018}}, Natalie Baird and Diana Pickard "Economic, social and cultural rights: a proposal for a constitutional peg in the ground" [2013] NZLJ 289 at 297</ref> South Africa [[File:Communal tap for drinking water (2941731238).jpg|thumb|A group of people gathering around a communal tap in Johannesburg, South Africa]] For South Africa, constitution explicitly recognize right to water and implementation happen through national laws. This show model where constitution set principle and laws handle details.<ref name="kaupapature.org.nz">[http://www.kaupapature.org.nz/store/doc/Pickard_-Poole.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129135516/http://www.kaupapature.org.nz/store/doc/Pickard-_Poole.pdf|date=29 January 2018}}, Natalie Baird and Diana Pickard "Economic, social and cultural rights: a proposal for a constitutional peg in the ground" [2013] NZLJ 289 at 298</ref> Residents of Bon Vista Mansions v. Southern Metropolitan Local Council This case involve residents of Bon Vista Mansions after local council disconnect water due to unpaid bills. Court rule say people must get access to water under South African Constitution.<ref>[http://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/a108-96.pdf], South African Constitution, Section 27(1)(a).</ref> Court also rely on UN General Comment 12 on right to food which require states not to interfere with existing access to basic needs.<ref>[http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/gencomm/escgencom12.htm], Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment 12, Right to adequate food (Twentieth session, 1999), U.N. Doc. E/C.12/1999/5 (1999), reprinted in Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, U.N. Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.6 at 62 (2003).</ref> Court find say stopping water supply violate law under South African Water Services Act because procedure no fair or reasonable.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171031003941/http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf|date=31 October 2017}}, South African Water Services Act [No. 108 of 1997] Section 4 (3)</ref> This decision come before UN General Comment 15 be officially adopted.<ref>[https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2010/ga10967.doc.htm], UN General Comment No. 15</ref> ====''Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg''==== {{Main|Mazibuko v City of Johannesburg}} The question of how much water people suppose receive come be discussed further in ''[[Mazibuko v City of Johannesburg]]''.<ref>[http://www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZAGPHC/2008/491.pdf ''Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg''], (06/13865) [2008] ZAGPHC 491;[2008] All SA 471 (W) (30 April 2008)</ref> The case center on how water dey distribute through pipes to Phiri, one of the oldest areas for Soweto. The case bring two main issues: first, whether the city policy on free basic water—6 kilolitres per month for each account holder—conflict with Section 27 of the South African Constitution or Section 11 of the Water Services Act.<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171031003941/http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf|date=31 October 2017}}, South African Water Services Act. [No. 108 of 1997] Section 11</ref> Second issue be whether installation of pre-paid water meters be lawful or not. The High Court hold say the city by-laws no allow installation of meters, so the meters installation be illegal. The court also hold say because the meters stop water supply after free basic water finish, that count as unlawful discontinuation of water supply. The court then rule say residents of Phiri must receive free basic water of 50 litres per person per day.<ref>[http://www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZAGPHC/2008/491.pdf ''Mazibuko v. City of Johannesburg''], (06/13865) [2008] ZAGPHC 491;[2008] All SA 471 (W) (30 April 2008) at 181</ref> Centre for Applied Legal Studies (CALS) of University of the Witwatersrand for Johannesburg and Pacific Institute for Oakland, California, share 2008 Business Ethics Network (BENNY) Award for their work on this case.<ref>[http://businessethicsnetwork.org/] Business Ethics Network</ref> Pacific Institute also provide legal testimony based on work of Dr. Peter Gleick wey help define human right to water and explain minimum water needs.<ref>[http://pacinst.org/news/350/], Pacific Institute "Pacific Institute Shares BENNY Award for Efforts in South African Water Rights Decision." (2008), Pacific Institute, Oakland, California</ref> The main respondents carry the case go Supreme Court of Appeal (SCA), wey rule say city water policy suffer from error of law about minimum obligation under South African National Standard, so dem set am aside.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.iso.org/sites/PEG/docs/PEG%20Documents/10_SANS1-1.pdf?stdsid=14017755&pid=free, |title=South African National Standard 3(b) |access-date=6 May 2014 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304071006/http://www.iso.org/sites/PEG/docs/PEG%20Documents/10_SANS1-1.pdf?stdsid=14017755&pid=free, |url-status=dead }}</ref> Court also hold say minimum quantity for dignified human life under Section 27 be 42 litres per person per day, not 50 litres. SCA declare say installation of water meters be illegal, but dem suspend the order for two years make city fit correct the system.<ref>[http://www.saflii.org/cgi-bin/disp.pl?file=za/cases/ZASCA/2009/52.html&query=mazibuko], Mazibuko and Another v National Director of Public Prosecutions (113/08) [2009] ZASCA 52; 2009 (6) SA 479 (SCA); [2009] 3 All SA 548 (SCA) (26 May 2009)</ref> The matter later go Constitutional Court. The court hold say constitution require state to take reasonable steps—through laws and policies—to progressively realize access to water, based on available resources. Court also say government policy decisions must stay within budget limits, and courts no suppose replace government role in deciding social and economic policy. So the minimum basic water policy was held constitutional, and government fit even go above am, but court no get power to prescribe exact quantity for social rights implementation.<ref>[http://www.saflii.org/cgi-bin/disp.pl?file=za/cases/ZACC/2009/28.html&query=mazibuko ''Mazibuko and Other v. City of Johannesburg and Others''] (CCt 39/09) [2009] ZACC 28; 2010 (3) BCLR 239 (CC); 2010 (4) SA 1 (CC) (8 October 2009)</ref> The court focus instead on whether government steps be reasonable and whether dem dey review their policies regularly.<ref name="kaupapature.org.nz"/> Some critics argue say the judgment use too much judicial restraint and limit strong enforcement of social rights.<ref>Alston & Goodman, International Human Rights, Oxford University Press (2013), Lucy A. Williams, "The Role of Courts In The Quantitative-Implementation of Social and Economic Rights: A Comparative Study", 3 ''Constitutional Court Review'' 2010 [South Africa] (2011) 141</ref> --- India Two major cases for India show how courts interpret right to water even though e no explicitly written inside Constitution, but as part of right to life, courts include am under safe and sufficient water access.<ref>[http://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1037&context=njihr], Amy Hardberger "Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Water: Evaluating Water as a Human Right and the Duties and Obligations it Creates" (2005) 4 ''Northwestern Journal of International Human Rights'' 331 at 352</ref> [[File:Jamuna River 04.jpg|thumb|The Yamuna River, river wey Haryana state and Delhi dey use]] ====''Delhi Water Supply v. State of Haryana''==== This dispute start because Haryana dey use Yamuna River water for irrigation while Delhi need am for drinking and domestic use. Court rule say domestic use get priority over commercial use, so Haryana must release enough water for Delhi residents.<ref name="indiankanoon.org">[http://www.indiankanoon.org/doc/1520766/ ''Delhi Water Supply & Sewage v. State Of Haryana & Ors''], 1999 SCC(2) 572, JT 1996 (6) 107</ref> ====''Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar''==== For this case, petitioner challenge pollution of Bokaro River due to waste discharge from washeries. Court hold say right to life under Article 21 include right to clean and pollution-free water.<ref>[http://lawmin.nic.in/olwing/coi/coi-english/coi-indexenglish.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402064301/http://lawmin.nic.in/olwing/coi/coi-english/coi-indexenglish.htm|date=2 April 2012}}, The Constitution of India</ref> However, case fail because court find say petition no be genuine public interest but personal interest, so continuation of case go count as abuse of process.<ref name="indiankanoon.org"/> ==== World Rights to Water Day ==== Water be essential for life of all living beings, including humans. So access to clean and enough water be considered inalienable human right. Eco Needs Foundation (ENF) believe say this right suppose be clearly recognized by law, including minimum per capita water access. United Nations already set obligations on countries through different covenants to ensure fair distribution of water to citizens. Because of this, ENF start observe and promote World Rights to Water Day on 20 March, date wey Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar lead first water satyagraha in 1927. The day encourage adoption of laws wey guarantee universal right to water. Under guidance of founder Dr Priyanand Agale, ENF organize programmes to promote access to water rights for citizens.<ref>econeeds.org</ref> --- New Zealand Economic, social and cultural rights no get explicit protection under New Zealand Human Rights Act or Bill of Rights Act, so right to water no get direct legal protection there.<ref>Natalie Baird and Diana Pickard, [http://www.kaupapature.org.nz/store/doc/Pickard_-Poole.pdf "Economic, social and cultural rights: a proposal for a constitutional peg in the ground"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129135516/http://www.kaupapature.org.nz/store/doc/Pickard-_Poole.pdf |date=29 January 2018 }}, [2013] NZLJ 289 at 299</ref> New Zealand Law Society don indicate recently say dem go still consider legal recognition of these rights.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180304033140/http://www.lawsociety.org.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/76530/l-HR-Committee-ICCPR-List-of-Issues-Prior-to-Reporting-5-3-14-with-annexure,-UPR-submission-17-6-13.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180304033140/http://www.lawsociety.org.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/76530/l-HR-Committee-ICCPR-List-of-Issues-Prior-to-Reporting-5-3-14-with-annexure,-UPR-submission-17-6-13.pdf|date=4 March 2018}}, New Zealand Law Society Human Rights & Privacy Committee, Submission to the 18th Session of The Human Rights Council, Shadow Report to New Zealand's 2nd Universal Periodic Review</ref> --- United States For United States, no federal law officially recognize human right to water.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://law.northeastern.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/phrge-water-primer.pdf |title=The Human Right to Water in the United States |author1=Kevin Murray |author2=Sara Kominers |publisher=Northeastern University School of Law}}</ref> But some federal laws protect water quality, including: Safe Drinking Water Act (public water systems, not private wells or bottled water) Clean Water Act (surface waters of the United States) Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Superfund (CERCLA) National Environmental Policy Act (environmental impact requirements) --- Australia Attention for Australia focus mainly on Indigenous Australians’ water rights. Settler-colonial history still influence how water resources dey managed today. Even though government make agreements, many still no fully address Indigenous access to water and sanitation. In ''Mabo v Queensland (No 2)'', native title rights get legal recognition for first time in 1992. Indigenous Australians often connect land and water to cultural identity, but legal system still struggle to fully recognize spiritual and cultural water rights.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last1=Poirier|first1=Robert|last2=Schartmueller|first2=Doris|date=1 September 2012|title=Indigenous water rights in Australia|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2011.11.002|journal=The Social Science Journal|volume=49|issue=3|pages=317–324|doi=10.1016/j.soscij.2011.11.002|s2cid=144101999|issn=0362-3319|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Burdon|first1=Peter|last2=Drew|first2=Georgina|last3=Stubbs|first3=Matthew|last4=Webster|first4=Adam|last5=Barber|first5=Marcus|date=2 October 2015|title=Decolonising Indigenous water 'rights' in Australia: flow, difference, and the limits of law|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/2201473X.2014.1000907|journal=Settler Colonial Studies|volume=5|issue=4|pages=334–349|doi=10.1080/2201473X.2014.1000907|s2cid=154484189|issn=2201-473X|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Australian water law allow citizens use surface water but no own am. Inland and river water rights mostly under state control, while Commonwealth get power through external affairs, trade and grants powers.<ref name=":5" /> For 2000, Federal Court allow Indigenous people use water for traditional purposes, but irrigation no count as traditional use.<ref name=":5" /> For 2004, National Water Initiative recognize Indigenous water interests, but critics say it no fully address historical inequality in water distribution.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|date=1 December 2014|title=Indigenous people's right to water under international law: a legal pluralism perspective|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1877343514000700|journal=Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability|language=en|volume=11|pages=26–33|doi=10.1016/j.cosust.2014.09.015|issn=1877-3435|last1=Gupta|first1=Joyeeta|last2=Hildering|first2=Antoinette|last3=Misiedjan|first3=Daphina|bibcode=2014COES...11...26G |url-access=subscription}}</ref> == Remaining discussions == === Transboundary effects === [[File:Nile River and delta from orbit.jpg|thumb|Ethiopia move to fill [[Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam]] reservoir fit reduce [[Nile]] flow reach up to 25% and spoil Egypt farmland.<ref>{{cite news |title=In Africa, War Over Water Looms As Ethiopia Nears Completion Of Nile River Dam |url=https://www.npr.org/2018/02/27/589240174/in-africa-war-over-water-looms-as-ethiopia-nears-completion-of-nile-river-dam?t=1595668819363 |work=[[NPR]] |date=27 February 2018}}</ref>]] [[File:Nord-Krim-Kanal.png|right|thumb|After Russia annex Crimea, Ukraine block the [[North Crimean Canal]], wey dey give about 85% of Crimea fresh water.<ref>{{cite news |title=Pray For Rain: Crimea's Dry-Up A Headache For Moscow, Dilemma For Kyiv |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/pray-for-rain-crimea-s-dry-up-a-headache-for-moscow-dilemma-for-kyiv/30515986.html |work=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |date=29 March 2020}}</ref>]] Since access to water dey cross borders and fit cause tension for areas like Middle East, South Asia, Eastern Mediterranean and some parts of North America, some NGOs and scholars dey argue say right to water get trans-national side too. Dem believe say because water no dey respect borders, countries suppose avoid actions wey fit spoil other people human rights.<ref>{{Cite web|title=FIAN International|url=https://fian.org/en/|access-date=30 March 2021|website=fian.org}}</ref> Dis idea also fit help reduce global "water crunch" wey population increase dey cause. But as population dey grow, water scarcity go still create serious problem. E also raise question whether water fit dey move from one country go another or not.<ref name= ref3>McCaffrey, Stephen C. "Human Right to Water: Domestic and International Implications, A." ''Geo. Int'l Envtl. L. Rev.'' 5 (1992): 1.</ref> ==== Water Dispute Between India and Pakistan ==== Water matter between [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] dey connected to water shortage for South Asia.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal|last=Bakhtawar|first=Saadia|date=2012|title=Water: an Economic Resource Conflict between India and Pakistan|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3597519|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3597519|issn=1556-5068|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Dem get agreement called [[Indus Waters Treaty]] wey dey divide river use between di two countries after independence.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Salman|first1=Salman M. A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8GEr4fyDbqgC&pg=PA42|title=Conflict and Cooperation on South Asia's International Rivers: A Legal Perspective|last2=Uprety|first2=Kishor|date=2002|publisher=World Bank Publications|isbn=978-0-8213-5352-3|language=en}}</ref> Even with di treaty, wahala still dey. Pakistan dey fear say India dam projects fit reduce water wey go reach dem and cause scarcity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sharma|first=Pankaj Kumar|date=2012|title=Conflict over Water Between India and Pakistan: Fear and Hopes?|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41856568|journal=The Indian Journal of Political Science|volume=73|issue=1|pages=133–140|jstor=41856568|issn=0019-5510}}</ref> === Water commercialization versus state provision === Debate still dey whether government or private companies suppose handle water supply and sanitation. Some people believe say water scarcity make private sector management better because e fit increase efficiency and reduce waste. Dem argue say government water system cost too much and no dey always effective, so market approach fit help manage water better.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wilder|first1=Margaret|last2=Romero Lankao|first2=Patricia|date=November 2006|title=Paradoxes of Decentralization: Water Reform and Social Implications in Mexico|journal=World Development|volume=34|issue=11|pages=1977–1995|doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2005.11.026}}</ref> But other side talk say water be human right, so e no suppose depend on profit or private companies. Dem believe say water suppose dey available for everybody because e dey essential for life.<ref name="ref4">Bakker, Karen. "The "Commons" Versus the "Commodity": Alter‐globalization, Anti‐privatization and the Human Right to Water in the Global South". ''Antipode'' 39.3 (2007): 430-455.</ref> === Organizations === Organizations wey dey work for water and sanitation rights include: ==== United Nations organizations ==== * [[OHCHR]] * [[UNDP]] * [[UNICEF]] * Sanitation and Water for All ==== Governmental cooperation agencies ==== * [[DFID]] * [[GIZ]] * [[Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation|SDC]] * [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]] ==== International NGOs and networks ==== * [[Action against Hunger]] * [[Blood:Water]] * Center for Water Security and Cooperation * Freshwater Action Network (FAN) * Pure Water for the World * The DigDeep Right to Water Project * [[Pacific Institute]] * The Water Project * [[Transnational Institute]] * UUSC * [[WaterAid]] * WaterLex * [[PeaceJam]] * [[Thirst Project]] == See also == {{Portal|Water|Law|Politics}} {{Columns-list|colwidth=30em| * Climate migration and water rights * Environmental law * International human rights law * Water conflict * Water law * Water security * Water supply * World Water Day * WASH - Water, sanitation and hygiene * Workers' right to access toilet }} == References == {{Reflist|2}} == External links == * Special Rapporteur on the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation – UN * WaterLex Archive * Human Right to Water and Sanitation: Translating Theory into Practice * Right to Water: Understanding children's right to water {{offline|med}} {{Particular human rights}} {{Nutritional pathology}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Water]] [[Category:Sanitation]] [[Category:Right to health]] 7kech0swscridt1jjxt3uanz1mrix9z 0 27471 103936 102749 2026-06-19T00:46:34Z Achiri Bitamsimli 64 Added more content 103936 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Ruvuma River''', dem formerly sanso know as de '''Rovuma River''', be a river insyd de [[African Great Lakes]] region. During de greater part of ein course, e dey form de border between [[Tanzania]] den [[Mozambique]]. De river be 998 km (620 mi) long, plus a drainage basin of ~155,000 km² (60,000 mi²) in size. Ein mean annual discharge be 475 m³/s (16,800 cu ft/s) to 2,286 m³/s (80,700 cu ft/s) at ein mouth.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nakayama |first=Mikiyasu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nBJPAAAAMAAJ |title=International Waters in Southern Africa |date=2003 |publisher=United Nations University Press |isbn=978-92-808-1077-6 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Ceantral East Coast2">{{cite web|url=https://www.riversnetwork.org/V1/index.php/component/content/?view=article&id=101&catid=270&Itemid=179|title=Central East Coast}}</ref> == Discharge == Average den maximum discharge of de Rovuma River (11°9′53.9532″S 39°15′37.8072″E / 11.164987000°S 39.260502000°E / -11.164987000; 39.260502000):<ref name="Evaluation of streamflow estimates for the Rovuma River3">{{cite journal |last1=M.R. |first1=Minihane |year=2012 |title=Evaluation of streamflow estimates for the Rovuma River |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S147470651200112X |journal=Physics and Chemistry of the Earth |volume=50-52 |pages=14–23 |doi=10.1016/j.pce.2012.09.003 |url-access=subscription |doi-access=free}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" !VIC modeled (1999–2008) !MFR estimated flows (1999–2008) !UNH-GRDC historical period (1957–1999) |- | colspan="3" |Average discharge |- |1,864 m³/s (65,800 cu ft/s) |1,866 m³/s (65,900 cu ft/s) |1,838 m³/s (64,900 cu ft/s) |- | colspan="3" |Maximum discharge |- |22,365 m³/s (789,800 cu ft/s) |22,630 m³/s (799,000 cu ft/s) |22,053 m³/s (778,800 cu ft/s) |} Average monthly discharge of de Rovuma River (11°9′53.9532″S 39°15′37.8072″E / 11.164987000°S 39.260502000°E / -11.164987000; 39.260502000), UNH-GRDC historical period (1957–1999):<ref name="Evaluation of streamflow estimates for the Rovuma River3" /> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" !Month !Discharge (m³/s) |- |JAN |3,340 |- |FEB |4,040 |- |MAR |5,390 |- |APR |3,880 |- |MAY |1,780 |- |JUN |780 |- |JUL |350 |- |AUG |160 |- |SEP |50 |- |OCT |80 |- |NOV |270 |- |DEC |1,940 |} == Tributaries == De largest tributaries of de Rovuma River:<ref name="Ceantral East Coast2" /> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" !Left tributary !Right tributary !Length (km) !Basin size (km²) !Average discharge (m³/s) |- | colspan="2" |''Rovuma'' |''760'' |''155,316.4'' |''1,773'' |- |Kitama | |70 |1,065.8 |12.3 |- | |Matiu |100 |1,920.1 |26.1 |- |Mwiti | |80 |994.2 |14 |- | |Ninga |100 |1,572.8 |19.8 |- |Miesi | rowspan="2" | |80 |946.7 |12.5 |- |Mbangala |160 |3 598.2 |44.4 |- | |Lugenda |650 |60,990.4 |752.1 |- |Lukwika | |100 |1,331.5 |16.3 |- | |Manjesi |90 |1,084.2 |16.3 |- |Lumesule | rowspan="4" | |180 |2,342.8 |28.9 |- |Muhuwesi |240 |10,319.6 |137.3 |- |Mzinieva |100 |1,285.4 |22.5 |- |Chimovero | |638.3 |11.2 |- | |Licombe |60 |975.7 |16 |- |Lukembule | | |1,234.6 |21.6 |- | rowspan="2" | |Chiluezi | |3,544.9 |55.1 |- |Lopele | |763.1 |13.3 |- |Luvingo | |80 |592.4 |10.3 |- | |Ludimilé | |1,129.4 |20.7 |- |Sasawara | rowspan="2" | |90 |2,322.8 |37.3 |- |Msangesi |120 |1,614.1 |23.8 |- | rowspan="4" | |Lipapa | |753.5 |14.2 |- |Lussanhando | |2,863.2 |51.9 |- |Lucheringo |250 |9,288.1 |200.5 |- |Lualece |60 |611.9 |11 |- |Miongosi | rowspan="3" | |50 |964.3 |11.6 |- |Likonde |150 |5,914.8 |61.2 |- |Mlongasi |100 |960.8 |11.9 |- | |Messinge |238 |7,525.4 |174.8 |- |Lunyere | |190 |6,210.1 |78.7 |} == Overview == De lower Ruvuma river be formed by de junction at 11° 25′ S, 38° 31′ E of two branches of nearly equal importance, de longer of wich, de Lujenda, dey cam from de south-west, de oda, wich still dey bear de name Ruvuma, from de west. Ein source dey lie on an undulating plateau, 1,000 m (3,300 ft) high, immediately to de east of [[Lake Malawi|Lake Nyasa]], at 10° 45′ S, 35° 40′ E, de head-stream dey flow first due west before turning south den east. Insyd ein eastward course, de Ruvuma dey flow near de base of de escarpment of an arid sandstone plateau to de north, from wich direction de stream, wich cut demselves deep channels insyd de plateau edge, get almost all short courses. Opposite side of the river, Ruvuma dey receive some oda rivers, like Msinje River and Luchulingo River, wey all dey flow through broad valleys from south go north. Lujenda River start near Lake Chilwa, from small Lake Chiuta ({{convert|1700|ft|abbr=on|order=flip|disp=comma}}). Di swamps wey dey south of am separate from Lake Chilwa by one small forest ridge. Di water wey comot from Lake Chiuta pass through swamp valley enter narrow Lake Amaramba before e finally turn Lujenda River, wey start as stream wey be {{convert|80|yd}} wide. As di river dey continue go down, e width dey change plenty. Plenty long islands wey tree full top dey inside di river, and some people even dey live for dem. During dry season, people fit cross di river by foot for many places. For di mouth, di river dey about {{convert|1|mi|km|1}} wide. Di lower Ruvuma River, wey mostly dey around {{convert|1/2|mi|km|1}} wide but no too deep, dey flow through swamp valley wey plateau escarpments surround. Di area get several small backwaters too. Di mouth of di river dey near {{nowrap|10° 28′ S, 40° 30′ E}}, while di boundary near di coast dey follow di parallel of {{nowrap|10° 40′ S}}. Di total length of Ruvuma River dey about {{convert|500|mi|km}}. == Bridge == Dem first propose make dem build one bridge across di river between Mozambique and Tanzania as far back as 1975. Di bridge go later get di name Unity Bridge. Even though construction start, dem stop di project because money no dey. For 2002, di governments of both countries sign official agreement to build one new bridge wey dey {{convert|600|m}} long across di river. Dem finally open am for ceremony on 25 May 2010. Di bridge dey for Negomano, about {{convert|200|km|abbr=on}} from inside di country and {{convert|100|km|abbr=on}} from di nearest tarred road for Mozambique. Di presidents Samora Machel and Julius Nyerere agree on dis location because na there Frelimo fighters first enter Mozambique during di Mozambican War of Independence on 25 September 1964. Negomano too be di place wey German soldiers cross Rovuma River on 25 November 1917.<ref>Paice, Edward, 2008, ''Tip & Run,'' Phoenix, p. 339 {{ISBN|978-0753823491}}</ref> Dem lay di first foundation stones for both Tanzania and Mozambique side on 10 October 2005. Construction finish early 2010 and di whole project cost about US$28 million. Before di bridge come, people fit cross di river with raft from di Tanzania side wey fit carry three jeeps. But di ferry sink for 2008 and dem never replace am. During low water season, strong four-wheel drive vehicles fit cross some parts of di river. Another smaller bridge wey dem call Unity Two finish for 2007 across upper Rovuma River near Matchedge for Niassa Province. ==Notes== {{reflist}} ==References== {{EB1911|wstitle=Rovuma|volume=23|page=782}} {{Commons}} {{Rivers of Mozambique}} {{Rivers of Tanzania}} [[Category:Ruvuma River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Mozambique]] [[Category:Rivers of Tanzania]] [[Category:Border rivers]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Mozambique–Tanzania border]] == External links == {{Commons}} [[Category:Ruvuma River| ]] [[Category:Rivers of Mozambique]] [[Category:Rivers of Tanzania]] [[Category:Border rivers]] [[Category:International rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Mozambique–Tanzania border]] n3paxrz9jzua5vxivgfqmd9m1jtujwk 0 27473 103716 103089 2026-06-18T16:28:28Z DaSupremo 9 Article contains Nigerian Pidgin words so I rewrote it in Ghanaian Pidgin 103716 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Water''' be an inorganic compound plus de chemical formula H2O. E be a transparent, tasteless, odorless, den nearly colorless chemical substance. E be de main constituent of [[Earth]] ein streams, lakes, den oceans. Water sanso be de fluid of all known living organisms, insyd wich e dey act as a solvent. Water, be a polar molecule, wey dey undergo strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding wich be a large contributor to ein physical den chemical properties.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |title=Water Q&A: Why is water the "universal solvent"? |date=20 June 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=15 January 2021 |archive-date=6 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206061114/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |url-status=live }}</ref> E be vital give all known forms of life, despite no dey provide food energy anaa e be an organic micronutrient. Secof ein presence insyd all organisms, ein chemical stability, ein worldwide abundance, den ein strong polarity relative to ein small molecular size, water often be referred to as de "universal solvent".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-08-09 |title=4.1: Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_Santa_Cruz/UCSC%3A_Chem_1B-AL_(Mednick)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/04%3A_Types_of_Chemical_Reactions_and_Solution_Stoichiometry/4.01_Water%2C_the_Universal_Solvent |access-date=2026-01-14 |website=Chemistry LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref> Secof Earth ein surface temperature den pressure be relatively close to water ein triple point, water dey exist on Earth as a solid, a liquid, den a gas.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Butler |first1=John |title=The Earth – Introduction – Weathering |url=https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |publisher=[[University of Houston]] |access-date=30 January 2023 |quote=Note that the Earth environment is close to the triple point and that water, steam and ice can all exist at the surface. |archive-date=30 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130051934/https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |url-status=live }}</ref> E dey form [[precipitation]] insyd de form of rain den aerosols insyd de form of fog. Clouds dey consist of suspended droplets of water den ice, ein solid state. Wen finely divided, crystalline ice fi precipitate insyd de form of snow. De gaseous state of water be steam anaa water vapor. Water dey cover about 71% of de Earth ein surface, plus seas den oceans wey dey make up chaw of de water volume (about 96.5%).<ref name="WSS">{{cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |title=How Much Water is There on Earth? |date=13 November 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=8 June 2022 |archive-date=9 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609050627/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |url-status=live }}</ref> Small portions of water dey occur as groundwater (1.7%), insyd de glaciers den de ice caps of Antarctica den Greenland (1.7%), den insyd de air as vapor, clouds (wey dey consist of ice den liquid water dem suspend insyd air), den precipitation (0.001%).<ref name="b1">{{cite book |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources |editor=Gleick, P.H. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1993 |page=13, Table 2.1 "Water reserves on the earth" |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408091921/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |archive-date=8 April 2013 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html Water Vapor in the Climate System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070320034158/http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html |date=20 March 2007 }}, Special Report, [AGU], December 1995 (linked 4/2007). [http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ Vital Water] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220070111/http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ |date=20 February 2008 }} [[UNEP]].</ref> Water dey move continually thru de water cycle of evaporation, transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, den runoff, usually dey reach de sea. Water dey play an important role insyd de world economy. Approximately 70% of de fresh water wey humans use [[Irrigation|dey go to agriculture]].<ref name=Baroni2007>{{cite journal |author=Baroni, L. |author2=Cenci, L. |author3=Tettamanti, M. |author4=Berati, M. |year=2007 |title=Evaluating the environmental impact of various dietary patterns combined with different food production systems |journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=61 |pages=279–286 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602522 |pmid=17035955 |issue=2|doi-access=free | issn=0954-3007 }}</ref> Fishing insyd salt den fresh water bodies be, den dey continue to be, a major source of chow give chaw parts of de world, wey dey provide 6.5% of global protein.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Troell |first1=Max |last2=Naylor |first2=Rosamond L. |last3=Metian |first3=Marc |last4=Beveridge |first4=Malcolm |last5=Tyedmers |first5=Peter H. |last6=Folke |first6=Carl |last7=Arrow |first7=Kenneth J. |last8=Barrett |first8=Scott |last9=Crépin |first9=Anne-Sophie |last10=Ehrlich |first10=Paul R. |last11=Gren |first11=Åsa |date=16 September 2014 |title=Does aquaculture add resilience to the global food system? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=37 |pages=13257–13263 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1404067111 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4169979 |pmid=25136111|bibcode=2014PNAS..11113257T |doi-access=free }}</ref> Much of de long-distance trade of commodities (such as oil, natural gas, den manufactured products) be transported by boats thru seas, rivers, lakes, den canals. Large quantities of water, ice, den steam be used for cooling den heating insyd industry den homes. Water be an excellent solvent give a wide variety of substances, both mineral den organic; as such, e be widely used insyd industrial processes den insyd cooking den washing. Water, ice, den snow sanso be central to chaw sports den oda forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, diving, ice skating, snowboarding, den skiing. == References == <references /> == External links == ccobzngxp2ddfhc491q3cbk52i6oz9y 103717 103716 2026-06-18T16:43:00Z DaSupremo 9 /* Distribution insyd nature */ Improve article 103717 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Water''' be an inorganic compound plus de chemical formula H2O. E be a transparent, tasteless, odorless, den nearly colorless chemical substance. E be de main constituent of [[Earth]] ein streams, lakes, den oceans. Water sanso be de fluid of all known living organisms, insyd wich e dey act as a solvent. Water, be a polar molecule, wey dey undergo strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding wich be a large contributor to ein physical den chemical properties.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |title=Water Q&A: Why is water the "universal solvent"? |date=20 June 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=15 January 2021 |archive-date=6 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206061114/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |url-status=live }}</ref> E be vital give all known forms of life, despite no dey provide food energy anaa e be an organic micronutrient. Secof ein presence insyd all organisms, ein chemical stability, ein worldwide abundance, den ein strong polarity relative to ein small molecular size, water often be referred to as de "universal solvent".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-08-09 |title=4.1: Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_Santa_Cruz/UCSC%3A_Chem_1B-AL_(Mednick)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/04%3A_Types_of_Chemical_Reactions_and_Solution_Stoichiometry/4.01_Water%2C_the_Universal_Solvent |access-date=2026-01-14 |website=Chemistry LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref> Secof Earth ein surface temperature den pressure be relatively close to water ein triple point, water dey exist on Earth as a solid, a liquid, den a gas.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Butler |first1=John |title=The Earth – Introduction – Weathering |url=https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |publisher=[[University of Houston]] |access-date=30 January 2023 |quote=Note that the Earth environment is close to the triple point and that water, steam and ice can all exist at the surface. |archive-date=30 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130051934/https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |url-status=live }}</ref> E dey form [[precipitation]] insyd de form of rain den aerosols insyd de form of fog. Clouds dey consist of suspended droplets of water den ice, ein solid state. Wen finely divided, crystalline ice fi precipitate insyd de form of snow. De gaseous state of water be steam anaa water vapor. Water dey cover about 71% of de Earth ein surface, plus seas den oceans wey dey make up chaw of de water volume (about 96.5%).<ref name="WSS">{{cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |title=How Much Water is There on Earth? |date=13 November 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=8 June 2022 |archive-date=9 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609050627/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |url-status=live }}</ref> Small portions of water dey occur as groundwater (1.7%), insyd de glaciers den de ice caps of Antarctica den Greenland (1.7%), den insyd de air as vapor, clouds (wey dey consist of ice den liquid water dem suspend insyd air), den precipitation (0.001%).<ref name="b1">{{cite book |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources |editor=Gleick, P.H. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1993 |page=13, Table 2.1 "Water reserves on the earth" |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408091921/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |archive-date=8 April 2013 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html Water Vapor in the Climate System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070320034158/http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html |date=20 March 2007 }}, Special Report, [AGU], December 1995 (linked 4/2007). [http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ Vital Water] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220070111/http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ |date=20 February 2008 }} [[UNEP]].</ref> Water dey move continually thru de water cycle of evaporation, transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, den runoff, usually dey reach de sea. Water dey play an important role insyd de world economy. Approximately 70% of de fresh water wey humans use [[Irrigation|dey go to agriculture]].<ref name=Baroni2007>{{cite journal |author=Baroni, L. |author2=Cenci, L. |author3=Tettamanti, M. |author4=Berati, M. |year=2007 |title=Evaluating the environmental impact of various dietary patterns combined with different food production systems |journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=61 |pages=279–286 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602522 |pmid=17035955 |issue=2|doi-access=free | issn=0954-3007 }}</ref> Fishing insyd salt den fresh water bodies be, den dey continue to be, a major source of chow give chaw parts of de world, wey dey provide 6.5% of global protein.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Troell |first1=Max |last2=Naylor |first2=Rosamond L. |last3=Metian |first3=Marc |last4=Beveridge |first4=Malcolm |last5=Tyedmers |first5=Peter H. |last6=Folke |first6=Carl |last7=Arrow |first7=Kenneth J. |last8=Barrett |first8=Scott |last9=Crépin |first9=Anne-Sophie |last10=Ehrlich |first10=Paul R. |last11=Gren |first11=Åsa |date=16 September 2014 |title=Does aquaculture add resilience to the global food system? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=37 |pages=13257–13263 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1404067111 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4169979 |pmid=25136111|bibcode=2014PNAS..11113257T |doi-access=free }}</ref> Much of de long-distance trade of commodities (such as oil, natural gas, den manufactured products) be transported by boats thru seas, rivers, lakes, den canals. Large quantities of water, ice, den steam be used for cooling den heating insyd industry den homes. Water be an excellent solvent give a wide variety of substances, both mineral den organic; as such, e be widely used insyd industrial processes den insyd cooking den washing. Water, ice, den snow sanso be central to chaw sports den oda forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, diving, ice skating, snowboarding, den skiing. ==Distribution insyd nature== ===Insyd de universe=== ====Water vapor==== Water be present as vapor insyd: * Atmosphere of de Sun: insyd detectable trace amounts<ref name=Solanki1994>{{cite journal |last1=Solanki |first1=S.K. |last2=Livingston |first2=W. |last3=Ayres |first3=T. |year=1994 |title=New Light on the Heart of Darkness of the Solar Chromosphere |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |pmid=17748350 |volume=263 |issue=5143 |pages=64–66 |bibcode=1994Sci...263...64S |doi=10.1126/science.263.5143.64 |s2cid=27696504 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f20e/89b9c386ff2dea7d990f8ff6a09d550e5e43.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190307030222/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f20e/89b9c386ff2dea7d990f8ff6a09d550e5e43.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 March 2019 }}</ref> * Atmosphere of Mercury: 3.4%, den large amounts of water insyd Mercury ein exosphere<ref name="planetary society">{{cite web |url=http://www.planetary.org/news/2008/0703_MESSENGER_Scientists_Astonished_to.html |title=MESSENGER Scientists 'Astonished' to Find Water in Mercury's Thin Atmosphere |access-date=5 July 2008 |publisher=Planetary Society |date=3 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100406034624/http://www.planetary.org/news/2008/0703_MESSENGER_Scientists_Astonished_to.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 April 2010}}</ref> * Atmosphere of Venus: 0.002%<ref name=Bertaux2007>{{cite journal |last=Bertaux |first=Jean-Loup |title=A warm layer in Venus' cryosphere and high-altitude measurements of HF, HCl, H2O and HDO |journal=Nature |year=2007 |volume=450 |pages=646–649 |doi=10.1038/nature05974 |bibcode=2007Natur.450..646B |pmid=18046397 |issue=7170 |author2=Vandaele, Ann-Carine |last3=Korablev |first3=Oleg |last4=Villard |first4=E. |last5=Fedorova |first5=A. |last6=Fussen |first6=D. |last7=Quémerais |first7=E. |last8=Belyaev |first8=D. |last9=Mahieux |first9=A. |hdl=2268/29200 |s2cid=4421875 |url=https://orbi.uliege.be/bitstream/2268/29200/1/Bertaux-2007-a%20warm.pdf |access-date=8 October 2022 |archive-date=7 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907122145/https://orbi.uliege.be/bitstream/2268/29200/1/Bertaux-2007-a%20warm.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> * Earth ein atmosphere: ≈0.40% over full atmosphere, typically 1–4% at surface * Atmosphere of de Moon: insyd trace amounts<ref name="Sridharan2010">{{cite journal |last1=Sridharan |first1=R. |first2=S.M. |last2=Ahmed |first3=Tirtha Pratim |last3=Dasa |first4=P. |last4=Sreelathaa |first5=P. |last5=Pradeepkumara |first6=Neha |last6=Naika |first7=Gogulapati |last7=Supriya |year=2010 |page=947 |issue=6 |volume=58 |title='Direct' evidence for water (H2O) in the sunlit lunar ambience from CHACE on MIP of Chandrayaan I |journal=Planetary and Space Science |doi=10.1016/j.pss.2010.02.013 |bibcode=2010P&SS...58..947S}}</ref> * Atmosphere of Mars: 0.03%<ref name="Rapp2012">{{cite book |author=Rapp, Donald |title=Use of Extraterrestrial Resources for Human Space Missions to Moon or Mars |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2xzxhnBRHCMC&pg=PA78 |year=2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-32762-9 |page=78 |access-date=9 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715154349/https://books.google.com/books?id=2xzxhnBRHCMC&pg=PA78 |archive-date=15 July 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> * Atmosphere of Ceres<ref name="Kuppers2014">{{cite journal |last1=Küppers |first1=M. |last2=O'Rourke |first2=L. |last3=Bockelée-Morvan |first3=D.|author3-link=Dominique Bockelée-Morvan |last4=Zakharov |first4=V. |last5=Lee |first5=S. |last6=Von Allmen |first6=P. |last7=Carry |first7=B. |last8=Teyssier |first8=D. |last9=Marston |first9=A. |last10=Müller |first10=T. |last11=Crovisier |first11=J. |last12=Barucci |first12=M.A. |last13=Moreno |first13=R. |title=Localized sources of water vapour on the dwarf planet (1) Ceres |journal=Nature |volume=505 |issue=7484 |date=23 January 2014 |pages=525–527|doi=10.1038/nature12918 |pmid=24451541 |bibcode=2014Natur.505..525K|s2cid=4448395 }}</ref> * Atmosphere of Jupiter: 0.0004%<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s11214-005-1951-5 |last1=Atreya |first1=Sushil K. |last2=Wong |first2=Ah-San |year=2005 |title=Coupled Clouds and Chemistry of the Giant Planets&nbsp;– A Case for Multiprobes |journal=Space Science Reviews |volume=116 |issue=1–2 |pages=121–136 |url=http://www-personal.umich.edu/~atreya/Chapters/2005_JovianCloud_Multiprobes.pdf |bibcode=2005SSRv..116..121A |access-date=1 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722074717/http://www-personal.umich.edu/~atreya/Chapters/2005_JovianCloud_Multiprobes.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2011 |url-status=live |hdl=2027.42/43766 |s2cid=31037195 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> – insyd ices per; den dat of ein moon Europa<ref name="NASA-20131212-EU">{{cite web |last1=Cook |first1=Jia-Rui C. |last2=Gutro |first2=Rob |last3=Brown |first3=Dwayne |last4=Harrington |first4=J.D. |last5=Fohn |first5=Joe |title=Hubble Sees Evidence of Water Vapor at Jupiter Moon |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-363 |date=12 December 2013 |website=[[NASA]] |access-date=12 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215053143/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-363 |archive-date=15 December 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> * Atmosphere of Saturn – insyd ices per; Enceladus: 91%<ref name="Hansen">{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1121254 |title=Enceladus' Water Vapor Plume |year=2006 |author=Hansen |journal=Science |volume=311 |pages=1422–1425 |pmid=16527971 |issue=5766 |bibcode=2006Sci...311.1422H |author2=C.J.|last3=Stewart |first3=AI |last4=Colwell |first4=J |last5=Hendrix |first5=A |last6=Pryor |first6=W |last7=Shemansky |first7=D |last8=West |first8=R|s2cid=2954801 |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/89b1/1f34539a1b9b8a9dcb5a1d835e693bea1940.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218132849/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/89b1/1f34539a1b9b8a9dcb5a1d835e693bea1940.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 February 2020 }}</ref> den [[Dione (moon)|Dione]] (subsurface ocean)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sanchez-Maes |first=Sophia |date=January 11, 2017 |title=Solid Evidence for Liquid Water on Dione |url=https://www.yalescientific.org/2017/01/solid-evidence-for-liquid-water-on-dione/ |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=Yale Scientific Magazine}}</ref> * Atmosphere of Uranus – insyd trace amounts below 50 bar * Atmosphere of Neptune – dem find insyd de deeper layers<ref name=hubbard>{{cite journal |last=Hubbard |first=W.B. |title=Neptune's Deep Chemistry |journal=Science |year=1997 |volume=275 |issue=5304 |pages=1279–1280 |doi=10.1126/science.275.5304.1279 |pmid=9064785|s2cid=36248590 }}</ref> * Extrasolar planet atmospheres: wey dey include those of HD 189733 b<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1642811,00.html Water Found on Distant Planet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716081124/http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1642811,00.html |date=16 July 2007 }} 12 July 2007 By Laura Blue, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''</ref> den HD 209458 b,<ref name="Space.com water">[http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/070410_water_exoplanet.html Water Found in Extrasolar Planet's Atmosphere] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101230065702/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/070410_water_exoplanet.html |date=30 December 2010 }} – Space.com</ref> Tau Boötis b,<ref>{{Cite journal |arxiv = 1402.0846|last1 = Lockwood|first1 = Alexandra C|title = Near-IR Direct Detection of Water Vapor in Tau Boo B|journal = The Astrophysical Journal|volume = 783|issue = 2|pages = L29|last2 = Johnson|first2 = John A|last3 = Bender|first3 = Chad F|last4 = Carr|first4 = John S|last5 = Barman|first5 = Travis|last6 = Richert|first6 = Alexander J.W.|last7 = Blake|first7 = Geoffrey A|year = 2014|doi = 10.1088/2041-8205/783/2/L29|bibcode = 2014ApJ...783L..29L|s2cid = 8463125}}</ref> HAT-P-11b,<ref name="NASA-20140924">{{cite web |last1=Clavin |first1=Whitney |last2=Chou |first2=Felicia |last3=Weaver |first3=Donna |last4=Villard |first45=Ray |last5=Johnson |first5=Michele |title=NASA Telescopes Find Clear Skies and Water Vapor on Exoplanet |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2014-322&1 |date=24 September 2014 |website=[[NASA]] |access-date=24 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170114220647/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2014-322&1 |archive-date=14 January 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Hanslmeier2010">{{cite book |author=Arnold Hanslmeier |title=Water in the Universe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mj5tSld5tjMC&pg=PA159 |year=2010 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-90-481-9984-6 |pages=159– |access-date=9 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715031920/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mj5tSld5tjMC&pg=PA159 |archive-date=15 July 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> XO-1b, WASP-12b, WASP-17b, den WASP-19b.<ref name="NASA-20131203">{{cite web |title=Hubble Traces Subtle Signals of Water on Hazy Worlds |url=http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/hubble-traces-subtle-signals-of-water-on-hazy-worlds/ |date=3 December 2013 |publisher=[[NASA]] |access-date=4 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206012837/http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/hubble-traces-subtle-signals-of-water-on-hazy-worlds/ |archive-date=6 December 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> * Stellar atmospheres: no be limited to cooler stars den even detected insyd giant hot stars such as Betelgeuse, Mu Cephei, Antares den Arcturus.<ref name="Hanslmeier2010" /><ref name="Lund Observatory">Andersson, Jonas (June 2012). [http://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=2969749&fileOId=2969772 Water in stellar atmospheres "Is a novel picture required to explain the atmospheric behavior of water in red giant stars?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150213133956/http://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=2969749&fileOId=2969772 |date=13 February 2015 }} Lund Observatory, Lund University, Sweden</ref> * Circumstellar disks: wey dey include those of more dan half of T Tauri stars such as AA Tauri<ref name="Hanslmeier2010" /> as well as TW Hydrae,<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/herschel/news/herschel20111020.html Herschel Finds Oceans of Water in Disk of Nearby Star] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219053556/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/herschel/news/herschel20111020.html |date=19 February 2015 }}. Nasa.gov (20 October 2011). Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jpl.nasa.gov/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120604082809/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.cfm?release=2011-327|url-status=dead|title=JPL|archivedate=4 June 2012|website=NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL)}}</ref> IRC +10216<ref>Lloyd, Robin. ''"Water Vapor, Possible Comets, Found Orbiting Star"'', 11 July 2001, [http://www.space.com/searchforlife/swas_water_010711.html Space.com]. Retrieved 15 December 2006. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090523025818/http://www.space.com/searchforlife/swas_water_010711.html |date=23 May 2009 }}</ref> den APM 08279+5255,<ref name="Clavin">{{cite web |last1=Clavin |first1=Whitney |last2=Buis |first2=Alan |title=Astronomers Find Largest, Most Distant Reservoir of Water |url=http://www.nasa.gov/topics/universe/features/universe20110722.html |date=22 July 2011 |publisher=[[NASA]] |access-date=25 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724063244/http://www.nasa.gov/topics/universe/features/universe20110722.html |archive-date=24 July 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="water vapor cloud">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=Astronomers Find Largest, Oldest Mass of Water in Universe |url=http://www.space.com/12400-universe-biggest-oldest-cloud-water.html |date=22 July 2011 |publisher=[[Space.com]] |access-date=23 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111029230319/http://www.space.com/12400-universe-biggest-oldest-cloud-water.html |archive-date=29 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> VY Canis Majoris den S Persei.<ref name="Lund Observatory" /> ====Water ice==== Water be present as ice on: * Mars: under een regolith den at de poles.<ref>{{cite book |last=Carr |first=M.H. |date=1996 |title=Water on Mars |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |page=197}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bibring |first1=J.-P. |last2=Langevin |first2=Yves |date=2004 |title=Perennial Water Ice Identified in the South Polar Cap of Mars |journal=Nature |volume=428 |issue=6983 |pages=627–630 |doi=10.1038/nature02461|pmid=15024393 |last3=Poulet |first3=François |last4=Gendrin |first4=Aline |last5=Gondet |first5=Brigitte |last6=Berthé |first6=Michel |last7=Soufflot |first7=Alain |last8=Drossart |first8=Pierre |last9=Combes |first9=Michel |last10=Bellucci |first10=Giancarlo |last11=Moroz |first11=Vassili |last12=Mangold |first12=Nicolas |last13=Schmitt |first13=Bernard |last14=Omega Team |first14=the|last15=Erard |first15=S. |last16=Forni |first16=O. |last17=Manaud |first17=N. |last18=Poulleau |first18=G. |last19=Encrenaz |first19=T.|author19-link=Thérèse Encrenaz |last20=Fouchet |first20=T. |last21=Melchiorri |first21=R. |last22=Altieri |first22=F. |last23=Formisano |first23=V. |last24=Bonello |first24=G. |last25=Fonti |first25=S. |last26=Capaccioni |first26=F. |last27=Cerroni |first27=P. |last28=Coradini |first28=A. |last29=Kottsov |first29=V. |last30=Ignatiev |first30=N. |bibcode=2004Natur.428..627B |s2cid=4373206 |url=https://hal.science/hal-03785230v1/file/bibring2004.pdf }}</ref> * Earth–Moon system: mainly as ice sheets on Earth den insyd Lunar craters den volcanic rocks<ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/weltall/0,1518,564911,00.html Versteckt in Glasperlen: Auf dem Mond gibt es Wasser – Wissenschaft –] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080710220126/http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/weltall/0,1518,564911,00.html |date=10 July 2008 }} [[Der Spiegel]] – Nachrichten</ref><ref>[https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2009/24sep_moonwater.htm Water Molecules Found on the Moon] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927092541/https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2009/24sep_moonwater.htm |date=27 September 2009 }}, NASA, 24 September 2009</ref> * Ceres<ref name="McCord2005-jgrp">{{cite journal |title=Ceres: Evolution and current state |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets |date=21 May 2005 |last1=McCord |first1=T.B. |last2=Sotin |first2=C. |volume=110 |issue=E5 |page=E05009 |doi=10.1029/2004JE002244 |bibcode=2005JGRE..110.5009M |doi-access=free |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00116029/file/2004JE002244.pdf |access-date=5 March 2024 |archive-date=18 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210718171117/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00116029/file/2004JE002244.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Thomas2005">{{cite journal |first1=P.C. |last1=Thomas |last2=Parker|first2=J.Wm.|last3=McFadden|first3= L.A. |title=Differentiation of the asteroid Ceres as revealed by its shape |year=2005 |journal=Nature |volume=437 |pages=224–226 |doi=10.1038/nature03938 |bibcode=2005Natur.437..224T |pmid=16148926 |issue=7056 |s2cid=17758979}}</ref><ref name="Carey2006">{{cite news|url=http://space.com/scienceastronomy/050907_ceres_planet.html |title=Largest Asteroid Might Contain More Fresh Water than Earth |first=Bjorn |last=Carey |publisher=SPACE.com |date=7 September 2005 |access-date=16 August 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101218180330/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/050907_ceres_planet.html |archive-date=18 December 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> * Jupiter's moons: Europa ein surface den sanso dat of Ganymede<ref name="NYT-20150315">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=Suddenly, It Seems, Water Is Everywhere in Solar System |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/13/science/space/suddenly-it-seems-water-is-everywhere-in-solar-system.html |date=12 March 2015 |work=[[New York Times]] |access-date=12 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180812232556/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/13/science/space/suddenly-it-seems-water-is-everywhere-in-solar-system.html |archive-date=12 August 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> den Callisto<ref name=Kuskov2005>{{cite journal| last=Kuskov|first=O.L.|author2=Kronrod, V.A.|title=Internal structure of Europa and Callisto| year=2005|volume=177| issue=2|pages=550–369|doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2005.04.014| bibcode=2005Icar..177..550K| journal = Icarus}}</ref><ref name="Showman1999">{{cite journal|last1= Showman|first1=A. P.|last2= Malhotra|first2= R.|title=The Galilean Satellites|journal= Science|volume= 286|issue= 5437|date= 1 October 1999|pages =77–84|doi= 10.1126/science.286.5437.77|pmid=10506564|bibcode=1999Sci...286...77S |s2cid=9492520|url= http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3e6e/f125bbbafd779a0af6813ba0f5a18edea652.pdf|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200412142819/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3e6e/f125bbbafd779a0af6813ba0f5a18edea652.pdf|url-status= dead|archive-date= 12 April 2020}}</ref> * Saturn: insyd de planet ein ring system<ref name="Sparrow">{{cite book |last=Sparrow |first=Giles |title=The Solar System |publisher=Thunder Bay Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-59223-579-7}}</ref> den on de surface den mantle of Titan<ref name="Tobie">{{cite journal |last1=Tobie |first1=G. |last2=Grasset |first2=Olivier |last3=Lunine |first3=Jonathan I. |last4=Mocquet |first4=Antoine |last5=Sotin |first5=Christophe |date=2005 |bibcode=2005Icar..175..496T |title=Titan's internal structure inferred from a coupled thermal-orbital model |journal=Icarus |volume=175 |issue=2 |pages=496–502 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2004.12.007 }}</ref> den Enceladus<ref name="Verbiscer et al. 2007">{{cite journal| doi = 10.1126/science.1134681| last1 = Verbiscer| first1 = A.| last2 = French| first2 = R.| last3 = Showalter| first3 = M.| last4 = Helfenstein| first4 = P.| title = Enceladus: Cosmic Graffiti Artist Caught in the Act| journal = Science| volume = 315| issue = 5813| page = 815| date = 9 February 2007| pmid = 17289992| bibcode = 2007Sci...315..815V| s2cid = 21932253| ref = {{sfnRef|Verbiscer French et al.|2007}}| df = dmy-all}} (supporting online material, table S1)</ref> * Pluto–Charon system<ref name="Sparrow" /> * Comets<ref>{{cite journal |bibcode=1998A&A...330..375G |title=Making a comet nucleus |last1=Greenberg |first1=J. Mayo |volume=330 |date=1998 |page=375 |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://starryskies.com/solar_system/Comet/dirty_snowballs.html |title=Dirty Snowballs in Space |publisher=Starryskies |access-date=15 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130129035627/http://starryskies.com/solar_system/Comet/dirty_snowballs.html |archive-date=29 January 2013}}</ref> den oda related Kuiper belt den Oort cloud objects<ref>{{cite journal |author=E.L. Gibb |author2=M.J. Mumma |author3=N. Dello Russo |author4=M.A. DiSanti |author5=K. Magee-Sauer |date=2003 |title=Methane in Oort Cloud comets |journal=[[Icarus (journal)|Icarus]] |volume=165 |issue=2 |pages=391–406 |bibcode=2003Icar..165..391G |doi=10.1016/S0019-1035(03)00201-X }}</ref> Den sanso likely be present on: * Mercury ein poles<ref>NASA, "[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/messenger/media/PressConf20121129.html MESSENGER Finds New Evidence for Water Ice at Mercury's Poles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121130062257/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/messenger/media/PressConf20121129.html |date=30 November 2012 }}", ''NASA'', 29 November 2012.</ref> * Tethys<ref>{{cite journal| doi = 10.1016/j.icarus.2007.03.012| last1 = Thomas| first1 = P.C.| last2 = Burns| first2 = J.A.| last3 = Helfenstein| first3 = P.| last4 = Squyres| first4 = S.| last5 = Veverka| first5 = J.| last6 = Porco| first6 = C.| last7 = Turtle| first7 = E.P.| last8 = McEwen| first8 = A.| last9 = Denk| first9 = T.| first10 = B.| last10 = Giesef| first11 = T.| last11 = Roatschf| first12 = T.V.| last12 = Johnsong| first13 = R.A.| last13 = Jacobsong| date = October 2007| title = Shapes of the saturnian icy satellites and their significance| journal = Icarus| volume = 190| issue = 2| pages = 573–584| bibcode = 2007Icar..190..573T| url = http://www.geoinf.fu-berlin.de/publications/denk/2007/ThomasEtAl_SaturnMoonsShapes_Icarus_2007.pdf| access-date = 15 December 2011| ref = {{sfnRef|Thomas Burns et al.|2007}}| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110927220431/http://www.geoinf.fu-berlin.de/publications/denk/2007/ThomasEtAl_SaturnMoonsShapes_Icarus_2007.pdf| archive-date = 27 September 2011| url-status=live| df = dmy-all}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == li4gpknt3gt8sybfbauxd6hbomw475p 103718 103717 2026-06-18T16:45:37Z DaSupremo 9 /* External links */ Improve article 103718 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Water''' be an inorganic compound plus de chemical formula H2O. E be a transparent, tasteless, odorless, den nearly colorless chemical substance. E be de main constituent of [[Earth]] ein streams, lakes, den oceans. Water sanso be de fluid of all known living organisms, insyd wich e dey act as a solvent. Water, be a polar molecule, wey dey undergo strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding wich be a large contributor to ein physical den chemical properties.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |title=Water Q&A: Why is water the "universal solvent"? |date=20 June 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=15 January 2021 |archive-date=6 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206061114/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |url-status=live }}</ref> E be vital give all known forms of life, despite no dey provide food energy anaa e be an organic micronutrient. Secof ein presence insyd all organisms, ein chemical stability, ein worldwide abundance, den ein strong polarity relative to ein small molecular size, water often be referred to as de "universal solvent".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-08-09 |title=4.1: Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_Santa_Cruz/UCSC%3A_Chem_1B-AL_(Mednick)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/04%3A_Types_of_Chemical_Reactions_and_Solution_Stoichiometry/4.01_Water%2C_the_Universal_Solvent |access-date=2026-01-14 |website=Chemistry LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref> Secof Earth ein surface temperature den pressure be relatively close to water ein triple point, water dey exist on Earth as a solid, a liquid, den a gas.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Butler |first1=John |title=The Earth – Introduction – Weathering |url=https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |publisher=[[University of Houston]] |access-date=30 January 2023 |quote=Note that the Earth environment is close to the triple point and that water, steam and ice can all exist at the surface. |archive-date=30 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130051934/https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |url-status=live }}</ref> E dey form [[precipitation]] insyd de form of rain den aerosols insyd de form of fog. Clouds dey consist of suspended droplets of water den ice, ein solid state. Wen finely divided, crystalline ice fi precipitate insyd de form of snow. De gaseous state of water be steam anaa water vapor. Water dey cover about 71% of de Earth ein surface, plus seas den oceans wey dey make up chaw of de water volume (about 96.5%).<ref name="WSS">{{cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |title=How Much Water is There on Earth? |date=13 November 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=8 June 2022 |archive-date=9 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609050627/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |url-status=live }}</ref> Small portions of water dey occur as groundwater (1.7%), insyd de glaciers den de ice caps of Antarctica den Greenland (1.7%), den insyd de air as vapor, clouds (wey dey consist of ice den liquid water dem suspend insyd air), den precipitation (0.001%).<ref name="b1">{{cite book |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources |editor=Gleick, P.H. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1993 |page=13, Table 2.1 "Water reserves on the earth" |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408091921/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |archive-date=8 April 2013 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html Water Vapor in the Climate System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070320034158/http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html |date=20 March 2007 }}, Special Report, [AGU], December 1995 (linked 4/2007). [http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ Vital Water] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220070111/http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ |date=20 February 2008 }} [[UNEP]].</ref> Water dey move continually thru de water cycle of evaporation, transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, den runoff, usually dey reach de sea. Water dey play an important role insyd de world economy. Approximately 70% of de fresh water wey humans use [[Irrigation|dey go to agriculture]].<ref name=Baroni2007>{{cite journal |author=Baroni, L. |author2=Cenci, L. |author3=Tettamanti, M. |author4=Berati, M. |year=2007 |title=Evaluating the environmental impact of various dietary patterns combined with different food production systems |journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=61 |pages=279–286 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602522 |pmid=17035955 |issue=2|doi-access=free | issn=0954-3007 }}</ref> Fishing insyd salt den fresh water bodies be, den dey continue to be, a major source of chow give chaw parts of de world, wey dey provide 6.5% of global protein.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Troell |first1=Max |last2=Naylor |first2=Rosamond L. |last3=Metian |first3=Marc |last4=Beveridge |first4=Malcolm |last5=Tyedmers |first5=Peter H. |last6=Folke |first6=Carl |last7=Arrow |first7=Kenneth J. |last8=Barrett |first8=Scott |last9=Crépin |first9=Anne-Sophie |last10=Ehrlich |first10=Paul R. |last11=Gren |first11=Åsa |date=16 September 2014 |title=Does aquaculture add resilience to the global food system? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=37 |pages=13257–13263 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1404067111 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4169979 |pmid=25136111|bibcode=2014PNAS..11113257T |doi-access=free }}</ref> Much of de long-distance trade of commodities (such as oil, natural gas, den manufactured products) be transported by boats thru seas, rivers, lakes, den canals. Large quantities of water, ice, den steam be used for cooling den heating insyd industry den homes. Water be an excellent solvent give a wide variety of substances, both mineral den organic; as such, e be widely used insyd industrial processes den insyd cooking den washing. Water, ice, den snow sanso be central to chaw sports den oda forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, diving, ice skating, snowboarding, den skiing. ==Distribution insyd nature== ===Insyd de universe=== ====Water vapor==== Water be present as vapor insyd: * Atmosphere of de Sun: insyd detectable trace amounts<ref name=Solanki1994>{{cite journal |last1=Solanki |first1=S.K. |last2=Livingston |first2=W. |last3=Ayres |first3=T. |year=1994 |title=New Light on the Heart of Darkness of the Solar Chromosphere |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |pmid=17748350 |volume=263 |issue=5143 |pages=64–66 |bibcode=1994Sci...263...64S |doi=10.1126/science.263.5143.64 |s2cid=27696504 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f20e/89b9c386ff2dea7d990f8ff6a09d550e5e43.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190307030222/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f20e/89b9c386ff2dea7d990f8ff6a09d550e5e43.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 March 2019 }}</ref> * Atmosphere of Mercury: 3.4%, den large amounts of water insyd Mercury ein exosphere<ref name="planetary society">{{cite web |url=http://www.planetary.org/news/2008/0703_MESSENGER_Scientists_Astonished_to.html |title=MESSENGER Scientists 'Astonished' to Find Water in Mercury's Thin Atmosphere |access-date=5 July 2008 |publisher=Planetary Society |date=3 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100406034624/http://www.planetary.org/news/2008/0703_MESSENGER_Scientists_Astonished_to.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 April 2010}}</ref> * Atmosphere of Venus: 0.002%<ref name=Bertaux2007>{{cite journal |last=Bertaux |first=Jean-Loup |title=A warm layer in Venus' cryosphere and high-altitude measurements of HF, HCl, H2O and HDO |journal=Nature |year=2007 |volume=450 |pages=646–649 |doi=10.1038/nature05974 |bibcode=2007Natur.450..646B |pmid=18046397 |issue=7170 |author2=Vandaele, Ann-Carine |last3=Korablev |first3=Oleg |last4=Villard |first4=E. |last5=Fedorova |first5=A. |last6=Fussen |first6=D. |last7=Quémerais |first7=E. |last8=Belyaev |first8=D. |last9=Mahieux |first9=A. |hdl=2268/29200 |s2cid=4421875 |url=https://orbi.uliege.be/bitstream/2268/29200/1/Bertaux-2007-a%20warm.pdf |access-date=8 October 2022 |archive-date=7 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907122145/https://orbi.uliege.be/bitstream/2268/29200/1/Bertaux-2007-a%20warm.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> * Earth ein atmosphere: ≈0.40% over full atmosphere, typically 1–4% at surface * Atmosphere of de Moon: insyd trace amounts<ref name="Sridharan2010">{{cite journal |last1=Sridharan |first1=R. |first2=S.M. |last2=Ahmed |first3=Tirtha Pratim |last3=Dasa |first4=P. |last4=Sreelathaa |first5=P. |last5=Pradeepkumara |first6=Neha |last6=Naika |first7=Gogulapati |last7=Supriya |year=2010 |page=947 |issue=6 |volume=58 |title='Direct' evidence for water (H2O) in the sunlit lunar ambience from CHACE on MIP of Chandrayaan I |journal=Planetary and Space Science |doi=10.1016/j.pss.2010.02.013 |bibcode=2010P&SS...58..947S}}</ref> * Atmosphere of Mars: 0.03%<ref name="Rapp2012">{{cite book |author=Rapp, Donald |title=Use of Extraterrestrial Resources for Human Space Missions to Moon or Mars |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2xzxhnBRHCMC&pg=PA78 |year=2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-32762-9 |page=78 |access-date=9 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715154349/https://books.google.com/books?id=2xzxhnBRHCMC&pg=PA78 |archive-date=15 July 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> * Atmosphere of Ceres<ref name="Kuppers2014">{{cite journal |last1=Küppers |first1=M. |last2=O'Rourke |first2=L. |last3=Bockelée-Morvan |first3=D.|author3-link=Dominique Bockelée-Morvan |last4=Zakharov |first4=V. |last5=Lee |first5=S. |last6=Von Allmen |first6=P. |last7=Carry |first7=B. |last8=Teyssier |first8=D. |last9=Marston |first9=A. |last10=Müller |first10=T. |last11=Crovisier |first11=J. |last12=Barucci |first12=M.A. |last13=Moreno |first13=R. |title=Localized sources of water vapour on the dwarf planet (1) Ceres |journal=Nature |volume=505 |issue=7484 |date=23 January 2014 |pages=525–527|doi=10.1038/nature12918 |pmid=24451541 |bibcode=2014Natur.505..525K|s2cid=4448395 }}</ref> * Atmosphere of Jupiter: 0.0004%<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s11214-005-1951-5 |last1=Atreya |first1=Sushil K. |last2=Wong |first2=Ah-San |year=2005 |title=Coupled Clouds and Chemistry of the Giant Planets&nbsp;– A Case for Multiprobes |journal=Space Science Reviews |volume=116 |issue=1–2 |pages=121–136 |url=http://www-personal.umich.edu/~atreya/Chapters/2005_JovianCloud_Multiprobes.pdf |bibcode=2005SSRv..116..121A |access-date=1 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722074717/http://www-personal.umich.edu/~atreya/Chapters/2005_JovianCloud_Multiprobes.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2011 |url-status=live |hdl=2027.42/43766 |s2cid=31037195 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> – insyd ices per; den dat of ein moon Europa<ref name="NASA-20131212-EU">{{cite web |last1=Cook |first1=Jia-Rui C. |last2=Gutro |first2=Rob |last3=Brown |first3=Dwayne |last4=Harrington |first4=J.D. |last5=Fohn |first5=Joe |title=Hubble Sees Evidence of Water Vapor at Jupiter Moon |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-363 |date=12 December 2013 |website=[[NASA]] |access-date=12 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215053143/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-363 |archive-date=15 December 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> * Atmosphere of Saturn – insyd ices per; Enceladus: 91%<ref name="Hansen">{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1121254 |title=Enceladus' Water Vapor Plume |year=2006 |author=Hansen |journal=Science |volume=311 |pages=1422–1425 |pmid=16527971 |issue=5766 |bibcode=2006Sci...311.1422H |author2=C.J.|last3=Stewart |first3=AI |last4=Colwell |first4=J |last5=Hendrix |first5=A |last6=Pryor |first6=W |last7=Shemansky |first7=D |last8=West |first8=R|s2cid=2954801 |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/89b1/1f34539a1b9b8a9dcb5a1d835e693bea1940.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218132849/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/89b1/1f34539a1b9b8a9dcb5a1d835e693bea1940.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 February 2020 }}</ref> den [[Dione (moon)|Dione]] (subsurface ocean)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sanchez-Maes |first=Sophia |date=January 11, 2017 |title=Solid Evidence for Liquid Water on Dione |url=https://www.yalescientific.org/2017/01/solid-evidence-for-liquid-water-on-dione/ |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=Yale Scientific Magazine}}</ref> * Atmosphere of Uranus – insyd trace amounts below 50 bar * Atmosphere of Neptune – dem find insyd de deeper layers<ref name=hubbard>{{cite journal |last=Hubbard |first=W.B. |title=Neptune's Deep Chemistry |journal=Science |year=1997 |volume=275 |issue=5304 |pages=1279–1280 |doi=10.1126/science.275.5304.1279 |pmid=9064785|s2cid=36248590 }}</ref> * Extrasolar planet atmospheres: wey dey include those of HD 189733 b<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1642811,00.html Water Found on Distant Planet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716081124/http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1642811,00.html |date=16 July 2007 }} 12 July 2007 By Laura Blue, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''</ref> den HD 209458 b,<ref name="Space.com water">[http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/070410_water_exoplanet.html Water Found in Extrasolar Planet's Atmosphere] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101230065702/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/070410_water_exoplanet.html |date=30 December 2010 }} – Space.com</ref> Tau Boötis b,<ref>{{Cite journal |arxiv = 1402.0846|last1 = Lockwood|first1 = Alexandra C|title = Near-IR Direct Detection of Water Vapor in Tau Boo B|journal = The Astrophysical Journal|volume = 783|issue = 2|pages = L29|last2 = Johnson|first2 = John A|last3 = Bender|first3 = Chad F|last4 = Carr|first4 = John S|last5 = Barman|first5 = Travis|last6 = Richert|first6 = Alexander J.W.|last7 = Blake|first7 = Geoffrey A|year = 2014|doi = 10.1088/2041-8205/783/2/L29|bibcode = 2014ApJ...783L..29L|s2cid = 8463125}}</ref> HAT-P-11b,<ref name="NASA-20140924">{{cite web |last1=Clavin |first1=Whitney |last2=Chou |first2=Felicia |last3=Weaver |first3=Donna |last4=Villard |first45=Ray |last5=Johnson |first5=Michele |title=NASA Telescopes Find Clear Skies and Water Vapor on Exoplanet |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2014-322&1 |date=24 September 2014 |website=[[NASA]] |access-date=24 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170114220647/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2014-322&1 |archive-date=14 January 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Hanslmeier2010">{{cite book |author=Arnold Hanslmeier |title=Water in the Universe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mj5tSld5tjMC&pg=PA159 |year=2010 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-90-481-9984-6 |pages=159– |access-date=9 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715031920/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mj5tSld5tjMC&pg=PA159 |archive-date=15 July 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> XO-1b, WASP-12b, WASP-17b, den WASP-19b.<ref name="NASA-20131203">{{cite web |title=Hubble Traces Subtle Signals of Water on Hazy Worlds |url=http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/hubble-traces-subtle-signals-of-water-on-hazy-worlds/ |date=3 December 2013 |publisher=[[NASA]] |access-date=4 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206012837/http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/hubble-traces-subtle-signals-of-water-on-hazy-worlds/ |archive-date=6 December 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> * Stellar atmospheres: no be limited to cooler stars den even detected insyd giant hot stars such as Betelgeuse, Mu Cephei, Antares den Arcturus.<ref name="Hanslmeier2010" /><ref name="Lund Observatory">Andersson, Jonas (June 2012). [http://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=2969749&fileOId=2969772 Water in stellar atmospheres "Is a novel picture required to explain the atmospheric behavior of water in red giant stars?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150213133956/http://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=2969749&fileOId=2969772 |date=13 February 2015 }} Lund Observatory, Lund University, Sweden</ref> * Circumstellar disks: wey dey include those of more dan half of T Tauri stars such as AA Tauri<ref name="Hanslmeier2010" /> as well as TW Hydrae,<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/herschel/news/herschel20111020.html Herschel Finds Oceans of Water in Disk of Nearby Star] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219053556/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/herschel/news/herschel20111020.html |date=19 February 2015 }}. Nasa.gov (20 October 2011). Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jpl.nasa.gov/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120604082809/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.cfm?release=2011-327|url-status=dead|title=JPL|archivedate=4 June 2012|website=NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL)}}</ref> IRC +10216<ref>Lloyd, Robin. ''"Water Vapor, Possible Comets, Found Orbiting Star"'', 11 July 2001, [http://www.space.com/searchforlife/swas_water_010711.html Space.com]. Retrieved 15 December 2006. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090523025818/http://www.space.com/searchforlife/swas_water_010711.html |date=23 May 2009 }}</ref> den APM 08279+5255,<ref name="Clavin">{{cite web |last1=Clavin |first1=Whitney |last2=Buis |first2=Alan |title=Astronomers Find Largest, Most Distant Reservoir of Water |url=http://www.nasa.gov/topics/universe/features/universe20110722.html |date=22 July 2011 |publisher=[[NASA]] |access-date=25 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724063244/http://www.nasa.gov/topics/universe/features/universe20110722.html |archive-date=24 July 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="water vapor cloud">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=Astronomers Find Largest, Oldest Mass of Water in Universe |url=http://www.space.com/12400-universe-biggest-oldest-cloud-water.html |date=22 July 2011 |publisher=[[Space.com]] |access-date=23 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111029230319/http://www.space.com/12400-universe-biggest-oldest-cloud-water.html |archive-date=29 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> VY Canis Majoris den S Persei.<ref name="Lund Observatory" /> ====Water ice==== Water be present as ice on: * Mars: under een regolith den at de poles.<ref>{{cite book |last=Carr |first=M.H. |date=1996 |title=Water on Mars |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |page=197}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bibring |first1=J.-P. |last2=Langevin |first2=Yves |date=2004 |title=Perennial Water Ice Identified in the South Polar Cap of Mars |journal=Nature |volume=428 |issue=6983 |pages=627–630 |doi=10.1038/nature02461|pmid=15024393 |last3=Poulet |first3=François |last4=Gendrin |first4=Aline |last5=Gondet |first5=Brigitte |last6=Berthé |first6=Michel |last7=Soufflot |first7=Alain |last8=Drossart |first8=Pierre |last9=Combes |first9=Michel |last10=Bellucci |first10=Giancarlo |last11=Moroz |first11=Vassili |last12=Mangold |first12=Nicolas |last13=Schmitt |first13=Bernard |last14=Omega Team |first14=the|last15=Erard |first15=S. |last16=Forni |first16=O. |last17=Manaud |first17=N. |last18=Poulleau |first18=G. |last19=Encrenaz |first19=T.|author19-link=Thérèse Encrenaz |last20=Fouchet |first20=T. |last21=Melchiorri |first21=R. |last22=Altieri |first22=F. |last23=Formisano |first23=V. |last24=Bonello |first24=G. |last25=Fonti |first25=S. |last26=Capaccioni |first26=F. |last27=Cerroni |first27=P. |last28=Coradini |first28=A. |last29=Kottsov |first29=V. |last30=Ignatiev |first30=N. |bibcode=2004Natur.428..627B |s2cid=4373206 |url=https://hal.science/hal-03785230v1/file/bibring2004.pdf }}</ref> * Earth–Moon system: mainly as ice sheets on Earth den insyd Lunar craters den volcanic rocks<ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/weltall/0,1518,564911,00.html Versteckt in Glasperlen: Auf dem Mond gibt es Wasser – Wissenschaft –] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080710220126/http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/weltall/0,1518,564911,00.html |date=10 July 2008 }} [[Der Spiegel]] – Nachrichten</ref><ref>[https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2009/24sep_moonwater.htm Water Molecules Found on the Moon] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927092541/https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2009/24sep_moonwater.htm |date=27 September 2009 }}, NASA, 24 September 2009</ref> * Ceres<ref name="McCord2005-jgrp">{{cite journal |title=Ceres: Evolution and current state |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets |date=21 May 2005 |last1=McCord |first1=T.B. |last2=Sotin |first2=C. |volume=110 |issue=E5 |page=E05009 |doi=10.1029/2004JE002244 |bibcode=2005JGRE..110.5009M |doi-access=free |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00116029/file/2004JE002244.pdf |access-date=5 March 2024 |archive-date=18 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210718171117/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00116029/file/2004JE002244.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Thomas2005">{{cite journal |first1=P.C. |last1=Thomas |last2=Parker|first2=J.Wm.|last3=McFadden|first3= L.A. |title=Differentiation of the asteroid Ceres as revealed by its shape |year=2005 |journal=Nature |volume=437 |pages=224–226 |doi=10.1038/nature03938 |bibcode=2005Natur.437..224T |pmid=16148926 |issue=7056 |s2cid=17758979}}</ref><ref name="Carey2006">{{cite news|url=http://space.com/scienceastronomy/050907_ceres_planet.html |title=Largest Asteroid Might Contain More Fresh Water than Earth |first=Bjorn |last=Carey |publisher=SPACE.com |date=7 September 2005 |access-date=16 August 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101218180330/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/050907_ceres_planet.html |archive-date=18 December 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> * Jupiter's moons: Europa ein surface den sanso dat of Ganymede<ref name="NYT-20150315">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=Suddenly, It Seems, Water Is Everywhere in Solar System |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/13/science/space/suddenly-it-seems-water-is-everywhere-in-solar-system.html |date=12 March 2015 |work=[[New York Times]] |access-date=12 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180812232556/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/13/science/space/suddenly-it-seems-water-is-everywhere-in-solar-system.html |archive-date=12 August 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> den Callisto<ref name=Kuskov2005>{{cite journal| last=Kuskov|first=O.L.|author2=Kronrod, V.A.|title=Internal structure of Europa and Callisto| year=2005|volume=177| issue=2|pages=550–369|doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2005.04.014| bibcode=2005Icar..177..550K| journal = Icarus}}</ref><ref name="Showman1999">{{cite journal|last1= Showman|first1=A. P.|last2= Malhotra|first2= R.|title=The Galilean Satellites|journal= Science|volume= 286|issue= 5437|date= 1 October 1999|pages =77–84|doi= 10.1126/science.286.5437.77|pmid=10506564|bibcode=1999Sci...286...77S |s2cid=9492520|url= http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3e6e/f125bbbafd779a0af6813ba0f5a18edea652.pdf|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200412142819/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3e6e/f125bbbafd779a0af6813ba0f5a18edea652.pdf|url-status= dead|archive-date= 12 April 2020}}</ref> * Saturn: insyd de planet ein ring system<ref name="Sparrow">{{cite book |last=Sparrow |first=Giles |title=The Solar System |publisher=Thunder Bay Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-59223-579-7}}</ref> den on de surface den mantle of Titan<ref name="Tobie">{{cite journal |last1=Tobie |first1=G. |last2=Grasset |first2=Olivier |last3=Lunine |first3=Jonathan I. |last4=Mocquet |first4=Antoine |last5=Sotin |first5=Christophe |date=2005 |bibcode=2005Icar..175..496T |title=Titan's internal structure inferred from a coupled thermal-orbital model |journal=Icarus |volume=175 |issue=2 |pages=496–502 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2004.12.007 }}</ref> den Enceladus<ref name="Verbiscer et al. 2007">{{cite journal| doi = 10.1126/science.1134681| last1 = Verbiscer| first1 = A.| last2 = French| first2 = R.| last3 = Showalter| first3 = M.| last4 = Helfenstein| first4 = P.| title = Enceladus: Cosmic Graffiti Artist Caught in the Act| journal = Science| volume = 315| issue = 5813| page = 815| date = 9 February 2007| pmid = 17289992| bibcode = 2007Sci...315..815V| s2cid = 21932253| ref = {{sfnRef|Verbiscer French et al.|2007}}| df = dmy-all}} (supporting online material, table S1)</ref> * Pluto–Charon system<ref name="Sparrow" /> * Comets<ref>{{cite journal |bibcode=1998A&A...330..375G |title=Making a comet nucleus |last1=Greenberg |first1=J. Mayo |volume=330 |date=1998 |page=375 |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://starryskies.com/solar_system/Comet/dirty_snowballs.html |title=Dirty Snowballs in Space |publisher=Starryskies |access-date=15 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130129035627/http://starryskies.com/solar_system/Comet/dirty_snowballs.html |archive-date=29 January 2013}}</ref> den oda related Kuiper belt den Oort cloud objects<ref>{{cite journal |author=E.L. Gibb |author2=M.J. Mumma |author3=N. Dello Russo |author4=M.A. DiSanti |author5=K. Magee-Sauer |date=2003 |title=Methane in Oort Cloud comets |journal=[[Icarus (journal)|Icarus]] |volume=165 |issue=2 |pages=391–406 |bibcode=2003Icar..165..391G |doi=10.1016/S0019-1035(03)00201-X }}</ref> Den sanso likely be present on: * Mercury ein poles<ref>NASA, "[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/messenger/media/PressConf20121129.html MESSENGER Finds New Evidence for Water Ice at Mercury's Poles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121130062257/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/messenger/media/PressConf20121129.html |date=30 November 2012 }}", ''NASA'', 29 November 2012.</ref> * Tethys<ref>{{cite journal| doi = 10.1016/j.icarus.2007.03.012| last1 = Thomas| first1 = P.C.| last2 = Burns| first2 = J.A.| last3 = Helfenstein| first3 = P.| last4 = Squyres| first4 = S.| last5 = Veverka| first5 = J.| last6 = Porco| first6 = C.| last7 = Turtle| first7 = E.P.| last8 = McEwen| first8 = A.| last9 = Denk| first9 = T.| first10 = B.| last10 = Giesef| first11 = T.| last11 = Roatschf| first12 = T.V.| last12 = Johnsong| first13 = R.A.| last13 = Jacobsong| date = October 2007| title = Shapes of the saturnian icy satellites and their significance| journal = Icarus| volume = 190| issue = 2| pages = 573–584| bibcode = 2007Icar..190..573T| url = http://www.geoinf.fu-berlin.de/publications/denk/2007/ThomasEtAl_SaturnMoonsShapes_Icarus_2007.pdf| access-date = 15 December 2011| ref = {{sfnRef|Thomas Burns et al.|2007}}| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110927220431/http://www.geoinf.fu-berlin.de/publications/denk/2007/ThomasEtAl_SaturnMoonsShapes_Icarus_2007.pdf| archive-date = 27 September 2011| url-status=live| df = dmy-all}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Sister project links|water}} * [http://www.worldwater.org/ The World's Water Data Page] * [http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/main/index.stm FAO Comprehensive Water Database, AQUASTAT] * [http://worldwater.org/conflict.html The Water Conflict Chronology: Water Conflict Database] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116181835/http://www.worldwater.org/conflict.html |date=16 January 2013 }} * [https://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/ Water science school] (USGS) * [http://water.worldbank.org/ Portal to The World Bank's strategy, work and associated publications on water resources] * [http://www.awra.org/ America Water Resources Association] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324205603/http://awra.org/ |date=24 March 2018 }} * [https://www.waterontheweb.org Water on the web] * [http://www1.lsbu.ac.uk/water/ Water structure and science] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228024506/http://www1.lsbu.ac.uk/water/ |date=28 December 2014 }} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPpKhxtFf1Q "Why water is one of the weirdest things in the universe"], ''Ideas'', BBC, Video, 3:16 minutes, 2019 * [https://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/water/ The chemistry of water] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619074258/https://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/water/ |date=19 June 2020 }} (NSF special report) * [http://www.iapws.org/index.html The International Association for the Properties of Water and Steam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927120500/http://www.iapws.org/index.html |date=27 September 2022 }} * [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/molecule-that-made-us/ ''H2O: The Molecule That Made Us''], a 2020 PBS documentary {{Authority control}} q2tttsrc876cx8xk5096v8y9w8ztw2h 103719 103718 2026-06-18T16:48:16Z DaSupremo 9 Add categories 103719 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Water''' be an inorganic compound plus de chemical formula H2O. E be a transparent, tasteless, odorless, den nearly colorless chemical substance. E be de main constituent of [[Earth]] ein streams, lakes, den oceans. Water sanso be de fluid of all known living organisms, insyd wich e dey act as a solvent. Water, be a polar molecule, wey dey undergo strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding wich be a large contributor to ein physical den chemical properties.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |title=Water Q&A: Why is water the "universal solvent"? |date=20 June 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=15 January 2021 |archive-date=6 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206061114/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |url-status=live }}</ref> E be vital give all known forms of life, despite no dey provide food energy anaa e be an organic micronutrient. Secof ein presence insyd all organisms, ein chemical stability, ein worldwide abundance, den ein strong polarity relative to ein small molecular size, water often be referred to as de "universal solvent".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-08-09 |title=4.1: Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_Santa_Cruz/UCSC%3A_Chem_1B-AL_(Mednick)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/04%3A_Types_of_Chemical_Reactions_and_Solution_Stoichiometry/4.01_Water%2C_the_Universal_Solvent |access-date=2026-01-14 |website=Chemistry LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref> Secof Earth ein surface temperature den pressure be relatively close to water ein triple point, water dey exist on Earth as a solid, a liquid, den a gas.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Butler |first1=John |title=The Earth – Introduction – Weathering |url=https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |publisher=[[University of Houston]] |access-date=30 January 2023 |quote=Note that the Earth environment is close to the triple point and that water, steam and ice can all exist at the surface. |archive-date=30 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130051934/https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |url-status=live }}</ref> E dey form [[precipitation]] insyd de form of rain den aerosols insyd de form of fog. Clouds dey consist of suspended droplets of water den ice, ein solid state. Wen finely divided, crystalline ice fi precipitate insyd de form of snow. De gaseous state of water be steam anaa water vapor. Water dey cover about 71% of de Earth ein surface, plus seas den oceans wey dey make up chaw of de water volume (about 96.5%).<ref name="WSS">{{cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |title=How Much Water is There on Earth? |date=13 November 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=8 June 2022 |archive-date=9 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609050627/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |url-status=live }}</ref> Small portions of water dey occur as groundwater (1.7%), insyd de glaciers den de ice caps of Antarctica den Greenland (1.7%), den insyd de air as vapor, clouds (wey dey consist of ice den liquid water dem suspend insyd air), den precipitation (0.001%).<ref name="b1">{{cite book |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources |editor=Gleick, P.H. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1993 |page=13, Table 2.1 "Water reserves on the earth" |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408091921/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |archive-date=8 April 2013 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html Water Vapor in the Climate System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070320034158/http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html |date=20 March 2007 }}, Special Report, [AGU], December 1995 (linked 4/2007). [http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ Vital Water] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220070111/http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ |date=20 February 2008 }} [[UNEP]].</ref> Water dey move continually thru de water cycle of evaporation, transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, den runoff, usually dey reach de sea. Water dey play an important role insyd de world economy. Approximately 70% of de fresh water wey humans use [[Irrigation|dey go to agriculture]].<ref name=Baroni2007>{{cite journal |author=Baroni, L. |author2=Cenci, L. |author3=Tettamanti, M. |author4=Berati, M. |year=2007 |title=Evaluating the environmental impact of various dietary patterns combined with different food production systems |journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=61 |pages=279–286 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602522 |pmid=17035955 |issue=2|doi-access=free | issn=0954-3007 }}</ref> Fishing insyd salt den fresh water bodies be, den dey continue to be, a major source of chow give chaw parts of de world, wey dey provide 6.5% of global protein.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Troell |first1=Max |last2=Naylor |first2=Rosamond L. |last3=Metian |first3=Marc |last4=Beveridge |first4=Malcolm |last5=Tyedmers |first5=Peter H. |last6=Folke |first6=Carl |last7=Arrow |first7=Kenneth J. |last8=Barrett |first8=Scott |last9=Crépin |first9=Anne-Sophie |last10=Ehrlich |first10=Paul R. |last11=Gren |first11=Åsa |date=16 September 2014 |title=Does aquaculture add resilience to the global food system? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=37 |pages=13257–13263 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1404067111 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4169979 |pmid=25136111|bibcode=2014PNAS..11113257T |doi-access=free }}</ref> Much of de long-distance trade of commodities (such as oil, natural gas, den manufactured products) be transported by boats thru seas, rivers, lakes, den canals. Large quantities of water, ice, den steam be used for cooling den heating insyd industry den homes. Water be an excellent solvent give a wide variety of substances, both mineral den organic; as such, e be widely used insyd industrial processes den insyd cooking den washing. Water, ice, den snow sanso be central to chaw sports den oda forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, diving, ice skating, snowboarding, den skiing. ==Distribution insyd nature== ===Insyd de universe=== ====Water vapor==== Water be present as vapor insyd: * Atmosphere of de Sun: insyd detectable trace amounts<ref name=Solanki1994>{{cite journal |last1=Solanki |first1=S.K. |last2=Livingston |first2=W. |last3=Ayres |first3=T. |year=1994 |title=New Light on the Heart of Darkness of the Solar Chromosphere |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |pmid=17748350 |volume=263 |issue=5143 |pages=64–66 |bibcode=1994Sci...263...64S |doi=10.1126/science.263.5143.64 |s2cid=27696504 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f20e/89b9c386ff2dea7d990f8ff6a09d550e5e43.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190307030222/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f20e/89b9c386ff2dea7d990f8ff6a09d550e5e43.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 March 2019 }}</ref> * Atmosphere of Mercury: 3.4%, den large amounts of water insyd Mercury ein exosphere<ref name="planetary society">{{cite web |url=http://www.planetary.org/news/2008/0703_MESSENGER_Scientists_Astonished_to.html |title=MESSENGER Scientists 'Astonished' to Find Water in Mercury's Thin Atmosphere |access-date=5 July 2008 |publisher=Planetary Society |date=3 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100406034624/http://www.planetary.org/news/2008/0703_MESSENGER_Scientists_Astonished_to.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 April 2010}}</ref> * Atmosphere of Venus: 0.002%<ref name=Bertaux2007>{{cite journal |last=Bertaux |first=Jean-Loup |title=A warm layer in Venus' cryosphere and high-altitude measurements of HF, HCl, H2O and HDO |journal=Nature |year=2007 |volume=450 |pages=646–649 |doi=10.1038/nature05974 |bibcode=2007Natur.450..646B |pmid=18046397 |issue=7170 |author2=Vandaele, Ann-Carine |last3=Korablev |first3=Oleg |last4=Villard |first4=E. |last5=Fedorova |first5=A. |last6=Fussen |first6=D. |last7=Quémerais |first7=E. |last8=Belyaev |first8=D. |last9=Mahieux |first9=A. |hdl=2268/29200 |s2cid=4421875 |url=https://orbi.uliege.be/bitstream/2268/29200/1/Bertaux-2007-a%20warm.pdf |access-date=8 October 2022 |archive-date=7 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907122145/https://orbi.uliege.be/bitstream/2268/29200/1/Bertaux-2007-a%20warm.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> * Earth ein atmosphere: ≈0.40% over full atmosphere, typically 1–4% at surface * Atmosphere of de Moon: insyd trace amounts<ref name="Sridharan2010">{{cite journal |last1=Sridharan |first1=R. |first2=S.M. |last2=Ahmed |first3=Tirtha Pratim |last3=Dasa |first4=P. |last4=Sreelathaa |first5=P. |last5=Pradeepkumara |first6=Neha |last6=Naika |first7=Gogulapati |last7=Supriya |year=2010 |page=947 |issue=6 |volume=58 |title='Direct' evidence for water (H2O) in the sunlit lunar ambience from CHACE on MIP of Chandrayaan I |journal=Planetary and Space Science |doi=10.1016/j.pss.2010.02.013 |bibcode=2010P&SS...58..947S}}</ref> * Atmosphere of Mars: 0.03%<ref name="Rapp2012">{{cite book |author=Rapp, Donald |title=Use of Extraterrestrial Resources for Human Space Missions to Moon or Mars |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2xzxhnBRHCMC&pg=PA78 |year=2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-32762-9 |page=78 |access-date=9 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715154349/https://books.google.com/books?id=2xzxhnBRHCMC&pg=PA78 |archive-date=15 July 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> * Atmosphere of Ceres<ref name="Kuppers2014">{{cite journal |last1=Küppers |first1=M. |last2=O'Rourke |first2=L. |last3=Bockelée-Morvan |first3=D.|author3-link=Dominique Bockelée-Morvan |last4=Zakharov |first4=V. |last5=Lee |first5=S. |last6=Von Allmen |first6=P. |last7=Carry |first7=B. |last8=Teyssier |first8=D. |last9=Marston |first9=A. |last10=Müller |first10=T. |last11=Crovisier |first11=J. |last12=Barucci |first12=M.A. |last13=Moreno |first13=R. |title=Localized sources of water vapour on the dwarf planet (1) Ceres |journal=Nature |volume=505 |issue=7484 |date=23 January 2014 |pages=525–527|doi=10.1038/nature12918 |pmid=24451541 |bibcode=2014Natur.505..525K|s2cid=4448395 }}</ref> * Atmosphere of Jupiter: 0.0004%<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s11214-005-1951-5 |last1=Atreya |first1=Sushil K. |last2=Wong |first2=Ah-San |year=2005 |title=Coupled Clouds and Chemistry of the Giant Planets&nbsp;– A Case for Multiprobes |journal=Space Science Reviews |volume=116 |issue=1–2 |pages=121–136 |url=http://www-personal.umich.edu/~atreya/Chapters/2005_JovianCloud_Multiprobes.pdf |bibcode=2005SSRv..116..121A |access-date=1 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722074717/http://www-personal.umich.edu/~atreya/Chapters/2005_JovianCloud_Multiprobes.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2011 |url-status=live |hdl=2027.42/43766 |s2cid=31037195 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> – insyd ices per; den dat of ein moon Europa<ref name="NASA-20131212-EU">{{cite web |last1=Cook |first1=Jia-Rui C. |last2=Gutro |first2=Rob |last3=Brown |first3=Dwayne |last4=Harrington |first4=J.D. |last5=Fohn |first5=Joe |title=Hubble Sees Evidence of Water Vapor at Jupiter Moon |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-363 |date=12 December 2013 |website=[[NASA]] |access-date=12 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215053143/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-363 |archive-date=15 December 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> * Atmosphere of Saturn – insyd ices per; Enceladus: 91%<ref name="Hansen">{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1121254 |title=Enceladus' Water Vapor Plume |year=2006 |author=Hansen |journal=Science |volume=311 |pages=1422–1425 |pmid=16527971 |issue=5766 |bibcode=2006Sci...311.1422H |author2=C.J.|last3=Stewart |first3=AI |last4=Colwell |first4=J |last5=Hendrix |first5=A |last6=Pryor |first6=W |last7=Shemansky |first7=D |last8=West |first8=R|s2cid=2954801 |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/89b1/1f34539a1b9b8a9dcb5a1d835e693bea1940.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218132849/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/89b1/1f34539a1b9b8a9dcb5a1d835e693bea1940.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 February 2020 }}</ref> den [[Dione (moon)|Dione]] (subsurface ocean)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sanchez-Maes |first=Sophia |date=January 11, 2017 |title=Solid Evidence for Liquid Water on Dione |url=https://www.yalescientific.org/2017/01/solid-evidence-for-liquid-water-on-dione/ |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=Yale Scientific Magazine}}</ref> * Atmosphere of Uranus – insyd trace amounts below 50 bar * Atmosphere of Neptune – dem find insyd de deeper layers<ref name=hubbard>{{cite journal |last=Hubbard |first=W.B. |title=Neptune's Deep Chemistry |journal=Science |year=1997 |volume=275 |issue=5304 |pages=1279–1280 |doi=10.1126/science.275.5304.1279 |pmid=9064785|s2cid=36248590 }}</ref> * Extrasolar planet atmospheres: wey dey include those of HD 189733 b<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1642811,00.html Water Found on Distant Planet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716081124/http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1642811,00.html |date=16 July 2007 }} 12 July 2007 By Laura Blue, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''</ref> den HD 209458 b,<ref name="Space.com water">[http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/070410_water_exoplanet.html Water Found in Extrasolar Planet's Atmosphere] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101230065702/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/070410_water_exoplanet.html |date=30 December 2010 }} – Space.com</ref> Tau Boötis b,<ref>{{Cite journal |arxiv = 1402.0846|last1 = Lockwood|first1 = Alexandra C|title = Near-IR Direct Detection of Water Vapor in Tau Boo B|journal = The Astrophysical Journal|volume = 783|issue = 2|pages = L29|last2 = Johnson|first2 = John A|last3 = Bender|first3 = Chad F|last4 = Carr|first4 = John S|last5 = Barman|first5 = Travis|last6 = Richert|first6 = Alexander J.W.|last7 = Blake|first7 = Geoffrey A|year = 2014|doi = 10.1088/2041-8205/783/2/L29|bibcode = 2014ApJ...783L..29L|s2cid = 8463125}}</ref> HAT-P-11b,<ref name="NASA-20140924">{{cite web |last1=Clavin |first1=Whitney |last2=Chou |first2=Felicia |last3=Weaver |first3=Donna |last4=Villard |first45=Ray |last5=Johnson |first5=Michele |title=NASA Telescopes Find Clear Skies and Water Vapor on Exoplanet |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2014-322&1 |date=24 September 2014 |website=[[NASA]] |access-date=24 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170114220647/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2014-322&1 |archive-date=14 January 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Hanslmeier2010">{{cite book |author=Arnold Hanslmeier |title=Water in the Universe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mj5tSld5tjMC&pg=PA159 |year=2010 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-90-481-9984-6 |pages=159– |access-date=9 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715031920/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mj5tSld5tjMC&pg=PA159 |archive-date=15 July 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> XO-1b, WASP-12b, WASP-17b, den WASP-19b.<ref name="NASA-20131203">{{cite web |title=Hubble Traces Subtle Signals of Water on Hazy Worlds |url=http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/hubble-traces-subtle-signals-of-water-on-hazy-worlds/ |date=3 December 2013 |publisher=[[NASA]] |access-date=4 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206012837/http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/hubble-traces-subtle-signals-of-water-on-hazy-worlds/ |archive-date=6 December 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> * Stellar atmospheres: no be limited to cooler stars den even detected insyd giant hot stars such as Betelgeuse, Mu Cephei, Antares den Arcturus.<ref name="Hanslmeier2010" /><ref name="Lund Observatory">Andersson, Jonas (June 2012). [http://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=2969749&fileOId=2969772 Water in stellar atmospheres "Is a novel picture required to explain the atmospheric behavior of water in red giant stars?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150213133956/http://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=2969749&fileOId=2969772 |date=13 February 2015 }} Lund Observatory, Lund University, Sweden</ref> * Circumstellar disks: wey dey include those of more dan half of T Tauri stars such as AA Tauri<ref name="Hanslmeier2010" /> as well as TW Hydrae,<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/herschel/news/herschel20111020.html Herschel Finds Oceans of Water in Disk of Nearby Star] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219053556/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/herschel/news/herschel20111020.html |date=19 February 2015 }}. Nasa.gov (20 October 2011). Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jpl.nasa.gov/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120604082809/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.cfm?release=2011-327|url-status=dead|title=JPL|archivedate=4 June 2012|website=NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL)}}</ref> IRC +10216<ref>Lloyd, Robin. ''"Water Vapor, Possible Comets, Found Orbiting Star"'', 11 July 2001, [http://www.space.com/searchforlife/swas_water_010711.html Space.com]. Retrieved 15 December 2006. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090523025818/http://www.space.com/searchforlife/swas_water_010711.html |date=23 May 2009 }}</ref> den APM 08279+5255,<ref name="Clavin">{{cite web |last1=Clavin |first1=Whitney |last2=Buis |first2=Alan |title=Astronomers Find Largest, Most Distant Reservoir of Water |url=http://www.nasa.gov/topics/universe/features/universe20110722.html |date=22 July 2011 |publisher=[[NASA]] |access-date=25 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724063244/http://www.nasa.gov/topics/universe/features/universe20110722.html |archive-date=24 July 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="water vapor cloud">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=Astronomers Find Largest, Oldest Mass of Water in Universe |url=http://www.space.com/12400-universe-biggest-oldest-cloud-water.html |date=22 July 2011 |publisher=[[Space.com]] |access-date=23 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111029230319/http://www.space.com/12400-universe-biggest-oldest-cloud-water.html |archive-date=29 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> VY Canis Majoris den S Persei.<ref name="Lund Observatory" /> ====Water ice==== Water be present as ice on: * Mars: under een regolith den at de poles.<ref>{{cite book |last=Carr |first=M.H. |date=1996 |title=Water on Mars |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |page=197}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bibring |first1=J.-P. |last2=Langevin |first2=Yves |date=2004 |title=Perennial Water Ice Identified in the South Polar Cap of Mars |journal=Nature |volume=428 |issue=6983 |pages=627–630 |doi=10.1038/nature02461|pmid=15024393 |last3=Poulet |first3=François |last4=Gendrin |first4=Aline |last5=Gondet |first5=Brigitte |last6=Berthé |first6=Michel |last7=Soufflot |first7=Alain |last8=Drossart |first8=Pierre |last9=Combes |first9=Michel |last10=Bellucci |first10=Giancarlo |last11=Moroz |first11=Vassili |last12=Mangold |first12=Nicolas |last13=Schmitt |first13=Bernard |last14=Omega Team |first14=the|last15=Erard |first15=S. |last16=Forni |first16=O. |last17=Manaud |first17=N. |last18=Poulleau |first18=G. |last19=Encrenaz |first19=T.|author19-link=Thérèse Encrenaz |last20=Fouchet |first20=T. |last21=Melchiorri |first21=R. |last22=Altieri |first22=F. |last23=Formisano |first23=V. |last24=Bonello |first24=G. |last25=Fonti |first25=S. |last26=Capaccioni |first26=F. |last27=Cerroni |first27=P. |last28=Coradini |first28=A. |last29=Kottsov |first29=V. |last30=Ignatiev |first30=N. |bibcode=2004Natur.428..627B |s2cid=4373206 |url=https://hal.science/hal-03785230v1/file/bibring2004.pdf }}</ref> * Earth–Moon system: mainly as ice sheets on Earth den insyd Lunar craters den volcanic rocks<ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/weltall/0,1518,564911,00.html Versteckt in Glasperlen: Auf dem Mond gibt es Wasser – Wissenschaft –] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080710220126/http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/weltall/0,1518,564911,00.html |date=10 July 2008 }} [[Der Spiegel]] – Nachrichten</ref><ref>[https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2009/24sep_moonwater.htm Water Molecules Found on the Moon] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927092541/https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2009/24sep_moonwater.htm |date=27 September 2009 }}, NASA, 24 September 2009</ref> * Ceres<ref name="McCord2005-jgrp">{{cite journal |title=Ceres: Evolution and current state |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets |date=21 May 2005 |last1=McCord |first1=T.B. |last2=Sotin |first2=C. |volume=110 |issue=E5 |page=E05009 |doi=10.1029/2004JE002244 |bibcode=2005JGRE..110.5009M |doi-access=free |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00116029/file/2004JE002244.pdf |access-date=5 March 2024 |archive-date=18 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210718171117/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00116029/file/2004JE002244.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Thomas2005">{{cite journal |first1=P.C. |last1=Thomas |last2=Parker|first2=J.Wm.|last3=McFadden|first3= L.A. |title=Differentiation of the asteroid Ceres as revealed by its shape |year=2005 |journal=Nature |volume=437 |pages=224–226 |doi=10.1038/nature03938 |bibcode=2005Natur.437..224T |pmid=16148926 |issue=7056 |s2cid=17758979}}</ref><ref name="Carey2006">{{cite news|url=http://space.com/scienceastronomy/050907_ceres_planet.html |title=Largest Asteroid Might Contain More Fresh Water than Earth |first=Bjorn |last=Carey |publisher=SPACE.com |date=7 September 2005 |access-date=16 August 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101218180330/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/050907_ceres_planet.html |archive-date=18 December 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> * Jupiter's moons: Europa ein surface den sanso dat of Ganymede<ref name="NYT-20150315">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=Suddenly, It Seems, Water Is Everywhere in Solar System |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/13/science/space/suddenly-it-seems-water-is-everywhere-in-solar-system.html |date=12 March 2015 |work=[[New York Times]] |access-date=12 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180812232556/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/13/science/space/suddenly-it-seems-water-is-everywhere-in-solar-system.html |archive-date=12 August 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> den Callisto<ref name=Kuskov2005>{{cite journal| last=Kuskov|first=O.L.|author2=Kronrod, V.A.|title=Internal structure of Europa and Callisto| year=2005|volume=177| issue=2|pages=550–369|doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2005.04.014| bibcode=2005Icar..177..550K| journal = Icarus}}</ref><ref name="Showman1999">{{cite journal|last1= Showman|first1=A. P.|last2= Malhotra|first2= R.|title=The Galilean Satellites|journal= Science|volume= 286|issue= 5437|date= 1 October 1999|pages =77–84|doi= 10.1126/science.286.5437.77|pmid=10506564|bibcode=1999Sci...286...77S |s2cid=9492520|url= http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3e6e/f125bbbafd779a0af6813ba0f5a18edea652.pdf|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200412142819/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3e6e/f125bbbafd779a0af6813ba0f5a18edea652.pdf|url-status= dead|archive-date= 12 April 2020}}</ref> * Saturn: insyd de planet ein ring system<ref name="Sparrow">{{cite book |last=Sparrow |first=Giles |title=The Solar System |publisher=Thunder Bay Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-59223-579-7}}</ref> den on de surface den mantle of Titan<ref name="Tobie">{{cite journal |last1=Tobie |first1=G. |last2=Grasset |first2=Olivier |last3=Lunine |first3=Jonathan I. |last4=Mocquet |first4=Antoine |last5=Sotin |first5=Christophe |date=2005 |bibcode=2005Icar..175..496T |title=Titan's internal structure inferred from a coupled thermal-orbital model |journal=Icarus |volume=175 |issue=2 |pages=496–502 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2004.12.007 }}</ref> den Enceladus<ref name="Verbiscer et al. 2007">{{cite journal| doi = 10.1126/science.1134681| last1 = Verbiscer| first1 = A.| last2 = French| first2 = R.| last3 = Showalter| first3 = M.| last4 = Helfenstein| first4 = P.| title = Enceladus: Cosmic Graffiti Artist Caught in the Act| journal = Science| volume = 315| issue = 5813| page = 815| date = 9 February 2007| pmid = 17289992| bibcode = 2007Sci...315..815V| s2cid = 21932253| ref = {{sfnRef|Verbiscer French et al.|2007}}| df = dmy-all}} (supporting online material, table S1)</ref> * Pluto–Charon system<ref name="Sparrow" /> * Comets<ref>{{cite journal |bibcode=1998A&A...330..375G |title=Making a comet nucleus |last1=Greenberg |first1=J. Mayo |volume=330 |date=1998 |page=375 |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://starryskies.com/solar_system/Comet/dirty_snowballs.html |title=Dirty Snowballs in Space |publisher=Starryskies |access-date=15 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130129035627/http://starryskies.com/solar_system/Comet/dirty_snowballs.html |archive-date=29 January 2013}}</ref> den oda related Kuiper belt den Oort cloud objects<ref>{{cite journal |author=E.L. Gibb |author2=M.J. Mumma |author3=N. Dello Russo |author4=M.A. DiSanti |author5=K. Magee-Sauer |date=2003 |title=Methane in Oort Cloud comets |journal=[[Icarus (journal)|Icarus]] |volume=165 |issue=2 |pages=391–406 |bibcode=2003Icar..165..391G |doi=10.1016/S0019-1035(03)00201-X }}</ref> Den sanso likely be present on: * Mercury ein poles<ref>NASA, "[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/messenger/media/PressConf20121129.html MESSENGER Finds New Evidence for Water Ice at Mercury's Poles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121130062257/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/messenger/media/PressConf20121129.html |date=30 November 2012 }}", ''NASA'', 29 November 2012.</ref> * Tethys<ref>{{cite journal| doi = 10.1016/j.icarus.2007.03.012| last1 = Thomas| first1 = P.C.| last2 = Burns| first2 = J.A.| last3 = Helfenstein| first3 = P.| last4 = Squyres| first4 = S.| last5 = Veverka| first5 = J.| last6 = Porco| first6 = C.| last7 = Turtle| first7 = E.P.| last8 = McEwen| first8 = A.| last9 = Denk| first9 = T.| first10 = B.| last10 = Giesef| first11 = T.| last11 = Roatschf| first12 = T.V.| last12 = Johnsong| first13 = R.A.| last13 = Jacobsong| date = October 2007| title = Shapes of the saturnian icy satellites and their significance| journal = Icarus| volume = 190| issue = 2| pages = 573–584| bibcode = 2007Icar..190..573T| url = http://www.geoinf.fu-berlin.de/publications/denk/2007/ThomasEtAl_SaturnMoonsShapes_Icarus_2007.pdf| access-date = 15 December 2011| ref = {{sfnRef|Thomas Burns et al.|2007}}| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110927220431/http://www.geoinf.fu-berlin.de/publications/denk/2007/ThomasEtAl_SaturnMoonsShapes_Icarus_2007.pdf| archive-date = 27 September 2011| url-status=live| df = dmy-all}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Sister project links|water}} * [http://www.worldwater.org/ The World's Water Data Page] * [http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/main/index.stm FAO Comprehensive Water Database, AQUASTAT] * [http://worldwater.org/conflict.html The Water Conflict Chronology: Water Conflict Database] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116181835/http://www.worldwater.org/conflict.html |date=16 January 2013 }} * [https://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/ Water science school] (USGS) * [http://water.worldbank.org/ Portal to The World Bank's strategy, work and associated publications on water resources] * [http://www.awra.org/ America Water Resources Association] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324205603/http://awra.org/ |date=24 March 2018 }} * [https://www.waterontheweb.org Water on the web] * [http://www1.lsbu.ac.uk/water/ Water structure and science] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228024506/http://www1.lsbu.ac.uk/water/ |date=28 December 2014 }} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPpKhxtFf1Q "Why water is one of the weirdest things in the universe"], ''Ideas'', BBC, Video, 3:16 minutes, 2019 * [https://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/water/ The chemistry of water] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619074258/https://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/water/ |date=19 June 2020 }} (NSF special report) * [http://www.iapws.org/index.html The International Association for the Properties of Water and Steam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927120500/http://www.iapws.org/index.html |date=27 September 2022 }} * [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/molecule-that-made-us/ ''H2O: The Molecule That Made Us''], a 2020 PBS documentary {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Water}} [[Category:Water| ]] [[Category:Articles wey dey contain video clips]] [[Category:Triatomic molecules]] [[Category:Inorganic solvents]] [[Category:Liquids]] [[Category:Materials wey dey expand upon freezing]] [[Category:Neutron moderators]] [[Category:Nuclear reactor coolants]] [[Category:Oxides]] [[Category:Oxygen compounds]] [[Category:Hydroxides]] [[Category:Liquid dielectrics]] [[Category:Solvents]] [[Category:Refrigerants]] [[Category:Lubricants]] [[Category:Transparent materials]] [[Category:Natural resources]] [[Category:Hydrology]] hlj276n5d7e7pkrfixd9gyos0rdmsjd 103720 103719 2026-06-18T16:52:20Z DaSupremo 9 /* Etymology */ Improve article 103720 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Water''' be an inorganic compound plus de chemical formula H2O. E be a transparent, tasteless, odorless, den nearly colorless chemical substance. E be de main constituent of [[Earth]] ein streams, lakes, den oceans. Water sanso be de fluid of all known living organisms, insyd wich e dey act as a solvent. Water, be a polar molecule, wey dey undergo strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding wich be a large contributor to ein physical den chemical properties.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |title=Water Q&A: Why is water the "universal solvent"? |date=20 June 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=15 January 2021 |archive-date=6 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206061114/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |url-status=live }}</ref> E be vital give all known forms of life, despite no dey provide food energy anaa e be an organic micronutrient. Secof ein presence insyd all organisms, ein chemical stability, ein worldwide abundance, den ein strong polarity relative to ein small molecular size, water often be referred to as de "universal solvent".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-08-09 |title=4.1: Water, the Universal Solvent |url=https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_California_Santa_Cruz/UCSC%3A_Chem_1B-AL_(Mednick)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/Map%3A_Chemistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/04%3A_Types_of_Chemical_Reactions_and_Solution_Stoichiometry/4.01_Water%2C_the_Universal_Solvent |access-date=2026-01-14 |website=Chemistry LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref> Secof Earth ein surface temperature den pressure be relatively close to water ein triple point, water dey exist on Earth as a solid, a liquid, den a gas.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Butler |first1=John |title=The Earth – Introduction – Weathering |url=https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |publisher=[[University of Houston]] |access-date=30 January 2023 |quote=Note that the Earth environment is close to the triple point and that water, steam and ice can all exist at the surface. |archive-date=30 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130051934/https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |url-status=live }}</ref> E dey form [[precipitation]] insyd de form of rain den aerosols insyd de form of fog. Clouds dey consist of suspended droplets of water den ice, ein solid state. Wen finely divided, crystalline ice fi precipitate insyd de form of snow. De gaseous state of water be steam anaa water vapor. Water dey cover about 71% of de Earth ein surface, plus seas den oceans wey dey make up chaw of de water volume (about 96.5%).<ref name="WSS">{{cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |title=How Much Water is There on Earth? |date=13 November 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=8 June 2022 |archive-date=9 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609050627/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |url-status=live }}</ref> Small portions of water dey occur as groundwater (1.7%), insyd de glaciers den de ice caps of Antarctica den Greenland (1.7%), den insyd de air as vapor, clouds (wey dey consist of ice den liquid water dem suspend insyd air), den precipitation (0.001%).<ref name="b1">{{cite book |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources |editor=Gleick, P.H. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1993 |page=13, Table 2.1 "Water reserves on the earth" |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408091921/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |archive-date=8 April 2013 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html Water Vapor in the Climate System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070320034158/http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html |date=20 March 2007 }}, Special Report, [AGU], December 1995 (linked 4/2007). [http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ Vital Water] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220070111/http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ |date=20 February 2008 }} [[UNEP]].</ref> Water dey move continually thru de water cycle of evaporation, transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, den runoff, usually dey reach de sea. Water dey play an important role insyd de world economy. Approximately 70% of de fresh water wey humans use [[Irrigation|dey go to agriculture]].<ref name=Baroni2007>{{cite journal |author=Baroni, L. |author2=Cenci, L. |author3=Tettamanti, M. |author4=Berati, M. |year=2007 |title=Evaluating the environmental impact of various dietary patterns combined with different food production systems |journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=61 |pages=279–286 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602522 |pmid=17035955 |issue=2|doi-access=free | issn=0954-3007 }}</ref> Fishing insyd salt den fresh water bodies be, den dey continue to be, a major source of chow give chaw parts of de world, wey dey provide 6.5% of global protein.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Troell |first1=Max |last2=Naylor |first2=Rosamond L. |last3=Metian |first3=Marc |last4=Beveridge |first4=Malcolm |last5=Tyedmers |first5=Peter H. |last6=Folke |first6=Carl |last7=Arrow |first7=Kenneth J. |last8=Barrett |first8=Scott |last9=Crépin |first9=Anne-Sophie |last10=Ehrlich |first10=Paul R. |last11=Gren |first11=Åsa |date=16 September 2014 |title=Does aquaculture add resilience to the global food system? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=37 |pages=13257–13263 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1404067111 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4169979 |pmid=25136111|bibcode=2014PNAS..11113257T |doi-access=free }}</ref> Much of de long-distance trade of commodities (such as oil, natural gas, den manufactured products) be transported by boats thru seas, rivers, lakes, den canals. Large quantities of water, ice, den steam be used for cooling den heating insyd industry den homes. Water be an excellent solvent give a wide variety of substances, both mineral den organic; as such, e be widely used insyd industrial processes den insyd cooking den washing. Water, ice, den snow sanso be central to chaw sports den oda forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, diving, ice skating, snowboarding, den skiing. ==Etymology== De word ''water'' dey cam from Old English '''{{Lang|ang|wæter}}''', from Proto-Germanic {{lang|gem-x-proto|*watar}} (source sanso of Old Saxon {{Lang|osx|watar}}, Old Frisian {{Lang|ofs|wetir}}, Dutch {{Lang|nl|water}}, Old High German {{Lang|goh|wazzar}}, German {{Lang|de|Wasser}}, {{Lang|non|vatn}}, Gothic {{Lang|got|𐍅𐌰𐍄𐍉}} (''wato'')), from Proto-Indo-European {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wod-or}}, suffixed form of root {{lang|ine-x-proto|*wed-}} ('water'; 'wet').<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |title=Water (v.) |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=www.etymonline.com |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=20 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802204905/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=water |archive-date=2 August 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> Also cognate, thru de Indo-European root, with Greek {{Lang|el|ύδωρ}} ((''ýdor''; from Ancient Greek {{Lang|grc|ὕδωρ}} (''hýdōr''), whence English 'hydro-'), Russian {{Lang|ru|вода́}} (''vodá''), Irish {{Lang|ga|uisce}}, den Albanian {{Lang|sq|ujë}}. ==Distribution insyd nature== ===Insyd de universe=== ====Water vapor==== Water be present as vapor insyd: * Atmosphere of de Sun: insyd detectable trace amounts<ref name=Solanki1994>{{cite journal |last1=Solanki |first1=S.K. |last2=Livingston |first2=W. |last3=Ayres |first3=T. |year=1994 |title=New Light on the Heart of Darkness of the Solar Chromosphere |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |pmid=17748350 |volume=263 |issue=5143 |pages=64–66 |bibcode=1994Sci...263...64S |doi=10.1126/science.263.5143.64 |s2cid=27696504 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f20e/89b9c386ff2dea7d990f8ff6a09d550e5e43.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190307030222/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f20e/89b9c386ff2dea7d990f8ff6a09d550e5e43.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 March 2019 }}</ref> * Atmosphere of Mercury: 3.4%, den large amounts of water insyd Mercury ein exosphere<ref name="planetary society">{{cite web |url=http://www.planetary.org/news/2008/0703_MESSENGER_Scientists_Astonished_to.html |title=MESSENGER Scientists 'Astonished' to Find Water in Mercury's Thin Atmosphere |access-date=5 July 2008 |publisher=Planetary Society |date=3 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100406034624/http://www.planetary.org/news/2008/0703_MESSENGER_Scientists_Astonished_to.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 April 2010}}</ref> * Atmosphere of Venus: 0.002%<ref name=Bertaux2007>{{cite journal |last=Bertaux |first=Jean-Loup |title=A warm layer in Venus' cryosphere and high-altitude measurements of HF, HCl, H2O and HDO |journal=Nature |year=2007 |volume=450 |pages=646–649 |doi=10.1038/nature05974 |bibcode=2007Natur.450..646B |pmid=18046397 |issue=7170 |author2=Vandaele, Ann-Carine |last3=Korablev |first3=Oleg |last4=Villard |first4=E. |last5=Fedorova |first5=A. |last6=Fussen |first6=D. |last7=Quémerais |first7=E. |last8=Belyaev |first8=D. |last9=Mahieux |first9=A. |hdl=2268/29200 |s2cid=4421875 |url=https://orbi.uliege.be/bitstream/2268/29200/1/Bertaux-2007-a%20warm.pdf |access-date=8 October 2022 |archive-date=7 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907122145/https://orbi.uliege.be/bitstream/2268/29200/1/Bertaux-2007-a%20warm.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> * Earth ein atmosphere: ≈0.40% over full atmosphere, typically 1–4% at surface * Atmosphere of de Moon: insyd trace amounts<ref name="Sridharan2010">{{cite journal |last1=Sridharan |first1=R. |first2=S.M. |last2=Ahmed |first3=Tirtha Pratim |last3=Dasa |first4=P. |last4=Sreelathaa |first5=P. |last5=Pradeepkumara |first6=Neha |last6=Naika |first7=Gogulapati |last7=Supriya |year=2010 |page=947 |issue=6 |volume=58 |title='Direct' evidence for water (H2O) in the sunlit lunar ambience from CHACE on MIP of Chandrayaan I |journal=Planetary and Space Science |doi=10.1016/j.pss.2010.02.013 |bibcode=2010P&SS...58..947S}}</ref> * Atmosphere of Mars: 0.03%<ref name="Rapp2012">{{cite book |author=Rapp, Donald |title=Use of Extraterrestrial Resources for Human Space Missions to Moon or Mars |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2xzxhnBRHCMC&pg=PA78 |year=2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-32762-9 |page=78 |access-date=9 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715154349/https://books.google.com/books?id=2xzxhnBRHCMC&pg=PA78 |archive-date=15 July 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> * Atmosphere of Ceres<ref name="Kuppers2014">{{cite journal |last1=Küppers |first1=M. |last2=O'Rourke |first2=L. |last3=Bockelée-Morvan |first3=D.|author3-link=Dominique Bockelée-Morvan |last4=Zakharov |first4=V. |last5=Lee |first5=S. |last6=Von Allmen |first6=P. |last7=Carry |first7=B. |last8=Teyssier |first8=D. |last9=Marston |first9=A. |last10=Müller |first10=T. |last11=Crovisier |first11=J. |last12=Barucci |first12=M.A. |last13=Moreno |first13=R. |title=Localized sources of water vapour on the dwarf planet (1) Ceres |journal=Nature |volume=505 |issue=7484 |date=23 January 2014 |pages=525–527|doi=10.1038/nature12918 |pmid=24451541 |bibcode=2014Natur.505..525K|s2cid=4448395 }}</ref> * Atmosphere of Jupiter: 0.0004%<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s11214-005-1951-5 |last1=Atreya |first1=Sushil K. |last2=Wong |first2=Ah-San |year=2005 |title=Coupled Clouds and Chemistry of the Giant Planets&nbsp;– A Case for Multiprobes |journal=Space Science Reviews |volume=116 |issue=1–2 |pages=121–136 |url=http://www-personal.umich.edu/~atreya/Chapters/2005_JovianCloud_Multiprobes.pdf |bibcode=2005SSRv..116..121A |access-date=1 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722074717/http://www-personal.umich.edu/~atreya/Chapters/2005_JovianCloud_Multiprobes.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2011 |url-status=live |hdl=2027.42/43766 |s2cid=31037195 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> – insyd ices per; den dat of ein moon Europa<ref name="NASA-20131212-EU">{{cite web |last1=Cook |first1=Jia-Rui C. |last2=Gutro |first2=Rob |last3=Brown |first3=Dwayne |last4=Harrington |first4=J.D. |last5=Fohn |first5=Joe |title=Hubble Sees Evidence of Water Vapor at Jupiter Moon |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-363 |date=12 December 2013 |website=[[NASA]] |access-date=12 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215053143/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-363 |archive-date=15 December 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> * Atmosphere of Saturn – insyd ices per; Enceladus: 91%<ref name="Hansen">{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1121254 |title=Enceladus' Water Vapor Plume |year=2006 |author=Hansen |journal=Science |volume=311 |pages=1422–1425 |pmid=16527971 |issue=5766 |bibcode=2006Sci...311.1422H |author2=C.J.|last3=Stewart |first3=AI |last4=Colwell |first4=J |last5=Hendrix |first5=A |last6=Pryor |first6=W |last7=Shemansky |first7=D |last8=West |first8=R|s2cid=2954801 |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/89b1/1f34539a1b9b8a9dcb5a1d835e693bea1940.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218132849/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/89b1/1f34539a1b9b8a9dcb5a1d835e693bea1940.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 February 2020 }}</ref> den [[Dione (moon)|Dione]] (subsurface ocean)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sanchez-Maes |first=Sophia |date=January 11, 2017 |title=Solid Evidence for Liquid Water on Dione |url=https://www.yalescientific.org/2017/01/solid-evidence-for-liquid-water-on-dione/ |access-date=2025-09-01 |website=Yale Scientific Magazine}}</ref> * Atmosphere of Uranus – insyd trace amounts below 50 bar * Atmosphere of Neptune – dem find insyd de deeper layers<ref name=hubbard>{{cite journal |last=Hubbard |first=W.B. |title=Neptune's Deep Chemistry |journal=Science |year=1997 |volume=275 |issue=5304 |pages=1279–1280 |doi=10.1126/science.275.5304.1279 |pmid=9064785|s2cid=36248590 }}</ref> * Extrasolar planet atmospheres: wey dey include those of HD 189733 b<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1642811,00.html Water Found on Distant Planet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716081124/http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1642811,00.html |date=16 July 2007 }} 12 July 2007 By Laura Blue, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''</ref> den HD 209458 b,<ref name="Space.com water">[http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/070410_water_exoplanet.html Water Found in Extrasolar Planet's Atmosphere] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101230065702/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/070410_water_exoplanet.html |date=30 December 2010 }} – Space.com</ref> Tau Boötis b,<ref>{{Cite journal |arxiv = 1402.0846|last1 = Lockwood|first1 = Alexandra C|title = Near-IR Direct Detection of Water Vapor in Tau Boo B|journal = The Astrophysical Journal|volume = 783|issue = 2|pages = L29|last2 = Johnson|first2 = John A|last3 = Bender|first3 = Chad F|last4 = Carr|first4 = John S|last5 = Barman|first5 = Travis|last6 = Richert|first6 = Alexander J.W.|last7 = Blake|first7 = Geoffrey A|year = 2014|doi = 10.1088/2041-8205/783/2/L29|bibcode = 2014ApJ...783L..29L|s2cid = 8463125}}</ref> HAT-P-11b,<ref name="NASA-20140924">{{cite web |last1=Clavin |first1=Whitney |last2=Chou |first2=Felicia |last3=Weaver |first3=Donna |last4=Villard |first45=Ray |last5=Johnson |first5=Michele |title=NASA Telescopes Find Clear Skies and Water Vapor on Exoplanet |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2014-322&1 |date=24 September 2014 |website=[[NASA]] |access-date=24 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170114220647/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2014-322&1 |archive-date=14 January 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Hanslmeier2010">{{cite book |author=Arnold Hanslmeier |title=Water in the Universe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mj5tSld5tjMC&pg=PA159 |year=2010 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-90-481-9984-6 |pages=159– |access-date=9 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715031920/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mj5tSld5tjMC&pg=PA159 |archive-date=15 July 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> XO-1b, WASP-12b, WASP-17b, den WASP-19b.<ref name="NASA-20131203">{{cite web |title=Hubble Traces Subtle Signals of Water on Hazy Worlds |url=http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/hubble-traces-subtle-signals-of-water-on-hazy-worlds/ |date=3 December 2013 |publisher=[[NASA]] |access-date=4 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206012837/http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/hubble-traces-subtle-signals-of-water-on-hazy-worlds/ |archive-date=6 December 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> * Stellar atmospheres: no be limited to cooler stars den even detected insyd giant hot stars such as Betelgeuse, Mu Cephei, Antares den Arcturus.<ref name="Hanslmeier2010" /><ref name="Lund Observatory">Andersson, Jonas (June 2012). [http://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=2969749&fileOId=2969772 Water in stellar atmospheres "Is a novel picture required to explain the atmospheric behavior of water in red giant stars?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150213133956/http://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=2969749&fileOId=2969772 |date=13 February 2015 }} Lund Observatory, Lund University, Sweden</ref> * Circumstellar disks: wey dey include those of more dan half of T Tauri stars such as AA Tauri<ref name="Hanslmeier2010" /> as well as TW Hydrae,<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/herschel/news/herschel20111020.html Herschel Finds Oceans of Water in Disk of Nearby Star] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219053556/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/herschel/news/herschel20111020.html |date=19 February 2015 }}. Nasa.gov (20 October 2011). Retrieved on 28 September 2015.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jpl.nasa.gov/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120604082809/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.cfm?release=2011-327|url-status=dead|title=JPL|archivedate=4 June 2012|website=NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL)}}</ref> IRC +10216<ref>Lloyd, Robin. ''"Water Vapor, Possible Comets, Found Orbiting Star"'', 11 July 2001, [http://www.space.com/searchforlife/swas_water_010711.html Space.com]. Retrieved 15 December 2006. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090523025818/http://www.space.com/searchforlife/swas_water_010711.html |date=23 May 2009 }}</ref> den APM 08279+5255,<ref name="Clavin">{{cite web |last1=Clavin |first1=Whitney |last2=Buis |first2=Alan |title=Astronomers Find Largest, Most Distant Reservoir of Water |url=http://www.nasa.gov/topics/universe/features/universe20110722.html |date=22 July 2011 |publisher=[[NASA]] |access-date=25 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724063244/http://www.nasa.gov/topics/universe/features/universe20110722.html |archive-date=24 July 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="water vapor cloud">{{cite web |author=Staff |title=Astronomers Find Largest, Oldest Mass of Water in Universe |url=http://www.space.com/12400-universe-biggest-oldest-cloud-water.html |date=22 July 2011 |publisher=[[Space.com]] |access-date=23 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111029230319/http://www.space.com/12400-universe-biggest-oldest-cloud-water.html |archive-date=29 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> VY Canis Majoris den S Persei.<ref name="Lund Observatory" /> ====Water ice==== Water be present as ice on: * Mars: under een regolith den at de poles.<ref>{{cite book |last=Carr |first=M.H. |date=1996 |title=Water on Mars |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |page=197}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bibring |first1=J.-P. |last2=Langevin |first2=Yves |date=2004 |title=Perennial Water Ice Identified in the South Polar Cap of Mars |journal=Nature |volume=428 |issue=6983 |pages=627–630 |doi=10.1038/nature02461|pmid=15024393 |last3=Poulet |first3=François |last4=Gendrin |first4=Aline |last5=Gondet |first5=Brigitte |last6=Berthé |first6=Michel |last7=Soufflot |first7=Alain |last8=Drossart |first8=Pierre |last9=Combes |first9=Michel |last10=Bellucci |first10=Giancarlo |last11=Moroz |first11=Vassili |last12=Mangold |first12=Nicolas |last13=Schmitt |first13=Bernard |last14=Omega Team |first14=the|last15=Erard |first15=S. |last16=Forni |first16=O. |last17=Manaud |first17=N. |last18=Poulleau |first18=G. |last19=Encrenaz |first19=T.|author19-link=Thérèse Encrenaz |last20=Fouchet |first20=T. |last21=Melchiorri |first21=R. |last22=Altieri |first22=F. |last23=Formisano |first23=V. |last24=Bonello |first24=G. |last25=Fonti |first25=S. |last26=Capaccioni |first26=F. |last27=Cerroni |first27=P. |last28=Coradini |first28=A. |last29=Kottsov |first29=V. |last30=Ignatiev |first30=N. |bibcode=2004Natur.428..627B |s2cid=4373206 |url=https://hal.science/hal-03785230v1/file/bibring2004.pdf }}</ref> * Earth–Moon system: mainly as ice sheets on Earth den insyd Lunar craters den volcanic rocks<ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/weltall/0,1518,564911,00.html Versteckt in Glasperlen: Auf dem Mond gibt es Wasser – Wissenschaft –] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080710220126/http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/weltall/0,1518,564911,00.html |date=10 July 2008 }} [[Der Spiegel]] – Nachrichten</ref><ref>[https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2009/24sep_moonwater.htm Water Molecules Found on the Moon] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090927092541/https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2009/24sep_moonwater.htm |date=27 September 2009 }}, NASA, 24 September 2009</ref> * Ceres<ref name="McCord2005-jgrp">{{cite journal |title=Ceres: Evolution and current state |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets |date=21 May 2005 |last1=McCord |first1=T.B. |last2=Sotin |first2=C. |volume=110 |issue=E5 |page=E05009 |doi=10.1029/2004JE002244 |bibcode=2005JGRE..110.5009M |doi-access=free |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00116029/file/2004JE002244.pdf |access-date=5 March 2024 |archive-date=18 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210718171117/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00116029/file/2004JE002244.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Thomas2005">{{cite journal |first1=P.C. |last1=Thomas |last2=Parker|first2=J.Wm.|last3=McFadden|first3= L.A. |title=Differentiation of the asteroid Ceres as revealed by its shape |year=2005 |journal=Nature |volume=437 |pages=224–226 |doi=10.1038/nature03938 |bibcode=2005Natur.437..224T |pmid=16148926 |issue=7056 |s2cid=17758979}}</ref><ref name="Carey2006">{{cite news|url=http://space.com/scienceastronomy/050907_ceres_planet.html |title=Largest Asteroid Might Contain More Fresh Water than Earth |first=Bjorn |last=Carey |publisher=SPACE.com |date=7 September 2005 |access-date=16 August 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101218180330/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/050907_ceres_planet.html |archive-date=18 December 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> * Jupiter's moons: Europa ein surface den sanso dat of Ganymede<ref name="NYT-20150315">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=Suddenly, It Seems, Water Is Everywhere in Solar System |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/13/science/space/suddenly-it-seems-water-is-everywhere-in-solar-system.html |date=12 March 2015 |work=[[New York Times]] |access-date=12 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180812232556/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/13/science/space/suddenly-it-seems-water-is-everywhere-in-solar-system.html |archive-date=12 August 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> den Callisto<ref name=Kuskov2005>{{cite journal| last=Kuskov|first=O.L.|author2=Kronrod, V.A.|title=Internal structure of Europa and Callisto| year=2005|volume=177| issue=2|pages=550–369|doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2005.04.014| bibcode=2005Icar..177..550K| journal = Icarus}}</ref><ref name="Showman1999">{{cite journal|last1= Showman|first1=A. P.|last2= Malhotra|first2= R.|title=The Galilean Satellites|journal= Science|volume= 286|issue= 5437|date= 1 October 1999|pages =77–84|doi= 10.1126/science.286.5437.77|pmid=10506564|bibcode=1999Sci...286...77S |s2cid=9492520|url= http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3e6e/f125bbbafd779a0af6813ba0f5a18edea652.pdf|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200412142819/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3e6e/f125bbbafd779a0af6813ba0f5a18edea652.pdf|url-status= dead|archive-date= 12 April 2020}}</ref> * Saturn: insyd de planet ein ring system<ref name="Sparrow">{{cite book |last=Sparrow |first=Giles |title=The Solar System |publisher=Thunder Bay Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-59223-579-7}}</ref> den on de surface den mantle of Titan<ref name="Tobie">{{cite journal |last1=Tobie |first1=G. |last2=Grasset |first2=Olivier |last3=Lunine |first3=Jonathan I. |last4=Mocquet |first4=Antoine |last5=Sotin |first5=Christophe |date=2005 |bibcode=2005Icar..175..496T |title=Titan's internal structure inferred from a coupled thermal-orbital model |journal=Icarus |volume=175 |issue=2 |pages=496–502 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2004.12.007 }}</ref> den Enceladus<ref name="Verbiscer et al. 2007">{{cite journal| doi = 10.1126/science.1134681| last1 = Verbiscer| first1 = A.| last2 = French| first2 = R.| last3 = Showalter| first3 = M.| last4 = Helfenstein| first4 = P.| title = Enceladus: Cosmic Graffiti Artist Caught in the Act| journal = Science| volume = 315| issue = 5813| page = 815| date = 9 February 2007| pmid = 17289992| bibcode = 2007Sci...315..815V| s2cid = 21932253| ref = {{sfnRef|Verbiscer French et al.|2007}}| df = dmy-all}} (supporting online material, table S1)</ref> * Pluto–Charon system<ref name="Sparrow" /> * Comets<ref>{{cite journal |bibcode=1998A&A...330..375G |title=Making a comet nucleus |last1=Greenberg |first1=J. Mayo |volume=330 |date=1998 |page=375 |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://starryskies.com/solar_system/Comet/dirty_snowballs.html |title=Dirty Snowballs in Space |publisher=Starryskies |access-date=15 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130129035627/http://starryskies.com/solar_system/Comet/dirty_snowballs.html |archive-date=29 January 2013}}</ref> den oda related Kuiper belt den Oort cloud objects<ref>{{cite journal |author=E.L. Gibb |author2=M.J. Mumma |author3=N. Dello Russo |author4=M.A. DiSanti |author5=K. Magee-Sauer |date=2003 |title=Methane in Oort Cloud comets |journal=[[Icarus (journal)|Icarus]] |volume=165 |issue=2 |pages=391–406 |bibcode=2003Icar..165..391G |doi=10.1016/S0019-1035(03)00201-X }}</ref> Den sanso likely be present on: * Mercury ein poles<ref>NASA, "[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/messenger/media/PressConf20121129.html MESSENGER Finds New Evidence for Water Ice at Mercury's Poles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121130062257/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/messenger/media/PressConf20121129.html |date=30 November 2012 }}", ''NASA'', 29 November 2012.</ref> * Tethys<ref>{{cite journal| doi = 10.1016/j.icarus.2007.03.012| last1 = Thomas| first1 = P.C.| last2 = Burns| first2 = J.A.| last3 = Helfenstein| first3 = P.| last4 = Squyres| first4 = S.| last5 = Veverka| first5 = J.| last6 = Porco| first6 = C.| last7 = Turtle| first7 = E.P.| last8 = McEwen| first8 = A.| last9 = Denk| first9 = T.| first10 = B.| last10 = Giesef| first11 = T.| last11 = Roatschf| first12 = T.V.| last12 = Johnsong| first13 = R.A.| last13 = Jacobsong| date = October 2007| title = Shapes of the saturnian icy satellites and their significance| journal = Icarus| volume = 190| issue = 2| pages = 573–584| bibcode = 2007Icar..190..573T| url = http://www.geoinf.fu-berlin.de/publications/denk/2007/ThomasEtAl_SaturnMoonsShapes_Icarus_2007.pdf| access-date = 15 December 2011| ref = {{sfnRef|Thomas Burns et al.|2007}}| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110927220431/http://www.geoinf.fu-berlin.de/publications/denk/2007/ThomasEtAl_SaturnMoonsShapes_Icarus_2007.pdf| archive-date = 27 September 2011| url-status=live| df = dmy-all}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Sister project links|water}} * [http://www.worldwater.org/ The World's Water Data Page] * [http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/main/index.stm FAO Comprehensive Water Database, AQUASTAT] * [http://worldwater.org/conflict.html The Water Conflict Chronology: Water Conflict Database] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116181835/http://www.worldwater.org/conflict.html |date=16 January 2013 }} * [https://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/ Water science school] (USGS) * [http://water.worldbank.org/ Portal to The World Bank's strategy, work and associated publications on water resources] * [http://www.awra.org/ America Water Resources Association] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324205603/http://awra.org/ |date=24 March 2018 }} * [https://www.waterontheweb.org Water on the web] * [http://www1.lsbu.ac.uk/water/ Water structure and science] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228024506/http://www1.lsbu.ac.uk/water/ |date=28 December 2014 }} * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPpKhxtFf1Q "Why water is one of the weirdest things in the universe"], ''Ideas'', BBC, Video, 3:16 minutes, 2019 * [https://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/water/ The chemistry of water] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619074258/https://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/water/ |date=19 June 2020 }} (NSF special report) * [http://www.iapws.org/index.html The International Association for the Properties of Water and Steam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927120500/http://www.iapws.org/index.html |date=27 September 2022 }} * [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/molecule-that-made-us/ ''H2O: The Molecule That Made Us''], a 2020 PBS documentary {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Water}} [[Category:Water| ]] [[Category:Articles wey dey contain video clips]] [[Category:Triatomic molecules]] [[Category:Inorganic solvents]] [[Category:Liquids]] [[Category:Materials wey dey expand upon freezing]] [[Category:Neutron moderators]] [[Category:Nuclear reactor coolants]] [[Category:Oxides]] [[Category:Oxygen compounds]] [[Category:Hydroxides]] [[Category:Liquid dielectrics]] [[Category:Solvents]] [[Category:Refrigerants]] [[Category:Lubricants]] [[Category:Transparent materials]] [[Category:Natural resources]] [[Category:Hydrology]] i4ehoad4hp3qeqsmf61ng8ieknqpdi8 0 27581 103858 103387 2026-06-18T21:39:53Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103858 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} {{Short description|none}} [[File: Maler der Grabkammer des Sennudem 001.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Ploughing plus a yoke of horned cattle insyd ancient Egypt. Painting from de burial chamber of Sennedjem, c. 1200 BC]] De civilization of ancient Egypt was indebted to de Nile River den its dependable seasonal flooding. De river's predictability den fertile soil allow de Egyptians to build an empire on de basis of great agricultural wealth. Egyptians are credited as being one of de first groups of people to practice agriculture on a large scale. Dis be possible because of de ingenuity of de Egyptians as they developed basin irrigation.<ref name= "book">Kees,Herman. "Ancient Egypt: A Cultural Topography." Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961. Print.</ref> Their farming practices allow dem to grow staple food crops, especially grains such as wheat den barley, den industrial crops, such as flax den papyrus.<ref name= "Origins"/> == Beginnings of agriculture == To west of Nile Valley, eastern Sahara na home of plenti Neolithic cultures. During the African humid period, dis area get rich vegetation, and human population for Sahara increase well-well around 8000 BC. Dem dey survive by hunting, fishing for local lakes,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=White|first1=Kevin H.|last2=Bristow|first2=Charlie S.|last3=Armitage|first3=Simon J.|last4=Blench|first4=Roger M.|last5=Drake|first5=Nick A.|title=Ancient watercourses and biogeography of the Sahara explain the peopling of the desert|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|date=11 January 2011|volume=108|issue=2|pages=458–462|doi=10.1073/pnas.1012231108|pmid=21187416|pmc=3021035|issn=1091-6490|bibcode=2011PNAS..108..458D |doi-access=free}}</ref> plus gathering wild cereals wey dey plenty for Sahara. Cereals like brachiaria, sorghum and urochloa be important source of food.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Tafuri|first1=Mary Anne|last2=Bentley|first2=R. Alexander|last3=Manzi|first3=Giorgio|last4=di Lernia|first4=Savino|title=Mobility and kinship in the prehistoric Sahara: Strontium isotope analysis of Holocene human skeletons from the Acacus Mts. (southwestern Libya)|journal=Journal of Anthropological Archaeology|date=September 2006|volume=25|issue=3|pages=390–402|doi=10.1016/j.jaa.2006.01.002|issn=0278-4165}}</ref> African humid period gradually come end, and by around 6,000–5,000 years ago e finish completely. Before dat time sef, migrating herders start move go different parts of Africa, and some come settle for Nile Delta, where signs of agriculture before dat time no too dey. Dakhleh Oasis especially don receive plenty recent research, and e provide strong evidence about early Egyptian agriculture.<ref name="McDonald 2016 pp. 181–197">{{cite journal | last=McDonald | first=Mary M.A. | title=The pattern of Neolithization in Dakhleh Oasis in the Eastern Sahara | journal=Quaternary International | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=410 | year=2016 | issn=1040-6182 | doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2015.10.100 | pages=181–197| bibcode=2016QuInt.410..181M | doi-access=free }}</ref> People fit see am as one example of post-Pleistocene developments across Northeastern Africa. Dakhleh Oasis dey inside Western Desert (Egypt). E dey about 350&nbsp;km (220&nbsp;mi.) from Nile, between Farafra and Kharga oases. For Dakhleh, Bashendi culture people be mobile herders plus foragers during African humid period. Dem dey live for settlements wey dem build with stone slabs, plus open-air sites wey get groups of hearth mounds. For other parts of Egypt Western Desert too, Bashendi-like groups live for Farafra Oasis and Nabta Playa, south side.<ref name="McDonald 2016 pp. 181–197"/> Bashendi people use sandstone grinders take grind local wild millet and sorghum.<ref>Graham Chandler (2006), [https://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/200605/before.the.mummies.the.desert.origins.of.the.pharaohs.htm Before the Mummies: The Desert Origins of the Pharaohs.] Saudi Aramco World. Volume 57, Number 5</ref> For Farafra Oasis, archaeologists find one goat wey date around 6100 BC (8100 cal BP) for Hidden Valley village. For Nabta Playa, remains of sheep/goat and cattle start appear around 6000 BC (8000 cal BP). But goats and cattle be almost the only Neolithic things from Near East wey oasis people adopt. Most of the other cultural developments, like lithic industry, develop locally or come from Northeastern Africa.<ref name="McDonald 2016 pp. 181–197"/> Faiyum Oasis for Egypt too provide evidence say agriculture start around the same period. Domesticated sheep, goats, pigs and cattle all dey there. Sheep from Qasr El-Sagha date to 5350 BC (7350 cal BP), while sheep, goats and cattle date to 5150 BC (7150 cal BP).<ref name="Linseele Van Neer Thys Phillipps p=e108517">{{cite journal | last1=Linseele | first1=Veerle | last2=Van Neer | first2=Wim | last3=Thys | first3=Sofie | last4=Phillipps | first4=Rebecca | last5=Cappers | first5=René | last6=Wendrich | first6=Willeke | last7=Holdaway | first7=Simon | editor-last=Caramelli | editor-first=David | title=New Archaeozoological Data from the Fayum "Neolithic" with a Critical Assessment of the Evidence for Early Stock Keeping in Egypt | journal=PLOS ONE | publisher=Public Library of Science (PLoS) | volume=9 | issue=10 | date=2014-10-13 | issn=1932-6203 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0108517 | article-number=e108517| pmid=25310283 | pmc=4195595 | bibcode=2014PLoSO...9j8517L | doi-access=free }}</ref> As for crops, emmer wheat and barley don dey found for Faiyum at Kom K and Kom W sites, wey date around 4500–4200 BC.<ref name="Wendrich Taylor Southon 2010 pp. 999–1002">{{cite journal | last1=Wendrich | first1=W. | last2=Taylor | first2=R.E. | last3=Southon | first3=J. | title=Dating stratified settlement sites at Kom K and Kom W: Fifth millennium BCE radiocarbon ages for the Fayum Neolithic | journal=Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=268 | issue=7–8 | year=2010 | issn=0168-583X | doi=10.1016/j.nimb.2009.10.083 | pages=999–1002| bibcode=2010NIMPB.268..999W }}</ref><ref name="Linseele Van Neer Thys Phillipps p=e108517" /> Plenty pottery dey for these sites, but evidence of permanent buildings no too dey. Merimde culture date from around 4800 to 4300 BC. These people develop full agricultural economy. The place wey dem dey call Merimde Beni Salama, about 15 miles northwest of Cairo, researchers believe say na the earliest permanently occupied town for Egypt.<ref>William H. Stiebing Jr., Susan N. Helft (2017), [https://books.google.com/books?id=C4U0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT76 Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture.] Routledge. p. 76</ref> Merimde culture exist same time with Faiyum A culture and Badari culture for Upper Egypt, though Badari small later. All of dem be agricultural cultures wey practise farming. ===Nile and field planting=== [[File:Nile watershed topo.png|thumb|The Nile's watershed]] {{further|Geography of Egypt}} Ancient Egypt civilization grow for the dry climate of northern Africa. Dis area dey surrounded by Arabian Desert, Libyan Desert,<ref name="Canada">"Mysteries of Egypt. Canadian Museum of Civilization. "http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/civil/egypt/egcgeo2e.shtml</ref> plus the Nile. The Nile na the longest river for the world. E dey flow north from Lake Victoria and finally enter the Mediterranean Sea. The river get two main tributaries: the Blue Nile wey start from Ethiopia, and the White Nile wey flow from Uganda. Even though the White Nile longer and easier to travel on, na the Blue Nile carry about two-thirds of all the river water. The names of the tributaries come from the colour of the water dem carry. The two rivers join for Khartoum, then branch again when dem reach Egypt to form the Nile Delta.<ref name="how stuff">Hoyt, Alia. "How the Nile Works." http://history.howstuffworks.com/african-history/nile-river2.htm</ref> The Egyptians use the natural yearly flooding of the Nile to their advantage. Because the flooding happen almost the same time every year, dem fit organise their farming around am. Water level for the river dey rise during August and September, and at the highest point of the flood, the floodplain and delta fit cover with about 1.5 metres of water. People know this yearly flooding as inundation. When the floodwater go down around October, farmers dey left with fertile and well-watered soil to plant their crops. The fine soil wey the flood leave behind be called silt, and the Nile carry am from the Ethiopian Highlands. Planting normally start for October after the floods end, and the crops grow with little care until dem mature between March and May. Even though Nile flooding be more predictable and gentle than rivers like Tigris and Euphrates, e no always perfect. Too much flooding fit spoil irrigation canals, while no flooding at all fit cause famine.<ref name="water history">Postel, Sandra. "Egypt's Nile Valley Basin Irrigation". http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/nile/t1.html#photo1</ref> ===Irrigation systems=== To make the best use of the Nile water, the Egyptians develop irrigation systems. Irrigation allow dem use the river water for many different purposes. Most importantly, e give dem greater control over farming.<ref name=" book" /> Dem divert floodwater away from some places like towns and gardens to stop flooding there. Irrigation also provide drinking water for the people. Even though irrigation be very important for Egyptian agriculture, there be no nationwide laws to control water use. Instead, local farmers be responsible for managing irrigation. However, the earliest and most famous evidence of irrigation for Egyptian archaeology dey on the mace head of Scorpion King, wey date to around 3100 BC. The mace head show the king cutting one ditch wey form part of a basin irrigation network. The connection between the king and irrigation show how important irrigation be for ancient Egypt. ====Basin irrigation==== The Egyptians develop and use one water management system wey dem call basin irrigation. This method help dem control the rise and fall of the Nile to suit their farming needs. Dem build crisscross earthen walls across crop fields wey the river dey flood. When the floods come, the water stay inside the basins wey the walls create. This system hold the water for longer time than e go naturally stay, so the soil fit soak well before planting. After the soil don receive enough water, the remaining floodwater for one basin go drain enter another basin wey still need water.<ref name="water history"/> ===Horticulture=== [[File:Gardens of Nakh 1.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Gardens of Amun from the Temple of Karnak, painting for the tomb of Nakh, the chief gardener, early 14th century B.C.]] {{main article|Gardens of ancient Egypt}} Orchards and gardens too develop besides the normal field farming for the floodplains. This kind horticulture mostly happen farther away from the Nile floodplain, so e require much more work.<ref name="Egypt">Dollinger, Andre. "An Introduction to the History and Culture of Pharaonic Egypt". https://web.archive.org/web/20190402005410/http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/index.html.</ref> Because gardens need water throughout the year, farmers dey carry water by hand from wells or directly from the Nile to water their crops. Plus, even though the Nile flood naturally bring fertile silt for the valley, people still dey use pigeon manure to fertilize their gardens. These gardens and orchards mainly produce vegetables, vines and fruit trees.<ref name="encyc">"Agriculture." The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. 2001. Print.</ref> ==Crops grown== ===Food crops=== {{See also|Ancient Egyptian cuisine}} The Egyptians grow plenty different crops for food, including grains, vegetables and fruits. But cereals and barley be the main staple foods for most people. Other important grains include einkorn wheat and emmer wheat, wey dem use mostly to make bread. Other common foods for the ordinary people include beans, lentils, and later chickpeas and fava beans. Dem also grow root crops like onions, garlic and radishes, together with salad crops like lettuce and parsley.<ref name="Origins">{{cite journal |last=Janick |first=Jules |title=Ancient Egyptian Agriculture and the Origins of Horticulture |journal=Acta Horticulturae |issue=583 |pages=23–39 |doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.2002.582.1 |date=June 2002|citeseerx=10.1.1.693.7643 }}</ref> Fruits appear often for Egyptian artworks, and this show say fruit farming too be important part of agriculture as farming technology improve. Unlike cereals and pulses, fruit farming need more advanced and demanding methods, including irrigation systems, cloning, propagation and training. The first fruits wey Egyptians cultivate probably be local ones like palm date and sorghum, but as dem interact with other cultures, more fruits come enter Egypt. Grapes and watermelon don be found for predynastic Egyptian sites, together with sycamore fig, dom palm and Christ's thorn. Carob, olive, apple and pomegranate come during the New Kingdom. Later, during the Greco-Roman period, peaches and pears too enter Egypt.<ref name="fruit">{{cite book |last=Janick |first=Jules |chapter=The Origins of Fruits, Fruit Growing and Fruit Breeding |title=Plant Breeding Reviews |volume=25 |date=February 2005 |pages=255–320 |doi=10.1002/9780470650301.ch8 |isbn=978-0-470-65030-1 }}</ref> ===Industrial and fiber crops=== Egyptians no depend on agriculture only for food production. Dem use plants in many creative ways, including medicine, religious activities and making clothing. Herbs get plenty different uses. People use dem for cooking, medicine, cosmetics and embalming. Archaeologists don find more than 2,000 different species of flowering and aromatic plants inside tombs.<ref name="Origins"/> Papyrus be one very useful crop wey grow naturally and people also cultivate am.<ref name="BBC"/> People fit chop the roots as food, but the plant mainly serve as industrial crop. Dem use the stem to make boats, mats and paper. Flax too be another important industrial crop. People mainly use am to produce rope and linen, wey be the main material Egyptians use sew their clothes. Dem also grow henna to make dye.<ref name="Origins"/> [[File:Nebamun-ViewingTheProduceOfTheEstates-3.JPG|thumb|Scene wey show Egyptian cattle being presented to Nebamun]] ==Livestock== ===Cattle=== {{see also|Cattle count}} Ancient Egyptian cattle get four main different types: long-horned, short-horned, polled and zebuine.<ref name=ucl>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/foodproduction/cattle.html |title=Cattle in Ancient Egypt |publisher=Ucl.ac.uk |access-date=2016-09-09}}</ref> The earliest evidence of cattle for Egypt come from the Faiyum region, and e date back to the fifth millennium BC.{{r|ucl}} During the New Kingdom, hump-backed zebuine cattle from Syria come enter Egypt, and e look like say dem gradually replace the earlier cattle types.{{r|ucl}} ===Chickens=== Man-made incubators, wey people call Egyptian egg ovens, date back to the 4th century BC. People use dem to produce plenty chickens at the same time.<ref name=field>Percy, Pam. ''The Field Guide to Chickens'', Voyageur Press, St. Paul, Minnesota, 2006, page 16. {{ISBN|0-7603-2473-5}}.</ref> ==Religion and agriculture== {{further|Ancient Egyptian religion}} For ancient Egypt, religion be one very important part of everyday life. Plenty of the Egyptians' religious practices centre on the environment, the Nile and agriculture. Dem use religion explain natural phenomena, like the yearly flooding of the Nile and whether farming produce good harvest or not.<ref name="religion">Teeter, Emily and Brewer, Douglas. "Religion in the Lives of the Ancient Egyptians." The University of Chicago Library. http://fathom.lib.uchicago.edu/1/777777190168/</ref> Although the Nile directly affect whether people get good or bad fortune, the Egyptians no worship the river itself. Instead, dem thank particular gods for every blessing dem receive. Dem no even get one specific name for the river; dem simply call am "River". The word "Nile" sef no come from the Egyptian language.<ref name="BBC">Baines, John. "The Story of the Nile." https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/nile_01.shtml</ref> ===Gods=== {{see also|Egyptian pantheon}} The Egyptians represent the yearly Nile flood with the god Hapi. Even though the inundation be very important for their survival, Hapi no be one of the highest gods.<ref name="BBC"/> Artists usually draw Hapi as one fat man wey dey offer water and other symbols of abundance to the pharaohs.<ref name="Egypt"/> Dem never build any temple only for Hapi, but people worship am when the annual flooding begin by making sacrifices and singing hymns.<ref name="BBC"/> The god Osiris too get strong connection with the Nile and the fertility of the land. During festivals for the inundation, people mould mud figures of Osiris and plant barley inside dem.<ref name="BBC"/> ==See also== * Land reform in ancient Egypt ==Notes and references== {{Reflist|30em}} ==Bibliography== * Jared Diamond, ''Guns, germs and steel. A short history of everybody for the last 13,000 years'', 1997. {{Commons category|Ancient Egyptian agriculture}} {{Agriculture footer}} {{Ancient Egypt topics}} {{Portal bar|Ancient Egypt|Agriculture and agronomy}} [[Category:Agriculture by culture|Egypt]] [[Category:Ancient Egypt]] [[Category:History of agriculture]] [[Category:Agriculture in Egypt]] == References == 2pnr3ousysr6rshikblkb03e4u6f341 0 27612 103776 103584 2026-06-18T18:33:23Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103776 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. == References == 8u7k6fummruabtb3frnke6vs8j5cgwe 103777 103776 2026-06-18T18:34:12Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103777 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd. == References == mbybufgeh9gsp8yr055m0caucw4id6o 103778 103777 2026-06-18T18:34:48Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103778 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd. Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd. == References == 4nv3dnm884l9vynmpzsa63efrn1axlg 103779 103778 2026-06-18T18:35:26Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103779 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd. Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd. According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. == References == qrfr19n1w1coigms3ttle5hzihlrpdz 103780 103779 2026-06-18T18:36:02Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103780 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd. Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd. According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: References qqtv5me3h5q1d61e0254o2dkk5vl48o 103781 103780 2026-06-18T18:36:40Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103781 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd. Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd. According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million). == References == j1ru6ws09ldfb3i37fqu2irlszqn9cz 103782 103781 2026-06-18T18:37:34Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103782 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd. Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd. According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million). According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. == References == cq7d0t7mtazmgsiizewns3f1a1tbaja 103783 103782 2026-06-18T18:38:16Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103783 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd. Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd. According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million). According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets. == References == rs92107caqlnbd3z5ef48u5ftopyljt 103784 103783 2026-06-18T18:38:52Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103784 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd. Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd. According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million). According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets. De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. == References == 8m1t40w2m03ljcv82nkpt6dm1p4ma1c 103785 103784 2026-06-18T18:41:43Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103785 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd. Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd. According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million). According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets. De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]]. == References == khifs8li0ey1n1nlyvu9cgjvv2wy6nl 103786 103785 2026-06-18T18:43:28Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103786 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd. Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd. According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million). According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets. De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]]. While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b). == References == n43q3ahe0jdzy8azdxmy1w4xyizbe80 103787 103786 2026-06-18T18:44:01Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103787 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd. Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd. According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million). According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets. De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]]. While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b). South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. == References == li2rc12xkmr9mqcppv1cj5uu9ri1dh8 103788 103787 2026-06-18T18:44:30Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103788 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd. Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd. According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million). According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets. De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]]. While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b). South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. == References == r4is37g3wofl084afh89w81b5ctp9hf 103789 103788 2026-06-18T18:45:14Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103789 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd. Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd. According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million). According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets. De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]]. While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b). South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. == References == 5ki603qsuy22ebmz737xpiqsfb6o3g5 103790 103789 2026-06-18T18:45:36Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103790 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd. Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd. According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million). According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets. De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]]. While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b). South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country. == References == geg68lymh10afwjeobb7d0lnidg8mvr 103791 103790 2026-06-18T18:46:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103791 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd. According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million). According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets. De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]]. While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b). South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country. == References == sdbcwlqy8o10587zpstcttor74hf1qi 103792 103791 2026-06-18T18:47:25Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103792 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd. According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million). According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets. De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]]. While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b). South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country. == References == 8qu9ue7qrj579t4mgpx35is9nyyzqnb 103793 103792 2026-06-18T18:48:05Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103793 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million). According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets. De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]]. While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b). South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country. == References == in4afb4be1569wnqi6v9u4pnmabysuy 103794 103793 2026-06-18T18:49:28Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103794 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets. De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]]. While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b). South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country. == References == 71i3mrjs87udcboxabxt5uhddr7y065 103795 103794 2026-06-18T18:50:24Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103795 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]]. While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b). South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country. == References == 2az20y4jstthw40vz57tedgi9p0y2q6 103796 103795 2026-06-18T18:50:56Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103796 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b). South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country. == References == 9oyhzsjjrwh2d31c5tbe83ttztyb5xe 103797 103796 2026-06-18T18:51:29Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103797 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country. == References == 36632ta65mzuij0z986kfwsgxw6m1e6 103798 103797 2026-06-18T18:51:59Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103798 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == References == crn1sz74ycr5lju37ojg9vdn090k5v7 103804 103798 2026-06-18T19:19:31Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103804 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. == References == 7z0h3xl2prwpv8gjjitcw9mk0pznq3l 103806 103804 2026-06-18T19:20:12Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103806 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. == References == tthvjdgwz4qtzk8inaek2z496nza7xb 103808 103806 2026-06-18T19:20:44Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103808 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd. == References == 1b77qbtxfgobtpz87sqak2mzoezuos8 103809 103808 2026-06-18T19:21:33Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103809 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> == References == ibqhsjxqnnuukinx0fzej7u91id5jq6 103810 103809 2026-06-18T19:22:05Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103810 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. == References == 3e11ky9qqlq9xkkckxzmpeupuqfooje 103811 103810 2026-06-18T19:22:42Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103811 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. == References == 6a8e7t8nsxak7zmrmi57chdyy71bmv6 103812 103811 2026-06-18T19:23:11Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103812 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. == References == rrq35eqmzfydkwiys4j3k57p6yjj165 103813 103812 2026-06-18T19:23:44Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103813 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas. == References == mxvto8gotmr9nbvtwhzxou50tqgjwh6 103814 103813 2026-06-18T19:24:15Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103814 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> == References == 0dknmblmd8u6hovquc1v466p9q6gva8 103815 103814 2026-06-18T19:24:46Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103815 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. == References == swznmmnttyi3pii7od125jh4gxn1hqa 103816 103815 2026-06-18T19:25:33Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103816 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem". == References == 3ws8woxsdb6u3vbjf2ammzgy4gfpkdl 103817 103816 2026-06-18T19:26:08Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103817 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> == References == n2l8r65irq40vmn7a8cylqqqfbo4tuj 103818 103817 2026-06-18T19:26:50Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103818 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. == References == kp3j076uewym7rqh6h80xr3aq2t12xa 103819 103818 2026-06-18T19:27:35Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103819 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. == References == kpkj5uqx3u94auwynn48ckfu5xzhuz3 103820 103819 2026-06-18T19:28:26Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103820 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]]. == References == 5m2umgl9wwv8m9czg8j0fsj22e32zl4 103821 103820 2026-06-18T19:29:12Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103821 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> == References == ou7xn9s8x4f7z9y2ghbyudezjsppzp8 103822 103821 2026-06-18T19:29:34Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103822 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> == References == l43lodk6ahb9da69zat8lz2nh50hdnn 103823 103822 2026-06-18T19:30:12Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103823 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. == References == 6mk1lgs5egybc8jp3dhv5wbrgqypnqb 103824 103823 2026-06-18T19:30:36Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103824 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern, plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. == References == pa32lzock8a94ac3mbg1eea0psed1x7 103825 103824 2026-06-18T19:30:58Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103825 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern, plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines. == References == bdx5h5q3a7ojbgsgcvz3i38rse4xssr 103826 103825 2026-06-18T19:31:12Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103826 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern, plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> == References == gk4bthggg24jwud450edne26vn7k1x9 103827 103826 2026-06-18T19:31:35Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103827 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> == References == nkw4xtxbbuetv36v076qb9tm6te2wf5 103838 103827 2026-06-18T20:47:44Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103838 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. == References == aqk3zqy8174rxivzseyvospcpnkucst 103839 103838 2026-06-18T20:48:21Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103839 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. == References == rydpqyojl2ljnq80b5hhfgs0eov9s0r 103840 103839 2026-06-18T20:49:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103840 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants. == References == 7k2psrqoran2dayb9i5kp6m485azfwf 103841 103840 2026-06-18T20:49:43Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103841 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> == References == 924qd1szy0zvz023n8pn9vbq777mjcn 103842 103841 2026-06-18T20:50:32Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103842 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards. == References == a4xj0nh2fc4nnuumfo36mvi9lxtp0d0 103843 103842 2026-06-18T20:51:08Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103843 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> == References == i0dqi2vsn97ak9ur7msf09ic70uqrco 103844 103843 2026-06-18T20:51:36Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103844 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> == References == ai0tunasrxa1dhmudlaqu5jphe16xhu 103845 103844 2026-06-18T20:52:26Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103845 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements. == References == 0wozd3ufb1d5vmqlwhgp2r4kjaapbai 103846 103845 2026-06-18T20:53:03Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103846 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> == References == qxjj546i6qd9cu5g430nty4vq8ygjy9 103848 103846 2026-06-18T20:54:14Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103848 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. == References == qg5ldfwylt2qjawzbftbd1n88wm42m8 103849 103848 2026-06-18T20:54:41Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103849 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure". == References == g6i0xdxndt4k64almxm32d5xta0m9mf 103850 103849 2026-06-18T20:54:56Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103850 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == References == pbm9f95xbh5zztaw0zgo3cyax4skfef 103855 103850 2026-06-18T21:38:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103855 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: == References == od96v9gvcdkjwdk6j8hjrglq795oiuv 103856 103855 2026-06-18T21:38:59Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103856 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. == References == 3up4xwjf37oe4qiq3dw7kuq9kujrkeb 103857 103856 2026-06-18T21:39:48Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103857 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; == References == 320rawlvu60m06qbat1xnz3rlxev917 103859 103857 2026-06-18T21:40:33Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103859 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. * == References == a0psdokk7d55t661z2pi74wuzj4d7r0 103860 103859 2026-06-18T21:41:24Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103860 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. == References == 71pdbsnwcp5m4zxmcqotbblothcg0so 103861 103860 2026-06-18T21:41:57Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103861 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === == References == g5l1zibpxwlz42qj06z8x8vm7pid78b 103862 103861 2026-06-18T21:42:35Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103862 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. == References == 6qemb5ntnwtgrp5qtgfsnf0oc71567i 103863 103862 2026-06-18T21:43:18Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103863 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. == References == cemn78og2lp0ap0tq8olk5rkntyk42d 103864 103863 2026-06-18T21:44:14Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103864 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities". == References == p9kgqma25m8c3uldt92usct6g4cco1z 103865 103864 2026-06-18T21:45:24Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103865 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> == References == e7nxjj12ig7ef5mv3brgw9x7jo6hd0y 103866 103865 2026-06-18T21:46:09Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103866 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === == References == 2o0h71rvddb75oxrwcvlcwce48jg13s 103867 103866 2026-06-18T21:46:56Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103867 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: == References == 16jn4ki4fln38cwrcxikkenw2ky3cto 103869 103867 2026-06-18T21:48:16Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103869 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. == References == mrk0jq7k52aln3s0he5mecube5qj0xt 103870 103869 2026-06-18T21:48:56Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103870 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]] == References == ewsxa7qtmrkxe1f1g3auqc8kvpsvi2z 103871 103870 2026-06-18T21:50:24Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103871 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997 responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. == References == ixzgwm67j57ah79j2c8ev8ak32uvw4t 103872 103871 2026-06-18T21:51:29Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103872 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997 responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]). == References == f4hebk1k08wt4umkqdwi7gv0a4pnkix 103873 103872 2026-06-18T21:52:21Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103873 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997 responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> == References == ao9ka8ifjgyfiqjkpsf2wjlkvfa3jvq 103874 103873 2026-06-18T21:53:32Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103874 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997 responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. == References == 8h50gz1cyacqs1zuln5460boi3s82p7 103875 103874 2026-06-18T21:54:55Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103875 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997 responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. == References == gs2q6gf20zv86izcka5m0ho3k4vkjd4 103877 103875 2026-06-18T21:55:52Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103877 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997 responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit. == References == nzb7w5qc5jbrb67wn8ujxwpgh6qh94b 103878 103877 2026-06-18T21:57:02Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103878 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997 responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit. Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. == References == 99823u4k0bl5vcmd6pnhuzib5vhq3ib 103879 103878 2026-06-18T21:57:47Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103879 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997 responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit. Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. == References == rvzh013r5b155trf6j1qsd1ks4rmaop 103880 103879 2026-06-18T21:58:35Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103880 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997 responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit. Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. == References == 0xce4q6vvslndr6ppcuhq6aejvtq5ag 103881 103880 2026-06-18T21:59:16Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103881 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997 responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit. Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. == References == nygtqsiq4c9acfwidnfd1vta5n2r40l 103882 103881 2026-06-18T21:59:49Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103882 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997 responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit. Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. == References == jojcbfhfg2sd07rsyeuwhjghoqzx470 103883 103882 2026-06-18T22:00:31Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103883 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997 responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit. Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. == References == 460bufrfmjtfj852q4knjdo720ovjs6 103884 103883 2026-06-18T22:01:09Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103884 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997 responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit. Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. == References == j7wjgcnidh9tn2sllc682ok3uvxf6ox 103885 103884 2026-06-18T22:01:49Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103885 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997 responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit. Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. == References == tu0vow57ccgiyq1xjmm8mkzmichuzzy 103886 103885 2026-06-18T22:02:14Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103886 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997 responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit. Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. == References == kktnslkwndjao4qmfkc00554tyksp53 103887 103886 2026-06-18T22:03:15Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103887 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997 responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit. Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. == References == 982t1va18qlqpznt9u8ufwisr82hoev 103888 103887 2026-06-18T22:03:53Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103888 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997 responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit. Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. == References == qee2m7aydtja5ycfa1y1n11ip5204kw 103889 103888 2026-06-18T22:04:21Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103889 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997 responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit. Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. == References == md9pzevpp4slbv1df7e8zxxhrl2jwta 103890 103889 2026-06-18T22:04:56Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103890 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997 responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit. Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. == References == 2w2h14woeh57cw1tm8w0mdn8jwypdme 103891 103890 2026-06-18T22:05:42Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103891 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997 responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit. Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. == References == 8fsq38u4eu2rd0it3bll8454nc126p9 103892 103891 2026-06-18T22:06:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103892 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997 responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit. Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. == References == lwesl6nyg2o73sn5v4kvtrbrrvd7luw 103893 103892 2026-06-18T22:07:03Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103893 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997 responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit. Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. == References == 9g8tlxsw9rfjysidalsduzdw6u0du1k 103894 103893 2026-06-18T22:09:15Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103894 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit. Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. == References == hd0ueqi23wp87hpjg9eyaof764h7e2w 103895 103894 2026-06-18T22:10:10Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103895 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. == References == is97k8t195v4jx18xx8zzdn2nofcy7q 103897 103895 2026-06-18T22:10:50Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103897 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho. == References == flnj6e1lbqbctv4ob0t03bg0ebu8l1v 103898 103897 2026-06-18T22:11:23Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103898 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> == References == 94t1xx2m3q8q3tkc9hxxxnvdzz9skfh 103899 103898 2026-06-18T22:11:57Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103899 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === == References == b1qvfz9ezm4h0l5yif6ne3z8ig0nr49 103900 103899 2026-06-18T22:12:20Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103900 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. == References == ayarozs3tt8fjuskr5tj0pwa6055n2b 103901 103900 2026-06-18T22:13:00Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103901 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. == References == 6zbdh4ay1o2syy719k4o25iuedrwaim 103902 103901 2026-06-18T22:13:27Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103902 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. == References == 98sq2hx0rwmyzapltmjoapwonnpp7jo 103903 103902 2026-06-18T22:14:04Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103903 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd. == References == hws2fw45u5b5rxqae8vnnhy7i7yd0ww 103904 103903 2026-06-18T22:14:41Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103904 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> == References == hzgql8h0ecilm02alc5gj7vxyxwfzgx 103905 103904 2026-06-18T22:15:16Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103905 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations. == References == 3lkztd29li8q3j4w8syfcee2pwwk3v7 103906 103905 2026-06-18T22:15:46Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103906 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> == References == 352epr2iwbu6wm9wnijrm5t4b8qzh8n 103907 103906 2026-06-18T22:16:19Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103907 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. == References == 4fhvw4ij36fjl4up09nl2ygjafye1v0 103908 103907 2026-06-18T22:16:48Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103908 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. == References == n1loogmj6772l4wfd6y6lupox0y0uiz 103909 103908 2026-06-18T22:17:26Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103909 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand). == References == ssszqd82smu1c42afr3ldqs4ofwtkj6 103910 103909 2026-06-18T22:17:53Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103910 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> == References == oayym0hvday233li8upgfuzl9ou5aj0 103911 103910 2026-06-18T22:18:21Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103911 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd. == References == ino468eiiunv7xe9omg4hkakk5zqbz2 103912 103911 2026-06-18T22:19:09Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103912 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> == References == ojl2wg2u00tyemi9x9xn0hpd2omxyvo 103913 103912 2026-06-18T22:19:37Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103913 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. == References == shie01udicrdzvdyi7ljnds0qurzqr6 103914 103913 2026-06-18T22:20:09Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103914 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. == References == 2h2w41ln7hs13saldljzdlq4c2t97qj 103915 103914 2026-06-18T22:20:59Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103915 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. == References == 2w44rf0v20cpgwmj7nh64574fgi89f4 103916 103915 2026-06-18T22:21:33Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103916 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. == References == l238z0djh4yu43ca0a4tvey6cx52zli 103917 103916 2026-06-18T22:22:00Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103917 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. == References == ks9mw51k78w9kcy6dufwe1slivfkaw2 103918 103917 2026-06-18T22:22:45Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103918 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. == References == 9i38dzr4ay12o8ws6qu5slbt4rxfbkw 103919 103918 2026-06-18T22:23:15Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103919 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability. == References == mll1gateh4a3t95blopbd3g7etgoml1 103920 103919 2026-06-18T22:23:33Z Emmanuel Anin 1692 #AWC2026 103920 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Dem characterise '''Water supply and sanitation in South Africa''' by both achievements den challenges. After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] [[:en:South_Africa|South Africa]] [[:en:South_Africa|ein]] newly elected government struggle plus de then growing service den backlogs plus respect to access to [[:en:Water_supply|water supply]] den [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]] wey dem develop. De government thus make a strong commitment to high service standards den to high levels of investment subsidies to achieve dem standards. Since then, de country make sam progress plus regard to improving access to water supply: E reach universal access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|improved water source]] for urban areas insyd, den for rural areas insyd de share of dem pippoe plus access increase from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010.<ref name="JMP">[[:en:WHO|WHO]]/[[:en:UNICEF|UNICEF]]:[[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]]:[https://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ Data table South Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209002836/http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/|date=9 February 2014}}, 2010. Retrieved 3 November 2012</ref> South Africa sanso get a strong [[:en:Water_industry|water industry]] plus a track record for innovation insyd. Howeva, dem achieve much less progress for sanitation top: Access increase only from 71% to 79% during de same period.<ref name="JMP" /> Significant problems dey remain wey dey concern de financial sustainability of service providers, wey e lead to a lack of attention to maintenance. De uncertainty about de government ein ability to sustain funding levels for de sector insyd sanso be a concern. Two distinctive features of de South African water sector be de policy of free basic water den de existence of water boards, wey be bulk water supply agencies dat dey operate pipelines den dey sell water from reservoirs to municipalities. For May 2014 insyd dem announce am say Durban ein Water den Sanitation Department win de [[:en:Stockholm_Industry_Water_Award|Stockholm Industry Water Award]] "give ein transformative den inclusive approach", wey dey bell am "one of de most progressive utilities for de world insyd".<ref>{{cite web |title="Most progressive water utility in Africa" wins 2014 Stockholm Industry Water Award |url=http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714190020/http://www.siwi.org/prizes/stockholmindustrywateraward/winners/2014-2/ |archive-date=14 July 2014 |access-date=8 June 2014 |publisher=Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)}}</ref> De city connect 1.3 million additional pippoe to water wey dem pipe den provide 700,000 pippoe plus access to toilets for 14 years insyd. E sanso be South Africa ein first municipality to put free basic water give de poor into practice. Furthermore, e promote [[:en:Rainwater_harvesting|rainwater harvesting]], mini hydropower den [[:en:Urine-diverting_dry_toilet|urine-diverting dry toilets]]. For 13 February 2018 top, de country declare a national disaster for [[:en:Cape_Town|Cape Town]] insyd as de city ein water supply [[:en:Cape_Town_water_crisis|dem predict am to run dry]] before de end of June. Plus ein dams only 24.9% full, water saving measures dey for effect insyd dat require each citizen to use less dan 50 litres a day. Wat de government characterize as de "magnitude den severity" of a three-year drought effect all nine of de country ein provinces. According to UN-endorsed projections, Cape Town be one of eleven major world cities dat dem expect am to run out of water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-02-11 |title=The 11 cities most likely to run out of drinking water |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-42982959 |access-date=2023-07-10 |website=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> For 2018 insyd, Cape Town reject an offer from [[:en:Israel|Israel]] to help am build [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] plants.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saundersonmeyer-drought-commentary/commentary-in-drought-hit-south-africa-the-politics-of-water-idUSKBN1FP226 In drought-hit South Africa, the politics of water], Reuters, January 25, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/cape-town-may-dry-up-because-of-an-aversion-to-israel-1519254816 Cape Town May Dry Up Because of an Aversion to Israel], Wall St. Journal, February 21, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.aish.com/jw/me/The-Cape-Town-Water-Crisis-and-Hating-Israel.html The Cape Town Water Crisis and Hating Israel], aish, February 11, 2018</ref><ref>[https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/South-African-stupidity-540605 South African stupidity], Jerusalem Post, February 3, 2018</ref> == Water resources den water use == [[File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Katse_Dam,Lesotho,Africa.jpg|thumb|250x250px|De [[:en:Katse_dam|Katse dam]] for Lesotho insyd be an important source of water supply give de arid Gauteng area around Johannesburg, de industrial heartland of South Africa.]]Water availability for South Africa insyd dey vary greatly for space den time insyd. While de West dey dry plus rainfall only during de summer den as low as 100&#x20;mm, de East den Southeast dey receive rainfall thruout de year plus an average of up to 1,000&#x20;mm. Dem estimate total annual [[:en:Surface_runoff|surface runoff]] at 43 to 48&#x20;km³, wey e depend for de source top.<ref name="FAO Aquastat">FAO Auqastat: [https://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/south_africa/index.stm South Africa 2005]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref><ref name="Earthtrends">World Resources Institute: [http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/wat_cou_710.pdf Water Resources and Freshwater Ecosystems – South Africa]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Dem lose much of de runoff thru flood spillage, so dat dem estimate de available surface water resources at 14&#x20;km³/year only. Although groundwater dey limited sekof geologic conditions, dem extensively utilise am for de rural den more arid areas insyd. Dem estimate available groundwater at 1&#x20;km³/year. De main rivers of South Africa dey fairly small wen dem compare am to de large rivers of de world: For example, de discharge of de Nile River alone dey about six times higher dan de available surface water resources from all South African rivers togeda.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission">[http://www.orasecom.org/ Orange-Senqu River Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission">[http://www.limcom.org/ Limpopo Watercourse Commission]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> De main rivers be de [[:en:Orange_River|Orange River]] wey dey drain to de Atlantic Ocean, de [[:en:Limpopo_River|Limpopo River]], de [[:en:Incomati_River|Incomati River]], de [[:en:Maputo_River|Maputo River]], de [[:en:Tugela_River|Tugela River]], de [[:en:Olifants_River_(Limpopo)|Olifants River (Limpopo)]], den de [[:en:Breede_River|Breede River]]. De uMkhomazi, Maputo, Thukela den Limpopo all dey drain to de Indian Ocean. South Africa ein most important rivers be transboundary: Dem share de Orange River plus Botswana, Namibia den Lesotho, de "water tower" of Southern Africa. Dem share de Limpopo-Olifants river basin plus Botswana, Zimbabwe den Mozambique, wey dey lie de furthest downstream. Dem set up International commissions of all riparian countries to manage dem transboundary water resources.<ref name="Orange-Senqu River Commission" /><ref name="Limpopo Watercourse Commission" /> Potential future water resources be seawater [[:en:Desalination|desalination]] anaa de transfer of water from de [[:en:Zambezi_River|Zambezi River]]. Dem estimate total annual water withdrawal at 12.5&#x20;km³ for 2000 insyd, of wey about 17% be give municipal water use.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /><ref name="Earthtrends" /> For de northern parts of de country insyd, both surface water den groundwater resources dem nearly fully develop den utilise. For de well-watered southeastern regions of de country insyd wey dem significant undevelop am den use am dey exist.<ref name="FAO Aquastat" /> De [[:en:Gauteng|Gauteng]] area around Johannesburg, wey be very water scarce, dey receive water from various dams for de area insyd such as de [[:en:Vaal_Dam|Vaal Dam]] den dey import water from de Orange River system thru de [[:en:Lesotho_Highlands_Water_Project|Lesotho Highlands Water Project]], in particular from de [[:en:Katse_Dam|Katse Dam]].<ref>Rand Water:[http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx Background] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124346/http://www.randwater.co.za/AboutUs/Pages/Background.aspx|date=9 February 2019}}. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> Cape Town dey receive ein drinking water from an extensive system of rivers den dams, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. Cape Town get 26 treatment plants, sam of wey be ineffective den dey date back to de 1950s, wey e make clean water access den [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater management]] major difficulties.<ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> Cape Town go receive an €80 million loan from [[:en:KfW|KfW]] to assist de city insyd dey improve den expand different municipal [[:en:Wastewater_treatment|wastewater treatment]] plants, a €1.2 million grant give training den a €4.5 million grant give city-supporting measures. De upgrades go allow de city to use water wey dem recycle give agricultural anaa industrial purposes den assist for dealing plus droughts insyd.<ref name=":322">{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/the-clean-oceans-initiative |title=The Clean Oceans Initiative |date=2022-02-04 |publisher=European Investment Bank |language=EN}}</ref> === Wastewater reuse === For South Africa insyd, de main driver give [[:en:Water_reuse|wastewater reuse]] be drought conditions.<ref name="Meeker">{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Jo |last2=Meeker |first2=Melissa |last3=Minton |first3=Julie |last4=O'Donohue |first4=Mark |date=4 September 2015 |title=International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse |url=https://zenodo.org/record/897658 |journal=Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |pages=563–580 |doi=10.1039/C5EW00165J |issn=2053-1419}}</ref> For example, for [[:en:Beaufort_West|Beaufort West]] insyd, dem construct South Africa ein a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) give de production of drinking water for de end of 2010 insyd, as a result of acute [[:en:Water_scarcity|water scarcity]] (production of 2,300 m³ per day).<ref>{{cite web |title=Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production |url=https://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/146252.pdf |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa |url=http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913233740/http://www.imesa.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Paper-6.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2016 |access-date=29 July 2016}}</ref> De process configuration wey dey base for multi-barrier concept top den dey include de following treatment processes: sand filtration, [[:en:Ultrafiltration|UF]], two-stage [[:en:Reverse_osmosis|RO]], den permeate wey [[:en:Ultraviolet_light|ultraviolet light]] (UV) disinfect am. De town [[:en:George,_Western_Cape|George]] face water shortages den already decide for an [[:en:Reclaimed_water#Planned_potable_reuse|IPR]] strategy (2009/2010) top, wey dem treat final effluents from ein Outeniqua WWTP to a very high quality thru UF den disinfection prior to being returned to de main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. Dis initiative dey augment de existing supply by 10,000&#x20;m³ per day, approximately one third of de drinking water demand. De process configuration dey include de following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, den chlorine disinfection. Dem make provision give powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if dem require am as an additional operational barrier.<ref name="Meeker" /> Anoda example of DPR be de reuse plant wey dem construct den operate for de town [[:en:Hermanus|Hermanus]] (Overberg) insyd for South Africa insyd, wey rydee 2,500&#x20;m³ per day of effluent dem reuse, plus a future plan to increase de capacity to 5,000&#x20;m³ per day. De treatment processes wey dem apply dey include UF pre-treatment, [[:en:Desalination|RO desalination]], as well as [[:en:Oxidation|advanced oxidation]] den [[:en:Carbon_filtration|carbon filtration]]. Dem feed de product from de reuse plant directly into de drinking water reticulation system.<ref name="Meeker" /> == Access to water by SA citizens == [[File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johhanesburg_Water-Midrand_Tower-002.jpg|thumb|267x267px|A water tower for [[:en:Midrand|Midrand]] insyd, Johannesburg]]South Africa be one of de few countries for de world insyd dat dey enshrine de basic right to sufficient water for ein [[:en:Constitution_of_South_Africa|Constitution]] insyd, wey dey state dat "Everyone get de right to have access to [...] sufficient food den water."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution of 1996, Chapter 2, Section 27 |url=http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131117002512/http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/1996/96cons2.htm#27 |archive-date=17 November 2013 |access-date=21 May 2007}}</ref> Howeva, e remain to do much dey to fulfill dat right.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Note |date=2007 |title=What Price for the Priceless?: Implementing the Justiciability of the Right to Water |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/note.pdf |journal=[[Harvard Law Review]] |volume=120 |page=1067 |access-date=25 October 2017}}</ref> After de end of [[:en:Apartheid|Apartheid]] South Africa ein newly elected government wey inherit highly functional services plus respect to access to water supply den sanitation.<ref>BUSARI, Ola and JACKSON, Barry: Reinforcing water and sanitation sector reform in South Africa, Water Policy, 2006, vol. 8, no 4, pp. 303–312.</ref> Howeva, as of 2017, wey e owe to a lack of maintenance wey dey result from corruption,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-06-03 |title=Controlling Corruption to Improve Water Security: Lessons from the South African Water Sector |url=https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2020/06/03/controlling-corruption-lessons-from-southafrican-watersector/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |language=en-US}}</ref> provision of water den sanitation largely collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-22 |title="Better water supply, collection management systems needed to avoid day zero water crisis" |url=https://www.sabcnews.com/sabcnews/better-water-supply-collection-management-systems-needed-to-avoid-day-zero-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=SABC News - Breaking news, special reports, world, business, sport coverage of all South African current events. Africa's news leader. |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Adam |first=Ferrial |date=2021-04-29 |title=MAVERICK CITIZEN OP-ED: Government must urgently deal with South Africa's deepening water crisis |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2021-04-29-government-must-urgently-deal-with-south-africas-deepening-water-crisis/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=Daily Maverick |language=en}}</ref> For 2015 insyd, de Department of Water den Sanitation say e go require R293-billion to fix den upgrade all water den sewage infrastructure for de country insyd.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> While der already be a growth for de overall nomba of water-supplied dwellings insyd, de percentage of houses plus running water already decrease since 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-30 |title=Water services worse than in 1994 |url=https://mg.co.za/environment/2020-01-31-water-services-worse-than-in-1994/ |access-date=2022-12-04 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> === Water === For 2015 insyd, de total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd wey dey lack access to an [[:en:Improved_water_source|"improved" water supply]] be 3.64 million.<ref name="SAJMPWash">{{Cite web |title=WASHwatch.org – South Africa |url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/south-africa/summary/statistics/ |access-date=2017-03-27 |website=washwatch.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">WHO/UNICEF (2015) [https://www.wssinfo.org/documents/ Progress on sanitation and drinking water – 2015 update and MDG assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418142528/http://www.wssinfo.org/documents/|date=18 April 2014}}, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref> 93% of de population already get access to an improved water source for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> For ein State of de Union address insyd for May 2004 insyd, Presido [[:en:Thabo_Mbeki|Thabo Mbeki]] already promise "all households go get running water within five years".<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3736045.stm Mbeki State of the Union 2004]</ref> Despite substantial progress, dem no fully achieve dis goal. For sam rural areas, women dey spend up to one-third of demma time wey dey fetch water from streams den wells.<ref>Itana, Nicole:[http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/020906/many-women-clean-water-means-safety-freedom For Many Women, Clean Water Means Safety, Freedom]. WEnews 6 September 2002. Retrieved 16 March 2010.</ref> Dem sanso be responsible give dey use am to cook meals, wash laundry den bathe kiddies. === Sanitation === Plus respect to [[:en:Sanitation|sanitation]], progress already make slow. De total nomba of pippoe for South Africa insyd lacking access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|"improved" sanitation]] dey 18 million for 2015 insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /><ref name="ReferenceA" /> Dis dey mean dat only 66% of de total population already get access to improved sanitation for dat year insyd.<ref name="SAJMPWash" /> According to estimates by de WHO/UNICEF global [[:en:Joint_Monitoring_Programme_for_Water_Supply_and_Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] wey dey base for survey den census data top, de share of South Africans plus access to [[:en:Improved_sanitation|improved sanitation]] increase slowly from 71% for 1990 insyd to 75% for 2000 insyd den 79% for 2010 insyd. For 2010 insyd, an estimated 11 million South Africans still no get access to improved sanitation: Dem den use shared facilities (4 million), [[:en:Bucket_toilet|bucket toilets]] (3 million) anaa practice [[:en:Open_defecation|open defecation]] (4 million).<ref name="JMP" /> According to [[:en:Statistics_South_Africa|Statistics South Africa]], access dey higher, partially sekof e dey include shared facilities for ein definition of sanitation insyd. According to de 2011 census figures, access to sanitation increase from 83% for 2001 insyd to 91% for 2011 insyd, wey dey include shared den individual pit latrines as well as chemical toilets.<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite web |last=[[Statistics South Africa]] |date=October 2012 |title=Census 2011: Statistical Release |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/Publications/P03014/P030142011.pdf |access-date=3 November 2012 |pages=52–53}}</ref> De share of households plus access to flush toilets increase from 53% for 2001 insyd to 60% for 2011 insyd. De health impacts of inadequate sanitation fi dey serious, as evidenced by de estimated 1.5 million cases of [[:en:Diarrhoea|diarrhoea]] for kiddies under five insyd den de 2001 outbreak of [[:en:Cholera|cholera]].<ref>[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/content/lids/PDF/summary.pdf 2001 basic household sanitation White Paper]</ref> While most coliforms dey harmless to human health, de presence of E. coli, wey dey cover approximately 97% of coliform bacteria wey dem find for de intestines of animals insyd den for faeces insyd, dey underline de presence of more harmful pathogens for de water system insyd (DWAF 1996b).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Teklehaimanot |first1=Giorgis Z. |last2=Coetzee |first2=Martie A. A. |last3=Momba |first3=Maggy N. B. |date=2014-05-17 |title=Faecal pollution loads in the wastewater effluents and receiving water bodies: a potential threat to the health of Sedibeng and Soshanguve communities, South Africa |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=21 |issue=16 |pages=9589–9603 |bibcode=2014ESPR...21.9589T |doi=10.1007/s11356-014-2980-y |issn=0944-1344 |pmid=24838129 |s2cid=26827412}}</ref> South Africa ein sewage system already largely collapse. Globally, for average top, annual maintenance to plants dey amount to 15% of de plant ein value but for South Africa insyd, dem spend only 1% of de plant ein value for annual maintenance top. Of 824 water treatment plants, only around 60 dey release clean water. Every second, 50 000 litres of untreated sewage dey flow into rivers thruout de country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-21 |title=50 000 litres of sewage flow into SA's rivers every second |url=https://mg.co.za/article/2017-07-21-south-africas-shit-has-hit-the-fan/ |access-date=2021-07-24 |website=The Mail & Guardian |language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Service quality == === Water quality den continuity of supply === Service quality dey highly variable den data be sketchy. For 2003 insyd, 63% of municipalities no dey able to say if dem meet drinking water quality standards anaa dem no meet am. Dem interrupt water supply to 37% of households give at least one day for 2003 insyd.<ref name="Barometer">[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf Infrastructure Barometer 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225121737/http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/Infrastructure%20Barometer.pdf|date=25 February 2012}}, p. 121–122</ref> Customers never do den often still no dey trust dat drinking water quality be adequate. Dis be why de [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] wey dem introduce for 2008 insyd wey so dem bell am "blue drop" incentive-based water quality regulation strategy. Under de strategy municipal service providers dem certify am plus a "blue drop" if dem fulfill certain requirements. Dem dey include not only compliance plus water quality standards, but sanso de existence of a [[:en:Water_safety_plan|water safety plan]], process wey dey control den de credibility of sample results, among odas.<ref>Talbot Laboratories:[http://www.talbot.co.za/?bluedrop Blue drop, green drop]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> Dem regard de system internationally as unique for de drinking water regulatory domain insyd den dem already receive am well by de [[:en:World_Health_Organization|World Health Organization]]. Howeva, observers from de private sector de say dat a "strong spin element" dey surround de programme den dat water quality dey actually deteriorate nationally, "while de government dey attempt to discredit commentators wey persist for demma view insyd dat der be a problem".<ref>Water Rhapsody:[https://www.rainharvest.co.za/2010/11/21/blue-drop-water-quality-scheme-gains-momentum-but-critics-say-more-is-needed/ ‘Blue Drop’ water quality scheme gains momentum, but critics say more is needed], 21 November 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011. Quote from Dr Anthony Turton, TouchStone Resources</ref> For 2009 insyd, 23 water supply system obtain de Blue Drop certification. For 2010 insyd, 9 lost am den 24 gain am give de first time, wey e bring de total to 38 (less dan 5 percent) out of 787 systems wey dem assess. De three top performers beJohannesburg, Cape Town den de small town of [[:en:Bitou_Local_Municipality|Bitou]].<ref>Polity.org.za:[http://www.polity.org.za/article/blue-drop-report-2010-south-african-drinking-water-quality-management-performance-april-2010-2010-04-29 Blue Drop Report 2010: South African Drinking Water Quality Management Performance (April 2010)]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/blueDrop.pdf Blue Drop Report 2010], p. 2 and 5 retrieved on 18 June 2011</ref> Water supply dey increasingly under pressure. [[:en:Eutrophication|Eutrophication]] be a growing concern,<ref>Oberholster, P.J. & Ashton, P.J. 2008. State of the Nation Report: An Overview of the Current Status of Water Quality and [[Eutrophication]] in South African Rivers and Reservoirs. Parliamentary Grant Deliverable. Pretoria: Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).</ref> plus about one third of de total volume of water wey dem hold for strategic storage insyd wey dey approach de point wey e dey no longer fit give purpose without significant den costly management intervention. Return dey flow out of mining areas, particularly from gold mining activities, dey rapidly deteriorate, plus highly acidic water start to decant from abandoned den derelict mines.<ref>UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis:[http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76780 South Africa:Paying the Price for Mining], 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 October 2011.</ref> === Wastewater treatment === 55% of [[:en:Wastewater_treatment_plant|wastewater treatment plants]], especially smaller ones, no meet effluent standards den sam no even measure effluent quality. For analogy to de blue drop certification system give drinking water insyd, de government launch a green drop certification give municipal wastewater treatment. As of May 2011, dem certify 7 out of 159 water supply authorities plus de green drop, den 32 out of 1,237 wastewater treatment plants.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/gds/ Green Drop Cerfification]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> For 2009 insyd, wen dem assess 449 wastewater treatment plants, according to official government data dem classify 7% as excellently managed, 38% "perform within acceptable standards" den 55% no perform within acceptable standards.<ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Communications/PressReleases/2010/GreenDropstatement.pdf Statement by the Minister of Water and Environmental Affairs, Ms Buyelwa Sonjica, release of the Green Drop Report], 29 April 2010. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref><ref>Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/GreenDropReport2009_ver1_web.pdf Green Drop Report 2009]. Retrieved 18 June 2011</ref> According to Bluewater Bio, an international firm wey specialise for wastewater treatment insyd, out of 1,600 wastewater treatment plants for South Africa insyd – no all of wey dem include am for de Green Drop assessment insyd – at least 60% no dey meet regulatory compliance requirements.<ref>[http://www.globalwaterintel.com/about/ Global Water Intelligence]:Bluewater Bio's South African Safari, November 2009, p. 26</ref> According to a study by de South African Water Research Commission for partnership plus de South African Local Government Association insyd wey dem publish for June 2013 insyd, 44% of wastewater treatment plants wey dem include for a representative sample insyd use inappropriate den unnecessarily expensive technologies. Der be a lack of funding give maintenance sekof low tariffs, insufficient collection den de absence of ring-fencing of revenues give de purpose of maintaining assets, so dat municipalities "run assets to failure".<ref>South African Water Research Commission: [https://www.wrc.org.za/News/Pages/Inappropriatewastewatertechnologychoicescompromisequalityandsustainabilityofservicedeliveryinmunicipalities.aspx Inappropriate wastewater technology choices compromise quality and sustainability of service delivery in municipalities], 13 June 2013</ref> == Stakeholders == Dem organise de public water den sanitation sector for South Africa insyd for three different tiers insyd: * De national government, wey de Department of Water den Sanitation (DWS) represent am, as a policy setter. * [[:en:Water_Board_(South_Africa)|Water Boards]], wey dey provide primarily bulk water, but sanso sam retail services den operate sam wastewater treatment plants, in addition to playing a role for water resources management insyd; * Municipalities, wey provide most retail services den sanso dey own sam of de bulk supply infrastructure. Banks, de professional association WISA, de Water Research Commission den civil society sanso be important stakeholders for de sector insyd. === Policy den regulation === De [[:en:Department_of_Water_Affairs|Department of Water Affairs]] (DWA) for de Ministry of Water den Environmental Affairs insyd primarily dey responsible give de formulation den implementation of policy wey dey govern water resources management as well as drinking water supply. Concerning sanitation, "der be a worrying absence of regulation [...] at all levels of government", according to an independent report. Around 2010 dem remove de sanitation function from DWA to de Department of Human Settlement (DHS), although sam regulatory functions apparently dey remain plus DWA, "wey dey cause institutional confusion ova roles den responsibilities".<ref>{{cite web |last=Tissington |first=Kate |date=July 2011 |title=Basic Sanitation in South Africa: A Guide to Legislation, Policy and Practice |url=http://www.nwu.ac.za/webfm_send/42156 |access-date=16 December 2012 |publisher=Socio-Economic Rights Institute of South Africa (SERI) |pages=69}}</ref> === Service provision === Dem share responsibility give service provision among various entities: De country ein 231 municipalities dey in charge of water distribution den sanitation either directly anaa indirectly thru municipally owned enterprises anaa private companies; government-owned water boards dey in charge of operating bulk water supply infrastructure den sam wastewater systems; den de Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority finances den dey develop dams den bulk water supply infrastructure. [[File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_South_Africa_with_provinces_shaded_and_districts_numbered_(2011).svg|thumb|450x450px|Map wey dey show de districts (wey dem nomba) of South Africa]]'''Municipalities'''. According to de Constitution, de Municipal Structures Act den de Water Services Act of 1997<ref name="WSA">Republic of South Africa, Department of Water Affairs:[http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Legislature/a108-97.pdf Water Services Act of 1997]. Retrieved 27 September 2009.</ref> responsibility give de provision of water den sanitation services dey lie plus water services authorities, wey de Water Services Act dey define as de municipalities. Der dey 52 district municipalities den 231 local municipalities for South Africa insyd (make you see [[:en:Municipalities_of_South_Africa|Municipalities of South Africa]]).<ref name="eThekwini Municipality">{{cite web |last=eThekwini Municipality |title=eThekwinie Water and Sanitation: Who we Are? |url=http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807075926/http://www.durban.gov.za/City_Services/water_sanitation/About_Us/Pages/default.aspx |archive-date=7 August 2012 |access-date=8 September 2012}}</ref> For many cases insyd, de district municipalities be de water services authorities. Howeva, de national government fi assign responsibility give service provision to local municipalities. Ovaall, der dey 169 water services authorities for South Africa insyd, wey dey include water boards, district municipalities, local municipalities den municipal companies. Usually municipalities dey provide water den sanitation services directly thru a municipal unit anaa department. For example, eThekwini (Durban) dey provide dem services thru de eThekwini Water den Sanitation Unit.<ref name="eThekwini Municipality" /> Howeva, dem fi delegate dis responsibility to a water services provider give a period wey dem define. For example, for 2001 insyd de city of Johannesburg create Johannesburg Water, a legally den financially independent company wey de municipality wholly own am. Dem do dis as part of a "Transformation Plan" wey de Greater Johannesburg Municipal Authority embark upon at de time. Johannesburg Water commit einself to comply plus de provisions of de [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|King Report]] [[:en:King_Report_on_Corporate_Governance|for Corporate Governance top]], wey dey include affirmative action, transparency, performance evaluation, a code of ethics, professional risk management den sustainability reporting. De 1996 constitution strengthen de autonomy of municipalities. As a consequence, dem transfer de responsibility give rural water supply den sanitation from de national government, wey DWAF rep am, to municipalities. '''Private sector participation'''. Since 1994 sam municipalities involve de private sector for service provision insyd for various forms insyd, wey dey include contracts give specific services such as wastewater treatment, short-term management contracts den long-term concessions. '''Water Boards'''. De 13 government-owned Water Boards dey play a key role for de South African water sector insyd. Dem dey operate dams, bulk water supply infrastructure, sam retail infrastructure den sam wastewater systems. sam sanso dey provide technical assistance to municipalities. '''Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority'''. De Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority (TCTA) be a state-owned entity plus de mission to finance den implement bulk raw water infrastructure. Dem create am for 1986 insyd to develop de Lesotho Highland Water Project, a joint project between Lesotho den South Africa. As of 2012, TCTA already develop anaa dey develop six oda dam den bulk water supply projects thruout de country, wey dey include de [[:en:Berg_River_Dam|Berg River Dam]]. TCTA dey sell bulk water to de government, wey de Department of Water rep am as de owner of de Water Boards dat dey treat de water den dey sell am for to municipalities den mines top. TCTA dey use dem revenues mainly to repay de debt wey dem raise am to finance ein infrastructure, ein operating costs den to pay royalties to de government of Lesotho.<ref>{{cite web |last=Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority |title=Home Page |url=https://www.tcta.co.za/ |access-date=5 September 2012}}</ref> === Odas === '''Research, training''' '''den knowledge'''. South Africa get a fairly strong research den training infrastructure for de water sector insyd. De Water Research Commission (WRC) dey support water research den development as well as de building of a sustainable water research capacity for South Africa insyd. E dey serve as de country ein water-centred knowledge 'hub' wey e lead de creation, dissemination den application of water-centred knowledge, wey e focus for water resource management top, water-linked ecosystems, water use den waste management den water utilisation for agriculture insyd.<ref>[https://www.wrc.org.za/ Water Research Commission (WRC)]</ref> De Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA), a professional association, dey keep ein members abreast of de latest developments for water technology den research insyd thru ein national den international liaison, links den affiliations.<ref>Water Institute of Southern Africa:[http://www.wisa.org.za/Home/Home.htm About WISA]. Retrieved 24 October 2010</ref> '''Financiers''' '''den promoters'''. De [[:en:Development_Bank_of_Southern_Africa|Development Bank of Southern Africa]] (DBSA) be an important player for de water den sanitation sector insyd, both as a financier den as an advisor den project promoter. For 2005–2006 insyd about 29% of ein approved projects be give water supply (1,881 million Rand) den sanitation (165 million Rand).<ref>[http://www.dbsa.org/Research/Documents/DBSAActivitiesReport2005-2006.pdf Development Bank of Southern Africa Annual Report 2005–2006], p. 7</ref> Oda financing institutions for de sector insyd dey include de Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited, wey dey claim to be de only 100% privately owned infrastructure debt fund for de world insyd.<ref>[https://www.inca.co.za/ Infrastructure Finance Corporation Limited INCA]</ref> '''Civil society'''. South Africa get a vibrant civil society, wey dey comprise a large nomba of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) plus very diverse goals, membership den methods. For de one hand top, civil society dey include militant so-called "new social movements" dat spring up after de end of Apartheid, such as de [[:en:Western_Cape_Anti-Eviction_Campaign|Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign]] wey dem form for 2000 insyd den de shack dweller organisation [[:en:Abahlali_baseMjondolo|Abahlali baseMjondolo]] wey dem form for 2005 insyd. Dem dey fight water cut-offs give non-payment den dem engage for "mass popular appropriation" of water services insyd. Dem groups dey claim to rep de poorest den most oppressed pippoe for South Africa insyd. For de oda hand top, civil society for South Africa insyd dey include de Mvula trust wey disburse ova R300 million to water services programmes den projects den dem provide services to ova a million South Africans wey previously no dey get access to either water anaa sanitation services. Dem specialise am in implementing den supporting de delivery of water services for rural den peri-urban areas insyd thru community management, de establishment of community based water services providers den supporting local authorities to create an enabling environment give sustainability.<ref>[http://www.mvula.co.za/ Mvula Trust]</ref> == References == gj4j08cm1l7tlds4a79kfy2lxghyj9c 0 27617 103705 103516 2026-06-18T16:05:13Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103705 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> == References == pheb34igygr1xr91nfelnn3mebbrth4 103707 103705 2026-06-18T16:08:00Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103707 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. == References == nz6qy21aljfdj23dwb6a0upz062ta8z 103709 103707 2026-06-18T16:09:14Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add template 103709 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. {{TOC level|3}} == References == a2u5ass1p8viqvwv8dyq0m44ujuesdj 103710 103709 2026-06-18T16:10:16Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add sub-heading 103710 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. {{TOC level|3}} == Definition == == References == 8qd21hltear7x92axsg4c7y5u0dih56 103711 103710 2026-06-18T16:13:05Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103711 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. {{TOC level|3}} == Definition == [[File:Fields outside benambra.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Fields outside Benambra, Australia suffering from drought insyd 2006.]] De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines a drought simply as "drier dan normal conditions".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Dis means dat a drought be "a moisture deficit relative to de average water availability at a given location den season".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} == References == kvfdabopd4z7vuin9jkxaumxfu8yxub 103712 103711 2026-06-18T16:16:23Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103712 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. {{TOC level|3}} == Definition == [[File:Fields outside benambra.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Fields outside Benambra, Australia suffering from drought insyd 2006.]] De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines a drought simply as "drier dan normal conditions".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Dis means dat a drought be "a moisture deficit relative to de average water availability at a given location den season".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} According to National Integrated Drought Information System, a multi-agency partnership, drought be generally defined as "a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time (usually a season anaa more), resulting insyd a water shortage". De National Weather Service office of de NOAA defines drought as "a deficiency of moisture dat results insyd adverse impacts on people, animals, anaa vegetation over a sizeable area".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Drought Basics|url=https://www.drought.gov/what-is-drought/drought-basics|access-date=2022-09-16|website=Drought.gov|publisher=NOAA National Integrated Drought Information System}}</ref> == References == pls2zad40idy20bk9aqi1s9pz2k3sjv 103713 103712 2026-06-18T16:18:15Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103713 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. {{TOC level|3}} == Definition == [[File:Fields outside benambra.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Fields outside Benambra, Australia suffering from drought insyd 2006.]] De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines a drought simply as "drier dan normal conditions".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Dis means dat a drought be "a moisture deficit relative to de average water availability at a given location den season".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} According to National Integrated Drought Information System, a multi-agency partnership, drought be generally defined as "a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time (usually a season anaa more), resulting insyd a water shortage". De National Weather Service office of de NOAA defines drought as "a deficiency of moisture dat results insyd adverse impacts on people, animals, anaa vegetation over a sizeable area".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Drought Basics|url=https://www.drought.gov/what-is-drought/drought-basics|access-date=2022-09-16|website=Drought.gov|publisher=NOAA National Integrated Drought Information System}}</ref> Drought be a complex phenomenon − relating to de absence of water − wich be difficult to monitor den define.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Definition of Drought|url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/dyk/drought-definition|access-date=2022-09-16|publisher=National Centers for Environmental Information}}</ref> By de early 1980s, over 150 definitions of "drought" had already been published.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|title=Types of Drought|url=https://drought.unl.edu/Education/DroughtIn-depth/TypesofDrought.aspx|access-date=2022-09-16|website=drought.unl.edu|publisher=National Drought Mitigation Center}}</ref> De range of definitions reflects differences insyd regions, needs, den disciplinary approaches. == References == izawc5fu0n6u95u831zs3zxe13no8h6 103714 103713 2026-06-18T16:18:56Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add sub-heading 103714 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. {{TOC level|3}} == Definition == [[File:Fields outside benambra.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Fields outside Benambra, Australia suffering from drought insyd 2006.]] De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines a drought simply as "drier dan normal conditions".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Dis means dat a drought be "a moisture deficit relative to de average water availability at a given location den season".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} According to National Integrated Drought Information System, a multi-agency partnership, drought be generally defined as "a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time (usually a season anaa more), resulting insyd a water shortage". De National Weather Service office of de NOAA defines drought as "a deficiency of moisture dat results insyd adverse impacts on people, animals, anaa vegetation over a sizeable area".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Drought Basics|url=https://www.drought.gov/what-is-drought/drought-basics|access-date=2022-09-16|website=Drought.gov|publisher=NOAA National Integrated Drought Information System}}</ref> Drought be a complex phenomenon − relating to de absence of water − wich be difficult to monitor den define.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Definition of Drought|url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/dyk/drought-definition|access-date=2022-09-16|publisher=National Centers for Environmental Information}}</ref> By de early 1980s, over 150 definitions of "drought" had already been published.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|title=Types of Drought|url=https://drought.unl.edu/Education/DroughtIn-depth/TypesofDrought.aspx|access-date=2022-09-16|website=drought.unl.edu|publisher=National Drought Mitigation Center}}</ref> De range of definitions reflects differences insyd regions, needs, den disciplinary approaches. == Categories == == References == 1xm6w6kbn24nfzhgirnah7v2yvbwl5z 103715 103714 2026-06-18T16:23:52Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103715 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. {{TOC level|3}} == Definition == [[File:Fields outside benambra.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Fields outside Benambra, Australia suffering from drought insyd 2006.]] De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines a drought simply as "drier dan normal conditions".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Dis means dat a drought be "a moisture deficit relative to de average water availability at a given location den season".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} According to National Integrated Drought Information System, a multi-agency partnership, drought be generally defined as "a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time (usually a season anaa more), resulting insyd a water shortage". De National Weather Service office of de NOAA defines drought as "a deficiency of moisture dat results insyd adverse impacts on people, animals, anaa vegetation over a sizeable area".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Drought Basics|url=https://www.drought.gov/what-is-drought/drought-basics|access-date=2022-09-16|website=Drought.gov|publisher=NOAA National Integrated Drought Information System}}</ref> Drought be a complex phenomenon − relating to de absence of water − wich be difficult to monitor den define.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Definition of Drought|url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/dyk/drought-definition|access-date=2022-09-16|publisher=National Centers for Environmental Information}}</ref> By de early 1980s, over 150 definitions of "drought" had already been published.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|title=Types of Drought|url=https://drought.unl.edu/Education/DroughtIn-depth/TypesofDrought.aspx|access-date=2022-09-16|website=drought.unl.edu|publisher=National Drought Mitigation Center}}</ref> De range of definitions reflects differences insyd regions, needs, den disciplinary approaches. == Categories == There are three major categories of drought wey dey base on where insyd de water cycle de moisture deficit occurs: meteorological drought, hydrological drought, den agricultural anaa ecological drought.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} A meteorological drought occurs due to lack of [[precipitation]]. A hydrological drought be related to low runoff, streamflow, den reservoir den groundwater storage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=14 April 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained|journal=WIREs Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V|issn=2049-1948|doi-access=free}}</ref> An agricultural anaa ecological drought be causing plant stress from a combination of evaporation den low soil moisture.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Some organizations add anoda category: socioeconomic drought occurs wen de demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall insyd water supply.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":32" /> De socioeconomic drought be a similar concept to water scarcity. == References == h65wrwzqzzi0iye07nk9kzap50f2ywh 103743 103715 2026-06-18T17:25:32Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103743 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. {{TOC level|3}} == Definition == [[File:Fields outside benambra.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Fields outside Benambra, Australia suffering from drought insyd 2006.]] De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines a drought simply as "drier dan normal conditions".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Dis means dat a drought be "a moisture deficit relative to de average water availability at a given location den season".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} According to National Integrated Drought Information System, a multi-agency partnership, drought be generally defined as "a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time (usually a season anaa more), resulting insyd a water shortage". De National Weather Service office of de NOAA defines drought as "a deficiency of moisture dat results insyd adverse impacts on people, animals, anaa vegetation over a sizeable area".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Drought Basics|url=https://www.drought.gov/what-is-drought/drought-basics|access-date=2022-09-16|website=Drought.gov|publisher=NOAA National Integrated Drought Information System}}</ref> Drought be a complex phenomenon − relating to de absence of water − wich be difficult to monitor den define.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Definition of Drought|url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/dyk/drought-definition|access-date=2022-09-16|publisher=National Centers for Environmental Information}}</ref> By de early 1980s, over 150 definitions of "drought" had already been published.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|title=Types of Drought|url=https://drought.unl.edu/Education/DroughtIn-depth/TypesofDrought.aspx|access-date=2022-09-16|website=drought.unl.edu|publisher=National Drought Mitigation Center}}</ref> De range of definitions reflects differences insyd regions, needs, den disciplinary approaches. == Categories == There are three major categories of drought wey dey base on where insyd de water cycle de moisture deficit occurs: meteorological drought, hydrological drought, den agricultural anaa ecological drought.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} A meteorological drought occurs due to lack of [[precipitation]]. A hydrological drought be related to low runoff, streamflow, den reservoir den groundwater storage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=14 April 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained|journal=WIREs Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V|issn=2049-1948|doi-access=free}}</ref> An agricultural anaa ecological drought be causing plant stress from a combination of evaporation den low soil moisture.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Some organizations add anoda category: socioeconomic drought occurs wen de demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall insyd water supply.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":32" /> De socioeconomic drought be a similar concept to water scarcity. De different categories of droughts have different causes but similar effects: # Meteorological drought occurs wen there be a prolonged time plus less than average precipitation.<ref name="IGARSS2017">{{cite book|last1=Swain|display-authors=etal|first1=S|title=2017 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS)|chapter=Application of SPI, EDI and PNPI using MSWEP precipitation data over Marathwada, India|volume=2017|pages=5505–5507|doi=10.1109/IGARSS.2017.8128250|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5090-4951-6|s2cid=26920225}}</ref> Meteorological drought usually precedes de oda kinds of drought.<ref name="NOAAsurprise">{{cite web|url=http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-date=2022-10-09|url-status=live|title=What is a Drought?|date=August 2006|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|access-date=2007-04-10}}</ref> As a drought persists, de conditions surrounding am gradually worsen den its impact on de local population gradually increases. # Hydrological drought happens wen water reserves available insyd sources such as aquifers, lakes den reservoirs fall below average anaa a locally significant threshold. Hydrological drought tends to present more slowly because e involves stored water dat be used but not replenished. Due to de close interaction plus water use, dis type of drought be fit be heavily influenced by water management. Both positive den negative human influences have been discovered den strategic water management strategies seem key to mitigate drought impact.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van Loon|first1=Anne F.|last2=Stahl|first2=Kerstin|last3=Di Baldassarre|first3=Giuliano|last4=Clark|first4=Julian|last5=Rangecroft|first5=Sally|last6=Wanders|first6=Niko|last7=Gleeson|first7=Tom|last8=Van Dijk|first8=Albert I. J. M.|last9=Tallaksen|first9=Lena M. |last10=Hannaford |first10=Jamie|last11=Uijlenhoet|first11=Remko|last12=Teuling|first12=Adriaan J.|last13=Hannah|first13=David M.|last14=Sheffield|first14=Justin|last15=Svoboda|first15=Mark|date=2016-09-08|title=Drought in a human-modified world: reframing drought definitions, understanding, and analysis approaches|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/3631/2016/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=20|issue=9|pages=3631–3650|doi=10.5194/hess-20-3631-2016|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016HESS...20.3631V|issn=1027-5606|hdl=1885/152821|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wendt|first1=Doris E.|last2=Van Loon|first2=Anne F.|last3=Bloomfield|first3=John P.|last4=Hannah|first4=David M.|date=2020-10-13|title=Asymmetric impact of groundwater use on groundwater droughts|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/24/4853/2020/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=24|issue=10|pages=4853–4868|doi=10.5194/hess-24-4853-2020|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020HESS...24.4853W|issn=1027-5606}}</ref> Like agricultural droughts, hydrological droughts fit be triggered by more dan just a loss of rainfall. For instance, around 2007 Kazakhstan was awarded a large amount of money by de World Bank to restore water dat had been diverted to oda nations from de Aral Sea under Soviet rule.<ref>{{cite news|date=2007-04-09|title=Asia-Pacific – Dam project aims to save Aral Sea|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6538219.stm}}</ref> Similar circumstances sanso place their largest lake, Balkhash, at risk of completely drying out.<ref>{{cite news|date=2004-01-15|title=Asia-Pacific – Kazakh lake 'could dry up'|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3397077.stm}}</ref> # Agricultural anaa ecological droughts affect crop production anaa ecosystems insyd general. Dis condition fit sanso arise independently from any change insyd precipitation levels wen either increased [[irrigation]] anaa soil conditions den erosion triggered by poorly planned agricultural endeavors cause a shortfall insyd water available to de crops. == References == dofv05jjpoqciqq6q7w23ro37nhz9vg 103749 103743 2026-06-18T17:37:35Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103749 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. {{TOC level|3}} == Definition == [[File:Fields outside benambra.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Fields outside Benambra, Australia suffering from drought insyd 2006.]] De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines a drought simply as "drier dan normal conditions".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Dis means dat a drought be "a moisture deficit relative to de average water availability at a given location den season".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} According to National Integrated Drought Information System, a multi-agency partnership, drought be generally defined as "a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time (usually a season anaa more), resulting insyd a water shortage". De National Weather Service office of de NOAA defines drought as "a deficiency of moisture dat results insyd adverse impacts on people, animals, anaa vegetation over a sizeable area".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Drought Basics|url=https://www.drought.gov/what-is-drought/drought-basics|access-date=2022-09-16|website=Drought.gov|publisher=NOAA National Integrated Drought Information System}}</ref> Drought be a complex phenomenon − relating to de absence of water − wich be difficult to monitor den define.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Definition of Drought|url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/dyk/drought-definition|access-date=2022-09-16|publisher=National Centers for Environmental Information}}</ref> By de early 1980s, over 150 definitions of "drought" had already been published.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|title=Types of Drought|url=https://drought.unl.edu/Education/DroughtIn-depth/TypesofDrought.aspx|access-date=2022-09-16|website=drought.unl.edu|publisher=National Drought Mitigation Center}}</ref> De range of definitions reflects differences insyd regions, needs, den disciplinary approaches. == Categories == There are three major categories of drought wey dey base on where insyd de water cycle de moisture deficit occurs: meteorological drought, hydrological drought, den agricultural anaa ecological drought.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} A meteorological drought occurs due to lack of [[precipitation]]. A hydrological drought be related to low runoff, streamflow, den reservoir den groundwater storage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=14 April 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained|journal=WIREs Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V|issn=2049-1948|doi-access=free}}</ref> An agricultural anaa ecological drought be causing plant stress from a combination of evaporation den low soil moisture.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Some organizations add anoda category: socioeconomic drought occurs wen de demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall insyd water supply.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":32" /> De socioeconomic drought be a similar concept to water scarcity. De different categories of droughts have different causes but similar effects: # Meteorological drought occurs wen there be a prolonged time plus less than average precipitation.<ref name="IGARSS2017">{{cite book|last1=Swain|display-authors=etal|first1=S|title=2017 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS)|chapter=Application of SPI, EDI and PNPI using MSWEP precipitation data over Marathwada, India|volume=2017|pages=5505–5507|doi=10.1109/IGARSS.2017.8128250|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5090-4951-6|s2cid=26920225}}</ref> Meteorological drought usually precedes de oda kinds of drought.<ref name="NOAAsurprise">{{cite web|url=http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-date=2022-10-09|url-status=live|title=What is a Drought?|date=August 2006|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|access-date=2007-04-10}}</ref> As a drought persists, de conditions surrounding am gradually worsen den its impact on de local population gradually increases. # Hydrological drought happens wen water reserves available insyd sources such as aquifers, lakes den reservoirs fall below average anaa a locally significant threshold. Hydrological drought tends to present more slowly because e involves stored water dat be used but not replenished. Due to de close interaction plus water use, dis type of drought be fit be heavily influenced by water management. Both positive den negative human influences have been discovered den strategic water management strategies seem key to mitigate drought impact.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van Loon|first1=Anne F.|last2=Stahl|first2=Kerstin|last3=Di Baldassarre|first3=Giuliano|last4=Clark|first4=Julian|last5=Rangecroft|first5=Sally|last6=Wanders|first6=Niko|last7=Gleeson|first7=Tom|last8=Van Dijk|first8=Albert I. J. M.|last9=Tallaksen|first9=Lena M. |last10=Hannaford |first10=Jamie|last11=Uijlenhoet|first11=Remko|last12=Teuling|first12=Adriaan J.|last13=Hannah|first13=David M.|last14=Sheffield|first14=Justin|last15=Svoboda|first15=Mark|date=2016-09-08|title=Drought in a human-modified world: reframing drought definitions, understanding, and analysis approaches|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/3631/2016/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=20|issue=9|pages=3631–3650|doi=10.5194/hess-20-3631-2016|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016HESS...20.3631V|issn=1027-5606|hdl=1885/152821|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wendt|first1=Doris E.|last2=Van Loon|first2=Anne F.|last3=Bloomfield|first3=John P.|last4=Hannah|first4=David M.|date=2020-10-13|title=Asymmetric impact of groundwater use on groundwater droughts|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/24/4853/2020/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=24|issue=10|pages=4853–4868|doi=10.5194/hess-24-4853-2020|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020HESS...24.4853W|issn=1027-5606}}</ref> Like agricultural droughts, hydrological droughts fit be triggered by more dan just a loss of rainfall. For instance, around 2007 Kazakhstan was awarded a large amount of money by de World Bank to restore water dat had been diverted to oda nations from de Aral Sea under Soviet rule.<ref>{{cite news|date=2007-04-09|title=Asia-Pacific – Dam project aims to save Aral Sea|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6538219.stm}}</ref> Similar circumstances sanso place their largest lake, Balkhash, at risk of completely drying out.<ref>{{cite news|date=2004-01-15|title=Asia-Pacific – Kazakh lake 'could dry up'|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3397077.stm}}</ref> # Agricultural anaa ecological droughts affect crop production anaa ecosystems insyd general. Dis condition fit sanso arise independently from any change insyd precipitation levels wen either increased [[irrigation]] anaa soil conditions den erosion triggered by poorly planned agricultural endeavors cause a shortfall insyd water available to de crops. == Indices den monitoring == [[File:Unl drought monitor D2 2000-2024.png|thumb|Percent of U.S. experiencing drought intensity of at least level D2 (severe drought), during de weeks of 2000 to 2024.]] == References == ck79mm3o037bo4xr05n5dkgq3n32u6g 103750 103749 2026-06-18T17:44:33Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103750 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. {{TOC level|3}} == Definition == [[File:Fields outside benambra.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Fields outside Benambra, Australia suffering from drought insyd 2006.]] De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines a drought simply as "drier dan normal conditions".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Dis means dat a drought be "a moisture deficit relative to de average water availability at a given location den season".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} According to National Integrated Drought Information System, a multi-agency partnership, drought be generally defined as "a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time (usually a season anaa more), resulting insyd a water shortage". De National Weather Service office of de NOAA defines drought as "a deficiency of moisture dat results insyd adverse impacts on people, animals, anaa vegetation over a sizeable area".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Drought Basics|url=https://www.drought.gov/what-is-drought/drought-basics|access-date=2022-09-16|website=Drought.gov|publisher=NOAA National Integrated Drought Information System}}</ref> Drought be a complex phenomenon − relating to de absence of water − wich be difficult to monitor den define.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Definition of Drought|url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/dyk/drought-definition|access-date=2022-09-16|publisher=National Centers for Environmental Information}}</ref> By de early 1980s, over 150 definitions of "drought" had already been published.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|title=Types of Drought|url=https://drought.unl.edu/Education/DroughtIn-depth/TypesofDrought.aspx|access-date=2022-09-16|website=drought.unl.edu|publisher=National Drought Mitigation Center}}</ref> De range of definitions reflects differences insyd regions, needs, den disciplinary approaches. == Categories == There are three major categories of drought wey dey base on where insyd de water cycle de moisture deficit occurs: meteorological drought, hydrological drought, den agricultural anaa ecological drought.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} A meteorological drought occurs due to lack of [[precipitation]]. A hydrological drought be related to low runoff, streamflow, den reservoir den groundwater storage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=14 April 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained|journal=WIREs Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V|issn=2049-1948|doi-access=free}}</ref> An agricultural anaa ecological drought be causing plant stress from a combination of evaporation den low soil moisture.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Some organizations add anoda category: socioeconomic drought occurs wen de demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall insyd water supply.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":32" /> De socioeconomic drought be a similar concept to water scarcity. De different categories of droughts have different causes but similar effects: # Meteorological drought occurs wen there be a prolonged time plus less than average precipitation.<ref name="IGARSS2017">{{cite book|last1=Swain|display-authors=etal|first1=S|title=2017 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS)|chapter=Application of SPI, EDI and PNPI using MSWEP precipitation data over Marathwada, India|volume=2017|pages=5505–5507|doi=10.1109/IGARSS.2017.8128250|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5090-4951-6|s2cid=26920225}}</ref> Meteorological drought usually precedes de oda kinds of drought.<ref name="NOAAsurprise">{{cite web|url=http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-date=2022-10-09|url-status=live|title=What is a Drought?|date=August 2006|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|access-date=2007-04-10}}</ref> As a drought persists, de conditions surrounding am gradually worsen den its impact on de local population gradually increases. # Hydrological drought happens wen water reserves available insyd sources such as aquifers, lakes den reservoirs fall below average anaa a locally significant threshold. Hydrological drought tends to present more slowly because e involves stored water dat be used but not replenished. Due to de close interaction plus water use, dis type of drought be fit be heavily influenced by water management. Both positive den negative human influences have been discovered den strategic water management strategies seem key to mitigate drought impact.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van Loon|first1=Anne F.|last2=Stahl|first2=Kerstin|last3=Di Baldassarre|first3=Giuliano|last4=Clark|first4=Julian|last5=Rangecroft|first5=Sally|last6=Wanders|first6=Niko|last7=Gleeson|first7=Tom|last8=Van Dijk|first8=Albert I. J. M.|last9=Tallaksen|first9=Lena M. |last10=Hannaford |first10=Jamie|last11=Uijlenhoet|first11=Remko|last12=Teuling|first12=Adriaan J.|last13=Hannah|first13=David M.|last14=Sheffield|first14=Justin|last15=Svoboda|first15=Mark|date=2016-09-08|title=Drought in a human-modified world: reframing drought definitions, understanding, and analysis approaches|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/3631/2016/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=20|issue=9|pages=3631–3650|doi=10.5194/hess-20-3631-2016|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016HESS...20.3631V|issn=1027-5606|hdl=1885/152821|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wendt|first1=Doris E.|last2=Van Loon|first2=Anne F.|last3=Bloomfield|first3=John P.|last4=Hannah|first4=David M.|date=2020-10-13|title=Asymmetric impact of groundwater use on groundwater droughts|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/24/4853/2020/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=24|issue=10|pages=4853–4868|doi=10.5194/hess-24-4853-2020|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020HESS...24.4853W|issn=1027-5606}}</ref> Like agricultural droughts, hydrological droughts fit be triggered by more dan just a loss of rainfall. For instance, around 2007 Kazakhstan was awarded a large amount of money by de World Bank to restore water dat had been diverted to oda nations from de Aral Sea under Soviet rule.<ref>{{cite news|date=2007-04-09|title=Asia-Pacific – Dam project aims to save Aral Sea|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6538219.stm}}</ref> Similar circumstances sanso place their largest lake, Balkhash, at risk of completely drying out.<ref>{{cite news|date=2004-01-15|title=Asia-Pacific – Kazakh lake 'could dry up'|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3397077.stm}}</ref> # Agricultural anaa ecological droughts affect crop production anaa ecosystems insyd general. Dis condition fit sanso arise independently from any change insyd precipitation levels wen either increased [[irrigation]] anaa soil conditions den erosion triggered by poorly planned agricultural endeavors cause a shortfall insyd water available to de crops. == Indices den monitoring == [[File:Unl drought monitor D2 2000-2024.png|thumb|Percent of U.S. experiencing drought intensity of at least level D2 (severe drought), during de weeks of 2000 to 2024.]] Several indices have been defined to quantify den monitor drought at different spatial den temporal scales. A key property of drought indices be their spatial comparability, den they must be statistically robust.<ref name=":3" /> Drought indices include:<ref name=":3" /> * Palmer drought index (sometimes called de Palmer drought severity index (PDSI)): a regional drought index commonly used for monitoring drought events den studying areal extent den severity of drought episodes.<nowiki><ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|last1=Mishra|first1=Ashok K.|last2=Singh|first2=Vijay P.|date=September 2010|title=A review of drought</nowiki> == References == 219kaxsl0wt6nhoxnnwh5sw5uey5yz7 103764 103750 2026-06-18T18:10:40Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103764 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. {{TOC level|3}} == Definition == [[File:Fields outside benambra.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Fields outside Benambra, Australia suffering from drought insyd 2006.]] De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines a drought simply as "drier dan normal conditions".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Dis means dat a drought be "a moisture deficit relative to de average water availability at a given location den season".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} According to National Integrated Drought Information System, a multi-agency partnership, drought be generally defined as "a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time (usually a season anaa more), resulting insyd a water shortage". De National Weather Service office of de NOAA defines drought as "a deficiency of moisture dat results insyd adverse impacts on people, animals, anaa vegetation over a sizeable area".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Drought Basics|url=https://www.drought.gov/what-is-drought/drought-basics|access-date=2022-09-16|website=Drought.gov|publisher=NOAA National Integrated Drought Information System}}</ref> Drought be a complex phenomenon − relating to de absence of water − wich be difficult to monitor den define.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Definition of Drought|url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/dyk/drought-definition|access-date=2022-09-16|publisher=National Centers for Environmental Information}}</ref> By de early 1980s, over 150 definitions of "drought" had already been published.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|title=Types of Drought|url=https://drought.unl.edu/Education/DroughtIn-depth/TypesofDrought.aspx|access-date=2022-09-16|website=drought.unl.edu|publisher=National Drought Mitigation Center}}</ref> De range of definitions reflects differences insyd regions, needs, den disciplinary approaches. == Categories == There are three major categories of drought wey dey base on where insyd de water cycle de moisture deficit occurs: meteorological drought, hydrological drought, den agricultural anaa ecological drought.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} A meteorological drought occurs due to lack of [[precipitation]]. A hydrological drought be related to low runoff, streamflow, den reservoir den groundwater storage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=14 April 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained|journal=WIREs Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V|issn=2049-1948|doi-access=free}}</ref> An agricultural anaa ecological drought be causing plant stress from a combination of evaporation den low soil moisture.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Some organizations add anoda category: socioeconomic drought occurs wen de demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall insyd water supply.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":32" /> De socioeconomic drought be a similar concept to water scarcity. De different categories of droughts have different causes but similar effects: # Meteorological drought occurs wen there be a prolonged time plus less than average precipitation.<ref name="IGARSS2017">{{cite book|last1=Swain|display-authors=etal|first1=S|title=2017 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS)|chapter=Application of SPI, EDI and PNPI using MSWEP precipitation data over Marathwada, India|volume=2017|pages=5505–5507|doi=10.1109/IGARSS.2017.8128250|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5090-4951-6|s2cid=26920225}}</ref> Meteorological drought usually precedes de oda kinds of drought.<ref name="NOAAsurprise">{{cite web|url=http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-date=2022-10-09|url-status=live|title=What is a Drought?|date=August 2006|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|access-date=2007-04-10}}</ref> As a drought persists, de conditions surrounding am gradually worsen den its impact on de local population gradually increases. # Hydrological drought happens wen water reserves available insyd sources such as aquifers, lakes den reservoirs fall below average anaa a locally significant threshold. Hydrological drought tends to present more slowly because e involves stored water dat be used but not replenished. Due to de close interaction plus water use, dis type of drought be fit be heavily influenced by water management. Both positive den negative human influences have been discovered den strategic water management strategies seem key to mitigate drought impact.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van Loon|first1=Anne F.|last2=Stahl|first2=Kerstin|last3=Di Baldassarre|first3=Giuliano|last4=Clark|first4=Julian|last5=Rangecroft|first5=Sally|last6=Wanders|first6=Niko|last7=Gleeson|first7=Tom|last8=Van Dijk|first8=Albert I. J. M.|last9=Tallaksen|first9=Lena M. |last10=Hannaford |first10=Jamie|last11=Uijlenhoet|first11=Remko|last12=Teuling|first12=Adriaan J.|last13=Hannah|first13=David M.|last14=Sheffield|first14=Justin|last15=Svoboda|first15=Mark|date=2016-09-08|title=Drought in a human-modified world: reframing drought definitions, understanding, and analysis approaches|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/3631/2016/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=20|issue=9|pages=3631–3650|doi=10.5194/hess-20-3631-2016|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016HESS...20.3631V|issn=1027-5606|hdl=1885/152821|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wendt|first1=Doris E.|last2=Van Loon|first2=Anne F.|last3=Bloomfield|first3=John P.|last4=Hannah|first4=David M.|date=2020-10-13|title=Asymmetric impact of groundwater use on groundwater droughts|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/24/4853/2020/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=24|issue=10|pages=4853–4868|doi=10.5194/hess-24-4853-2020|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020HESS...24.4853W|issn=1027-5606}}</ref> Like agricultural droughts, hydrological droughts fit be triggered by more dan just a loss of rainfall. For instance, around 2007 Kazakhstan was awarded a large amount of money by de World Bank to restore water dat had been diverted to oda nations from de Aral Sea under Soviet rule.<ref>{{cite news|date=2007-04-09|title=Asia-Pacific – Dam project aims to save Aral Sea|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6538219.stm}}</ref> Similar circumstances sanso place their largest lake, Balkhash, at risk of completely drying out.<ref>{{cite news|date=2004-01-15|title=Asia-Pacific – Kazakh lake 'could dry up'|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3397077.stm}}</ref> # Agricultural anaa ecological droughts affect crop production anaa ecosystems insyd general. Dis condition fit sanso arise independently from any change insyd precipitation levels wen either increased [[irrigation]] anaa soil conditions den erosion triggered by poorly planned agricultural endeavors cause a shortfall insyd water available to de crops. == Indices den monitoring == [[File:Unl drought monitor D2 2000-2024.png|thumb|Percent of U.S. experiencing drought intensity of at least level D2 (severe drought), during de weeks of 2000 to 2024.]] Several indices have been defined to quantify den monitor drought at different spatial den temporal scales. A key property of drought indices be their spatial comparability, den they must be statistically robust.<ref name=":3" /> Drought indices include:<ref name=":3" /> * Palmer drought index (sometimes called de Palmer drought severity index (PDSI)): a regional drought index commonly used for monitoring drought events den studying areal extent den severity of drought episodes.<nowiki><ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|last1=Mishra|first1=Ashok K.|last2=Singh|first2=Vijay P.|date=September 2010|title=A review of drought</nowiki> concepts|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022169410004257|journal=Journal of Hydrology|volume=391|issue=1–2|pages=202–216|doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.07.012|bibcode=2010JHyd..391..202M|url-access=subscription}}<nowiki></ref></nowiki> De index uses precipitation den temperature data to study moisture supply den demand using a simple water balance model.<ref name="auto" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=July 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained: Hydrological drought explained|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Yi|last2=Ren|first2=Liliang|last3=Ma|first3=Mingwei|last4=Yang|first4=Xiaoli|last5=Yuan|first5=Fei|last6=Jiang|first6=Shanhu|date=January 2016|title=An insight into the Palmer drought mechanism based indices: comprehensive comparison of their strengths and limitations|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|journal=Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment|volume=30|issue=1|pages=119–136|doi=10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|bibcode=2016SERRA..30..119L|issn=1436-3240|url-access=subscription}}</ref> * Keetch-Byram Drought Index: an index dat be calculated based on rainfall, air temperature, den oda meteorological factors.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Keetch, John J.|author2=Byram, George M.|year=1968|title=A Drought Index for Forest Fire Control|url=http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/viewpub.php?index=40|journal=Res. Pap. Se-38. Asheville, Nc: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 35 P|publisher=USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station|volume=038|access-date=August 11, 2016|quote=(Date: 1968) Res. Paper SE-38. 32 pp. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service}}</ref> * Standardized precipitation index (SPI): E be computed based on precipitation, wich makes am a simple den easy-to-apply indicator for monitoring den prediction of droughts insyd different parts of de world. De World Meteorological Organization recommends dis index for identifying den monitoring meteorological droughts insyd different climates den time periods.<ref name=":3" /> * Standardized Precipitation Index (SPEI): a multiscalar drought index based on climatic data. De SPEI accounts sanso for de role of de increased atmospheric evaporative demand on drought severity.<ref name=":3" /> Evaporative demand be particularly dominant during periods of precipitation deficit. De SPEI calculation requires long-term den high-quality precipitation den atmospheric evaporative demand datasets. These fit be obtained from ground stations anaa gridded data based on reanalysis as well as satellite den multi-source datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Indices related to vegetation: root-zone soil moisture, vegetation condition index (VDI) den vegetation health index (VHI). De VCI den VHI are computed based on vegetation indices such as de normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and temperature datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Deciles indea * Standardized runoff index High-resolution drought information helps to better assess de spatial den temporal changes den variability insyd drought duration, severity, den magnitude at a much finer scale. Dis supports de development of site-specific adaptation measures.<ref name=":3" /> == References == 37zzhxidw9bpy732l2ldyierkr6zf8h 103765 103764 2026-06-18T18:13:19Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103765 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. {{TOC level|3}} == Definition == [[File:Fields outside benambra.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Fields outside Benambra, Australia suffering from drought insyd 2006.]] De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines a drought simply as "drier dan normal conditions".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Dis means dat a drought be "a moisture deficit relative to de average water availability at a given location den season".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} According to National Integrated Drought Information System, a multi-agency partnership, drought be generally defined as "a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time (usually a season anaa more), resulting insyd a water shortage". De National Weather Service office of de NOAA defines drought as "a deficiency of moisture dat results insyd adverse impacts on people, animals, anaa vegetation over a sizeable area".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Drought Basics|url=https://www.drought.gov/what-is-drought/drought-basics|access-date=2022-09-16|website=Drought.gov|publisher=NOAA National Integrated Drought Information System}}</ref> Drought be a complex phenomenon − relating to de absence of water − wich be difficult to monitor den define.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Definition of Drought|url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/dyk/drought-definition|access-date=2022-09-16|publisher=National Centers for Environmental Information}}</ref> By de early 1980s, over 150 definitions of "drought" had already been published.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|title=Types of Drought|url=https://drought.unl.edu/Education/DroughtIn-depth/TypesofDrought.aspx|access-date=2022-09-16|website=drought.unl.edu|publisher=National Drought Mitigation Center}}</ref> De range of definitions reflects differences insyd regions, needs, den disciplinary approaches. == Categories == There are three major categories of drought wey dey base on where insyd de water cycle de moisture deficit occurs: meteorological drought, hydrological drought, den agricultural anaa ecological drought.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} A meteorological drought occurs due to lack of [[precipitation]]. A hydrological drought be related to low runoff, streamflow, den reservoir den groundwater storage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=14 April 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained|journal=WIREs Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V|issn=2049-1948|doi-access=free}}</ref> An agricultural anaa ecological drought be causing plant stress from a combination of evaporation den low soil moisture.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Some organizations add anoda category: socioeconomic drought occurs wen de demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall insyd water supply.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":32" /> De socioeconomic drought be a similar concept to water scarcity. De different categories of droughts have different causes but similar effects: # Meteorological drought occurs wen there be a prolonged time plus less than average precipitation.<ref name="IGARSS2017">{{cite book|last1=Swain|display-authors=etal|first1=S|title=2017 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS)|chapter=Application of SPI, EDI and PNPI using MSWEP precipitation data over Marathwada, India|volume=2017|pages=5505–5507|doi=10.1109/IGARSS.2017.8128250|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5090-4951-6|s2cid=26920225}}</ref> Meteorological drought usually precedes de oda kinds of drought.<ref name="NOAAsurprise">{{cite web|url=http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-date=2022-10-09|url-status=live|title=What is a Drought?|date=August 2006|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|access-date=2007-04-10}}</ref> As a drought persists, de conditions surrounding am gradually worsen den its impact on de local population gradually increases. # Hydrological drought happens wen water reserves available insyd sources such as aquifers, lakes den reservoirs fall below average anaa a locally significant threshold. Hydrological drought tends to present more slowly because e involves stored water dat be used but not replenished. Due to de close interaction plus water use, dis type of drought be fit be heavily influenced by water management. Both positive den negative human influences have been discovered den strategic water management strategies seem key to mitigate drought impact.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van Loon|first1=Anne F.|last2=Stahl|first2=Kerstin|last3=Di Baldassarre|first3=Giuliano|last4=Clark|first4=Julian|last5=Rangecroft|first5=Sally|last6=Wanders|first6=Niko|last7=Gleeson|first7=Tom|last8=Van Dijk|first8=Albert I. J. M.|last9=Tallaksen|first9=Lena M. |last10=Hannaford |first10=Jamie|last11=Uijlenhoet|first11=Remko|last12=Teuling|first12=Adriaan J.|last13=Hannah|first13=David M.|last14=Sheffield|first14=Justin|last15=Svoboda|first15=Mark|date=2016-09-08|title=Drought in a human-modified world: reframing drought definitions, understanding, and analysis approaches|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/3631/2016/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=20|issue=9|pages=3631–3650|doi=10.5194/hess-20-3631-2016|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016HESS...20.3631V|issn=1027-5606|hdl=1885/152821|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wendt|first1=Doris E.|last2=Van Loon|first2=Anne F.|last3=Bloomfield|first3=John P.|last4=Hannah|first4=David M.|date=2020-10-13|title=Asymmetric impact of groundwater use on groundwater droughts|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/24/4853/2020/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=24|issue=10|pages=4853–4868|doi=10.5194/hess-24-4853-2020|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020HESS...24.4853W|issn=1027-5606}}</ref> Like agricultural droughts, hydrological droughts fit be triggered by more dan just a loss of rainfall. For instance, around 2007 Kazakhstan was awarded a large amount of money by de World Bank to restore water dat had been diverted to oda nations from de Aral Sea under Soviet rule.<ref>{{cite news|date=2007-04-09|title=Asia-Pacific – Dam project aims to save Aral Sea|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6538219.stm}}</ref> Similar circumstances sanso place their largest lake, Balkhash, at risk of completely drying out.<ref>{{cite news|date=2004-01-15|title=Asia-Pacific – Kazakh lake 'could dry up'|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3397077.stm}}</ref> # Agricultural anaa ecological droughts affect crop production anaa ecosystems insyd general. Dis condition fit sanso arise independently from any change insyd precipitation levels wen either increased [[irrigation]] anaa soil conditions den erosion triggered by poorly planned agricultural endeavors cause a shortfall insyd water available to de crops. == Indices den monitoring == [[File:Unl drought monitor D2 2000-2024.png|thumb|Percent of U.S. experiencing drought intensity of at least level D2 (severe drought), during de weeks of 2000 to 2024.]] Several indices have been defined to quantify den monitor drought at different spatial den temporal scales. A key property of drought indices be their spatial comparability, den they must be statistically robust.<ref name=":3" /> Drought indices include:<ref name=":3" /> * Palmer drought index (sometimes called de Palmer drought severity index (PDSI)): a regional drought index commonly used for monitoring drought events den studying areal extent den severity of drought episodes.<nowiki><ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|last1=Mishra|first1=Ashok K.|last2=Singh|first2=Vijay P.|date=September 2010|title=A review of drought</nowiki> concepts|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022169410004257|journal=Journal of Hydrology|volume=391|issue=1–2|pages=202–216|doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.07.012|bibcode=2010JHyd..391..202M|url-access=subscription}}<nowiki></ref></nowiki> De index uses precipitation den temperature data to study moisture supply den demand using a simple water balance model.<ref name="auto" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=July 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained: Hydrological drought explained|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Yi|last2=Ren|first2=Liliang|last3=Ma|first3=Mingwei|last4=Yang|first4=Xiaoli|last5=Yuan|first5=Fei|last6=Jiang|first6=Shanhu|date=January 2016|title=An insight into the Palmer drought mechanism based indices: comprehensive comparison of their strengths and limitations|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|journal=Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment|volume=30|issue=1|pages=119–136|doi=10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|bibcode=2016SERRA..30..119L|issn=1436-3240|url-access=subscription}}</ref> * Keetch-Byram Drought Index: an index dat be calculated based on rainfall, air temperature, den oda meteorological factors.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Keetch, John J.|author2=Byram, George M.|year=1968|title=A Drought Index for Forest Fire Control|url=http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/viewpub.php?index=40|journal=Res. Pap. Se-38. Asheville, Nc: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 35 P|publisher=USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station|volume=038|access-date=August 11, 2016|quote=(Date: 1968) Res. Paper SE-38. 32 pp. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service}}</ref> * Standardized precipitation index (SPI): E be computed based on precipitation, wich makes am a simple den easy-to-apply indicator for monitoring den prediction of droughts insyd different parts of de world. De World Meteorological Organization recommends dis index for identifying den monitoring meteorological droughts insyd different climates den time periods.<ref name=":3" /> * Standardized Precipitation Index (SPEI): a multiscalar drought index based on climatic data. De SPEI accounts sanso for de role of de increased atmospheric evaporative demand on drought severity.<ref name=":3" /> Evaporative demand be particularly dominant during periods of precipitation deficit. De SPEI calculation requires long-term den high-quality precipitation den atmospheric evaporative demand datasets. These fit be obtained from ground stations anaa gridded data based on reanalysis as well as satellite den multi-source datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Indices related to vegetation: root-zone soil moisture, vegetation condition index (VDI) den vegetation health index (VHI). De VCI den VHI are computed based on vegetation indices such as de normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and temperature datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Deciles indea * Standardized runoff index High-resolution drought information helps to better assess de spatial den temporal changes den variability insyd drought duration, severity, den magnitude at a much finer scale. Dis supports de development of site-specific adaptation measures.<ref name=":3" /> De application of multiple indices using different datasets helps to better manage den monitor droughts dan using a single dataset, Dis be particularly de case insyd regions of de world where not enough data be available such as Africa den South America. Using a single dataset fit be limiting, as e may not capture de full spectrum of drought characteristics den impacts.<ref name=":3" /> == References == gfxujzbfcwko7wbhxy4jqbph45wpq25 103766 103765 2026-06-18T18:14:46Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103766 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. {{TOC level|3}} == Definition == [[File:Fields outside benambra.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Fields outside Benambra, Australia suffering from drought insyd 2006.]] De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines a drought simply as "drier dan normal conditions".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Dis means dat a drought be "a moisture deficit relative to de average water availability at a given location den season".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} According to National Integrated Drought Information System, a multi-agency partnership, drought be generally defined as "a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time (usually a season anaa more), resulting insyd a water shortage". De National Weather Service office of de NOAA defines drought as "a deficiency of moisture dat results insyd adverse impacts on people, animals, anaa vegetation over a sizeable area".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Drought Basics|url=https://www.drought.gov/what-is-drought/drought-basics|access-date=2022-09-16|website=Drought.gov|publisher=NOAA National Integrated Drought Information System}}</ref> Drought be a complex phenomenon − relating to de absence of water − wich be difficult to monitor den define.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Definition of Drought|url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/dyk/drought-definition|access-date=2022-09-16|publisher=National Centers for Environmental Information}}</ref> By de early 1980s, over 150 definitions of "drought" had already been published.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|title=Types of Drought|url=https://drought.unl.edu/Education/DroughtIn-depth/TypesofDrought.aspx|access-date=2022-09-16|website=drought.unl.edu|publisher=National Drought Mitigation Center}}</ref> De range of definitions reflects differences insyd regions, needs, den disciplinary approaches. == Categories == There are three major categories of drought wey dey base on where insyd de water cycle de moisture deficit occurs: meteorological drought, hydrological drought, den agricultural anaa ecological drought.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} A meteorological drought occurs due to lack of [[precipitation]]. A hydrological drought be related to low runoff, streamflow, den reservoir den groundwater storage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=14 April 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained|journal=WIREs Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V|issn=2049-1948|doi-access=free}}</ref> An agricultural anaa ecological drought be causing plant stress from a combination of evaporation den low soil moisture.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Some organizations add anoda category: socioeconomic drought occurs wen de demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall insyd water supply.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":32" /> De socioeconomic drought be a similar concept to water scarcity. De different categories of droughts have different causes but similar effects: # Meteorological drought occurs wen there be a prolonged time plus less than average precipitation.<ref name="IGARSS2017">{{cite book|last1=Swain|display-authors=etal|first1=S|title=2017 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS)|chapter=Application of SPI, EDI and PNPI using MSWEP precipitation data over Marathwada, India|volume=2017|pages=5505–5507|doi=10.1109/IGARSS.2017.8128250|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5090-4951-6|s2cid=26920225}}</ref> Meteorological drought usually precedes de oda kinds of drought.<ref name="NOAAsurprise">{{cite web|url=http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-date=2022-10-09|url-status=live|title=What is a Drought?|date=August 2006|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|access-date=2007-04-10}}</ref> As a drought persists, de conditions surrounding am gradually worsen den its impact on de local population gradually increases. # Hydrological drought happens wen water reserves available insyd sources such as aquifers, lakes den reservoirs fall below average anaa a locally significant threshold. Hydrological drought tends to present more slowly because e involves stored water dat be used but not replenished. Due to de close interaction plus water use, dis type of drought be fit be heavily influenced by water management. Both positive den negative human influences have been discovered den strategic water management strategies seem key to mitigate drought impact.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van Loon|first1=Anne F.|last2=Stahl|first2=Kerstin|last3=Di Baldassarre|first3=Giuliano|last4=Clark|first4=Julian|last5=Rangecroft|first5=Sally|last6=Wanders|first6=Niko|last7=Gleeson|first7=Tom|last8=Van Dijk|first8=Albert I. J. M.|last9=Tallaksen|first9=Lena M. |last10=Hannaford |first10=Jamie|last11=Uijlenhoet|first11=Remko|last12=Teuling|first12=Adriaan J.|last13=Hannah|first13=David M.|last14=Sheffield|first14=Justin|last15=Svoboda|first15=Mark|date=2016-09-08|title=Drought in a human-modified world: reframing drought definitions, understanding, and analysis approaches|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/3631/2016/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=20|issue=9|pages=3631–3650|doi=10.5194/hess-20-3631-2016|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016HESS...20.3631V|issn=1027-5606|hdl=1885/152821|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wendt|first1=Doris E.|last2=Van Loon|first2=Anne F.|last3=Bloomfield|first3=John P.|last4=Hannah|first4=David M.|date=2020-10-13|title=Asymmetric impact of groundwater use on groundwater droughts|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/24/4853/2020/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=24|issue=10|pages=4853–4868|doi=10.5194/hess-24-4853-2020|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020HESS...24.4853W|issn=1027-5606}}</ref> Like agricultural droughts, hydrological droughts fit be triggered by more dan just a loss of rainfall. For instance, around 2007 Kazakhstan was awarded a large amount of money by de World Bank to restore water dat had been diverted to oda nations from de Aral Sea under Soviet rule.<ref>{{cite news|date=2007-04-09|title=Asia-Pacific – Dam project aims to save Aral Sea|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6538219.stm}}</ref> Similar circumstances sanso place their largest lake, Balkhash, at risk of completely drying out.<ref>{{cite news|date=2004-01-15|title=Asia-Pacific – Kazakh lake 'could dry up'|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3397077.stm}}</ref> # Agricultural anaa ecological droughts affect crop production anaa ecosystems insyd general. Dis condition fit sanso arise independently from any change insyd precipitation levels wen either increased [[irrigation]] anaa soil conditions den erosion triggered by poorly planned agricultural endeavors cause a shortfall insyd water available to de crops. == Indices den monitoring == [[File:Unl drought monitor D2 2000-2024.png|thumb|Percent of U.S. experiencing drought intensity of at least level D2 (severe drought), during de weeks of 2000 to 2024.]] Several indices have been defined to quantify den monitor drought at different spatial den temporal scales. A key property of drought indices be their spatial comparability, den they must be statistically robust.<ref name=":3" /> Drought indices include:<ref name=":3" /> * Palmer drought index (sometimes called de Palmer drought severity index (PDSI)): a regional drought index commonly used for monitoring drought events den studying areal extent den severity of drought episodes.<nowiki><ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|last1=Mishra|first1=Ashok K.|last2=Singh|first2=Vijay P.|date=September 2010|title=A review of drought</nowiki> concepts|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022169410004257|journal=Journal of Hydrology|volume=391|issue=1–2|pages=202–216|doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.07.012|bibcode=2010JHyd..391..202M|url-access=subscription}}<nowiki></ref></nowiki> De index uses precipitation den temperature data to study moisture supply den demand using a simple water balance model.<ref name="auto" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=July 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained: Hydrological drought explained|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Yi|last2=Ren|first2=Liliang|last3=Ma|first3=Mingwei|last4=Yang|first4=Xiaoli|last5=Yuan|first5=Fei|last6=Jiang|first6=Shanhu|date=January 2016|title=An insight into the Palmer drought mechanism based indices: comprehensive comparison of their strengths and limitations|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|journal=Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment|volume=30|issue=1|pages=119–136|doi=10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|bibcode=2016SERRA..30..119L|issn=1436-3240|url-access=subscription}}</ref> * Keetch-Byram Drought Index: an index dat be calculated based on rainfall, air temperature, den oda meteorological factors.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Keetch, John J.|author2=Byram, George M.|year=1968|title=A Drought Index for Forest Fire Control|url=http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/viewpub.php?index=40|journal=Res. Pap. Se-38. Asheville, Nc: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 35 P|publisher=USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station|volume=038|access-date=August 11, 2016|quote=(Date: 1968) Res. Paper SE-38. 32 pp. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service}}</ref> * Standardized precipitation index (SPI): E be computed based on precipitation, wich makes am a simple den easy-to-apply indicator for monitoring den prediction of droughts insyd different parts of de world. De World Meteorological Organization recommends dis index for identifying den monitoring meteorological droughts insyd different climates den time periods.<ref name=":3" /> * Standardized Precipitation Index (SPEI): a multiscalar drought index based on climatic data. De SPEI accounts sanso for de role of de increased atmospheric evaporative demand on drought severity.<ref name=":3" /> Evaporative demand be particularly dominant during periods of precipitation deficit. De SPEI calculation requires long-term den high-quality precipitation den atmospheric evaporative demand datasets. These fit be obtained from ground stations anaa gridded data based on reanalysis as well as satellite den multi-source datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Indices related to vegetation: root-zone soil moisture, vegetation condition index (VDI) den vegetation health index (VHI). De VCI den VHI are computed based on vegetation indices such as de normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and temperature datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Deciles indea * Standardized runoff index High-resolution drought information helps to better assess de spatial den temporal changes den variability insyd drought duration, severity, den magnitude at a much finer scale. Dis supports de development of site-specific adaptation measures.<ref name=":3" /> De application of multiple indices using different datasets helps to better manage den monitor droughts dan using a single dataset, Dis be particularly de case insyd regions of de world where not enough data be available such as Africa den South America. Using a single dataset fit be limiting, as e may not capture de full spectrum of drought characteristics den impacts.<ref name=":3" /> Careful monitoring of moisture levels fit sanso help predict increased risk for wildfires. == References == b2y11m18c4iewydcpi9qof1ah8lnqk7 103767 103766 2026-06-18T18:15:56Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add sub-heading 103767 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. {{TOC level|3}} == Definition == [[File:Fields outside benambra.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Fields outside Benambra, Australia suffering from drought insyd 2006.]] De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines a drought simply as "drier dan normal conditions".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Dis means dat a drought be "a moisture deficit relative to de average water availability at a given location den season".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} According to National Integrated Drought Information System, a multi-agency partnership, drought be generally defined as "a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time (usually a season anaa more), resulting insyd a water shortage". De National Weather Service office of de NOAA defines drought as "a deficiency of moisture dat results insyd adverse impacts on people, animals, anaa vegetation over a sizeable area".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Drought Basics|url=https://www.drought.gov/what-is-drought/drought-basics|access-date=2022-09-16|website=Drought.gov|publisher=NOAA National Integrated Drought Information System}}</ref> Drought be a complex phenomenon − relating to de absence of water − wich be difficult to monitor den define.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Definition of Drought|url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/dyk/drought-definition|access-date=2022-09-16|publisher=National Centers for Environmental Information}}</ref> By de early 1980s, over 150 definitions of "drought" had already been published.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|title=Types of Drought|url=https://drought.unl.edu/Education/DroughtIn-depth/TypesofDrought.aspx|access-date=2022-09-16|website=drought.unl.edu|publisher=National Drought Mitigation Center}}</ref> De range of definitions reflects differences insyd regions, needs, den disciplinary approaches. == Categories == There are three major categories of drought wey dey base on where insyd de water cycle de moisture deficit occurs: meteorological drought, hydrological drought, den agricultural anaa ecological drought.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} A meteorological drought occurs due to lack of [[precipitation]]. A hydrological drought be related to low runoff, streamflow, den reservoir den groundwater storage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=14 April 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained|journal=WIREs Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V|issn=2049-1948|doi-access=free}}</ref> An agricultural anaa ecological drought be causing plant stress from a combination of evaporation den low soil moisture.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Some organizations add anoda category: socioeconomic drought occurs wen de demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall insyd water supply.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":32" /> De socioeconomic drought be a similar concept to water scarcity. De different categories of droughts have different causes but similar effects: # Meteorological drought occurs wen there be a prolonged time plus less than average precipitation.<ref name="IGARSS2017">{{cite book|last1=Swain|display-authors=etal|first1=S|title=2017 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS)|chapter=Application of SPI, EDI and PNPI using MSWEP precipitation data over Marathwada, India|volume=2017|pages=5505–5507|doi=10.1109/IGARSS.2017.8128250|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5090-4951-6|s2cid=26920225}}</ref> Meteorological drought usually precedes de oda kinds of drought.<ref name="NOAAsurprise">{{cite web|url=http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-date=2022-10-09|url-status=live|title=What is a Drought?|date=August 2006|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|access-date=2007-04-10}}</ref> As a drought persists, de conditions surrounding am gradually worsen den its impact on de local population gradually increases. # Hydrological drought happens wen water reserves available insyd sources such as aquifers, lakes den reservoirs fall below average anaa a locally significant threshold. Hydrological drought tends to present more slowly because e involves stored water dat be used but not replenished. Due to de close interaction plus water use, dis type of drought be fit be heavily influenced by water management. Both positive den negative human influences have been discovered den strategic water management strategies seem key to mitigate drought impact.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van Loon|first1=Anne F.|last2=Stahl|first2=Kerstin|last3=Di Baldassarre|first3=Giuliano|last4=Clark|first4=Julian|last5=Rangecroft|first5=Sally|last6=Wanders|first6=Niko|last7=Gleeson|first7=Tom|last8=Van Dijk|first8=Albert I. J. M.|last9=Tallaksen|first9=Lena M. |last10=Hannaford |first10=Jamie|last11=Uijlenhoet|first11=Remko|last12=Teuling|first12=Adriaan J.|last13=Hannah|first13=David M.|last14=Sheffield|first14=Justin|last15=Svoboda|first15=Mark|date=2016-09-08|title=Drought in a human-modified world: reframing drought definitions, understanding, and analysis approaches|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/3631/2016/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=20|issue=9|pages=3631–3650|doi=10.5194/hess-20-3631-2016|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016HESS...20.3631V|issn=1027-5606|hdl=1885/152821|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wendt|first1=Doris E.|last2=Van Loon|first2=Anne F.|last3=Bloomfield|first3=John P.|last4=Hannah|first4=David M.|date=2020-10-13|title=Asymmetric impact of groundwater use on groundwater droughts|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/24/4853/2020/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=24|issue=10|pages=4853–4868|doi=10.5194/hess-24-4853-2020|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020HESS...24.4853W|issn=1027-5606}}</ref> Like agricultural droughts, hydrological droughts fit be triggered by more dan just a loss of rainfall. For instance, around 2007 Kazakhstan was awarded a large amount of money by de World Bank to restore water dat had been diverted to oda nations from de Aral Sea under Soviet rule.<ref>{{cite news|date=2007-04-09|title=Asia-Pacific – Dam project aims to save Aral Sea|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6538219.stm}}</ref> Similar circumstances sanso place their largest lake, Balkhash, at risk of completely drying out.<ref>{{cite news|date=2004-01-15|title=Asia-Pacific – Kazakh lake 'could dry up'|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3397077.stm}}</ref> # Agricultural anaa ecological droughts affect crop production anaa ecosystems insyd general. Dis condition fit sanso arise independently from any change insyd precipitation levels wen either increased [[irrigation]] anaa soil conditions den erosion triggered by poorly planned agricultural endeavors cause a shortfall insyd water available to de crops. == Indices den monitoring == [[File:Unl drought monitor D2 2000-2024.png|thumb|Percent of U.S. experiencing drought intensity of at least level D2 (severe drought), during de weeks of 2000 to 2024.]] Several indices have been defined to quantify den monitor drought at different spatial den temporal scales. A key property of drought indices be their spatial comparability, den they must be statistically robust.<ref name=":3" /> Drought indices include:<ref name=":3" /> * Palmer drought index (sometimes called de Palmer drought severity index (PDSI)): a regional drought index commonly used for monitoring drought events den studying areal extent den severity of drought episodes.<nowiki><ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|last1=Mishra|first1=Ashok K.|last2=Singh|first2=Vijay P.|date=September 2010|title=A review of drought</nowiki> concepts|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022169410004257|journal=Journal of Hydrology|volume=391|issue=1–2|pages=202–216|doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.07.012|bibcode=2010JHyd..391..202M|url-access=subscription}}<nowiki></ref></nowiki> De index uses precipitation den temperature data to study moisture supply den demand using a simple water balance model.<ref name="auto" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=July 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained: Hydrological drought explained|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Yi|last2=Ren|first2=Liliang|last3=Ma|first3=Mingwei|last4=Yang|first4=Xiaoli|last5=Yuan|first5=Fei|last6=Jiang|first6=Shanhu|date=January 2016|title=An insight into the Palmer drought mechanism based indices: comprehensive comparison of their strengths and limitations|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|journal=Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment|volume=30|issue=1|pages=119–136|doi=10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|bibcode=2016SERRA..30..119L|issn=1436-3240|url-access=subscription}}</ref> * Keetch-Byram Drought Index: an index dat be calculated based on rainfall, air temperature, den oda meteorological factors.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Keetch, John J.|author2=Byram, George M.|year=1968|title=A Drought Index for Forest Fire Control|url=http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/viewpub.php?index=40|journal=Res. Pap. Se-38. Asheville, Nc: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 35 P|publisher=USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station|volume=038|access-date=August 11, 2016|quote=(Date: 1968) Res. Paper SE-38. 32 pp. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service}}</ref> * Standardized precipitation index (SPI): E be computed based on precipitation, wich makes am a simple den easy-to-apply indicator for monitoring den prediction of droughts insyd different parts of de world. De World Meteorological Organization recommends dis index for identifying den monitoring meteorological droughts insyd different climates den time periods.<ref name=":3" /> * Standardized Precipitation Index (SPEI): a multiscalar drought index based on climatic data. De SPEI accounts sanso for de role of de increased atmospheric evaporative demand on drought severity.<ref name=":3" /> Evaporative demand be particularly dominant during periods of precipitation deficit. De SPEI calculation requires long-term den high-quality precipitation den atmospheric evaporative demand datasets. These fit be obtained from ground stations anaa gridded data based on reanalysis as well as satellite den multi-source datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Indices related to vegetation: root-zone soil moisture, vegetation condition index (VDI) den vegetation health index (VHI). De VCI den VHI are computed based on vegetation indices such as de normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and temperature datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Deciles indea * Standardized runoff index High-resolution drought information helps to better assess de spatial den temporal changes den variability insyd drought duration, severity, den magnitude at a much finer scale. Dis supports de development of site-specific adaptation measures.<ref name=":3" /> De application of multiple indices using different datasets helps to better manage den monitor droughts dan using a single dataset, Dis be particularly de case insyd regions of de world where not enough data be available such as Africa den South America. Using a single dataset fit be limiting, as e may not capture de full spectrum of drought characteristics den impacts.<ref name=":3" /> Careful monitoring of moisture levels fit sanso help predict increased risk for wildfires. == Causes == == References == 61skqso6tpwkixsex88t4wks3fpx3mo 103768 103767 2026-06-18T18:17:36Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103768 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. {{TOC level|3}} == Definition == [[File:Fields outside benambra.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Fields outside Benambra, Australia suffering from drought insyd 2006.]] De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines a drought simply as "drier dan normal conditions".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Dis means dat a drought be "a moisture deficit relative to de average water availability at a given location den season".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} According to National Integrated Drought Information System, a multi-agency partnership, drought be generally defined as "a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time (usually a season anaa more), resulting insyd a water shortage". De National Weather Service office of de NOAA defines drought as "a deficiency of moisture dat results insyd adverse impacts on people, animals, anaa vegetation over a sizeable area".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Drought Basics|url=https://www.drought.gov/what-is-drought/drought-basics|access-date=2022-09-16|website=Drought.gov|publisher=NOAA National Integrated Drought Information System}}</ref> Drought be a complex phenomenon − relating to de absence of water − wich be difficult to monitor den define.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Definition of Drought|url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/dyk/drought-definition|access-date=2022-09-16|publisher=National Centers for Environmental Information}}</ref> By de early 1980s, over 150 definitions of "drought" had already been published.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|title=Types of Drought|url=https://drought.unl.edu/Education/DroughtIn-depth/TypesofDrought.aspx|access-date=2022-09-16|website=drought.unl.edu|publisher=National Drought Mitigation Center}}</ref> De range of definitions reflects differences insyd regions, needs, den disciplinary approaches. == Categories == There are three major categories of drought wey dey base on where insyd de water cycle de moisture deficit occurs: meteorological drought, hydrological drought, den agricultural anaa ecological drought.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} A meteorological drought occurs due to lack of [[precipitation]]. A hydrological drought be related to low runoff, streamflow, den reservoir den groundwater storage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=14 April 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained|journal=WIREs Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V|issn=2049-1948|doi-access=free}}</ref> An agricultural anaa ecological drought be causing plant stress from a combination of evaporation den low soil moisture.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Some organizations add anoda category: socioeconomic drought occurs wen de demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall insyd water supply.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":32" /> De socioeconomic drought be a similar concept to water scarcity. De different categories of droughts have different causes but similar effects: # Meteorological drought occurs wen there be a prolonged time plus less than average precipitation.<ref name="IGARSS2017">{{cite book|last1=Swain|display-authors=etal|first1=S|title=2017 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS)|chapter=Application of SPI, EDI and PNPI using MSWEP precipitation data over Marathwada, India|volume=2017|pages=5505–5507|doi=10.1109/IGARSS.2017.8128250|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5090-4951-6|s2cid=26920225}}</ref> Meteorological drought usually precedes de oda kinds of drought.<ref name="NOAAsurprise">{{cite web|url=http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-date=2022-10-09|url-status=live|title=What is a Drought?|date=August 2006|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|access-date=2007-04-10}}</ref> As a drought persists, de conditions surrounding am gradually worsen den its impact on de local population gradually increases. # Hydrological drought happens wen water reserves available insyd sources such as aquifers, lakes den reservoirs fall below average anaa a locally significant threshold. Hydrological drought tends to present more slowly because e involves stored water dat be used but not replenished. Due to de close interaction plus water use, dis type of drought be fit be heavily influenced by water management. Both positive den negative human influences have been discovered den strategic water management strategies seem key to mitigate drought impact.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van Loon|first1=Anne F.|last2=Stahl|first2=Kerstin|last3=Di Baldassarre|first3=Giuliano|last4=Clark|first4=Julian|last5=Rangecroft|first5=Sally|last6=Wanders|first6=Niko|last7=Gleeson|first7=Tom|last8=Van Dijk|first8=Albert I. J. M.|last9=Tallaksen|first9=Lena M. |last10=Hannaford |first10=Jamie|last11=Uijlenhoet|first11=Remko|last12=Teuling|first12=Adriaan J.|last13=Hannah|first13=David M.|last14=Sheffield|first14=Justin|last15=Svoboda|first15=Mark|date=2016-09-08|title=Drought in a human-modified world: reframing drought definitions, understanding, and analysis approaches|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/3631/2016/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=20|issue=9|pages=3631–3650|doi=10.5194/hess-20-3631-2016|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016HESS...20.3631V|issn=1027-5606|hdl=1885/152821|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wendt|first1=Doris E.|last2=Van Loon|first2=Anne F.|last3=Bloomfield|first3=John P.|last4=Hannah|first4=David M.|date=2020-10-13|title=Asymmetric impact of groundwater use on groundwater droughts|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/24/4853/2020/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=24|issue=10|pages=4853–4868|doi=10.5194/hess-24-4853-2020|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020HESS...24.4853W|issn=1027-5606}}</ref> Like agricultural droughts, hydrological droughts fit be triggered by more dan just a loss of rainfall. For instance, around 2007 Kazakhstan was awarded a large amount of money by de World Bank to restore water dat had been diverted to oda nations from de Aral Sea under Soviet rule.<ref>{{cite news|date=2007-04-09|title=Asia-Pacific – Dam project aims to save Aral Sea|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6538219.stm}}</ref> Similar circumstances sanso place their largest lake, Balkhash, at risk of completely drying out.<ref>{{cite news|date=2004-01-15|title=Asia-Pacific – Kazakh lake 'could dry up'|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3397077.stm}}</ref> # Agricultural anaa ecological droughts affect crop production anaa ecosystems insyd general. Dis condition fit sanso arise independently from any change insyd precipitation levels wen either increased [[irrigation]] anaa soil conditions den erosion triggered by poorly planned agricultural endeavors cause a shortfall insyd water available to de crops. == Indices den monitoring == [[File:Unl drought monitor D2 2000-2024.png|thumb|Percent of U.S. experiencing drought intensity of at least level D2 (severe drought), during de weeks of 2000 to 2024.]] Several indices have been defined to quantify den monitor drought at different spatial den temporal scales. A key property of drought indices be their spatial comparability, den they must be statistically robust.<ref name=":3" /> Drought indices include:<ref name=":3" /> * Palmer drought index (sometimes called de Palmer drought severity index (PDSI)): a regional drought index commonly used for monitoring drought events den studying areal extent den severity of drought episodes.<nowiki><ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|last1=Mishra|first1=Ashok K.|last2=Singh|first2=Vijay P.|date=September 2010|title=A review of drought</nowiki> concepts|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022169410004257|journal=Journal of Hydrology|volume=391|issue=1–2|pages=202–216|doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.07.012|bibcode=2010JHyd..391..202M|url-access=subscription}}<nowiki></ref></nowiki> De index uses precipitation den temperature data to study moisture supply den demand using a simple water balance model.<ref name="auto" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=July 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained: Hydrological drought explained|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Yi|last2=Ren|first2=Liliang|last3=Ma|first3=Mingwei|last4=Yang|first4=Xiaoli|last5=Yuan|first5=Fei|last6=Jiang|first6=Shanhu|date=January 2016|title=An insight into the Palmer drought mechanism based indices: comprehensive comparison of their strengths and limitations|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|journal=Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment|volume=30|issue=1|pages=119–136|doi=10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|bibcode=2016SERRA..30..119L|issn=1436-3240|url-access=subscription}}</ref> * Keetch-Byram Drought Index: an index dat be calculated based on rainfall, air temperature, den oda meteorological factors.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Keetch, John J.|author2=Byram, George M.|year=1968|title=A Drought Index for Forest Fire Control|url=http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/viewpub.php?index=40|journal=Res. Pap. Se-38. Asheville, Nc: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 35 P|publisher=USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station|volume=038|access-date=August 11, 2016|quote=(Date: 1968) Res. Paper SE-38. 32 pp. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service}}</ref> * Standardized precipitation index (SPI): E be computed based on precipitation, wich makes am a simple den easy-to-apply indicator for monitoring den prediction of droughts insyd different parts of de world. De World Meteorological Organization recommends dis index for identifying den monitoring meteorological droughts insyd different climates den time periods.<ref name=":3" /> * Standardized Precipitation Index (SPEI): a multiscalar drought index based on climatic data. De SPEI accounts sanso for de role of de increased atmospheric evaporative demand on drought severity.<ref name=":3" /> Evaporative demand be particularly dominant during periods of precipitation deficit. De SPEI calculation requires long-term den high-quality precipitation den atmospheric evaporative demand datasets. These fit be obtained from ground stations anaa gridded data based on reanalysis as well as satellite den multi-source datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Indices related to vegetation: root-zone soil moisture, vegetation condition index (VDI) den vegetation health index (VHI). De VCI den VHI are computed based on vegetation indices such as de normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and temperature datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Deciles indea * Standardized runoff index High-resolution drought information helps to better assess de spatial den temporal changes den variability insyd drought duration, severity, den magnitude at a much finer scale. Dis supports de development of site-specific adaptation measures.<ref name=":3" /> De application of multiple indices using different datasets helps to better manage den monitor droughts dan using a single dataset, Dis be particularly de case insyd regions of de world where not enough data be available such as Africa den South America. Using a single dataset fit be limiting, as e may not capture de full spectrum of drought characteristics den impacts.<ref name=":3" /> Careful monitoring of moisture levels fit sanso help predict increased risk for wildfires. == Causes == [[File:Drought.jpg|thumb|upright|Contraction den desiccation cracks insyd de dry earth of de Sonoran Desert, northwestern Mexico]] == References == 7l8rou0wpzoifg0owd7uhfwsg52b1u5 103769 103768 2026-06-18T18:18:37Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add databox 103769 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. {{TOC level|3}} == Definition == [[File:Fields outside benambra.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Fields outside Benambra, Australia suffering from drought insyd 2006.]] De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines a drought simply as "drier dan normal conditions".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Dis means dat a drought be "a moisture deficit relative to de average water availability at a given location den season".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} According to National Integrated Drought Information System, a multi-agency partnership, drought be generally defined as "a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time (usually a season anaa more), resulting insyd a water shortage". De National Weather Service office of de NOAA defines drought as "a deficiency of moisture dat results insyd adverse impacts on people, animals, anaa vegetation over a sizeable area".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Drought Basics|url=https://www.drought.gov/what-is-drought/drought-basics|access-date=2022-09-16|website=Drought.gov|publisher=NOAA National Integrated Drought Information System}}</ref> Drought be a complex phenomenon − relating to de absence of water − wich be difficult to monitor den define.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Definition of Drought|url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/dyk/drought-definition|access-date=2022-09-16|publisher=National Centers for Environmental Information}}</ref> By de early 1980s, over 150 definitions of "drought" had already been published.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|title=Types of Drought|url=https://drought.unl.edu/Education/DroughtIn-depth/TypesofDrought.aspx|access-date=2022-09-16|website=drought.unl.edu|publisher=National Drought Mitigation Center}}</ref> De range of definitions reflects differences insyd regions, needs, den disciplinary approaches. == Categories == There are three major categories of drought wey dey base on where insyd de water cycle de moisture deficit occurs: meteorological drought, hydrological drought, den agricultural anaa ecological drought.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} A meteorological drought occurs due to lack of [[precipitation]]. A hydrological drought be related to low runoff, streamflow, den reservoir den groundwater storage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=14 April 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained|journal=WIREs Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V|issn=2049-1948|doi-access=free}}</ref> An agricultural anaa ecological drought be causing plant stress from a combination of evaporation den low soil moisture.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Some organizations add anoda category: socioeconomic drought occurs wen de demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall insyd water supply.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":32" /> De socioeconomic drought be a similar concept to water scarcity. De different categories of droughts have different causes but similar effects: # Meteorological drought occurs wen there be a prolonged time plus less than average precipitation.<ref name="IGARSS2017">{{cite book|last1=Swain|display-authors=etal|first1=S|title=2017 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS)|chapter=Application of SPI, EDI and PNPI using MSWEP precipitation data over Marathwada, India|volume=2017|pages=5505–5507|doi=10.1109/IGARSS.2017.8128250|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5090-4951-6|s2cid=26920225}}</ref> Meteorological drought usually precedes de oda kinds of drought.<ref name="NOAAsurprise">{{cite web|url=http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-date=2022-10-09|url-status=live|title=What is a Drought?|date=August 2006|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|access-date=2007-04-10}}</ref> As a drought persists, de conditions surrounding am gradually worsen den its impact on de local population gradually increases. # Hydrological drought happens wen water reserves available insyd sources such as aquifers, lakes den reservoirs fall below average anaa a locally significant threshold. Hydrological drought tends to present more slowly because e involves stored water dat be used but not replenished. Due to de close interaction plus water use, dis type of drought be fit be heavily influenced by water management. Both positive den negative human influences have been discovered den strategic water management strategies seem key to mitigate drought impact.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van Loon|first1=Anne F.|last2=Stahl|first2=Kerstin|last3=Di Baldassarre|first3=Giuliano|last4=Clark|first4=Julian|last5=Rangecroft|first5=Sally|last6=Wanders|first6=Niko|last7=Gleeson|first7=Tom|last8=Van Dijk|first8=Albert I. J. M.|last9=Tallaksen|first9=Lena M. |last10=Hannaford |first10=Jamie|last11=Uijlenhoet|first11=Remko|last12=Teuling|first12=Adriaan J.|last13=Hannah|first13=David M.|last14=Sheffield|first14=Justin|last15=Svoboda|first15=Mark|date=2016-09-08|title=Drought in a human-modified world: reframing drought definitions, understanding, and analysis approaches|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/3631/2016/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=20|issue=9|pages=3631–3650|doi=10.5194/hess-20-3631-2016|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016HESS...20.3631V|issn=1027-5606|hdl=1885/152821|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wendt|first1=Doris E.|last2=Van Loon|first2=Anne F.|last3=Bloomfield|first3=John P.|last4=Hannah|first4=David M.|date=2020-10-13|title=Asymmetric impact of groundwater use on groundwater droughts|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/24/4853/2020/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=24|issue=10|pages=4853–4868|doi=10.5194/hess-24-4853-2020|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020HESS...24.4853W|issn=1027-5606}}</ref> Like agricultural droughts, hydrological droughts fit be triggered by more dan just a loss of rainfall. For instance, around 2007 Kazakhstan was awarded a large amount of money by de World Bank to restore water dat had been diverted to oda nations from de Aral Sea under Soviet rule.<ref>{{cite news|date=2007-04-09|title=Asia-Pacific – Dam project aims to save Aral Sea|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6538219.stm}}</ref> Similar circumstances sanso place their largest lake, Balkhash, at risk of completely drying out.<ref>{{cite news|date=2004-01-15|title=Asia-Pacific – Kazakh lake 'could dry up'|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3397077.stm}}</ref> # Agricultural anaa ecological droughts affect crop production anaa ecosystems insyd general. Dis condition fit sanso arise independently from any change insyd precipitation levels wen either increased [[irrigation]] anaa soil conditions den erosion triggered by poorly planned agricultural endeavors cause a shortfall insyd water available to de crops. == Indices den monitoring == [[File:Unl drought monitor D2 2000-2024.png|thumb|Percent of U.S. experiencing drought intensity of at least level D2 (severe drought), during de weeks of 2000 to 2024.]] Several indices have been defined to quantify den monitor drought at different spatial den temporal scales. A key property of drought indices be their spatial comparability, den they must be statistically robust.<ref name=":3" /> Drought indices include:<ref name=":3" /> * Palmer drought index (sometimes called de Palmer drought severity index (PDSI)): a regional drought index commonly used for monitoring drought events den studying areal extent den severity of drought episodes.<nowiki><ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|last1=Mishra|first1=Ashok K.|last2=Singh|first2=Vijay P.|date=September 2010|title=A review of drought</nowiki> concepts|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022169410004257|journal=Journal of Hydrology|volume=391|issue=1–2|pages=202–216|doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.07.012|bibcode=2010JHyd..391..202M|url-access=subscription}}<nowiki></ref></nowiki> De index uses precipitation den temperature data to study moisture supply den demand using a simple water balance model.<ref name="auto" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=July 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained: Hydrological drought explained|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Yi|last2=Ren|first2=Liliang|last3=Ma|first3=Mingwei|last4=Yang|first4=Xiaoli|last5=Yuan|first5=Fei|last6=Jiang|first6=Shanhu|date=January 2016|title=An insight into the Palmer drought mechanism based indices: comprehensive comparison of their strengths and limitations|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|journal=Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment|volume=30|issue=1|pages=119–136|doi=10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|bibcode=2016SERRA..30..119L|issn=1436-3240|url-access=subscription}}</ref> * Keetch-Byram Drought Index: an index dat be calculated based on rainfall, air temperature, den oda meteorological factors.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Keetch, John J.|author2=Byram, George M.|year=1968|title=A Drought Index for Forest Fire Control|url=http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/viewpub.php?index=40|journal=Res. Pap. Se-38. Asheville, Nc: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 35 P|publisher=USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station|volume=038|access-date=August 11, 2016|quote=(Date: 1968) Res. Paper SE-38. 32 pp. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service}}</ref> * Standardized precipitation index (SPI): E be computed based on precipitation, wich makes am a simple den easy-to-apply indicator for monitoring den prediction of droughts insyd different parts of de world. De World Meteorological Organization recommends dis index for identifying den monitoring meteorological droughts insyd different climates den time periods.<ref name=":3" /> * Standardized Precipitation Index (SPEI): a multiscalar drought index based on climatic data. De SPEI accounts sanso for de role of de increased atmospheric evaporative demand on drought severity.<ref name=":3" /> Evaporative demand be particularly dominant during periods of precipitation deficit. De SPEI calculation requires long-term den high-quality precipitation den atmospheric evaporative demand datasets. These fit be obtained from ground stations anaa gridded data based on reanalysis as well as satellite den multi-source datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Indices related to vegetation: root-zone soil moisture, vegetation condition index (VDI) den vegetation health index (VHI). De VCI den VHI are computed based on vegetation indices such as de normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and temperature datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Deciles indea * Standardized runoff index High-resolution drought information helps to better assess de spatial den temporal changes den variability insyd drought duration, severity, den magnitude at a much finer scale. Dis supports de development of site-specific adaptation measures.<ref name=":3" /> De application of multiple indices using different datasets helps to better manage den monitor droughts dan using a single dataset, Dis be particularly de case insyd regions of de world where not enough data be available such as Africa den South America. Using a single dataset fit be limiting, as e may not capture de full spectrum of drought characteristics den impacts.<ref name=":3" /> Careful monitoring of moisture levels fit sanso help predict increased risk for wildfires. == Causes == [[File:Drought.jpg|thumb|upright|Contraction den desiccation cracks insyd de dry earth of de Sonoran Desert, northwestern Mexico]] == References == c5jl3xwlj0krheergfgwuj46au3t1bj 103770 103769 2026-06-18T18:22:43Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add sub-heading 103770 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. {{TOC level|3}} == Definition == [[File:Fields outside benambra.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Fields outside Benambra, Australia suffering from drought insyd 2006.]] De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines a drought simply as "drier dan normal conditions".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Dis means dat a drought be "a moisture deficit relative to de average water availability at a given location den season".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} According to National Integrated Drought Information System, a multi-agency partnership, drought be generally defined as "a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time (usually a season anaa more), resulting insyd a water shortage". De National Weather Service office of de NOAA defines drought as "a deficiency of moisture dat results insyd adverse impacts on people, animals, anaa vegetation over a sizeable area".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Drought Basics|url=https://www.drought.gov/what-is-drought/drought-basics|access-date=2022-09-16|website=Drought.gov|publisher=NOAA National Integrated Drought Information System}}</ref> Drought be a complex phenomenon − relating to de absence of water − wich be difficult to monitor den define.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Definition of Drought|url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/dyk/drought-definition|access-date=2022-09-16|publisher=National Centers for Environmental Information}}</ref> By de early 1980s, over 150 definitions of "drought" had already been published.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|title=Types of Drought|url=https://drought.unl.edu/Education/DroughtIn-depth/TypesofDrought.aspx|access-date=2022-09-16|website=drought.unl.edu|publisher=National Drought Mitigation Center}}</ref> De range of definitions reflects differences insyd regions, needs, den disciplinary approaches. == Categories == There are three major categories of drought wey dey base on where insyd de water cycle de moisture deficit occurs: meteorological drought, hydrological drought, den agricultural anaa ecological drought.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} A meteorological drought occurs due to lack of [[precipitation]]. A hydrological drought be related to low runoff, streamflow, den reservoir den groundwater storage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=14 April 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained|journal=WIREs Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V|issn=2049-1948|doi-access=free}}</ref> An agricultural anaa ecological drought be causing plant stress from a combination of evaporation den low soil moisture.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Some organizations add anoda category: socioeconomic drought occurs wen de demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall insyd water supply.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":32" /> De socioeconomic drought be a similar concept to water scarcity. De different categories of droughts have different causes but similar effects: # Meteorological drought occurs wen there be a prolonged time plus less than average precipitation.<ref name="IGARSS2017">{{cite book|last1=Swain|display-authors=etal|first1=S|title=2017 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS)|chapter=Application of SPI, EDI and PNPI using MSWEP precipitation data over Marathwada, India|volume=2017|pages=5505–5507|doi=10.1109/IGARSS.2017.8128250|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5090-4951-6|s2cid=26920225}}</ref> Meteorological drought usually precedes de oda kinds of drought.<ref name="NOAAsurprise">{{cite web|url=http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-date=2022-10-09|url-status=live|title=What is a Drought?|date=August 2006|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|access-date=2007-04-10}}</ref> As a drought persists, de conditions surrounding am gradually worsen den its impact on de local population gradually increases. # Hydrological drought happens wen water reserves available insyd sources such as aquifers, lakes den reservoirs fall below average anaa a locally significant threshold. Hydrological drought tends to present more slowly because e involves stored water dat be used but not replenished. Due to de close interaction plus water use, dis type of drought be fit be heavily influenced by water management. Both positive den negative human influences have been discovered den strategic water management strategies seem key to mitigate drought impact.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van Loon|first1=Anne F.|last2=Stahl|first2=Kerstin|last3=Di Baldassarre|first3=Giuliano|last4=Clark|first4=Julian|last5=Rangecroft|first5=Sally|last6=Wanders|first6=Niko|last7=Gleeson|first7=Tom|last8=Van Dijk|first8=Albert I. J. M.|last9=Tallaksen|first9=Lena M. |last10=Hannaford |first10=Jamie|last11=Uijlenhoet|first11=Remko|last12=Teuling|first12=Adriaan J.|last13=Hannah|first13=David M.|last14=Sheffield|first14=Justin|last15=Svoboda|first15=Mark|date=2016-09-08|title=Drought in a human-modified world: reframing drought definitions, understanding, and analysis approaches|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/3631/2016/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=20|issue=9|pages=3631–3650|doi=10.5194/hess-20-3631-2016|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016HESS...20.3631V|issn=1027-5606|hdl=1885/152821|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wendt|first1=Doris E.|last2=Van Loon|first2=Anne F.|last3=Bloomfield|first3=John P.|last4=Hannah|first4=David M.|date=2020-10-13|title=Asymmetric impact of groundwater use on groundwater droughts|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/24/4853/2020/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=24|issue=10|pages=4853–4868|doi=10.5194/hess-24-4853-2020|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020HESS...24.4853W|issn=1027-5606}}</ref> Like agricultural droughts, hydrological droughts fit be triggered by more dan just a loss of rainfall. For instance, around 2007 Kazakhstan was awarded a large amount of money by de World Bank to restore water dat had been diverted to oda nations from de Aral Sea under Soviet rule.<ref>{{cite news|date=2007-04-09|title=Asia-Pacific – Dam project aims to save Aral Sea|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6538219.stm}}</ref> Similar circumstances sanso place their largest lake, Balkhash, at risk of completely drying out.<ref>{{cite news|date=2004-01-15|title=Asia-Pacific – Kazakh lake 'could dry up'|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3397077.stm}}</ref> # Agricultural anaa ecological droughts affect crop production anaa ecosystems insyd general. Dis condition fit sanso arise independently from any change insyd precipitation levels wen either increased [[irrigation]] anaa soil conditions den erosion triggered by poorly planned agricultural endeavors cause a shortfall insyd water available to de crops. == Indices den monitoring == [[File:Unl drought monitor D2 2000-2024.png|thumb|Percent of U.S. experiencing drought intensity of at least level D2 (severe drought), during de weeks of 2000 to 2024.]] Several indices have been defined to quantify den monitor drought at different spatial den temporal scales. A key property of drought indices be their spatial comparability, den they must be statistically robust.<ref name=":3" /> Drought indices include:<ref name=":3" /> * Palmer drought index (sometimes called de Palmer drought severity index (PDSI)): a regional drought index commonly used for monitoring drought events den studying areal extent den severity of drought episodes.<nowiki><ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|last1=Mishra|first1=Ashok K.|last2=Singh|first2=Vijay P.|date=September 2010|title=A review of drought</nowiki> concepts|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022169410004257|journal=Journal of Hydrology|volume=391|issue=1–2|pages=202–216|doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.07.012|bibcode=2010JHyd..391..202M|url-access=subscription}}<nowiki></ref></nowiki> De index uses precipitation den temperature data to study moisture supply den demand using a simple water balance model.<ref name="auto" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=July 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained: Hydrological drought explained|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Yi|last2=Ren|first2=Liliang|last3=Ma|first3=Mingwei|last4=Yang|first4=Xiaoli|last5=Yuan|first5=Fei|last6=Jiang|first6=Shanhu|date=January 2016|title=An insight into the Palmer drought mechanism based indices: comprehensive comparison of their strengths and limitations|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|journal=Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment|volume=30|issue=1|pages=119–136|doi=10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|bibcode=2016SERRA..30..119L|issn=1436-3240|url-access=subscription}}</ref> * Keetch-Byram Drought Index: an index dat be calculated based on rainfall, air temperature, den oda meteorological factors.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Keetch, John J.|author2=Byram, George M.|year=1968|title=A Drought Index for Forest Fire Control|url=http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/viewpub.php?index=40|journal=Res. Pap. Se-38. Asheville, Nc: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 35 P|publisher=USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station|volume=038|access-date=August 11, 2016|quote=(Date: 1968) Res. Paper SE-38. 32 pp. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service}}</ref> * Standardized precipitation index (SPI): E be computed based on precipitation, wich makes am a simple den easy-to-apply indicator for monitoring den prediction of droughts insyd different parts of de world. De World Meteorological Organization recommends dis index for identifying den monitoring meteorological droughts insyd different climates den time periods.<ref name=":3" /> * Standardized Precipitation Index (SPEI): a multiscalar drought index based on climatic data. De SPEI accounts sanso for de role of de increased atmospheric evaporative demand on drought severity.<ref name=":3" /> Evaporative demand be particularly dominant during periods of precipitation deficit. De SPEI calculation requires long-term den high-quality precipitation den atmospheric evaporative demand datasets. These fit be obtained from ground stations anaa gridded data based on reanalysis as well as satellite den multi-source datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Indices related to vegetation: root-zone soil moisture, vegetation condition index (VDI) den vegetation health index (VHI). De VCI den VHI are computed based on vegetation indices such as de normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and temperature datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Deciles indea * Standardized runoff index High-resolution drought information helps to better assess de spatial den temporal changes den variability insyd drought duration, severity, den magnitude at a much finer scale. Dis supports de development of site-specific adaptation measures.<ref name=":3" /> De application of multiple indices using different datasets helps to better manage den monitor droughts dan using a single dataset, Dis be particularly de case insyd regions of de world where not enough data be available such as Africa den South America. Using a single dataset fit be limiting, as e may not capture de full spectrum of drought characteristics den impacts.<ref name=":3" /> Careful monitoring of moisture levels fit sanso help predict increased risk for wildfires. == Causes == [[File:Drought.jpg|thumb|upright|Contraction den desiccation cracks insyd de dry earth of de Sonoran Desert, northwestern Mexico]] === General precipitation deficiency === == References == qcbiwyb4btopgmo0vwe7tyw42tk1loy 103771 103770 2026-06-18T18:24:01Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 103771 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. {{TOC level|3}} == Definition == [[File:Fields outside benambra.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Fields outside Benambra, Australia suffering from drought insyd 2006.]] De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines a drought simply as "drier dan normal conditions".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Dis means dat a drought be "a moisture deficit relative to de average water availability at a given location den season".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} According to National Integrated Drought Information System, a multi-agency partnership, drought be generally defined as "a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time (usually a season anaa more), resulting insyd a water shortage". De National Weather Service office of de NOAA defines drought as "a deficiency of moisture dat results insyd adverse impacts on people, animals, anaa vegetation over a sizeable area".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Drought Basics|url=https://www.drought.gov/what-is-drought/drought-basics|access-date=2022-09-16|website=Drought.gov|publisher=NOAA National Integrated Drought Information System}}</ref> Drought be a complex phenomenon − relating to de absence of water − wich be difficult to monitor den define.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Definition of Drought|url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/dyk/drought-definition|access-date=2022-09-16|publisher=National Centers for Environmental Information}}</ref> By de early 1980s, over 150 definitions of "drought" had already been published.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|title=Types of Drought|url=https://drought.unl.edu/Education/DroughtIn-depth/TypesofDrought.aspx|access-date=2022-09-16|website=drought.unl.edu|publisher=National Drought Mitigation Center}}</ref> De range of definitions reflects differences insyd regions, needs, den disciplinary approaches. == Categories == There are three major categories of drought wey dey base on where insyd de water cycle de moisture deficit occurs: meteorological drought, hydrological drought, den agricultural anaa ecological drought.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} A meteorological drought occurs due to lack of [[precipitation]]. A hydrological drought be related to low runoff, streamflow, den reservoir den groundwater storage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=14 April 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained|journal=WIREs Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V|issn=2049-1948|doi-access=free}}</ref> An agricultural anaa ecological drought be causing plant stress from a combination of evaporation den low soil moisture.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Some organizations add anoda category: socioeconomic drought occurs wen de demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall insyd water supply.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":32" /> De socioeconomic drought be a similar concept to water scarcity. De different categories of droughts have different causes but similar effects: # Meteorological drought occurs wen there be a prolonged time plus less than average precipitation.<ref name="IGARSS2017">{{cite book|last1=Swain|display-authors=etal|first1=S|title=2017 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS)|chapter=Application of SPI, EDI and PNPI using MSWEP precipitation data over Marathwada, India|volume=2017|pages=5505–5507|doi=10.1109/IGARSS.2017.8128250|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5090-4951-6|s2cid=26920225}}</ref> Meteorological drought usually precedes de oda kinds of drought.<ref name="NOAAsurprise">{{cite web|url=http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-date=2022-10-09|url-status=live|title=What is a Drought?|date=August 2006|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|access-date=2007-04-10}}</ref> As a drought persists, de conditions surrounding am gradually worsen den its impact on de local population gradually increases. # Hydrological drought happens wen water reserves available insyd sources such as aquifers, lakes den reservoirs fall below average anaa a locally significant threshold. Hydrological drought tends to present more slowly because e involves stored water dat be used but not replenished. Due to de close interaction plus water use, dis type of drought be fit be heavily influenced by water management. Both positive den negative human influences have been discovered den strategic water management strategies seem key to mitigate drought impact.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van Loon|first1=Anne F.|last2=Stahl|first2=Kerstin|last3=Di Baldassarre|first3=Giuliano|last4=Clark|first4=Julian|last5=Rangecroft|first5=Sally|last6=Wanders|first6=Niko|last7=Gleeson|first7=Tom|last8=Van Dijk|first8=Albert I. J. M.|last9=Tallaksen|first9=Lena M. |last10=Hannaford |first10=Jamie|last11=Uijlenhoet|first11=Remko|last12=Teuling|first12=Adriaan J.|last13=Hannah|first13=David M.|last14=Sheffield|first14=Justin|last15=Svoboda|first15=Mark|date=2016-09-08|title=Drought in a human-modified world: reframing drought definitions, understanding, and analysis approaches|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/3631/2016/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=20|issue=9|pages=3631–3650|doi=10.5194/hess-20-3631-2016|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016HESS...20.3631V|issn=1027-5606|hdl=1885/152821|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wendt|first1=Doris E.|last2=Van Loon|first2=Anne F.|last3=Bloomfield|first3=John P.|last4=Hannah|first4=David M.|date=2020-10-13|title=Asymmetric impact of groundwater use on groundwater droughts|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/24/4853/2020/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=24|issue=10|pages=4853–4868|doi=10.5194/hess-24-4853-2020|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020HESS...24.4853W|issn=1027-5606}}</ref> Like agricultural droughts, hydrological droughts fit be triggered by more dan just a loss of rainfall. For instance, around 2007 Kazakhstan was awarded a large amount of money by de World Bank to restore water dat had been diverted to oda nations from de Aral Sea under Soviet rule.<ref>{{cite news|date=2007-04-09|title=Asia-Pacific – Dam project aims to save Aral Sea|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6538219.stm}}</ref> Similar circumstances sanso place their largest lake, Balkhash, at risk of completely drying out.<ref>{{cite news|date=2004-01-15|title=Asia-Pacific – Kazakh lake 'could dry up'|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3397077.stm}}</ref> # Agricultural anaa ecological droughts affect crop production anaa ecosystems insyd general. Dis condition fit sanso arise independently from any change insyd precipitation levels wen either increased [[irrigation]] anaa soil conditions den erosion triggered by poorly planned agricultural endeavors cause a shortfall insyd water available to de crops. == Indices den monitoring == [[File:Unl drought monitor D2 2000-2024.png|thumb|Percent of U.S. experiencing drought intensity of at least level D2 (severe drought), during de weeks of 2000 to 2024.]] Several indices have been defined to quantify den monitor drought at different spatial den temporal scales. A key property of drought indices be their spatial comparability, den they must be statistically robust.<ref name=":3" /> Drought indices include:<ref name=":3" /> * Palmer drought index (sometimes called de Palmer drought severity index (PDSI)): a regional drought index commonly used for monitoring drought events den studying areal extent den severity of drought episodes.<nowiki><ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|last1=Mishra|first1=Ashok K.|last2=Singh|first2=Vijay P.|date=September 2010|title=A review of drought</nowiki> concepts|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022169410004257|journal=Journal of Hydrology|volume=391|issue=1–2|pages=202–216|doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.07.012|bibcode=2010JHyd..391..202M|url-access=subscription}}<nowiki></ref></nowiki> De index uses precipitation den temperature data to study moisture supply den demand using a simple water balance model.<ref name="auto" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=July 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained: Hydrological drought explained|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Yi|last2=Ren|first2=Liliang|last3=Ma|first3=Mingwei|last4=Yang|first4=Xiaoli|last5=Yuan|first5=Fei|last6=Jiang|first6=Shanhu|date=January 2016|title=An insight into the Palmer drought mechanism based indices: comprehensive comparison of their strengths and limitations|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|journal=Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment|volume=30|issue=1|pages=119–136|doi=10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|bibcode=2016SERRA..30..119L|issn=1436-3240|url-access=subscription}}</ref> * Keetch-Byram Drought Index: an index dat be calculated based on rainfall, air temperature, den oda meteorological factors.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Keetch, John J.|author2=Byram, George M.|year=1968|title=A Drought Index for Forest Fire Control|url=http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/viewpub.php?index=40|journal=Res. Pap. Se-38. Asheville, Nc: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 35 P|publisher=USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station|volume=038|access-date=August 11, 2016|quote=(Date: 1968) Res. Paper SE-38. 32 pp. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service}}</ref> * Standardized precipitation index (SPI): E be computed based on precipitation, wich makes am a simple den easy-to-apply indicator for monitoring den prediction of droughts insyd different parts of de world. De World Meteorological Organization recommends dis index for identifying den monitoring meteorological droughts insyd different climates den time periods.<ref name=":3" /> * Standardized Precipitation Index (SPEI): a multiscalar drought index based on climatic data. De SPEI accounts sanso for de role of de increased atmospheric evaporative demand on drought severity.<ref name=":3" /> Evaporative demand be particularly dominant during periods of precipitation deficit. De SPEI calculation requires long-term den high-quality precipitation den atmospheric evaporative demand datasets. These fit be obtained from ground stations anaa gridded data based on reanalysis as well as satellite den multi-source datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Indices related to vegetation: root-zone soil moisture, vegetation condition index (VDI) den vegetation health index (VHI). De VCI den VHI are computed based on vegetation indices such as de normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and temperature datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Deciles indea * Standardized runoff index High-resolution drought information helps to better assess de spatial den temporal changes den variability insyd drought duration, severity, den magnitude at a much finer scale. Dis supports de development of site-specific adaptation measures.<ref name=":3" /> De application of multiple indices using different datasets helps to better manage den monitor droughts dan using a single dataset, Dis be particularly de case insyd regions of de world where not enough data be available such as Africa den South America. Using a single dataset fit be limiting, as e may not capture de full spectrum of drought characteristics den impacts.<ref name=":3" /> Careful monitoring of moisture levels fit sanso help predict increased risk for wildfires. == Causes == [[File:Drought.jpg|thumb|upright|Contraction den desiccation cracks insyd de dry earth of de Sonoran Desert, northwestern Mexico]] === General precipitation deficiency === == References == <references /> [[Category:Drought]] sil4tfy9e0ph4d99g7c1sr55l408g2f 103772 103771 2026-06-18T18:24:34Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 103772 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. {{TOC level|3}} == Definition == [[File:Fields outside benambra.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Fields outside Benambra, Australia suffering from drought insyd 2006.]] De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines a drought simply as "drier dan normal conditions".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Dis means dat a drought be "a moisture deficit relative to de average water availability at a given location den season".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} According to National Integrated Drought Information System, a multi-agency partnership, drought be generally defined as "a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time (usually a season anaa more), resulting insyd a water shortage". De National Weather Service office of de NOAA defines drought as "a deficiency of moisture dat results insyd adverse impacts on people, animals, anaa vegetation over a sizeable area".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Drought Basics|url=https://www.drought.gov/what-is-drought/drought-basics|access-date=2022-09-16|website=Drought.gov|publisher=NOAA National Integrated Drought Information System}}</ref> Drought be a complex phenomenon − relating to de absence of water − wich be difficult to monitor den define.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Definition of Drought|url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/dyk/drought-definition|access-date=2022-09-16|publisher=National Centers for Environmental Information}}</ref> By de early 1980s, over 150 definitions of "drought" had already been published.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|title=Types of Drought|url=https://drought.unl.edu/Education/DroughtIn-depth/TypesofDrought.aspx|access-date=2022-09-16|website=drought.unl.edu|publisher=National Drought Mitigation Center}}</ref> De range of definitions reflects differences insyd regions, needs, den disciplinary approaches. == Categories == There are three major categories of drought wey dey base on where insyd de water cycle de moisture deficit occurs: meteorological drought, hydrological drought, den agricultural anaa ecological drought.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} A meteorological drought occurs due to lack of [[precipitation]]. A hydrological drought be related to low runoff, streamflow, den reservoir den groundwater storage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=14 April 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained|journal=WIREs Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V|issn=2049-1948|doi-access=free}}</ref> An agricultural anaa ecological drought be causing plant stress from a combination of evaporation den low soil moisture.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Some organizations add anoda category: socioeconomic drought occurs wen de demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall insyd water supply.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":32" /> De socioeconomic drought be a similar concept to water scarcity. De different categories of droughts have different causes but similar effects: # Meteorological drought occurs wen there be a prolonged time plus less than average precipitation.<ref name="IGARSS2017">{{cite book|last1=Swain|display-authors=etal|first1=S|title=2017 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS)|chapter=Application of SPI, EDI and PNPI using MSWEP precipitation data over Marathwada, India|volume=2017|pages=5505–5507|doi=10.1109/IGARSS.2017.8128250|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5090-4951-6|s2cid=26920225}}</ref> Meteorological drought usually precedes de oda kinds of drought.<ref name="NOAAsurprise">{{cite web|url=http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-date=2022-10-09|url-status=live|title=What is a Drought?|date=August 2006|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|access-date=2007-04-10}}</ref> As a drought persists, de conditions surrounding am gradually worsen den its impact on de local population gradually increases. # Hydrological drought happens wen water reserves available insyd sources such as aquifers, lakes den reservoirs fall below average anaa a locally significant threshold. Hydrological drought tends to present more slowly because e involves stored water dat be used but not replenished. Due to de close interaction plus water use, dis type of drought be fit be heavily influenced by water management. Both positive den negative human influences have been discovered den strategic water management strategies seem key to mitigate drought impact.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van Loon|first1=Anne F.|last2=Stahl|first2=Kerstin|last3=Di Baldassarre|first3=Giuliano|last4=Clark|first4=Julian|last5=Rangecroft|first5=Sally|last6=Wanders|first6=Niko|last7=Gleeson|first7=Tom|last8=Van Dijk|first8=Albert I. J. M.|last9=Tallaksen|first9=Lena M. |last10=Hannaford |first10=Jamie|last11=Uijlenhoet|first11=Remko|last12=Teuling|first12=Adriaan J.|last13=Hannah|first13=David M.|last14=Sheffield|first14=Justin|last15=Svoboda|first15=Mark|date=2016-09-08|title=Drought in a human-modified world: reframing drought definitions, understanding, and analysis approaches|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/3631/2016/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=20|issue=9|pages=3631–3650|doi=10.5194/hess-20-3631-2016|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016HESS...20.3631V|issn=1027-5606|hdl=1885/152821|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wendt|first1=Doris E.|last2=Van Loon|first2=Anne F.|last3=Bloomfield|first3=John P.|last4=Hannah|first4=David M.|date=2020-10-13|title=Asymmetric impact of groundwater use on groundwater droughts|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/24/4853/2020/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=24|issue=10|pages=4853–4868|doi=10.5194/hess-24-4853-2020|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020HESS...24.4853W|issn=1027-5606}}</ref> Like agricultural droughts, hydrological droughts fit be triggered by more dan just a loss of rainfall. For instance, around 2007 Kazakhstan was awarded a large amount of money by de World Bank to restore water dat had been diverted to oda nations from de Aral Sea under Soviet rule.<ref>{{cite news|date=2007-04-09|title=Asia-Pacific – Dam project aims to save Aral Sea|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6538219.stm}}</ref> Similar circumstances sanso place their largest lake, Balkhash, at risk of completely drying out.<ref>{{cite news|date=2004-01-15|title=Asia-Pacific – Kazakh lake 'could dry up'|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3397077.stm}}</ref> # Agricultural anaa ecological droughts affect crop production anaa ecosystems insyd general. Dis condition fit sanso arise independently from any change insyd precipitation levels wen either increased [[irrigation]] anaa soil conditions den erosion triggered by poorly planned agricultural endeavors cause a shortfall insyd water available to de crops. == Indices den monitoring == [[File:Unl drought monitor D2 2000-2024.png|thumb|Percent of U.S. experiencing drought intensity of at least level D2 (severe drought), during de weeks of 2000 to 2024.]] Several indices have been defined to quantify den monitor drought at different spatial den temporal scales. A key property of drought indices be their spatial comparability, den they must be statistically robust.<ref name=":3" /> Drought indices include:<ref name=":3" /> * Palmer drought index (sometimes called de Palmer drought severity index (PDSI)): a regional drought index commonly used for monitoring drought events den studying areal extent den severity of drought episodes.<nowiki><ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|last1=Mishra|first1=Ashok K.|last2=Singh|first2=Vijay P.|date=September 2010|title=A review of drought</nowiki> concepts|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022169410004257|journal=Journal of Hydrology|volume=391|issue=1–2|pages=202–216|doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.07.012|bibcode=2010JHyd..391..202M|url-access=subscription}}<nowiki></ref></nowiki> De index uses precipitation den temperature data to study moisture supply den demand using a simple water balance model.<ref name="auto" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=July 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained: Hydrological drought explained|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Yi|last2=Ren|first2=Liliang|last3=Ma|first3=Mingwei|last4=Yang|first4=Xiaoli|last5=Yuan|first5=Fei|last6=Jiang|first6=Shanhu|date=January 2016|title=An insight into the Palmer drought mechanism based indices: comprehensive comparison of their strengths and limitations|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|journal=Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment|volume=30|issue=1|pages=119–136|doi=10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|bibcode=2016SERRA..30..119L|issn=1436-3240|url-access=subscription}}</ref> * Keetch-Byram Drought Index: an index dat be calculated based on rainfall, air temperature, den oda meteorological factors.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Keetch, John J.|author2=Byram, George M.|year=1968|title=A Drought Index for Forest Fire Control|url=http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/viewpub.php?index=40|journal=Res. Pap. Se-38. Asheville, Nc: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 35 P|publisher=USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station|volume=038|access-date=August 11, 2016|quote=(Date: 1968) Res. Paper SE-38. 32 pp. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service}}</ref> * Standardized precipitation index (SPI): E be computed based on precipitation, wich makes am a simple den easy-to-apply indicator for monitoring den prediction of droughts insyd different parts of de world. De World Meteorological Organization recommends dis index for identifying den monitoring meteorological droughts insyd different climates den time periods.<ref name=":3" /> * Standardized Precipitation Index (SPEI): a multiscalar drought index based on climatic data. De SPEI accounts sanso for de role of de increased atmospheric evaporative demand on drought severity.<ref name=":3" /> Evaporative demand be particularly dominant during periods of precipitation deficit. De SPEI calculation requires long-term den high-quality precipitation den atmospheric evaporative demand datasets. These fit be obtained from ground stations anaa gridded data based on reanalysis as well as satellite den multi-source datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Indices related to vegetation: root-zone soil moisture, vegetation condition index (VDI) den vegetation health index (VHI). De VCI den VHI are computed based on vegetation indices such as de normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and temperature datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Deciles indea * Standardized runoff index High-resolution drought information helps to better assess de spatial den temporal changes den variability insyd drought duration, severity, den magnitude at a much finer scale. Dis supports de development of site-specific adaptation measures.<ref name=":3" /> De application of multiple indices using different datasets helps to better manage den monitor droughts dan using a single dataset, Dis be particularly de case insyd regions of de world where not enough data be available such as Africa den South America. Using a single dataset fit be limiting, as e may not capture de full spectrum of drought characteristics den impacts.<ref name=":3" /> Careful monitoring of moisture levels fit sanso help predict increased risk for wildfires. == Causes == [[File:Drought.jpg|thumb|upright|Contraction den desiccation cracks insyd de dry earth of de Sonoran Desert, northwestern Mexico]] === General precipitation deficiency === == References == <references /> [[Category:Drought]] [[Category:Natural disasters]] gddzmwygbjh6v1m13hmbu3brgpo93ac 103773 103772 2026-06-18T18:25:24Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 103773 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. {{TOC level|3}} == Definition == [[File:Fields outside benambra.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Fields outside Benambra, Australia suffering from drought insyd 2006.]] De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines a drought simply as "drier dan normal conditions".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Dis means dat a drought be "a moisture deficit relative to de average water availability at a given location den season".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} According to National Integrated Drought Information System, a multi-agency partnership, drought be generally defined as "a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time (usually a season anaa more), resulting insyd a water shortage". De National Weather Service office of de NOAA defines drought as "a deficiency of moisture dat results insyd adverse impacts on people, animals, anaa vegetation over a sizeable area".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Drought Basics|url=https://www.drought.gov/what-is-drought/drought-basics|access-date=2022-09-16|website=Drought.gov|publisher=NOAA National Integrated Drought Information System}}</ref> Drought be a complex phenomenon − relating to de absence of water − wich be difficult to monitor den define.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Definition of Drought|url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/dyk/drought-definition|access-date=2022-09-16|publisher=National Centers for Environmental Information}}</ref> By de early 1980s, over 150 definitions of "drought" had already been published.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|title=Types of Drought|url=https://drought.unl.edu/Education/DroughtIn-depth/TypesofDrought.aspx|access-date=2022-09-16|website=drought.unl.edu|publisher=National Drought Mitigation Center}}</ref> De range of definitions reflects differences insyd regions, needs, den disciplinary approaches. == Categories == There are three major categories of drought wey dey base on where insyd de water cycle de moisture deficit occurs: meteorological drought, hydrological drought, den agricultural anaa ecological drought.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} A meteorological drought occurs due to lack of [[precipitation]]. A hydrological drought be related to low runoff, streamflow, den reservoir den groundwater storage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=14 April 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained|journal=WIREs Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V|issn=2049-1948|doi-access=free}}</ref> An agricultural anaa ecological drought be causing plant stress from a combination of evaporation den low soil moisture.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Some organizations add anoda category: socioeconomic drought occurs wen de demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall insyd water supply.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":32" /> De socioeconomic drought be a similar concept to water scarcity. De different categories of droughts have different causes but similar effects: # Meteorological drought occurs wen there be a prolonged time plus less than average precipitation.<ref name="IGARSS2017">{{cite book|last1=Swain|display-authors=etal|first1=S|title=2017 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS)|chapter=Application of SPI, EDI and PNPI using MSWEP precipitation data over Marathwada, India|volume=2017|pages=5505–5507|doi=10.1109/IGARSS.2017.8128250|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5090-4951-6|s2cid=26920225}}</ref> Meteorological drought usually precedes de oda kinds of drought.<ref name="NOAAsurprise">{{cite web|url=http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-date=2022-10-09|url-status=live|title=What is a Drought?|date=August 2006|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|access-date=2007-04-10}}</ref> As a drought persists, de conditions surrounding am gradually worsen den its impact on de local population gradually increases. # Hydrological drought happens wen water reserves available insyd sources such as aquifers, lakes den reservoirs fall below average anaa a locally significant threshold. Hydrological drought tends to present more slowly because e involves stored water dat be used but not replenished. Due to de close interaction plus water use, dis type of drought be fit be heavily influenced by water management. Both positive den negative human influences have been discovered den strategic water management strategies seem key to mitigate drought impact.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van Loon|first1=Anne F.|last2=Stahl|first2=Kerstin|last3=Di Baldassarre|first3=Giuliano|last4=Clark|first4=Julian|last5=Rangecroft|first5=Sally|last6=Wanders|first6=Niko|last7=Gleeson|first7=Tom|last8=Van Dijk|first8=Albert I. J. M.|last9=Tallaksen|first9=Lena M. |last10=Hannaford |first10=Jamie|last11=Uijlenhoet|first11=Remko|last12=Teuling|first12=Adriaan J.|last13=Hannah|first13=David M.|last14=Sheffield|first14=Justin|last15=Svoboda|first15=Mark|date=2016-09-08|title=Drought in a human-modified world: reframing drought definitions, understanding, and analysis approaches|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/3631/2016/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=20|issue=9|pages=3631–3650|doi=10.5194/hess-20-3631-2016|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016HESS...20.3631V|issn=1027-5606|hdl=1885/152821|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wendt|first1=Doris E.|last2=Van Loon|first2=Anne F.|last3=Bloomfield|first3=John P.|last4=Hannah|first4=David M.|date=2020-10-13|title=Asymmetric impact of groundwater use on groundwater droughts|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/24/4853/2020/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=24|issue=10|pages=4853–4868|doi=10.5194/hess-24-4853-2020|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020HESS...24.4853W|issn=1027-5606}}</ref> Like agricultural droughts, hydrological droughts fit be triggered by more dan just a loss of rainfall. For instance, around 2007 Kazakhstan was awarded a large amount of money by de World Bank to restore water dat had been diverted to oda nations from de Aral Sea under Soviet rule.<ref>{{cite news|date=2007-04-09|title=Asia-Pacific – Dam project aims to save Aral Sea|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6538219.stm}}</ref> Similar circumstances sanso place their largest lake, Balkhash, at risk of completely drying out.<ref>{{cite news|date=2004-01-15|title=Asia-Pacific – Kazakh lake 'could dry up'|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3397077.stm}}</ref> # Agricultural anaa ecological droughts affect crop production anaa ecosystems insyd general. Dis condition fit sanso arise independently from any change insyd precipitation levels wen either increased [[irrigation]] anaa soil conditions den erosion triggered by poorly planned agricultural endeavors cause a shortfall insyd water available to de crops. == Indices den monitoring == [[File:Unl drought monitor D2 2000-2024.png|thumb|Percent of U.S. experiencing drought intensity of at least level D2 (severe drought), during de weeks of 2000 to 2024.]] Several indices have been defined to quantify den monitor drought at different spatial den temporal scales. A key property of drought indices be their spatial comparability, den they must be statistically robust.<ref name=":3" /> Drought indices include:<ref name=":3" /> * Palmer drought index (sometimes called de Palmer drought severity index (PDSI)): a regional drought index commonly used for monitoring drought events den studying areal extent den severity of drought episodes.<nowiki><ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|last1=Mishra|first1=Ashok K.|last2=Singh|first2=Vijay P.|date=September 2010|title=A review of drought</nowiki> concepts|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022169410004257|journal=Journal of Hydrology|volume=391|issue=1–2|pages=202–216|doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.07.012|bibcode=2010JHyd..391..202M|url-access=subscription}}<nowiki></ref></nowiki> De index uses precipitation den temperature data to study moisture supply den demand using a simple water balance model.<ref name="auto" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=July 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained: Hydrological drought explained|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Yi|last2=Ren|first2=Liliang|last3=Ma|first3=Mingwei|last4=Yang|first4=Xiaoli|last5=Yuan|first5=Fei|last6=Jiang|first6=Shanhu|date=January 2016|title=An insight into the Palmer drought mechanism based indices: comprehensive comparison of their strengths and limitations|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|journal=Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment|volume=30|issue=1|pages=119–136|doi=10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|bibcode=2016SERRA..30..119L|issn=1436-3240|url-access=subscription}}</ref> * Keetch-Byram Drought Index: an index dat be calculated based on rainfall, air temperature, den oda meteorological factors.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Keetch, John J.|author2=Byram, George M.|year=1968|title=A Drought Index for Forest Fire Control|url=http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/viewpub.php?index=40|journal=Res. Pap. Se-38. Asheville, Nc: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 35 P|publisher=USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station|volume=038|access-date=August 11, 2016|quote=(Date: 1968) Res. Paper SE-38. 32 pp. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service}}</ref> * Standardized precipitation index (SPI): E be computed based on precipitation, wich makes am a simple den easy-to-apply indicator for monitoring den prediction of droughts insyd different parts of de world. De World Meteorological Organization recommends dis index for identifying den monitoring meteorological droughts insyd different climates den time periods.<ref name=":3" /> * Standardized Precipitation Index (SPEI): a multiscalar drought index based on climatic data. De SPEI accounts sanso for de role of de increased atmospheric evaporative demand on drought severity.<ref name=":3" /> Evaporative demand be particularly dominant during periods of precipitation deficit. De SPEI calculation requires long-term den high-quality precipitation den atmospheric evaporative demand datasets. These fit be obtained from ground stations anaa gridded data based on reanalysis as well as satellite den multi-source datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Indices related to vegetation: root-zone soil moisture, vegetation condition index (VDI) den vegetation health index (VHI). De VCI den VHI are computed based on vegetation indices such as de normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and temperature datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Deciles indea * Standardized runoff index High-resolution drought information helps to better assess de spatial den temporal changes den variability insyd drought duration, severity, den magnitude at a much finer scale. Dis supports de development of site-specific adaptation measures.<ref name=":3" /> De application of multiple indices using different datasets helps to better manage den monitor droughts dan using a single dataset, Dis be particularly de case insyd regions of de world where not enough data be available such as Africa den South America. Using a single dataset fit be limiting, as e may not capture de full spectrum of drought characteristics den impacts.<ref name=":3" /> Careful monitoring of moisture levels fit sanso help predict increased risk for wildfires. == Causes == [[File:Drought.jpg|thumb|upright|Contraction den desiccation cracks insyd de dry earth of de Sonoran Desert, northwestern Mexico]] === General precipitation deficiency === == References == <references /> [[Category:Drought]] [[Category:Natural disasters]] [[Category:Meteorological phenomena]] br2aemc74lv9wfi7t7vlfw174swyx5o 103774 103773 2026-06-18T18:26:02Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 103774 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. {{TOC level|3}} == Definition == [[File:Fields outside benambra.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Fields outside Benambra, Australia suffering from drought insyd 2006.]] De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines a drought simply as "drier dan normal conditions".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Dis means dat a drought be "a moisture deficit relative to de average water availability at a given location den season".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} According to National Integrated Drought Information System, a multi-agency partnership, drought be generally defined as "a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time (usually a season anaa more), resulting insyd a water shortage". De National Weather Service office of de NOAA defines drought as "a deficiency of moisture dat results insyd adverse impacts on people, animals, anaa vegetation over a sizeable area".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Drought Basics|url=https://www.drought.gov/what-is-drought/drought-basics|access-date=2022-09-16|website=Drought.gov|publisher=NOAA National Integrated Drought Information System}}</ref> Drought be a complex phenomenon − relating to de absence of water − wich be difficult to monitor den define.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Definition of Drought|url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/dyk/drought-definition|access-date=2022-09-16|publisher=National Centers for Environmental Information}}</ref> By de early 1980s, over 150 definitions of "drought" had already been published.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|title=Types of Drought|url=https://drought.unl.edu/Education/DroughtIn-depth/TypesofDrought.aspx|access-date=2022-09-16|website=drought.unl.edu|publisher=National Drought Mitigation Center}}</ref> De range of definitions reflects differences insyd regions, needs, den disciplinary approaches. == Categories == There are three major categories of drought wey dey base on where insyd de water cycle de moisture deficit occurs: meteorological drought, hydrological drought, den agricultural anaa ecological drought.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} A meteorological drought occurs due to lack of [[precipitation]]. A hydrological drought be related to low runoff, streamflow, den reservoir den groundwater storage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=14 April 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained|journal=WIREs Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V|issn=2049-1948|doi-access=free}}</ref> An agricultural anaa ecological drought be causing plant stress from a combination of evaporation den low soil moisture.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Some organizations add anoda category: socioeconomic drought occurs wen de demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall insyd water supply.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":32" /> De socioeconomic drought be a similar concept to water scarcity. De different categories of droughts have different causes but similar effects: # Meteorological drought occurs wen there be a prolonged time plus less than average precipitation.<ref name="IGARSS2017">{{cite book|last1=Swain|display-authors=etal|first1=S|title=2017 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS)|chapter=Application of SPI, EDI and PNPI using MSWEP precipitation data over Marathwada, India|volume=2017|pages=5505–5507|doi=10.1109/IGARSS.2017.8128250|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5090-4951-6|s2cid=26920225}}</ref> Meteorological drought usually precedes de oda kinds of drought.<ref name="NOAAsurprise">{{cite web|url=http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-date=2022-10-09|url-status=live|title=What is a Drought?|date=August 2006|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|access-date=2007-04-10}}</ref> As a drought persists, de conditions surrounding am gradually worsen den its impact on de local population gradually increases. # Hydrological drought happens wen water reserves available insyd sources such as aquifers, lakes den reservoirs fall below average anaa a locally significant threshold. Hydrological drought tends to present more slowly because e involves stored water dat be used but not replenished. Due to de close interaction plus water use, dis type of drought be fit be heavily influenced by water management. Both positive den negative human influences have been discovered den strategic water management strategies seem key to mitigate drought impact.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van Loon|first1=Anne F.|last2=Stahl|first2=Kerstin|last3=Di Baldassarre|first3=Giuliano|last4=Clark|first4=Julian|last5=Rangecroft|first5=Sally|last6=Wanders|first6=Niko|last7=Gleeson|first7=Tom|last8=Van Dijk|first8=Albert I. J. M.|last9=Tallaksen|first9=Lena M. |last10=Hannaford |first10=Jamie|last11=Uijlenhoet|first11=Remko|last12=Teuling|first12=Adriaan J.|last13=Hannah|first13=David M.|last14=Sheffield|first14=Justin|last15=Svoboda|first15=Mark|date=2016-09-08|title=Drought in a human-modified world: reframing drought definitions, understanding, and analysis approaches|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/3631/2016/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=20|issue=9|pages=3631–3650|doi=10.5194/hess-20-3631-2016|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016HESS...20.3631V|issn=1027-5606|hdl=1885/152821|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wendt|first1=Doris E.|last2=Van Loon|first2=Anne F.|last3=Bloomfield|first3=John P.|last4=Hannah|first4=David M.|date=2020-10-13|title=Asymmetric impact of groundwater use on groundwater droughts|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/24/4853/2020/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=24|issue=10|pages=4853–4868|doi=10.5194/hess-24-4853-2020|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020HESS...24.4853W|issn=1027-5606}}</ref> Like agricultural droughts, hydrological droughts fit be triggered by more dan just a loss of rainfall. For instance, around 2007 Kazakhstan was awarded a large amount of money by de World Bank to restore water dat had been diverted to oda nations from de Aral Sea under Soviet rule.<ref>{{cite news|date=2007-04-09|title=Asia-Pacific – Dam project aims to save Aral Sea|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6538219.stm}}</ref> Similar circumstances sanso place their largest lake, Balkhash, at risk of completely drying out.<ref>{{cite news|date=2004-01-15|title=Asia-Pacific – Kazakh lake 'could dry up'|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3397077.stm}}</ref> # Agricultural anaa ecological droughts affect crop production anaa ecosystems insyd general. Dis condition fit sanso arise independently from any change insyd precipitation levels wen either increased [[irrigation]] anaa soil conditions den erosion triggered by poorly planned agricultural endeavors cause a shortfall insyd water available to de crops. == Indices den monitoring == [[File:Unl drought monitor D2 2000-2024.png|thumb|Percent of U.S. experiencing drought intensity of at least level D2 (severe drought), during de weeks of 2000 to 2024.]] Several indices have been defined to quantify den monitor drought at different spatial den temporal scales. A key property of drought indices be their spatial comparability, den they must be statistically robust.<ref name=":3" /> Drought indices include:<ref name=":3" /> * Palmer drought index (sometimes called de Palmer drought severity index (PDSI)): a regional drought index commonly used for monitoring drought events den studying areal extent den severity of drought episodes.<nowiki><ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|last1=Mishra|first1=Ashok K.|last2=Singh|first2=Vijay P.|date=September 2010|title=A review of drought</nowiki> concepts|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022169410004257|journal=Journal of Hydrology|volume=391|issue=1–2|pages=202–216|doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.07.012|bibcode=2010JHyd..391..202M|url-access=subscription}}<nowiki></ref></nowiki> De index uses precipitation den temperature data to study moisture supply den demand using a simple water balance model.<ref name="auto" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=July 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained: Hydrological drought explained|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Yi|last2=Ren|first2=Liliang|last3=Ma|first3=Mingwei|last4=Yang|first4=Xiaoli|last5=Yuan|first5=Fei|last6=Jiang|first6=Shanhu|date=January 2016|title=An insight into the Palmer drought mechanism based indices: comprehensive comparison of their strengths and limitations|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|journal=Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment|volume=30|issue=1|pages=119–136|doi=10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|bibcode=2016SERRA..30..119L|issn=1436-3240|url-access=subscription}}</ref> * Keetch-Byram Drought Index: an index dat be calculated based on rainfall, air temperature, den oda meteorological factors.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Keetch, John J.|author2=Byram, George M.|year=1968|title=A Drought Index for Forest Fire Control|url=http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/viewpub.php?index=40|journal=Res. Pap. Se-38. Asheville, Nc: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 35 P|publisher=USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station|volume=038|access-date=August 11, 2016|quote=(Date: 1968) Res. Paper SE-38. 32 pp. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service}}</ref> * Standardized precipitation index (SPI): E be computed based on precipitation, wich makes am a simple den easy-to-apply indicator for monitoring den prediction of droughts insyd different parts of de world. De World Meteorological Organization recommends dis index for identifying den monitoring meteorological droughts insyd different climates den time periods.<ref name=":3" /> * Standardized Precipitation Index (SPEI): a multiscalar drought index based on climatic data. De SPEI accounts sanso for de role of de increased atmospheric evaporative demand on drought severity.<ref name=":3" /> Evaporative demand be particularly dominant during periods of precipitation deficit. De SPEI calculation requires long-term den high-quality precipitation den atmospheric evaporative demand datasets. These fit be obtained from ground stations anaa gridded data based on reanalysis as well as satellite den multi-source datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Indices related to vegetation: root-zone soil moisture, vegetation condition index (VDI) den vegetation health index (VHI). De VCI den VHI are computed based on vegetation indices such as de normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and temperature datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Deciles indea * Standardized runoff index High-resolution drought information helps to better assess de spatial den temporal changes den variability insyd drought duration, severity, den magnitude at a much finer scale. Dis supports de development of site-specific adaptation measures.<ref name=":3" /> De application of multiple indices using different datasets helps to better manage den monitor droughts dan using a single dataset, Dis be particularly de case insyd regions of de world where not enough data be available such as Africa den South America. Using a single dataset fit be limiting, as e may not capture de full spectrum of drought characteristics den impacts.<ref name=":3" /> Careful monitoring of moisture levels fit sanso help predict increased risk for wildfires. == Causes == [[File:Drought.jpg|thumb|upright|Contraction den desiccation cracks insyd de dry earth of de Sonoran Desert, northwestern Mexico]] === General precipitation deficiency === == References == <references /> [[Category:Drought]] [[Category:Natural disasters]] [[Category:Meteorological phenomena]] [[Category:Whether hazards]] rq78dk8ik63r3d1ei6x70qqixz67rgs 103775 103774 2026-06-18T18:26:40Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 103775 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. {{TOC level|3}} == Definition == [[File:Fields outside benambra.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Fields outside Benambra, Australia suffering from drought insyd 2006.]] De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines a drought simply as "drier dan normal conditions".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Dis means dat a drought be "a moisture deficit relative to de average water availability at a given location den season".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} According to National Integrated Drought Information System, a multi-agency partnership, drought be generally defined as "a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time (usually a season anaa more), resulting insyd a water shortage". De National Weather Service office of de NOAA defines drought as "a deficiency of moisture dat results insyd adverse impacts on people, animals, anaa vegetation over a sizeable area".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Drought Basics|url=https://www.drought.gov/what-is-drought/drought-basics|access-date=2022-09-16|website=Drought.gov|publisher=NOAA National Integrated Drought Information System}}</ref> Drought be a complex phenomenon − relating to de absence of water − wich be difficult to monitor den define.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Definition of Drought|url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/dyk/drought-definition|access-date=2022-09-16|publisher=National Centers for Environmental Information}}</ref> By de early 1980s, over 150 definitions of "drought" had already been published.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|title=Types of Drought|url=https://drought.unl.edu/Education/DroughtIn-depth/TypesofDrought.aspx|access-date=2022-09-16|website=drought.unl.edu|publisher=National Drought Mitigation Center}}</ref> De range of definitions reflects differences insyd regions, needs, den disciplinary approaches. == Categories == There are three major categories of drought wey dey base on where insyd de water cycle de moisture deficit occurs: meteorological drought, hydrological drought, den agricultural anaa ecological drought.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} A meteorological drought occurs due to lack of [[precipitation]]. A hydrological drought be related to low runoff, streamflow, den reservoir den groundwater storage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=14 April 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained|journal=WIREs Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V|issn=2049-1948|doi-access=free}}</ref> An agricultural anaa ecological drought be causing plant stress from a combination of evaporation den low soil moisture.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Some organizations add anoda category: socioeconomic drought occurs wen de demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall insyd water supply.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":32" /> De socioeconomic drought be a similar concept to water scarcity. De different categories of droughts have different causes but similar effects: # Meteorological drought occurs wen there be a prolonged time plus less than average precipitation.<ref name="IGARSS2017">{{cite book|last1=Swain|display-authors=etal|first1=S|title=2017 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS)|chapter=Application of SPI, EDI and PNPI using MSWEP precipitation data over Marathwada, India|volume=2017|pages=5505–5507|doi=10.1109/IGARSS.2017.8128250|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5090-4951-6|s2cid=26920225}}</ref> Meteorological drought usually precedes de oda kinds of drought.<ref name="NOAAsurprise">{{cite web|url=http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-date=2022-10-09|url-status=live|title=What is a Drought?|date=August 2006|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|access-date=2007-04-10}}</ref> As a drought persists, de conditions surrounding am gradually worsen den its impact on de local population gradually increases. # Hydrological drought happens wen water reserves available insyd sources such as aquifers, lakes den reservoirs fall below average anaa a locally significant threshold. Hydrological drought tends to present more slowly because e involves stored water dat be used but not replenished. Due to de close interaction plus water use, dis type of drought be fit be heavily influenced by water management. Both positive den negative human influences have been discovered den strategic water management strategies seem key to mitigate drought impact.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van Loon|first1=Anne F.|last2=Stahl|first2=Kerstin|last3=Di Baldassarre|first3=Giuliano|last4=Clark|first4=Julian|last5=Rangecroft|first5=Sally|last6=Wanders|first6=Niko|last7=Gleeson|first7=Tom|last8=Van Dijk|first8=Albert I. J. M.|last9=Tallaksen|first9=Lena M. |last10=Hannaford |first10=Jamie|last11=Uijlenhoet|first11=Remko|last12=Teuling|first12=Adriaan J.|last13=Hannah|first13=David M.|last14=Sheffield|first14=Justin|last15=Svoboda|first15=Mark|date=2016-09-08|title=Drought in a human-modified world: reframing drought definitions, understanding, and analysis approaches|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/3631/2016/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=20|issue=9|pages=3631–3650|doi=10.5194/hess-20-3631-2016|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016HESS...20.3631V|issn=1027-5606|hdl=1885/152821|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wendt|first1=Doris E.|last2=Van Loon|first2=Anne F.|last3=Bloomfield|first3=John P.|last4=Hannah|first4=David M.|date=2020-10-13|title=Asymmetric impact of groundwater use on groundwater droughts|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/24/4853/2020/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=24|issue=10|pages=4853–4868|doi=10.5194/hess-24-4853-2020|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020HESS...24.4853W|issn=1027-5606}}</ref> Like agricultural droughts, hydrological droughts fit be triggered by more dan just a loss of rainfall. For instance, around 2007 Kazakhstan was awarded a large amount of money by de World Bank to restore water dat had been diverted to oda nations from de Aral Sea under Soviet rule.<ref>{{cite news|date=2007-04-09|title=Asia-Pacific – Dam project aims to save Aral Sea|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6538219.stm}}</ref> Similar circumstances sanso place their largest lake, Balkhash, at risk of completely drying out.<ref>{{cite news|date=2004-01-15|title=Asia-Pacific – Kazakh lake 'could dry up'|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3397077.stm}}</ref> # Agricultural anaa ecological droughts affect crop production anaa ecosystems insyd general. Dis condition fit sanso arise independently from any change insyd precipitation levels wen either increased [[irrigation]] anaa soil conditions den erosion triggered by poorly planned agricultural endeavors cause a shortfall insyd water available to de crops. == Indices den monitoring == [[File:Unl drought monitor D2 2000-2024.png|thumb|Percent of U.S. experiencing drought intensity of at least level D2 (severe drought), during de weeks of 2000 to 2024.]] Several indices have been defined to quantify den monitor drought at different spatial den temporal scales. A key property of drought indices be their spatial comparability, den they must be statistically robust.<ref name=":3" /> Drought indices include:<ref name=":3" /> * Palmer drought index (sometimes called de Palmer drought severity index (PDSI)): a regional drought index commonly used for monitoring drought events den studying areal extent den severity of drought episodes.<nowiki><ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|last1=Mishra|first1=Ashok K.|last2=Singh|first2=Vijay P.|date=September 2010|title=A review of drought</nowiki> concepts|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022169410004257|journal=Journal of Hydrology|volume=391|issue=1–2|pages=202–216|doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.07.012|bibcode=2010JHyd..391..202M|url-access=subscription}}<nowiki></ref></nowiki> De index uses precipitation den temperature data to study moisture supply den demand using a simple water balance model.<ref name="auto" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=July 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained: Hydrological drought explained|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Yi|last2=Ren|first2=Liliang|last3=Ma|first3=Mingwei|last4=Yang|first4=Xiaoli|last5=Yuan|first5=Fei|last6=Jiang|first6=Shanhu|date=January 2016|title=An insight into the Palmer drought mechanism based indices: comprehensive comparison of their strengths and limitations|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|journal=Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment|volume=30|issue=1|pages=119–136|doi=10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|bibcode=2016SERRA..30..119L|issn=1436-3240|url-access=subscription}}</ref> * Keetch-Byram Drought Index: an index dat be calculated based on rainfall, air temperature, den oda meteorological factors.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Keetch, John J.|author2=Byram, George M.|year=1968|title=A Drought Index for Forest Fire Control|url=http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/viewpub.php?index=40|journal=Res. Pap. Se-38. Asheville, Nc: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 35 P|publisher=USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station|volume=038|access-date=August 11, 2016|quote=(Date: 1968) Res. Paper SE-38. 32 pp. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service}}</ref> * Standardized precipitation index (SPI): E be computed based on precipitation, wich makes am a simple den easy-to-apply indicator for monitoring den prediction of droughts insyd different parts of de world. De World Meteorological Organization recommends dis index for identifying den monitoring meteorological droughts insyd different climates den time periods.<ref name=":3" /> * Standardized Precipitation Index (SPEI): a multiscalar drought index based on climatic data. De SPEI accounts sanso for de role of de increased atmospheric evaporative demand on drought severity.<ref name=":3" /> Evaporative demand be particularly dominant during periods of precipitation deficit. De SPEI calculation requires long-term den high-quality precipitation den atmospheric evaporative demand datasets. These fit be obtained from ground stations anaa gridded data based on reanalysis as well as satellite den multi-source datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Indices related to vegetation: root-zone soil moisture, vegetation condition index (VDI) den vegetation health index (VHI). De VCI den VHI are computed based on vegetation indices such as de normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and temperature datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Deciles indea * Standardized runoff index High-resolution drought information helps to better assess de spatial den temporal changes den variability insyd drought duration, severity, den magnitude at a much finer scale. Dis supports de development of site-specific adaptation measures.<ref name=":3" /> De application of multiple indices using different datasets helps to better manage den monitor droughts dan using a single dataset, Dis be particularly de case insyd regions of de world where not enough data be available such as Africa den South America. Using a single dataset fit be limiting, as e may not capture de full spectrum of drought characteristics den impacts.<ref name=":3" /> Careful monitoring of moisture levels fit sanso help predict increased risk for wildfires. == Causes == [[File:Drought.jpg|thumb|upright|Contraction den desiccation cracks insyd de dry earth of de Sonoran Desert, northwestern Mexico]] === General precipitation deficiency === == References == <references /> [[Category:Drought]] [[Category:Natural disasters]] [[Category:Meteorological phenomena]] [[Category:Whether hazards]] [[Category:Civil defense]] bgj6xnysi871bgfqico1y44omecgz3i 103802 103775 2026-06-18T19:18:36Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 103802 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. {{TOC level|3}} == Definition == [[File:Fields outside benambra.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Fields outside Benambra, Australia suffering from drought insyd 2006.]] De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines a drought simply as "drier dan normal conditions".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Dis means dat a drought be "a moisture deficit relative to de average water availability at a given location den season".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} According to National Integrated Drought Information System, a multi-agency partnership, drought be generally defined as "a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time (usually a season anaa more), resulting insyd a water shortage". De National Weather Service office of de NOAA defines drought as "a deficiency of moisture dat results insyd adverse impacts on people, animals, anaa vegetation over a sizeable area".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Drought Basics|url=https://www.drought.gov/what-is-drought/drought-basics|access-date=2022-09-16|website=Drought.gov|publisher=NOAA National Integrated Drought Information System}}</ref> Drought be a complex phenomenon − relating to de absence of water − wich be difficult to monitor den define.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Definition of Drought|url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/dyk/drought-definition|access-date=2022-09-16|publisher=National Centers for Environmental Information}}</ref> By de early 1980s, over 150 definitions of "drought" had already been published.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|title=Types of Drought|url=https://drought.unl.edu/Education/DroughtIn-depth/TypesofDrought.aspx|access-date=2022-09-16|website=drought.unl.edu|publisher=National Drought Mitigation Center}}</ref> De range of definitions reflects differences insyd regions, needs, den disciplinary approaches. == Categories == There are three major categories of drought wey dey base on where insyd de water cycle de moisture deficit occurs: meteorological drought, hydrological drought, den agricultural anaa ecological drought.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} A meteorological drought occurs due to lack of [[precipitation]]. A hydrological drought be related to low runoff, streamflow, den reservoir den groundwater storage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=14 April 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained|journal=WIREs Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V|issn=2049-1948|doi-access=free}}</ref> An agricultural anaa ecological drought be causing plant stress from a combination of evaporation den low soil moisture.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Some organizations add anoda category: socioeconomic drought occurs wen de demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall insyd water supply.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":32" /> De socioeconomic drought be a similar concept to water scarcity. De different categories of droughts have different causes but similar effects: # Meteorological drought occurs wen there be a prolonged time plus less than average precipitation.<ref name="IGARSS2017">{{cite book|last1=Swain|display-authors=etal|first1=S|title=2017 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS)|chapter=Application of SPI, EDI and PNPI using MSWEP precipitation data over Marathwada, India|volume=2017|pages=5505–5507|doi=10.1109/IGARSS.2017.8128250|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5090-4951-6|s2cid=26920225}}</ref> Meteorological drought usually precedes de oda kinds of drought.<ref name="NOAAsurprise">{{cite web|url=http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-date=2022-10-09|url-status=live|title=What is a Drought?|date=August 2006|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|access-date=2007-04-10}}</ref> As a drought persists, de conditions surrounding am gradually worsen den its impact on de local population gradually increases. # Hydrological drought happens wen water reserves available insyd sources such as aquifers, lakes den reservoirs fall below average anaa a locally significant threshold. Hydrological drought tends to present more slowly because e involves stored water dat be used but not replenished. Due to de close interaction plus water use, dis type of drought be fit be heavily influenced by water management. Both positive den negative human influences have been discovered den strategic water management strategies seem key to mitigate drought impact.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van Loon|first1=Anne F.|last2=Stahl|first2=Kerstin|last3=Di Baldassarre|first3=Giuliano|last4=Clark|first4=Julian|last5=Rangecroft|first5=Sally|last6=Wanders|first6=Niko|last7=Gleeson|first7=Tom|last8=Van Dijk|first8=Albert I. J. M.|last9=Tallaksen|first9=Lena M. |last10=Hannaford |first10=Jamie|last11=Uijlenhoet|first11=Remko|last12=Teuling|first12=Adriaan J.|last13=Hannah|first13=David M.|last14=Sheffield|first14=Justin|last15=Svoboda|first15=Mark|date=2016-09-08|title=Drought in a human-modified world: reframing drought definitions, understanding, and analysis approaches|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/3631/2016/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=20|issue=9|pages=3631–3650|doi=10.5194/hess-20-3631-2016|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016HESS...20.3631V|issn=1027-5606|hdl=1885/152821|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wendt|first1=Doris E.|last2=Van Loon|first2=Anne F.|last3=Bloomfield|first3=John P.|last4=Hannah|first4=David M.|date=2020-10-13|title=Asymmetric impact of groundwater use on groundwater droughts|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/24/4853/2020/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=24|issue=10|pages=4853–4868|doi=10.5194/hess-24-4853-2020|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020HESS...24.4853W|issn=1027-5606}}</ref> Like agricultural droughts, hydrological droughts fit be triggered by more dan just a loss of rainfall. For instance, around 2007 Kazakhstan was awarded a large amount of money by de World Bank to restore water dat had been diverted to oda nations from de Aral Sea under Soviet rule.<ref>{{cite news|date=2007-04-09|title=Asia-Pacific – Dam project aims to save Aral Sea|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6538219.stm}}</ref> Similar circumstances sanso place their largest lake, Balkhash, at risk of completely drying out.<ref>{{cite news|date=2004-01-15|title=Asia-Pacific – Kazakh lake 'could dry up'|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3397077.stm}}</ref> # Agricultural anaa ecological droughts affect crop production anaa ecosystems insyd general. Dis condition fit sanso arise independently from any change insyd precipitation levels wen either increased [[irrigation]] anaa soil conditions den erosion triggered by poorly planned agricultural endeavors cause a shortfall insyd water available to de crops. == Indices den monitoring == [[File:Unl drought monitor D2 2000-2024.png|thumb|Percent of U.S. experiencing drought intensity of at least level D2 (severe drought), during de weeks of 2000 to 2024.]] Several indices have been defined to quantify den monitor drought at different spatial den temporal scales. A key property of drought indices be their spatial comparability, den they must be statistically robust.<ref name=":3" /> Drought indices include:<ref name=":3" /> * Palmer drought index (sometimes called de Palmer drought severity index (PDSI)): a regional drought index commonly used for monitoring drought events den studying areal extent den severity of drought episodes.<nowiki><ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|last1=Mishra|first1=Ashok K.|last2=Singh|first2=Vijay P.|date=September 2010|title=A review of drought</nowiki> concepts|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022169410004257|journal=Journal of Hydrology|volume=391|issue=1–2|pages=202–216|doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.07.012|bibcode=2010JHyd..391..202M|url-access=subscription}}<nowiki></ref></nowiki> De index uses precipitation den temperature data to study moisture supply den demand using a simple water balance model.<ref name="auto" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=July 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained: Hydrological drought explained|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Yi|last2=Ren|first2=Liliang|last3=Ma|first3=Mingwei|last4=Yang|first4=Xiaoli|last5=Yuan|first5=Fei|last6=Jiang|first6=Shanhu|date=January 2016|title=An insight into the Palmer drought mechanism based indices: comprehensive comparison of their strengths and limitations|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|journal=Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment|volume=30|issue=1|pages=119–136|doi=10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|bibcode=2016SERRA..30..119L|issn=1436-3240|url-access=subscription}}</ref> * Keetch-Byram Drought Index: an index dat be calculated based on rainfall, air temperature, den oda meteorological factors.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Keetch, John J.|author2=Byram, George M.|year=1968|title=A Drought Index for Forest Fire Control|url=http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/viewpub.php?index=40|journal=Res. Pap. Se-38. Asheville, Nc: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 35 P|publisher=USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station|volume=038|access-date=August 11, 2016|quote=(Date: 1968) Res. Paper SE-38. 32 pp. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service}}</ref> * Standardized precipitation index (SPI): E be computed based on precipitation, wich makes am a simple den easy-to-apply indicator for monitoring den prediction of droughts insyd different parts of de world. De World Meteorological Organization recommends dis index for identifying den monitoring meteorological droughts insyd different climates den time periods.<ref name=":3" /> * Standardized Precipitation Index (SPEI): a multiscalar drought index based on climatic data. De SPEI accounts sanso for de role of de increased atmospheric evaporative demand on drought severity.<ref name=":3" /> Evaporative demand be particularly dominant during periods of precipitation deficit. De SPEI calculation requires long-term den high-quality precipitation den atmospheric evaporative demand datasets. These fit be obtained from ground stations anaa gridded data based on reanalysis as well as satellite den multi-source datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Indices related to vegetation: root-zone soil moisture, vegetation condition index (VDI) den vegetation health index (VHI). De VCI den VHI are computed based on vegetation indices such as de normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and temperature datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Deciles indea * Standardized runoff index High-resolution drought information helps to better assess de spatial den temporal changes den variability insyd drought duration, severity, den magnitude at a much finer scale. Dis supports de development of site-specific adaptation measures.<ref name=":3" /> De application of multiple indices using different datasets helps to better manage den monitor droughts dan using a single dataset, Dis be particularly de case insyd regions of de world where not enough data be available such as Africa den South America. Using a single dataset fit be limiting, as e may not capture de full spectrum of drought characteristics den impacts.<ref name=":3" /> Careful monitoring of moisture levels fit sanso help predict increased risk for wildfires. == Causes == [[File:Drought.jpg|thumb|upright|Contraction den desiccation cracks insyd de dry earth of de Sonoran Desert, northwestern Mexico]] === General precipitation deficiency === == References == <references /> [[Category:Drought]] [[Category:Natural disasters]] [[Category:Meteorological phenomena]] [[Category:Whether hazards]] [[Category:Civil defense]] [[Category:Climate variability den change]] ac499ghz07pivc4jpk3ibma1txd8ljm 103803 103802 2026-06-18T19:19:07Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 103803 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. {{TOC level|3}} == Definition == [[File:Fields outside benambra.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Fields outside Benambra, Australia suffering from drought insyd 2006.]] De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines a drought simply as "drier dan normal conditions".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Dis means dat a drought be "a moisture deficit relative to de average water availability at a given location den season".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} According to National Integrated Drought Information System, a multi-agency partnership, drought be generally defined as "a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time (usually a season anaa more), resulting insyd a water shortage". De National Weather Service office of de NOAA defines drought as "a deficiency of moisture dat results insyd adverse impacts on people, animals, anaa vegetation over a sizeable area".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Drought Basics|url=https://www.drought.gov/what-is-drought/drought-basics|access-date=2022-09-16|website=Drought.gov|publisher=NOAA National Integrated Drought Information System}}</ref> Drought be a complex phenomenon − relating to de absence of water − wich be difficult to monitor den define.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Definition of Drought|url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/dyk/drought-definition|access-date=2022-09-16|publisher=National Centers for Environmental Information}}</ref> By de early 1980s, over 150 definitions of "drought" had already been published.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|title=Types of Drought|url=https://drought.unl.edu/Education/DroughtIn-depth/TypesofDrought.aspx|access-date=2022-09-16|website=drought.unl.edu|publisher=National Drought Mitigation Center}}</ref> De range of definitions reflects differences insyd regions, needs, den disciplinary approaches. == Categories == There are three major categories of drought wey dey base on where insyd de water cycle de moisture deficit occurs: meteorological drought, hydrological drought, den agricultural anaa ecological drought.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} A meteorological drought occurs due to lack of [[precipitation]]. A hydrological drought be related to low runoff, streamflow, den reservoir den groundwater storage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=14 April 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained|journal=WIREs Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V|issn=2049-1948|doi-access=free}}</ref> An agricultural anaa ecological drought be causing plant stress from a combination of evaporation den low soil moisture.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Some organizations add anoda category: socioeconomic drought occurs wen de demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall insyd water supply.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":32" /> De socioeconomic drought be a similar concept to water scarcity. De different categories of droughts have different causes but similar effects: # Meteorological drought occurs wen there be a prolonged time plus less than average precipitation.<ref name="IGARSS2017">{{cite book|last1=Swain|display-authors=etal|first1=S|title=2017 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS)|chapter=Application of SPI, EDI and PNPI using MSWEP precipitation data over Marathwada, India|volume=2017|pages=5505–5507|doi=10.1109/IGARSS.2017.8128250|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5090-4951-6|s2cid=26920225}}</ref> Meteorological drought usually precedes de oda kinds of drought.<ref name="NOAAsurprise">{{cite web|url=http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-date=2022-10-09|url-status=live|title=What is a Drought?|date=August 2006|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|access-date=2007-04-10}}</ref> As a drought persists, de conditions surrounding am gradually worsen den its impact on de local population gradually increases. # Hydrological drought happens wen water reserves available insyd sources such as aquifers, lakes den reservoirs fall below average anaa a locally significant threshold. Hydrological drought tends to present more slowly because e involves stored water dat be used but not replenished. Due to de close interaction plus water use, dis type of drought be fit be heavily influenced by water management. Both positive den negative human influences have been discovered den strategic water management strategies seem key to mitigate drought impact.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van Loon|first1=Anne F.|last2=Stahl|first2=Kerstin|last3=Di Baldassarre|first3=Giuliano|last4=Clark|first4=Julian|last5=Rangecroft|first5=Sally|last6=Wanders|first6=Niko|last7=Gleeson|first7=Tom|last8=Van Dijk|first8=Albert I. J. M.|last9=Tallaksen|first9=Lena M. |last10=Hannaford |first10=Jamie|last11=Uijlenhoet|first11=Remko|last12=Teuling|first12=Adriaan J.|last13=Hannah|first13=David M.|last14=Sheffield|first14=Justin|last15=Svoboda|first15=Mark|date=2016-09-08|title=Drought in a human-modified world: reframing drought definitions, understanding, and analysis approaches|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/3631/2016/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=20|issue=9|pages=3631–3650|doi=10.5194/hess-20-3631-2016|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016HESS...20.3631V|issn=1027-5606|hdl=1885/152821|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wendt|first1=Doris E.|last2=Van Loon|first2=Anne F.|last3=Bloomfield|first3=John P.|last4=Hannah|first4=David M.|date=2020-10-13|title=Asymmetric impact of groundwater use on groundwater droughts|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/24/4853/2020/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=24|issue=10|pages=4853–4868|doi=10.5194/hess-24-4853-2020|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020HESS...24.4853W|issn=1027-5606}}</ref> Like agricultural droughts, hydrological droughts fit be triggered by more dan just a loss of rainfall. For instance, around 2007 Kazakhstan was awarded a large amount of money by de World Bank to restore water dat had been diverted to oda nations from de Aral Sea under Soviet rule.<ref>{{cite news|date=2007-04-09|title=Asia-Pacific – Dam project aims to save Aral Sea|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6538219.stm}}</ref> Similar circumstances sanso place their largest lake, Balkhash, at risk of completely drying out.<ref>{{cite news|date=2004-01-15|title=Asia-Pacific – Kazakh lake 'could dry up'|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3397077.stm}}</ref> # Agricultural anaa ecological droughts affect crop production anaa ecosystems insyd general. Dis condition fit sanso arise independently from any change insyd precipitation levels wen either increased [[irrigation]] anaa soil conditions den erosion triggered by poorly planned agricultural endeavors cause a shortfall insyd water available to de crops. == Indices den monitoring == [[File:Unl drought monitor D2 2000-2024.png|thumb|Percent of U.S. experiencing drought intensity of at least level D2 (severe drought), during de weeks of 2000 to 2024.]] Several indices have been defined to quantify den monitor drought at different spatial den temporal scales. A key property of drought indices be their spatial comparability, den they must be statistically robust.<ref name=":3" /> Drought indices include:<ref name=":3" /> * Palmer drought index (sometimes called de Palmer drought severity index (PDSI)): a regional drought index commonly used for monitoring drought events den studying areal extent den severity of drought episodes.<nowiki><ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|last1=Mishra|first1=Ashok K.|last2=Singh|first2=Vijay P.|date=September 2010|title=A review of drought</nowiki> concepts|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022169410004257|journal=Journal of Hydrology|volume=391|issue=1–2|pages=202–216|doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.07.012|bibcode=2010JHyd..391..202M|url-access=subscription}}<nowiki></ref></nowiki> De index uses precipitation den temperature data to study moisture supply den demand using a simple water balance model.<ref name="auto" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=July 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained: Hydrological drought explained|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Yi|last2=Ren|first2=Liliang|last3=Ma|first3=Mingwei|last4=Yang|first4=Xiaoli|last5=Yuan|first5=Fei|last6=Jiang|first6=Shanhu|date=January 2016|title=An insight into the Palmer drought mechanism based indices: comprehensive comparison of their strengths and limitations|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|journal=Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment|volume=30|issue=1|pages=119–136|doi=10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|bibcode=2016SERRA..30..119L|issn=1436-3240|url-access=subscription}}</ref> * Keetch-Byram Drought Index: an index dat be calculated based on rainfall, air temperature, den oda meteorological factors.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Keetch, John J.|author2=Byram, George M.|year=1968|title=A Drought Index for Forest Fire Control|url=http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/viewpub.php?index=40|journal=Res. Pap. Se-38. Asheville, Nc: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 35 P|publisher=USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station|volume=038|access-date=August 11, 2016|quote=(Date: 1968) Res. Paper SE-38. 32 pp. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service}}</ref> * Standardized precipitation index (SPI): E be computed based on precipitation, wich makes am a simple den easy-to-apply indicator for monitoring den prediction of droughts insyd different parts of de world. De World Meteorological Organization recommends dis index for identifying den monitoring meteorological droughts insyd different climates den time periods.<ref name=":3" /> * Standardized Precipitation Index (SPEI): a multiscalar drought index based on climatic data. De SPEI accounts sanso for de role of de increased atmospheric evaporative demand on drought severity.<ref name=":3" /> Evaporative demand be particularly dominant during periods of precipitation deficit. De SPEI calculation requires long-term den high-quality precipitation den atmospheric evaporative demand datasets. These fit be obtained from ground stations anaa gridded data based on reanalysis as well as satellite den multi-source datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Indices related to vegetation: root-zone soil moisture, vegetation condition index (VDI) den vegetation health index (VHI). De VCI den VHI are computed based on vegetation indices such as de normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and temperature datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Deciles indea * Standardized runoff index High-resolution drought information helps to better assess de spatial den temporal changes den variability insyd drought duration, severity, den magnitude at a much finer scale. Dis supports de development of site-specific adaptation measures.<ref name=":3" /> De application of multiple indices using different datasets helps to better manage den monitor droughts dan using a single dataset, Dis be particularly de case insyd regions of de world where not enough data be available such as Africa den South America. Using a single dataset fit be limiting, as e may not capture de full spectrum of drought characteristics den impacts.<ref name=":3" /> Careful monitoring of moisture levels fit sanso help predict increased risk for wildfires. == Causes == [[File:Drought.jpg|thumb|upright|Contraction den desiccation cracks insyd de dry earth of de Sonoran Desert, northwestern Mexico]] === General precipitation deficiency === == References == <references /> [[Category:Drought]] [[Category:Natural disasters]] [[Category:Meteorological phenomena]] [[Category:Whether hazards]] [[Category:Civil defense]] [[Category:Climate variability den change]] [[Category:Hydrology]] 7y72kmmmla4210yqs2vq994a0zs3zbq 103805 103803 2026-06-18T19:19:48Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 103805 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. {{TOC level|3}} == Definition == [[File:Fields outside benambra.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Fields outside Benambra, Australia suffering from drought insyd 2006.]] De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines a drought simply as "drier dan normal conditions".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Dis means dat a drought be "a moisture deficit relative to de average water availability at a given location den season".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} According to National Integrated Drought Information System, a multi-agency partnership, drought be generally defined as "a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time (usually a season anaa more), resulting insyd a water shortage". De National Weather Service office of de NOAA defines drought as "a deficiency of moisture dat results insyd adverse impacts on people, animals, anaa vegetation over a sizeable area".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Drought Basics|url=https://www.drought.gov/what-is-drought/drought-basics|access-date=2022-09-16|website=Drought.gov|publisher=NOAA National Integrated Drought Information System}}</ref> Drought be a complex phenomenon − relating to de absence of water − wich be difficult to monitor den define.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Definition of Drought|url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/dyk/drought-definition|access-date=2022-09-16|publisher=National Centers for Environmental Information}}</ref> By de early 1980s, over 150 definitions of "drought" had already been published.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|title=Types of Drought|url=https://drought.unl.edu/Education/DroughtIn-depth/TypesofDrought.aspx|access-date=2022-09-16|website=drought.unl.edu|publisher=National Drought Mitigation Center}}</ref> De range of definitions reflects differences insyd regions, needs, den disciplinary approaches. == Categories == There are three major categories of drought wey dey base on where insyd de water cycle de moisture deficit occurs: meteorological drought, hydrological drought, den agricultural anaa ecological drought.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} A meteorological drought occurs due to lack of [[precipitation]]. A hydrological drought be related to low runoff, streamflow, den reservoir den groundwater storage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=14 April 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained|journal=WIREs Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V|issn=2049-1948|doi-access=free}}</ref> An agricultural anaa ecological drought be causing plant stress from a combination of evaporation den low soil moisture.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Some organizations add anoda category: socioeconomic drought occurs wen de demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall insyd water supply.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":32" /> De socioeconomic drought be a similar concept to water scarcity. De different categories of droughts have different causes but similar effects: # Meteorological drought occurs wen there be a prolonged time plus less than average precipitation.<ref name="IGARSS2017">{{cite book|last1=Swain|display-authors=etal|first1=S|title=2017 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS)|chapter=Application of SPI, EDI and PNPI using MSWEP precipitation data over Marathwada, India|volume=2017|pages=5505–5507|doi=10.1109/IGARSS.2017.8128250|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5090-4951-6|s2cid=26920225}}</ref> Meteorological drought usually precedes de oda kinds of drought.<ref name="NOAAsurprise">{{cite web|url=http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-date=2022-10-09|url-status=live|title=What is a Drought?|date=August 2006|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|access-date=2007-04-10}}</ref> As a drought persists, de conditions surrounding am gradually worsen den its impact on de local population gradually increases. # Hydrological drought happens wen water reserves available insyd sources such as aquifers, lakes den reservoirs fall below average anaa a locally significant threshold. Hydrological drought tends to present more slowly because e involves stored water dat be used but not replenished. Due to de close interaction plus water use, dis type of drought be fit be heavily influenced by water management. Both positive den negative human influences have been discovered den strategic water management strategies seem key to mitigate drought impact.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van Loon|first1=Anne F.|last2=Stahl|first2=Kerstin|last3=Di Baldassarre|first3=Giuliano|last4=Clark|first4=Julian|last5=Rangecroft|first5=Sally|last6=Wanders|first6=Niko|last7=Gleeson|first7=Tom|last8=Van Dijk|first8=Albert I. J. M.|last9=Tallaksen|first9=Lena M. |last10=Hannaford |first10=Jamie|last11=Uijlenhoet|first11=Remko|last12=Teuling|first12=Adriaan J.|last13=Hannah|first13=David M.|last14=Sheffield|first14=Justin|last15=Svoboda|first15=Mark|date=2016-09-08|title=Drought in a human-modified world: reframing drought definitions, understanding, and analysis approaches|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/3631/2016/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=20|issue=9|pages=3631–3650|doi=10.5194/hess-20-3631-2016|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016HESS...20.3631V|issn=1027-5606|hdl=1885/152821|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wendt|first1=Doris E.|last2=Van Loon|first2=Anne F.|last3=Bloomfield|first3=John P.|last4=Hannah|first4=David M.|date=2020-10-13|title=Asymmetric impact of groundwater use on groundwater droughts|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/24/4853/2020/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=24|issue=10|pages=4853–4868|doi=10.5194/hess-24-4853-2020|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020HESS...24.4853W|issn=1027-5606}}</ref> Like agricultural droughts, hydrological droughts fit be triggered by more dan just a loss of rainfall. For instance, around 2007 Kazakhstan was awarded a large amount of money by de World Bank to restore water dat had been diverted to oda nations from de Aral Sea under Soviet rule.<ref>{{cite news|date=2007-04-09|title=Asia-Pacific – Dam project aims to save Aral Sea|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6538219.stm}}</ref> Similar circumstances sanso place their largest lake, Balkhash, at risk of completely drying out.<ref>{{cite news|date=2004-01-15|title=Asia-Pacific – Kazakh lake 'could dry up'|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3397077.stm}}</ref> # Agricultural anaa ecological droughts affect crop production anaa ecosystems insyd general. Dis condition fit sanso arise independently from any change insyd precipitation levels wen either increased [[irrigation]] anaa soil conditions den erosion triggered by poorly planned agricultural endeavors cause a shortfall insyd water available to de crops. == Indices den monitoring == [[File:Unl drought monitor D2 2000-2024.png|thumb|Percent of U.S. experiencing drought intensity of at least level D2 (severe drought), during de weeks of 2000 to 2024.]] Several indices have been defined to quantify den monitor drought at different spatial den temporal scales. A key property of drought indices be their spatial comparability, den they must be statistically robust.<ref name=":3" /> Drought indices include:<ref name=":3" /> * Palmer drought index (sometimes called de Palmer drought severity index (PDSI)): a regional drought index commonly used for monitoring drought events den studying areal extent den severity of drought episodes.<nowiki><ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|last1=Mishra|first1=Ashok K.|last2=Singh|first2=Vijay P.|date=September 2010|title=A review of drought</nowiki> concepts|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022169410004257|journal=Journal of Hydrology|volume=391|issue=1–2|pages=202–216|doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.07.012|bibcode=2010JHyd..391..202M|url-access=subscription}}<nowiki></ref></nowiki> De index uses precipitation den temperature data to study moisture supply den demand using a simple water balance model.<ref name="auto" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=July 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained: Hydrological drought explained|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Yi|last2=Ren|first2=Liliang|last3=Ma|first3=Mingwei|last4=Yang|first4=Xiaoli|last5=Yuan|first5=Fei|last6=Jiang|first6=Shanhu|date=January 2016|title=An insight into the Palmer drought mechanism based indices: comprehensive comparison of their strengths and limitations|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|journal=Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment|volume=30|issue=1|pages=119–136|doi=10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|bibcode=2016SERRA..30..119L|issn=1436-3240|url-access=subscription}}</ref> * Keetch-Byram Drought Index: an index dat be calculated based on rainfall, air temperature, den oda meteorological factors.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Keetch, John J.|author2=Byram, George M.|year=1968|title=A Drought Index for Forest Fire Control|url=http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/viewpub.php?index=40|journal=Res. Pap. Se-38. Asheville, Nc: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 35 P|publisher=USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station|volume=038|access-date=August 11, 2016|quote=(Date: 1968) Res. Paper SE-38. 32 pp. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service}}</ref> * Standardized precipitation index (SPI): E be computed based on precipitation, wich makes am a simple den easy-to-apply indicator for monitoring den prediction of droughts insyd different parts of de world. De World Meteorological Organization recommends dis index for identifying den monitoring meteorological droughts insyd different climates den time periods.<ref name=":3" /> * Standardized Precipitation Index (SPEI): a multiscalar drought index based on climatic data. De SPEI accounts sanso for de role of de increased atmospheric evaporative demand on drought severity.<ref name=":3" /> Evaporative demand be particularly dominant during periods of precipitation deficit. De SPEI calculation requires long-term den high-quality precipitation den atmospheric evaporative demand datasets. These fit be obtained from ground stations anaa gridded data based on reanalysis as well as satellite den multi-source datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Indices related to vegetation: root-zone soil moisture, vegetation condition index (VDI) den vegetation health index (VHI). De VCI den VHI are computed based on vegetation indices such as de normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and temperature datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Deciles indea * Standardized runoff index High-resolution drought information helps to better assess de spatial den temporal changes den variability insyd drought duration, severity, den magnitude at a much finer scale. Dis supports de development of site-specific adaptation measures.<ref name=":3" /> De application of multiple indices using different datasets helps to better manage den monitor droughts dan using a single dataset, Dis be particularly de case insyd regions of de world where not enough data be available such as Africa den South America. Using a single dataset fit be limiting, as e may not capture de full spectrum of drought characteristics den impacts.<ref name=":3" /> Careful monitoring of moisture levels fit sanso help predict increased risk for wildfires. == Causes == [[File:Drought.jpg|thumb|upright|Contraction den desiccation cracks insyd de dry earth of de Sonoran Desert, northwestern Mexico]] === General precipitation deficiency === == References == <references /> [[Category:Drought]] [[Category:Natural disasters]] [[Category:Meteorological phenomena]] [[Category:Whether hazards]] [[Category:Civil defense]] [[Category:Climate variability den change]] [[Category:Hydrology]] [[Category:Water den de environment]] qgnfnwrndc52xew1pgfe919bisj2xko 103807 103805 2026-06-18T19:20:25Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 103807 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. {{TOC level|3}} == Definition == [[File:Fields outside benambra.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Fields outside Benambra, Australia suffering from drought insyd 2006.]] De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines a drought simply as "drier dan normal conditions".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Dis means dat a drought be "a moisture deficit relative to de average water availability at a given location den season".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} According to National Integrated Drought Information System, a multi-agency partnership, drought be generally defined as "a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time (usually a season anaa more), resulting insyd a water shortage". De National Weather Service office of de NOAA defines drought as "a deficiency of moisture dat results insyd adverse impacts on people, animals, anaa vegetation over a sizeable area".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Drought Basics|url=https://www.drought.gov/what-is-drought/drought-basics|access-date=2022-09-16|website=Drought.gov|publisher=NOAA National Integrated Drought Information System}}</ref> Drought be a complex phenomenon − relating to de absence of water − wich be difficult to monitor den define.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Definition of Drought|url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/dyk/drought-definition|access-date=2022-09-16|publisher=National Centers for Environmental Information}}</ref> By de early 1980s, over 150 definitions of "drought" had already been published.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|title=Types of Drought|url=https://drought.unl.edu/Education/DroughtIn-depth/TypesofDrought.aspx|access-date=2022-09-16|website=drought.unl.edu|publisher=National Drought Mitigation Center}}</ref> De range of definitions reflects differences insyd regions, needs, den disciplinary approaches. == Categories == There are three major categories of drought wey dey base on where insyd de water cycle de moisture deficit occurs: meteorological drought, hydrological drought, den agricultural anaa ecological drought.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} A meteorological drought occurs due to lack of [[precipitation]]. A hydrological drought be related to low runoff, streamflow, den reservoir den groundwater storage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=14 April 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained|journal=WIREs Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V|issn=2049-1948|doi-access=free}}</ref> An agricultural anaa ecological drought be causing plant stress from a combination of evaporation den low soil moisture.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Some organizations add anoda category: socioeconomic drought occurs wen de demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall insyd water supply.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":32" /> De socioeconomic drought be a similar concept to water scarcity. De different categories of droughts have different causes but similar effects: # Meteorological drought occurs wen there be a prolonged time plus less than average precipitation.<ref name="IGARSS2017">{{cite book|last1=Swain|display-authors=etal|first1=S|title=2017 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS)|chapter=Application of SPI, EDI and PNPI using MSWEP precipitation data over Marathwada, India|volume=2017|pages=5505–5507|doi=10.1109/IGARSS.2017.8128250|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5090-4951-6|s2cid=26920225}}</ref> Meteorological drought usually precedes de oda kinds of drought.<ref name="NOAAsurprise">{{cite web|url=http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-date=2022-10-09|url-status=live|title=What is a Drought?|date=August 2006|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|access-date=2007-04-10}}</ref> As a drought persists, de conditions surrounding am gradually worsen den its impact on de local population gradually increases. # Hydrological drought happens wen water reserves available insyd sources such as aquifers, lakes den reservoirs fall below average anaa a locally significant threshold. Hydrological drought tends to present more slowly because e involves stored water dat be used but not replenished. Due to de close interaction plus water use, dis type of drought be fit be heavily influenced by water management. Both positive den negative human influences have been discovered den strategic water management strategies seem key to mitigate drought impact.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van Loon|first1=Anne F.|last2=Stahl|first2=Kerstin|last3=Di Baldassarre|first3=Giuliano|last4=Clark|first4=Julian|last5=Rangecroft|first5=Sally|last6=Wanders|first6=Niko|last7=Gleeson|first7=Tom|last8=Van Dijk|first8=Albert I. J. M.|last9=Tallaksen|first9=Lena M. |last10=Hannaford |first10=Jamie|last11=Uijlenhoet|first11=Remko|last12=Teuling|first12=Adriaan J.|last13=Hannah|first13=David M.|last14=Sheffield|first14=Justin|last15=Svoboda|first15=Mark|date=2016-09-08|title=Drought in a human-modified world: reframing drought definitions, understanding, and analysis approaches|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/3631/2016/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=20|issue=9|pages=3631–3650|doi=10.5194/hess-20-3631-2016|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016HESS...20.3631V|issn=1027-5606|hdl=1885/152821|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wendt|first1=Doris E.|last2=Van Loon|first2=Anne F.|last3=Bloomfield|first3=John P.|last4=Hannah|first4=David M.|date=2020-10-13|title=Asymmetric impact of groundwater use on groundwater droughts|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/24/4853/2020/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=24|issue=10|pages=4853–4868|doi=10.5194/hess-24-4853-2020|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020HESS...24.4853W|issn=1027-5606}}</ref> Like agricultural droughts, hydrological droughts fit be triggered by more dan just a loss of rainfall. For instance, around 2007 Kazakhstan was awarded a large amount of money by de World Bank to restore water dat had been diverted to oda nations from de Aral Sea under Soviet rule.<ref>{{cite news|date=2007-04-09|title=Asia-Pacific – Dam project aims to save Aral Sea|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6538219.stm}}</ref> Similar circumstances sanso place their largest lake, Balkhash, at risk of completely drying out.<ref>{{cite news|date=2004-01-15|title=Asia-Pacific – Kazakh lake 'could dry up'|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3397077.stm}}</ref> # Agricultural anaa ecological droughts affect crop production anaa ecosystems insyd general. Dis condition fit sanso arise independently from any change insyd precipitation levels wen either increased [[irrigation]] anaa soil conditions den erosion triggered by poorly planned agricultural endeavors cause a shortfall insyd water available to de crops. == Indices den monitoring == [[File:Unl drought monitor D2 2000-2024.png|thumb|Percent of U.S. experiencing drought intensity of at least level D2 (severe drought), during de weeks of 2000 to 2024.]] Several indices have been defined to quantify den monitor drought at different spatial den temporal scales. A key property of drought indices be their spatial comparability, den they must be statistically robust.<ref name=":3" /> Drought indices include:<ref name=":3" /> * Palmer drought index (sometimes called de Palmer drought severity index (PDSI)): a regional drought index commonly used for monitoring drought events den studying areal extent den severity of drought episodes.<nowiki><ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|last1=Mishra|first1=Ashok K.|last2=Singh|first2=Vijay P.|date=September 2010|title=A review of drought</nowiki> concepts|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022169410004257|journal=Journal of Hydrology|volume=391|issue=1–2|pages=202–216|doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.07.012|bibcode=2010JHyd..391..202M|url-access=subscription}}<nowiki></ref></nowiki> De index uses precipitation den temperature data to study moisture supply den demand using a simple water balance model.<ref name="auto" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=July 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained: Hydrological drought explained|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Yi|last2=Ren|first2=Liliang|last3=Ma|first3=Mingwei|last4=Yang|first4=Xiaoli|last5=Yuan|first5=Fei|last6=Jiang|first6=Shanhu|date=January 2016|title=An insight into the Palmer drought mechanism based indices: comprehensive comparison of their strengths and limitations|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|journal=Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment|volume=30|issue=1|pages=119–136|doi=10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|bibcode=2016SERRA..30..119L|issn=1436-3240|url-access=subscription}}</ref> * Keetch-Byram Drought Index: an index dat be calculated based on rainfall, air temperature, den oda meteorological factors.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Keetch, John J.|author2=Byram, George M.|year=1968|title=A Drought Index for Forest Fire Control|url=http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/viewpub.php?index=40|journal=Res. Pap. Se-38. Asheville, Nc: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 35 P|publisher=USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station|volume=038|access-date=August 11, 2016|quote=(Date: 1968) Res. Paper SE-38. 32 pp. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service}}</ref> * Standardized precipitation index (SPI): E be computed based on precipitation, wich makes am a simple den easy-to-apply indicator for monitoring den prediction of droughts insyd different parts of de world. De World Meteorological Organization recommends dis index for identifying den monitoring meteorological droughts insyd different climates den time periods.<ref name=":3" /> * Standardized Precipitation Index (SPEI): a multiscalar drought index based on climatic data. De SPEI accounts sanso for de role of de increased atmospheric evaporative demand on drought severity.<ref name=":3" /> Evaporative demand be particularly dominant during periods of precipitation deficit. De SPEI calculation requires long-term den high-quality precipitation den atmospheric evaporative demand datasets. These fit be obtained from ground stations anaa gridded data based on reanalysis as well as satellite den multi-source datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Indices related to vegetation: root-zone soil moisture, vegetation condition index (VDI) den vegetation health index (VHI). De VCI den VHI are computed based on vegetation indices such as de normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and temperature datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Deciles indea * Standardized runoff index High-resolution drought information helps to better assess de spatial den temporal changes den variability insyd drought duration, severity, den magnitude at a much finer scale. Dis supports de development of site-specific adaptation measures.<ref name=":3" /> De application of multiple indices using different datasets helps to better manage den monitor droughts dan using a single dataset, Dis be particularly de case insyd regions of de world where not enough data be available such as Africa den South America. Using a single dataset fit be limiting, as e may not capture de full spectrum of drought characteristics den impacts.<ref name=":3" /> Careful monitoring of moisture levels fit sanso help predict increased risk for wildfires. == Causes == [[File:Drought.jpg|thumb|upright|Contraction den desiccation cracks insyd de dry earth of de Sonoran Desert, northwestern Mexico]] === General precipitation deficiency === == References == <references /> [[Category:Drought]] [[Category:Natural disasters]] [[Category:Meteorological phenomena]] [[Category:Whether hazards]] [[Category:Civil defense]] [[Category:Climate variability den change]] [[Category:Hydrology]] [[Category:Water den de environment]] [[Category:AWC2026]] 5b3hkw9osz32e1rqmwcs6ukpue0qn97 103944 103807 2026-06-19T02:34:21Z InternetArchiveBot 29 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 103944 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} {{Short description|Period with less precipitation than normal}} {{about|the condition|other uses|Drought (disambiguation) }} {{redirect|dry spell|other uses|Dry Spell (disambiguation) }} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | image1 = Lac de l'Entonnoir - img 49473.jpg | alt1 = xxx | image2 = Oxfam East Africa - SomalilandDrought016.jpg | alt2 = xxx | image3 = Corn shows the affect of drought.jpg | alt3 = xxx | image4 = Orroral Valley Fire viewed from Tuggeranong January 2020.jpg | alt4 = xxx | footer = Droughts cause a range of impacts and are often worsened by the [[effects of climate change on the water cycle]]: a dry riverbed in [[France]]; sandstorm in [[Somaliland]] due to drought; droughts negatively [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|impact agriculture]] in [[Texas]]; drought and high temperatures worsened the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season#Climate change|2020 bushfires in Australia]]. }} A '''drought''' be a period of drier-than-normal conditions.<ref name=":2">Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, and O. Zolina, 2021: [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf Water Cycle Changes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929084018/https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf |date=2022-09-29 }}. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I&nbsp; to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1055–1210, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010.</ref>{{rp|1157}} A drought fit last for days, months anaa years. Drought often has large impacts on de ecosystems den agriculture of affected regions, den causes harm to de locale economy.<ref>[http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml Living With Drought<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218192510/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/drought/livedrought.shtml|date=2007-02-18}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html Australian Drought and Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726021950/http://www.lilith-ezine.com/articles/environmental/Australian-Drought.html |date=2018-07-26 }}. Retrieved June 7th 2007.</ref> Annual dry seasons insyd de tropics significantly increase de chances of a drought developing, plus subsequent increased wildfire risks.<ref name="Brando">{{cite journal|last1=Brando|first1=Paulo M.|last2=Paolucci|first2=Lucas|last3=Ummenhofer|first3=Caroline C.|last4=Ordway|first4=Elsa M.|last5=Hartmann|first5=Henrik|last6=Cattau|first6=Megan E.|last7=Rattis|first7=Ludmila|last8=Medjibe|first8=Vincent|last9=Coe|first9=Michael T. |last10=Balch |first10=Jennifer|title=Droughts, Wildfires, and Forest Carbon Cycling: A Pantropical Synthesis|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|date=30 May 2019|volume=47|issue=1|pages=555–581|doi=10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010235|issn=0084-6597|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019AREPS..47..555B}}</ref> Heat wave fit significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.<ref name="Merzdorf">{{cite news|last1=Merzdorf|first1=Jessica|title=A Drier Future Sets the Stage for More Wildfires|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2891/a-drier-future-sets-the-stage-for-more-wildfires/|work=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|publisher=NASA|date=July 9, 2019}}</ref> Dis dries out forests den oda vegetation, den increases de amount of fuel for wildfires.<ref name="Brando"/><ref name="Hartmann"/> Drought be a recurring feature of de climate insyd most parts of de world, becoming more extreme den less predictable due to [[climate change]], wich dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic den social. Environmental effects include de drying of wetlands, more den larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic impacts of drought result due to negative disruptions to agriculture den livestock farming (causing food insecurity), forestry, public water supplies, river navigation (due to e.g.: lower water levels), electric power supply (by affecting hydropower systems) den impacts on human health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fleming-Muñoz|first1=David A.|last2=Whitten|first2=Stuart|last3=Bonnett|first3=Graham D.|date=28 June 2023|title=The economics of drought: A review of impacts and costs|journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics|volume=67|issue=4|pages=501–523|doi=10.1111/1467-8489.12527|issn=1364-985X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Social den health costs include de negative effect on de health of people directly exposed to dis phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Drought fit sanso lead to increased air pollution due to increased dust concentrations den wildfires.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=Carla|last2=Kerac|first2=Marko|last3=Prudhomme|first3=Christel|last4=Medlock|first4=Jolyon|last5=Murray|first5=Virginia|date=2013-06-05|title=Health Effects of Drought: a Systematic Review of the Evidence|journal=PLOS Currents|volume=5|article-number=ecurrents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|doi-access=free|issn=2157-3999|pmc=3682759|pmid=23787891}}</ref> Prolonged droughts dey cause mass migrations den humanitarian crisis.<ref name="Stanke">{{cite journal|last1=Stanke|first1=C|last2=Kerac|first2=M|last3=Prudhomme|first3=C|last4=Medlock|first4=J|last5=Murray|first5=V|title=Health effects of drought: a systematic review of the evidence.|journal=PLOS Currents|date=5 June 2013|volume=5|doi=10.1371/currents.dis.7a2cee9e980f91ad7697b570bcc4b004|doi-broken-date=20 April 2026|pmid=23787891|pmc=3682759|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bellizzi|first1=Saverio|last2=Lane|first2=Chris|last3=Elhakim|first3=Mohamed|last4=Nabeth|first4=Pierre|title=Health consequences of drought in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region: hotspot areas and needed actions|journal=Environmental Health|date=12 November 2020|volume=19|issue=1|page=114|doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00665-z|issn=1476-069X|doi-access=free|pmid=33183302|pmc=7659048|bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..114B}}</ref> Examples for regions plus increased drought risks are de Amazon basin, [[Australia]], de Sahel region den [[India]]. For example, insyd 2005, parts of de Amazon basin experienced de worst drought insyd 100 years.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /> Australia could experience more severe droughts den they could becam more frequent insyd de future, a government-commissioned report say on July 6, 2008.<ref name=":6" /> De long Australian Millennial drought broke insyd 2010. De 2020-2022 Horn of Africa drought surpassed de severe drought insyd 2010–2011 insyd both duration den severity.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Dunne|first=Daisy|date=2022-10-26|title=Analysis: Africa's unreported extreme weather in 2022 and climate change|url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-africas-unreported-extreme-weather-in-2022-and-climate-change/|access-date=2022-10-29|website=Carbon Brief}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=2022-09-21|title=Horn of Africa Drought: Regional Humanitarian Overview & Call to Action|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/ethiopia/horn-africa-drought-regional-humanitarian-overview-call-action-revised-21-september-2022|access-date=2022-10-29|publisher=ReliefWeb}}</ref> Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as disasters due to de impact on food availability den de rest of society. People have viewed drought as a natural disaster anaa as something influenced by human activity, anaa as a result of supernatural forces. {{TOC level|3}} == Definition == [[File:Fields outside benambra.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Fields outside Benambra, Australia suffering from drought insyd 2006.]] De IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines a drought simply as "drier dan normal conditions".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Dis means dat a drought be "a moisture deficit relative to de average water availability at a given location den season".<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} According to National Integrated Drought Information System, a multi-agency partnership, drought be generally defined as "a deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time (usually a season anaa more), resulting insyd a water shortage". De National Weather Service office of de NOAA defines drought as "a deficiency of moisture dat results insyd adverse impacts on people, animals, anaa vegetation over a sizeable area".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Drought Basics|url=https://www.drought.gov/what-is-drought/drought-basics|access-date=2022-09-16|website=Drought.gov|publisher=NOAA National Integrated Drought Information System}}</ref> Drought be a complex phenomenon − relating to de absence of water − wich be difficult to monitor den define.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Definition of Drought|url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/dyk/drought-definition|access-date=2022-09-16|publisher=National Centers for Environmental Information}}</ref> By de early 1980s, over 150 definitions of "drought" had already been published.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|title=Types of Drought|url=https://drought.unl.edu/Education/DroughtIn-depth/TypesofDrought.aspx|access-date=2022-09-16|website=drought.unl.edu|publisher=National Drought Mitigation Center}}</ref> De range of definitions reflects differences insyd regions, needs, den disciplinary approaches. == Categories == There are three major categories of drought wey dey base on where insyd de water cycle de moisture deficit occurs: meteorological drought, hydrological drought, den agricultural anaa ecological drought.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} A meteorological drought occurs due to lack of [[precipitation]]. A hydrological drought be related to low runoff, streamflow, den reservoir den groundwater storage.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=14 April 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained|journal=WIREs Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V|issn=2049-1948|doi-access=free}}</ref> An agricultural anaa ecological drought be causing plant stress from a combination of evaporation den low soil moisture.<ref name=":2" />{{rp|1157}} Some organizations add anoda category: socioeconomic drought occurs wen de demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall insyd water supply.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":32" /> De socioeconomic drought be a similar concept to water scarcity. De different categories of droughts have different causes but similar effects: # Meteorological drought occurs wen there be a prolonged time plus less than average precipitation.<ref name="IGARSS2017">{{cite book|last1=Swain|display-authors=etal|first1=S|title=2017 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS)|chapter=Application of SPI, EDI and PNPI using MSWEP precipitation data over Marathwada, India|volume=2017|pages=5505–5507|doi=10.1109/IGARSS.2017.8128250|year=2017|isbn=978-1-5090-4951-6|s2cid=26920225}}</ref> Meteorological drought usually precedes de oda kinds of drought.<ref name="NOAAsurprise">{{cite web|url=http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/brochures/climate/Drought.pdf|archive-date=2022-10-09|url-status=live|title=What is a Drought?|date=August 2006|publisher=[[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|access-date=2007-04-10}}</ref> As a drought persists, de conditions surrounding am gradually worsen den its impact on de local population gradually increases. # Hydrological drought happens wen water reserves available insyd sources such as aquifers, lakes den reservoirs fall below average anaa a locally significant threshold. Hydrological drought tends to present more slowly because e involves stored water dat be used but not replenished. Due to de close interaction plus water use, dis type of drought be fit be heavily influenced by water management. Both positive den negative human influences have been discovered den strategic water management strategies seem key to mitigate drought impact.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Van Loon|first1=Anne F.|last2=Stahl|first2=Kerstin|last3=Di Baldassarre|first3=Giuliano|last4=Clark|first4=Julian|last5=Rangecroft|first5=Sally|last6=Wanders|first6=Niko|last7=Gleeson|first7=Tom|last8=Van Dijk|first8=Albert I. J. M.|last9=Tallaksen|first9=Lena M. |last10=Hannaford |first10=Jamie|last11=Uijlenhoet|first11=Remko|last12=Teuling|first12=Adriaan J.|last13=Hannah|first13=David M.|last14=Sheffield|first14=Justin|last15=Svoboda|first15=Mark|date=2016-09-08|title=Drought in a human-modified world: reframing drought definitions, understanding, and analysis approaches|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/20/3631/2016/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=20|issue=9|pages=3631–3650|doi=10.5194/hess-20-3631-2016|doi-access=free|bibcode=2016HESS...20.3631V|issn=1027-5606|hdl=1885/152821|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wendt|first1=Doris E.|last2=Van Loon|first2=Anne F.|last3=Bloomfield|first3=John P.|last4=Hannah|first4=David M.|date=2020-10-13|title=Asymmetric impact of groundwater use on groundwater droughts|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/24/4853/2020/|journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences|volume=24|issue=10|pages=4853–4868|doi=10.5194/hess-24-4853-2020|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020HESS...24.4853W|issn=1027-5606}}</ref> Like agricultural droughts, hydrological droughts fit be triggered by more dan just a loss of rainfall. For instance, around 2007 Kazakhstan was awarded a large amount of money by de World Bank to restore water dat had been diverted to oda nations from de Aral Sea under Soviet rule.<ref>{{cite news|date=2007-04-09|title=Asia-Pacific – Dam project aims to save Aral Sea|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6538219.stm}}</ref> Similar circumstances sanso place their largest lake, Balkhash, at risk of completely drying out.<ref>{{cite news|date=2004-01-15|title=Asia-Pacific – Kazakh lake 'could dry up'|publisher=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3397077.stm}}</ref> # Agricultural anaa ecological droughts affect crop production anaa ecosystems insyd general. Dis condition fit sanso arise independently from any change insyd precipitation levels wen either increased [[irrigation]] anaa soil conditions den erosion triggered by poorly planned agricultural endeavors cause a shortfall insyd water available to de crops. == Indices den monitoring == [[File:Unl drought monitor D2 2000-2024.png|thumb|Percent of U.S. experiencing drought intensity of at least level D2 (severe drought), during de weeks of 2000 to 2024.]] Several indices have been defined to quantify den monitor drought at different spatial den temporal scales. A key property of drought indices be their spatial comparability, den they must be statistically robust.<ref name=":3" /> Drought indices include:<ref name=":3" /> * Palmer drought index (sometimes called de Palmer drought severity index (PDSI)): a regional drought index commonly used for monitoring drought events den studying areal extent den severity of drought episodes.<nowiki><ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|last1=Mishra|first1=Ashok K.|last2=Singh|first2=Vijay P.|date=September 2010|title=A review of drought</nowiki> concepts|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022169410004257|journal=Journal of Hydrology|volume=391|issue=1–2|pages=202–216|doi=10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.07.012|bibcode=2010JHyd..391..202M|url-access=subscription}}<nowiki></ref></nowiki> De index uses precipitation den temperature data to study moisture supply den demand using a simple water balance model.<ref name="auto" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Van Loon|first=Anne F.|date=July 2015|title=Hydrological drought explained: Hydrological drought explained|journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water|volume=2|issue=4|pages=359–392|doi=10.1002/wat2.1085|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015WIRWa...2..359V}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Yi|last2=Ren|first2=Liliang|last3=Ma|first3=Mingwei|last4=Yang|first4=Xiaoli|last5=Yuan|first5=Fei|last6=Jiang|first6=Shanhu|date=January 2016|title=An insight into the Palmer drought mechanism based indices: comprehensive comparison of their strengths and limitations|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|journal=Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment|volume=30|issue=1|pages=119–136|doi=10.1007/s00477-015-1042-4|bibcode=2016SERRA..30..119L|issn=1436-3240|url-access=subscription}}</ref> * Keetch-Byram Drought Index: an index dat be calculated based on rainfall, air temperature, den oda meteorological factors.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Keetch, John J.|author2=Byram, George M.|year=1968|title=A Drought Index for Forest Fire Control|url=http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/viewpub.php?index=40|journal=Res. Pap. Se-38. Asheville, Nc: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 35 P|publisher=USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station|volume=038|access-date=August 11, 2016|quote=(Date: 1968) Res. Paper SE-38. 32 pp. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service}}</ref> * Standardized precipitation index (SPI): E be computed based on precipitation, wich makes am a simple den easy-to-apply indicator for monitoring den prediction of droughts insyd different parts of de world. De World Meteorological Organization recommends dis index for identifying den monitoring meteorological droughts insyd different climates den time periods.<ref name=":3" /> * Standardized Precipitation Index (SPEI): a multiscalar drought index based on climatic data. De SPEI accounts sanso for de role of de increased atmospheric evaporative demand on drought severity.<ref name=":3" /> Evaporative demand be particularly dominant during periods of precipitation deficit. De SPEI calculation requires long-term den high-quality precipitation den atmospheric evaporative demand datasets. These fit be obtained from ground stations anaa gridded data based on reanalysis as well as satellite den multi-source datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Indices related to vegetation: root-zone soil moisture, vegetation condition index (VDI) den vegetation health index (VHI). De VCI den VHI are computed based on vegetation indices such as de normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and temperature datasets.<ref name=":3" /> * Deciles indea * Standardized runoff index High-resolution drought information helps to better assess de spatial den temporal changes den variability insyd drought duration, severity, den magnitude at a much finer scale. Dis supports de development of site-specific adaptation measures.<ref name=":3" /> De application of multiple indices using different datasets helps to better manage den monitor droughts dan using a single dataset, Dis be particularly de case insyd regions of de world where not enough data be available such as Africa den South America. Using a single dataset fit be limiting, as e may not capture de full spectrum of drought characteristics den impacts.<ref name=":3" /> Careful monitoring of moisture levels fit sanso help predict increased risk for wildfires. == Causes == [[File:Drought.jpg|thumb|upright|Contraction den desiccation cracks insyd de dry earth of de Sonoran Desert, northwestern Mexico]] === General precipitation deficiency === == References == <references /> [[Category:Drought]] [[Category:Natural disasters]] [[Category:Meteorological phenomena]] [[Category:Whether hazards]] [[Category:Civil defense]] [[Category:Climate variability den change]] [[Category:Hydrology]] [[Category:Water den de environment]] [[Category:AWC2026]] 9bk4btlezwg08ltvm13c54pbjvvri1h 0 27651 103626 103624 2026-06-18T12:03:28Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103626 wikitext text/x-wiki Di Kidane Mihret na wan riva wey dey insai [[:en:Nile|Nile]] basin. E dey start for di mountains of [[:en:Degua_Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] for north [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], e dey flow go north until e join di [[:en:Wari_River|Wari]] an [[:en:Tekezé_River|Tekezé Riva]].<ref>Jacob, M. and colleagues (2019). ''[https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546 Geo-trekking map of Dogu'a Tembien (1:50,000). In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District]''. SpringerNature. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|<bdi>978-3-030-04954-6</bdi>.]]</ref> mvm4r83p58r1q75ubokvkighqifp0qx 103627 103626 2026-06-18T12:04:04Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103627 wikitext text/x-wiki Di Kidane Mihret na wan riva wey dey insai [[:en:Nile|Nile]] basin. E dey start for di mountains of [[:en:Degua_Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] for north [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], e dey flow go north until e join di [[:en:Wari_River|Wari]] an [[:en:Tekezé_River|Tekezé Riva]].<ref>Jacob, M. and colleagues (2019). ''[https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546 Geo-trekking map of Dogu'a Tembien (1:50,000). In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District]''. SpringerNature. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|<bdi>978-3-030-04954-6</bdi>.]]</ref> == Reference == jr8prtkjf317dwar86dwtn6e84wxeq8 103629 103627 2026-06-18T12:06:10Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103629 wikitext text/x-wiki Di Kidane Mihret na wan riva wey dey insai [[:en:Nile|Nile]] basin. E dey start for di mountains of [[:en:Degua_Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] for north [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], e dey flow go north until e join di [[:en:Wari_River|Wari]] an [[:en:Tekezé_River|Tekezé Riva]].<ref>Jacob, M. and colleagues (2019). ''[https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546 Geo-trekking map of Dogu'a Tembien (1:50,000). In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District]''. SpringerNature. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|<bdi>978-3-030-04954-6</bdi>.]]</ref> == Characteristics == E be wan confined bedrock riva, wey get average slope gradient of 102 metres per kilometre. Wit di tributaries, di riva don cut one deep gorge. == Reference == pag4ebeshz43i5qxlcf5xmvrb3uoc08 103631 103629 2026-06-18T12:08:18Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103631 wikitext text/x-wiki Di Kidane Mihret na wan riva wey dey insai [[:en:Nile|Nile]] basin. E dey start for di mountains of [[:en:Degua_Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] for north [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], e dey flow go north until e join di [[:en:Wari_River|Wari]] an [[:en:Tekezé_River|Tekezé Riva]].<ref>Jacob, M. and colleagues (2019). ''[https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546 Geo-trekking map of Dogu'a Tembien (1:50,000). In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District]''. SpringerNature. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|<bdi>978-3-030-04954-6</bdi>.]]</ref> == Characteristics == E be wan confined bedrock riva, wey get average slope gradient of 102 metres per kilometre. Wit di tributaries, di riva don cut one deep gorge.<ref>Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). ''The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District''. SpringerNature. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14|10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> == Reference == dcygtonpf1zd32s4bikawz6y4mhk9em 103632 103631 2026-06-18T12:12:29Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103632 wikitext text/x-wiki Di Kidane Mihret na wan riva wey dey insai [[:en:Nile|Nile]] basin. E dey start for di mountains of [[:en:Degua_Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] for north [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], e dey flow go north until e join di [[:en:Wari_River|Wari]] an [[:en:Tekezé_River|Tekezé Riva]].<ref>Jacob, M. and colleagues (2019). ''[https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546 Geo-trekking map of Dogu'a Tembien (1:50,000). In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District]''. SpringerNature. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|<bdi>978-3-030-04954-6</bdi>.]]</ref> == Characteristics == E be wan confined bedrock riva, wey get average slope gradient of 102 metres per kilometre. Wit di tributaries, di riva don cut one deep gorge.<ref>Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). ''The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District''. SpringerNature. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14|10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> == Flash floods and flood buffering == Runoff mostly dey happen as high discharge events wey dey occur for short time (dem dey call am flash floods). Dis one dey happen because di land steep, vegetation no plenty, and rain dey fall heavy from convective storms. Di peak of dis flash floods fit get discharge wey big pass di baseflow 50 to 100 times. Flood magnitude dey reduce small because di large Awhi Dur forest dey inside di catchment. Dem don also set up exclosures; di dense vegetation dey help water soak inside ground, reduce flooding, and make baseflow better. Conservation structures like stone bunds and check dams dey intercept runoff too. == Reference == s9jhagl3j7z42htdv8aymwau7gqrkhe 103633 103632 2026-06-18T12:20:11Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103633 wikitext text/x-wiki Di Kidane Mihret na wan riva wey dey insai [[:en:Nile|Nile]] basin. E dey start for di mountains of [[:en:Degua_Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] for north [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], e dey flow go north until e join di [[:en:Wari_River|Wari]] an [[:en:Tekezé_River|Tekezé Riva]].<ref>Jacob, M. and colleagues (2019). ''[https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546 Geo-trekking map of Dogu'a Tembien (1:50,000). In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District]''. SpringerNature. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|<bdi>978-3-030-04954-6</bdi>.]]</ref> == Characteristics == E be wan confined bedrock riva, wey get average slope gradient of 102 metres per kilometre. Wit di tributaries, di riva don cut one deep gorge.<ref>Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). ''The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District''. SpringerNature. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14|10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> == Flash floods and flood buffering == Runoff mostly dey happen as high discharge events wey dey occur for short time (dem dey call am [[:en:Flash_floods|flash floods]]). Dis one dey happen because di land steep, vegetation no plenty, and rain dey fall heavy from convective storms. Di peak of dis flash floods fit get discharge wey big pass di [[:en:Baseflow|baseflow]] 50 to 100 times. Flood magnitude dey reduce small because di large Awhi Dur forest dey inside di catchment. Dem don also set up [[:en:Exclosure|exclosures]]; di dense vegetation dey help water soak inside ground, reduce flooding, and make [[:en:Baseflow|baseflow]] better. Conservation structures like [[:en:Terrace_(earthworks)|stone bunds]] and [[:en:Check_dam|check dams]] dey intercept runoff too. == Reference == 7k4ma97cgbd5fiy7l6qdy6oto4kmbs1 103634 103633 2026-06-18T12:23:24Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103634 wikitext text/x-wiki Di Kidane Mihret na wan riva wey dey insai [[:en:Nile|Nile]] basin. E dey start for di mountains of [[:en:Degua_Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] for north [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], e dey flow go north until e join di [[:en:Wari_River|Wari]] an [[:en:Tekezé_River|Tekezé Riva]].<ref>Jacob, M. and colleagues (2019). ''[https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546 Geo-trekking map of Dogu'a Tembien (1:50,000). In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District]''. SpringerNature. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|<bdi>978-3-030-04954-6</bdi>.]]</ref> == Characteristics == E be wan confined bedrock riva, wey get average slope gradient of 102 metres per kilometre. Wit di tributaries, di riva don cut one deep gorge.<ref>Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). ''The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District''. SpringerNature. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14|10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> == Flash floods and flood buffering == Runoff mostly dey happen as high discharge events wey dey occur for short time (dem dey call am [[:en:Flash_floods|flash floods]]). Dis one dey happen because di land steep, vegetation no plenty, and rain dey fall heavy from convective storms. Di peak of dis flash floods fit get discharge wey big pass di [[:en:Baseflow|baseflow]] 50 to 100 times.<ref>Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). ''The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District''. SpringerNature. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14|10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> Flood magnitude dey reduce small because di large Awhi Dur forest dey inside di catchment. Dem don also set up [[:en:Exclosure|exclosures]]; di dense vegetation dey help water soak inside ground, reduce flooding, and make [[:en:Baseflow|baseflow]] better. Conservation structures like [[:en:Terrace_(earthworks)|stone bunds]] and [[:en:Check_dam|check dams]] dey intercept runoff too. == Reference == ezogt1cwmv3996zwevfr6920bxdskx0 103635 103634 2026-06-18T12:35:33Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103635 wikitext text/x-wiki Di Kidane Mihret na wan riva wey dey insai [[:en:Nile|Nile]] basin. E dey start for di mountains of [[:en:Degua_Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] for north [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], e dey flow go north until e join di [[:en:Wari_River|Wari]] an [[:en:Tekezé_River|Tekezé Riva]].<ref>Jacob, M. and colleagues (2019). ''[https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546 Geo-trekking map of Dogu'a Tembien (1:50,000). In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District]''. SpringerNature. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|<bdi>978-3-030-04954-6</bdi>.]]</ref> == Characteristics == E be wan confined bedrock riva, wey get average slope gradient of 102 metres per kilometre. Wit di tributaries, di riva don cut one deep gorge.<ref>Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). ''The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District''. SpringerNature. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14|10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> == Flash floods and flood buffering == Runoff mostly dey happen as high discharge events wey dey occur for short time (dem dey call am [[:en:Flash_floods|flash floods]]). Dis one dey happen because di land steep, vegetation no plenty, and rain dey fall heavy from convective storms. Di peak of dis flash floods fit get discharge wey big pass di [[:en:Baseflow|baseflow]] 50 to 100 times.<ref>Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). ''The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District''. SpringerNature. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14|10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> Flood magnitude dey reduce small because di large Awhi Dur forest dey inside di catchment. Dem don also set up [[:en:Exclosure|exclosures]]; di dense vegetation dey help water soak inside ground, reduce flooding, and make [[:en:Baseflow|baseflow]] better<ref>Descheemaeker, K. and colleagues (2006). [https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900 "Runoff on slopes with restoring vegetation: A case study from the Tigray highlands, Ethiopia"]. ''Journal of Hydrology''. '''331''' (1–2): 219–241. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:1854/LU-378900|1854/LU-378900]]</ref>. Conservation structures like [[:en:Terrace_(earthworks)|stone bunds]]<ref>Nyssen, Jan; Poesen, Jean; Gebremichael, Desta; Vancampenhout, Karen; d'Aes, Margo; Yihdego, Gebremedhin; Govers, Gerard; Leirs, Herwig; Moeyersons, Jan; Naudts, Jozef; Haregeweyn, Nigussie; Haile, Mitiku; Deckers, Jozef (2007). "[https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900 Interdisciplinary on-site evaluation of stone bunds to control soil erosion on cropland in Northern Ethiopia]". ''Soil and Tillage Research''. '''94''' (1): 151–163. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:1854/LU-378900|1854/LU-378900]]</ref> and [[:en:Check_dam|check dams]] dey intercept runoff too. == Reference == jd6ufumwu5p5rtrhfk6l5ril2aj5m08 103636 103635 2026-06-18T12:39:39Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103636 wikitext text/x-wiki Di Kidane Mihret na wan riva wey dey insai [[:en:Nile|Nile]] basin. E dey start for di mountains of [[:en:Degua_Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] for north [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], e dey flow go north until e join di [[:en:Wari_River|Wari]] an [[:en:Tekezé_River|Tekezé Riva]].<ref>Jacob, M. and colleagues (2019). ''[https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546 Geo-trekking map of Dogu'a Tembien (1:50,000). In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District]''. SpringerNature. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|<bdi>978-3-030-04954-6</bdi>.]]</ref> == Characteristics == E be wan confined bedrock riva, wey get average slope gradient of 102 metres per kilometre. Wit di tributaries, di riva don cut one deep gorge.<ref>Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). ''The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District''. SpringerNature. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14|10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> == Flash floods and flood buffering == Runoff mostly dey happen as high discharge events wey dey occur for short time (dem dey call am [[:en:Flash_floods|flash floods]]). Dis one dey happen because di land steep, vegetation no plenty, and rain dey fall heavy from convective storms. Di peak of dis flash floods fit get discharge wey big pass di [[:en:Baseflow|baseflow]] 50 to 100 times.<ref>Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). ''The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District''. SpringerNature. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14|10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> Flood magnitude dey reduce small because di large Awhi Dur forest dey inside di catchment. Dem don also set up [[:en:Exclosure|exclosures]]; di dense vegetation dey help water soak inside ground, reduce flooding, and make [[:en:Baseflow|baseflow]] better<ref>Descheemaeker, K. and colleagues (2006). [https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900 "Runoff on slopes with restoring vegetation: A case study from the Tigray highlands, Ethiopia"]. ''Journal of Hydrology''. '''331''' (1–2): 219–241. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:1854/LU-378900|1854/LU-378900]]</ref>. Conservation structures like [[:en:Terrace_(earthworks)|stone bunds]]<ref>Nyssen, Jan; Poesen, Jean; Gebremichael, Desta; Vancampenhout, Karen; d'Aes, Margo; Yihdego, Gebremedhin; Govers, Gerard; Leirs, Herwig; Moeyersons, Jan; Naudts, Jozef; Haregeweyn, Nigussie; Haile, Mitiku; Deckers, Jozef (2007). "[https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900 Interdisciplinary on-site evaluation of stone bunds to control soil erosion on cropland in Northern Ethiopia]". ''Soil and Tillage Research''. '''94''' (1): 151–163. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:1854/LU-378900|1854/LU-378900]]</ref><ref>Gebeyehu Taye and colleagues (2015). "Evolution of the effectiveness of stone bunds and trenches in reducing runoff and soil loss in the semi-arid Ethiopian highlands". ''Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie''. '''59''' (4): 477–493. [[:en:Bibcode_(identifier)|Bibcode]]:[https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015ZGm....59..477T 2015ZGm....59..477T.] [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1127/zfg/2015/0166|10.1127/zfg/2015/0166]].</ref> and [[:en:Check_dam|check dams]] dey intercept runoff too. == Reference == h01kghlh9wld3i2en168wvrma49yeb9 103637 103636 2026-06-18T12:45:53Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103637 wikitext text/x-wiki Di Kidane Mihret na wan riva wey dey insai [[:en:Nile|Nile]] basin. E dey start for di mountains of [[:en:Degua_Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] for north [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], e dey flow go north until e join di [[:en:Wari_River|Wari]] an [[:en:Tekezé_River|Tekezé Riva]].<ref>Jacob, M. and colleagues (2019). ''[https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546 Geo-trekking map of Dogu'a Tembien (1:50,000). In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District]''. SpringerNature. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|<bdi>978-3-030-04954-6</bdi>.]]</ref> == Characteristics == E be wan confined bedrock riva, wey get average slope gradient of 102 metres per kilometre. Wit di tributaries, di riva don cut one deep gorge.<ref>Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). ''The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District''. SpringerNature. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14|10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> == Flash floods and flood buffering == Runoff mostly dey happen as high discharge events wey dey occur for short time (dem dey call am [[:en:Flash_floods|flash floods]]). Dis one dey happen because di land steep, vegetation no plenty, and rain dey fall heavy from convective storms. Di peak of dis flash floods fit get discharge wey big pass di [[:en:Baseflow|baseflow]] 50 to 100 times.<ref>Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). ''The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District''. SpringerNature. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14|10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> Flood magnitude dey reduce small because di large Awhi Dur forest dey inside di catchment. Dem don also set up [[:en:Exclosure|exclosures]]; di dense vegetation dey help water soak inside ground, reduce flooding, and make [[:en:Baseflow|baseflow]] better<ref>Descheemaeker, K. and colleagues (2006). [https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900 "Runoff on slopes with restoring vegetation: A case study from the Tigray highlands, Ethiopia"]. ''Journal of Hydrology''. '''331''' (1–2): 219–241. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:1854/LU-378900|1854/LU-378900]]</ref>. Conservation structures like [[:en:Terrace_(earthworks)|stone bunds]]<ref>Nyssen, Jan; Poesen, Jean; Gebremichael, Desta; Vancampenhout, Karen; d'Aes, Margo; Yihdego, Gebremedhin; Govers, Gerard; Leirs, Herwig; Moeyersons, Jan; Naudts, Jozef; Haregeweyn, Nigussie; Haile, Mitiku; Deckers, Jozef (2007). "[https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900 Interdisciplinary on-site evaluation of stone bunds to control soil erosion on cropland in Northern Ethiopia]". ''Soil and Tillage Research''. '''94''' (1): 151–163. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:1854/LU-378900|1854/LU-378900]]</ref><ref>Gebeyehu Taye and colleagues (2015). "Evolution of the effectiveness of stone bunds and trenches in reducing runoff and soil loss in the semi-arid Ethiopian highlands". ''Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie''. '''59''' (4): 477–493. [[:en:Bibcode_(identifier)|Bibcode]]:[https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015ZGm....59..477T 2015ZGm....59..477T.] [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1127/zfg/2015/0166|10.1127/zfg/2015/0166]].</ref> and [[:en:Check_dam|check dams]] dey intercept runoff too.<ref>Nyssen, J.; Veyret-Picot, M.; Poesen, J.; Moeyersons, J.; Haile, Mitiku; Deckers, J.; Govers, G. (2004). "The effectiveness of loose rock check dams for gully control in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia". ''Soil Use and Management''. '''20''': 55–64. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1111/j.1475-2743.2004.tb00337.x|10.1111/j.1475-2743.2004.tb00337.x.]]</ref><ref>Etefa Guyassa and colleagues (2017). "[https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8518957 Effects of check dams on runoff characteristics along gully reaches, the case of Northern Ethiopia]". ''Journal of Hydrology''. '''545''' (1): 299–309. [[:en:Bibcode_(identifier)|Bibcode]]:[https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017JHyd..545..299G 2017JHyd..545..299G]. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.12.019|10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.12.019]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:1854/LU-8518957|1854/LU-8518957]]</ref> == Reference == nodalqc5kykjm7ucgokgu4egy6tme8x 103638 103637 2026-06-18T12:49:20Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103638 wikitext text/x-wiki Di Kidane Mihret na wan riva wey dey insai [[:en:Nile|Nile]] basin. E dey start for di mountains of [[:en:Degua_Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] for north [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], e dey flow go north until e join di [[:en:Wari_River|Wari]] an [[:en:Tekezé_River|Tekezé Riva]].<ref>Jacob, M. and colleagues (2019). ''[https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546 Geo-trekking map of Dogu'a Tembien (1:50,000). In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District]''. SpringerNature. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|<bdi>978-3-030-04954-6</bdi>.]]</ref> == Characteristics == E be wan confined bedrock riva, wey get average slope gradient of 102 metres per kilometre. Wit di tributaries, di riva don cut one deep gorge.<ref>Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). ''The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District''. SpringerNature. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14|10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> == Flash floods and flood buffering == Runoff mostly dey happen as high discharge events wey dey occur for short time (dem dey call am [[:en:Flash_floods|flash floods]]). Dis one dey happen because di land steep, vegetation no plenty, and rain dey fall heavy from convective storms. Di peak of dis flash floods fit get discharge wey big pass di [[:en:Baseflow|baseflow]] 50 to 100 times.<ref>Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). ''The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District''. SpringerNature. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14|10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> Flood magnitude dey reduce small because di large Awhi Dur forest dey inside di catchment. Dem don also set up [[:en:Exclosure|exclosures]]; di dense vegetation dey help water soak inside ground, reduce flooding, and make [[:en:Baseflow|baseflow]] better<ref>Descheemaeker, K. and colleagues (2006). [https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900 "Runoff on slopes with restoring vegetation: A case study from the Tigray highlands, Ethiopia"]. ''Journal of Hydrology''. '''331''' (1–2): 219–241. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:1854/LU-378900|1854/LU-378900]]</ref>. Conservation structures like [[:en:Terrace_(earthworks)|stone bunds]]<ref>Nyssen, Jan; Poesen, Jean; Gebremichael, Desta; Vancampenhout, Karen; d'Aes, Margo; Yihdego, Gebremedhin; Govers, Gerard; Leirs, Herwig; Moeyersons, Jan; Naudts, Jozef; Haregeweyn, Nigussie; Haile, Mitiku; Deckers, Jozef (2007). "[https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900 Interdisciplinary on-site evaluation of stone bunds to control soil erosion on cropland in Northern Ethiopia]". ''Soil and Tillage Research''. '''94''' (1): 151–163. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:1854/LU-378900|1854/LU-378900]]</ref><ref>Gebeyehu Taye and colleagues (2015). "Evolution of the effectiveness of stone bunds and trenches in reducing runoff and soil loss in the semi-arid Ethiopian highlands". ''Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie''. '''59''' (4): 477–493. [[:en:Bibcode_(identifier)|Bibcode]]:[https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015ZGm....59..477T 2015ZGm....59..477T.] [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1127/zfg/2015/0166|10.1127/zfg/2015/0166]].</ref> and [[:en:Check_dam|check dams]] dey intercept runoff too.<ref>Nyssen, J.; Veyret-Picot, M.; Poesen, J.; Moeyersons, J.; Haile, Mitiku; Deckers, J.; Govers, G. (2004). "The effectiveness of loose rock check dams for gully control in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia". ''Soil Use and Management''. '''20''': 55–64. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1111/j.1475-2743.2004.tb00337.x|10.1111/j.1475-2743.2004.tb00337.x.]]</ref><ref>Etefa Guyassa and colleagues (2017). "[https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8518957 Effects of check dams on runoff characteristics along gully reaches, the case of Northern Ethiopia]". ''Journal of Hydrology''. '''545''' (1): 299–309. [[:en:Bibcode_(identifier)|Bibcode]]:[https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017JHyd..545..299G 2017JHyd..545..299G]. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.12.019|10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.12.019]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:1854/LU-8518957|1854/LU-8518957]]</ref> == Transhumance towards the gorge == Transhumance dey happen for di summer rainy season, wen di land near village don full wit crops. Young shepherds go carry di village cattle go down di lower valley, dem go sleep overnight inside small caves. Di valley bottom dey very good as transhumance destination, because water dey and semi-natural vegetation dey grow well. == Reference == o0chtce1ip3q9olsi963y072ct1rqx3 103639 103638 2026-06-18T12:54:53Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103639 wikitext text/x-wiki Di Kidane Mihret na wan riva wey dey insai [[:en:Nile|Nile]] basin. E dey start for di mountains of [[:en:Degua_Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] for north [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], e dey flow go north until e join di [[:en:Wari_River|Wari]] an [[:en:Tekezé_River|Tekezé Riva]].<ref>Jacob, M. and colleagues (2019). ''[https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546 Geo-trekking map of Dogu'a Tembien (1:50,000). In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District]''. SpringerNature. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|<bdi>978-3-030-04954-6</bdi>.]]</ref> == Characteristics == E be wan confined bedrock riva, wey get average slope gradient of 102 metres per kilometre. Wit di tributaries, di riva don cut one deep gorge.<ref>Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). ''The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District''. SpringerNature. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14|10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> == Flash floods and flood buffering == Runoff mostly dey happen as high discharge events wey dey occur for short time (dem dey call am [[:en:Flash_floods|flash floods]]). Dis one dey happen because di land steep, vegetation no plenty, and rain dey fall heavy from convective storms. Di peak of dis flash floods fit get discharge wey big pass di [[:en:Baseflow|baseflow]] 50 to 100 times.<ref>Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). ''The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District''. SpringerNature. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14|10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> Flood magnitude dey reduce small because di large Awhi Dur forest dey inside di catchment. Dem don also set up [[:en:Exclosure|exclosures]]; di dense vegetation dey help water soak inside ground, reduce flooding, and make [[:en:Baseflow|baseflow]] better<ref>Descheemaeker, K. and colleagues (2006). [https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900 "Runoff on slopes with restoring vegetation: A case study from the Tigray highlands, Ethiopia"]. ''Journal of Hydrology''. '''331''' (1–2): 219–241. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:1854/LU-378900|1854/LU-378900]]</ref>. Conservation structures like [[:en:Terrace_(earthworks)|stone bunds]]<ref>Nyssen, Jan; Poesen, Jean; Gebremichael, Desta; Vancampenhout, Karen; d'Aes, Margo; Yihdego, Gebremedhin; Govers, Gerard; Leirs, Herwig; Moeyersons, Jan; Naudts, Jozef; Haregeweyn, Nigussie; Haile, Mitiku; Deckers, Jozef (2007). "[https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900 Interdisciplinary on-site evaluation of stone bunds to control soil erosion on cropland in Northern Ethiopia]". ''Soil and Tillage Research''. '''94''' (1): 151–163. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:1854/LU-378900|1854/LU-378900]]</ref><ref>Gebeyehu Taye and colleagues (2015). "Evolution of the effectiveness of stone bunds and trenches in reducing runoff and soil loss in the semi-arid Ethiopian highlands". ''Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie''. '''59''' (4): 477–493. [[:en:Bibcode_(identifier)|Bibcode]]:[https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015ZGm....59..477T 2015ZGm....59..477T.] [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1127/zfg/2015/0166|10.1127/zfg/2015/0166]].</ref> and [[:en:Check_dam|check dams]] dey intercept runoff too.<ref>Nyssen, J.; Veyret-Picot, M.; Poesen, J.; Moeyersons, J.; Haile, Mitiku; Deckers, J.; Govers, G. (2004). "The effectiveness of loose rock check dams for gully control in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia". ''Soil Use and Management''. '''20''': 55–64. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1111/j.1475-2743.2004.tb00337.x|10.1111/j.1475-2743.2004.tb00337.x.]]</ref><ref>Etefa Guyassa and colleagues (2017). "[https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8518957 Effects of check dams on runoff characteristics along gully reaches, the case of Northern Ethiopia]". ''Journal of Hydrology''. '''545''' (1): 299–309. [[:en:Bibcode_(identifier)|Bibcode]]:[https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017JHyd..545..299G 2017JHyd..545..299G]. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.12.019|10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.12.019]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:1854/LU-8518957|1854/LU-8518957]]</ref> == Transhumance towards the gorge == [[:en:Transhumance_in_Ethiopia|Transhumance]] dey happen for di summer rainy season, wen di land near village don full wit crops. Young shepherds go carry di village cattle go down di lower valley, dem go sleep overnight inside small caves. Di valley bottom dey very good as transhumance destination, because water dey and semi-natural vegetation dey grow well.<ref>Nyssen, Jan; Descheemaeker, Katrien; Zenebe, Amanuel; Poesen, Jean; Deckers, Jozef; Haile, Mitiku (2009). [[doi:10.1659/mrd.00033|"Transhumance in the Tigray highlands (Ethiopia)"]]. ''Mountain Research and Development''. '''29''' (3): 255–264. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1659/mrd.00033|10.1659/mrd.00033]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:1854/LU-854326|1854/LU-854326]]</ref> == Reference == 9r1d9jpierganvuvfxefspeww0tu81l 103640 103639 2026-06-18T12:59:13Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103640 wikitext text/x-wiki Di Kidane Mihret na wan riva wey dey insai [[:en:Nile|Nile]] basin. E dey start for di mountains of [[:en:Degua_Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] for north [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], e dey flow go north until e join di [[:en:Wari_River|Wari]] an [[:en:Tekezé_River|Tekezé Riva]].<ref>Jacob, M. and colleagues (2019). ''[https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546 Geo-trekking map of Dogu'a Tembien (1:50,000). In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District]''. SpringerNature. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|<bdi>978-3-030-04954-6</bdi>.]]</ref> == Characteristics == E be wan confined bedrock riva, wey get average slope gradient of 102 metres per kilometre. Wit di tributaries, di riva don cut one deep gorge.<ref>Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). ''The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District''. SpringerNature. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14|10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> == Flash floods and flood buffering == Runoff mostly dey happen as high discharge events wey dey occur for short time (dem dey call am [[:en:Flash_floods|flash floods]]). Dis one dey happen because di land steep, vegetation no plenty, and rain dey fall heavy from convective storms. Di peak of dis flash floods fit get discharge wey big pass di [[:en:Baseflow|baseflow]] 50 to 100 times.<ref>Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). ''The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District''. SpringerNature. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14|10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> Flood magnitude dey reduce small because di large Awhi Dur forest dey inside di catchment. Dem don also set up [[:en:Exclosure|exclosures]]; di dense vegetation dey help water soak inside ground, reduce flooding, and make [[:en:Baseflow|baseflow]] better<ref>Descheemaeker, K. and colleagues (2006). [https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900 "Runoff on slopes with restoring vegetation: A case study from the Tigray highlands, Ethiopia"]. ''Journal of Hydrology''. '''331''' (1–2): 219–241. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:1854/LU-378900|1854/LU-378900]]</ref>. Conservation structures like [[:en:Terrace_(earthworks)|stone bunds]]<ref>Nyssen, Jan; Poesen, Jean; Gebremichael, Desta; Vancampenhout, Karen; d'Aes, Margo; Yihdego, Gebremedhin; Govers, Gerard; Leirs, Herwig; Moeyersons, Jan; Naudts, Jozef; Haregeweyn, Nigussie; Haile, Mitiku; Deckers, Jozef (2007). "[https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900 Interdisciplinary on-site evaluation of stone bunds to control soil erosion on cropland in Northern Ethiopia]". ''Soil and Tillage Research''. '''94''' (1): 151–163. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:1854/LU-378900|1854/LU-378900]]</ref><ref>Gebeyehu Taye and colleagues (2015). "Evolution of the effectiveness of stone bunds and trenches in reducing runoff and soil loss in the semi-arid Ethiopian highlands". ''Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie''. '''59''' (4): 477–493. [[:en:Bibcode_(identifier)|Bibcode]]:[https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015ZGm....59..477T 2015ZGm....59..477T.] [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1127/zfg/2015/0166|10.1127/zfg/2015/0166]].</ref> and [[:en:Check_dam|check dams]] dey intercept runoff too.<ref>Nyssen, J.; Veyret-Picot, M.; Poesen, J.; Moeyersons, J.; Haile, Mitiku; Deckers, J.; Govers, G. (2004). "The effectiveness of loose rock check dams for gully control in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia". ''Soil Use and Management''. '''20''': 55–64. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1111/j.1475-2743.2004.tb00337.x|10.1111/j.1475-2743.2004.tb00337.x.]]</ref><ref>Etefa Guyassa and colleagues (2017). "[https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8518957 Effects of check dams on runoff characteristics along gully reaches, the case of Northern Ethiopia]". ''Journal of Hydrology''. '''545''' (1): 299–309. [[:en:Bibcode_(identifier)|Bibcode]]:[https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017JHyd..545..299G 2017JHyd..545..299G]. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.12.019|10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.12.019]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:1854/LU-8518957|1854/LU-8518957]]</ref> == Transhumance towards the gorge == [[:en:Transhumance_in_Ethiopia|Transhumance]] dey happen for di summer rainy season, wen di land near village don full wit crops. Young shepherds go carry di village cattle go down di lower valley, dem go sleep overnight inside small caves. Di valley bottom dey very good as transhumance destination, because water dey and semi-natural vegetation dey grow well.<ref>Nyssen, Jan; Descheemaeker, Katrien; Zenebe, Amanuel; Poesen, Jean; Deckers, Jozef; Haile, Mitiku (2009). [[doi:10.1659/mrd.00033|"Transhumance in the Tigray highlands (Ethiopia)"]]. ''Mountain Research and Development''. '''29''' (3): 255–264. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1659/mrd.00033|10.1659/mrd.00033]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:1854/LU-854326|1854/LU-854326]]</ref> == Boulders and pebbles in the river bed == Boulders and pebbles wey you go see for di riva bed fit come from any place wey dey higher up inside di catchment. For di uppermost part of di riva, na only rock fragments from di upper lithological units go dey inside di riva bed. But as you go downstream, you go begin see mix of all di lithologies wey di riva don cross. From upstream go downstream, na di following lithological units dey inside di catchment. == Reference == 6zgvmmorpv6e26rgdppzmnt7klty922 103641 103640 2026-06-18T13:02:08Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103641 wikitext text/x-wiki Di Kidane Mihret na wan riva wey dey insai [[:en:Nile|Nile]] basin. E dey start for di mountains of [[:en:Degua_Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] for north [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], e dey flow go north until e join di [[:en:Wari_River|Wari]] an [[:en:Tekezé_River|Tekezé Riva]].<ref>Jacob, M. and colleagues (2019). ''[https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546 Geo-trekking map of Dogu'a Tembien (1:50,000). In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District]''. SpringerNature. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|<bdi>978-3-030-04954-6</bdi>.]]</ref> == Characteristics == E be wan confined bedrock riva, wey get average slope gradient of 102 metres per kilometre. Wit di tributaries, di riva don cut one deep gorge.<ref>Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). ''The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District''. SpringerNature. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14|10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> == Flash floods and flood buffering == Runoff mostly dey happen as high discharge events wey dey occur for short time (dem dey call am [[:en:Flash_floods|flash floods]]). Dis one dey happen because di land steep, vegetation no plenty, and rain dey fall heavy from convective storms. Di peak of dis flash floods fit get discharge wey big pass di [[:en:Baseflow|baseflow]] 50 to 100 times.<ref>Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). ''The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District''. SpringerNature. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14|10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> Flood magnitude dey reduce small because di large Awhi Dur forest dey inside di catchment. Dem don also set up [[:en:Exclosure|exclosures]]; di dense vegetation dey help water soak inside ground, reduce flooding, and make [[:en:Baseflow|baseflow]] better<ref>Descheemaeker, K. and colleagues (2006). [https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900 "Runoff on slopes with restoring vegetation: A case study from the Tigray highlands, Ethiopia"]. ''Journal of Hydrology''. '''331''' (1–2): 219–241. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:1854/LU-378900|1854/LU-378900]]</ref>. Conservation structures like [[:en:Terrace_(earthworks)|stone bunds]]<ref>Nyssen, Jan; Poesen, Jean; Gebremichael, Desta; Vancampenhout, Karen; d'Aes, Margo; Yihdego, Gebremedhin; Govers, Gerard; Leirs, Herwig; Moeyersons, Jan; Naudts, Jozef; Haregeweyn, Nigussie; Haile, Mitiku; Deckers, Jozef (2007). "[https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900 Interdisciplinary on-site evaluation of stone bunds to control soil erosion on cropland in Northern Ethiopia]". ''Soil and Tillage Research''. '''94''' (1): 151–163. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:1854/LU-378900|1854/LU-378900]]</ref><ref>Gebeyehu Taye and colleagues (2015). "Evolution of the effectiveness of stone bunds and trenches in reducing runoff and soil loss in the semi-arid Ethiopian highlands". ''Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie''. '''59''' (4): 477–493. [[:en:Bibcode_(identifier)|Bibcode]]:[https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015ZGm....59..477T 2015ZGm....59..477T.] [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1127/zfg/2015/0166|10.1127/zfg/2015/0166]].</ref> and [[:en:Check_dam|check dams]] dey intercept runoff too.<ref>Nyssen, J.; Veyret-Picot, M.; Poesen, J.; Moeyersons, J.; Haile, Mitiku; Deckers, J.; Govers, G. (2004). "The effectiveness of loose rock check dams for gully control in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia". ''Soil Use and Management''. '''20''': 55–64. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1111/j.1475-2743.2004.tb00337.x|10.1111/j.1475-2743.2004.tb00337.x.]]</ref><ref>Etefa Guyassa and colleagues (2017). "[https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8518957 Effects of check dams on runoff characteristics along gully reaches, the case of Northern Ethiopia]". ''Journal of Hydrology''. '''545''' (1): 299–309. [[:en:Bibcode_(identifier)|Bibcode]]:[https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017JHyd..545..299G 2017JHyd..545..299G]. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.12.019|10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.12.019]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:1854/LU-8518957|1854/LU-8518957]]</ref> == Transhumance towards the gorge == [[:en:Transhumance_in_Ethiopia|Transhumance]] dey happen for di summer rainy season, wen di land near village don full wit crops. Young shepherds go carry di village cattle go down di lower valley, dem go sleep overnight inside small caves. Di valley bottom dey very good as transhumance destination, because water dey and semi-natural vegetation dey grow well.<ref>Nyssen, Jan; Descheemaeker, Katrien; Zenebe, Amanuel; Poesen, Jean; Deckers, Jozef; Haile, Mitiku (2009). [[doi:10.1659/mrd.00033|"Transhumance in the Tigray highlands (Ethiopia)"]]. ''Mountain Research and Development''. '''29''' (3): 255–264. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1659/mrd.00033|10.1659/mrd.00033]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:1854/LU-854326|1854/LU-854326]]</ref> == Boulders and pebbles in the river bed == Boulders and pebbles wey you go see for di riva bed fit come from any place wey dey higher up inside di catchment. For di uppermost part of di riva, na only rock fragments from di upper lithological units go dey inside di riva bed. But as you go downstream, you go begin see mix of all di lithologies wey di riva don cross. From upstream go downstream, na di following lithological units dey inside di catchment.<ref>Sembroni, A.; Molin, P.; Dramis, F. (2019). [https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546 ''Regional geology of the Dogu'a Tembien massif. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains — The Dogu'a Tembien District''.] SpringerNature. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> == Reference == mngqsvkmdp39dmatnda5naqnhhd7389 103642 103641 2026-06-18T13:05:23Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103642 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} Di Kidane Mihret na wan riva wey dey insai [[:en:Nile|Nile]] basin. E dey start for di mountains of [[:en:Degua_Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] for north [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], e dey flow go north until e join di [[:en:Wari_River|Wari]] an [[:en:Tekezé_River|Tekezé Riva]].<ref>Jacob, M. and colleagues (2019). ''[https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546 Geo-trekking map of Dogu'a Tembien (1:50,000). In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District]''. SpringerNature. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|<bdi>978-3-030-04954-6</bdi>.]]</ref> == Characteristics == E be wan confined bedrock riva, wey get average slope gradient of 102 metres per kilometre. Wit di tributaries, di riva don cut one deep gorge.<ref>Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). ''The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District''. SpringerNature. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14|10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> == Flash floods and flood buffering == Runoff mostly dey happen as high discharge events wey dey occur for short time (dem dey call am [[:en:Flash_floods|flash floods]]). Dis one dey happen because di land steep, vegetation no plenty, and rain dey fall heavy from convective storms. Di peak of dis flash floods fit get discharge wey big pass di [[:en:Baseflow|baseflow]] 50 to 100 times.<ref>Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). ''The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District''. SpringerNature. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14|10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> Flood magnitude dey reduce small because di large Awhi Dur forest dey inside di catchment. Dem don also set up [[:en:Exclosure|exclosures]]; di dense vegetation dey help water soak inside ground, reduce flooding, and make [[:en:Baseflow|baseflow]] better<ref>Descheemaeker, K. and colleagues (2006). [https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900 "Runoff on slopes with restoring vegetation: A case study from the Tigray highlands, Ethiopia"]. ''Journal of Hydrology''. '''331''' (1–2): 219–241. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:1854/LU-378900|1854/LU-378900]]</ref>. Conservation structures like [[:en:Terrace_(earthworks)|stone bunds]]<ref>Nyssen, Jan; Poesen, Jean; Gebremichael, Desta; Vancampenhout, Karen; d'Aes, Margo; Yihdego, Gebremedhin; Govers, Gerard; Leirs, Herwig; Moeyersons, Jan; Naudts, Jozef; Haregeweyn, Nigussie; Haile, Mitiku; Deckers, Jozef (2007). "[https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900 Interdisciplinary on-site evaluation of stone bunds to control soil erosion on cropland in Northern Ethiopia]". ''Soil and Tillage Research''. '''94''' (1): 151–163. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:1854/LU-378900|1854/LU-378900]]</ref><ref>Gebeyehu Taye and colleagues (2015). "Evolution of the effectiveness of stone bunds and trenches in reducing runoff and soil loss in the semi-arid Ethiopian highlands". ''Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie''. '''59''' (4): 477–493. [[:en:Bibcode_(identifier)|Bibcode]]:[https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015ZGm....59..477T 2015ZGm....59..477T.] [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1127/zfg/2015/0166|10.1127/zfg/2015/0166]].</ref> and [[:en:Check_dam|check dams]] dey intercept runoff too.<ref>Nyssen, J.; Veyret-Picot, M.; Poesen, J.; Moeyersons, J.; Haile, Mitiku; Deckers, J.; Govers, G. (2004). "The effectiveness of loose rock check dams for gully control in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia". ''Soil Use and Management''. '''20''': 55–64. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1111/j.1475-2743.2004.tb00337.x|10.1111/j.1475-2743.2004.tb00337.x.]]</ref><ref>Etefa Guyassa and colleagues (2017). "[https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8518957 Effects of check dams on runoff characteristics along gully reaches, the case of Northern Ethiopia]". ''Journal of Hydrology''. '''545''' (1): 299–309. [[:en:Bibcode_(identifier)|Bibcode]]:[https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017JHyd..545..299G 2017JHyd..545..299G]. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.12.019|10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.12.019]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:1854/LU-8518957|1854/LU-8518957]]</ref> == Transhumance towards the gorge == [[:en:Transhumance_in_Ethiopia|Transhumance]] dey happen for di summer rainy season, wen di land near village don full wit crops. Young shepherds go carry di village cattle go down di lower valley, dem go sleep overnight inside small caves. Di valley bottom dey very good as transhumance destination, because water dey and semi-natural vegetation dey grow well.<ref>Nyssen, Jan; Descheemaeker, Katrien; Zenebe, Amanuel; Poesen, Jean; Deckers, Jozef; Haile, Mitiku (2009). [[doi:10.1659/mrd.00033|"Transhumance in the Tigray highlands (Ethiopia)"]]. ''Mountain Research and Development''. '''29''' (3): 255–264. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1659/mrd.00033|10.1659/mrd.00033]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:1854/LU-854326|1854/LU-854326]]</ref> == Boulders and pebbles in the river bed == Boulders and pebbles wey you go see for di riva bed fit come from any place wey dey higher up inside di catchment. For di uppermost part of di riva, na only rock fragments from di upper lithological units go dey inside di riva bed. But as you go downstream, you go begin see mix of all di lithologies wey di riva don cross. From upstream go downstream, na di following lithological units dey inside di catchment.<ref>Sembroni, A.; Molin, P.; Dramis, F. (2019). [https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546 ''Regional geology of the Dogu'a Tembien massif. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains — The Dogu'a Tembien District''.] SpringerNature. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> == Reference == i6tgc92eim7f231h49pic8mnshttr1v 103643 103642 2026-06-18T13:07:19Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103643 wikitext text/x-wiki {{databox}} [[File:Kidane Mihret gorge.jpg|thumb|304x304px|The Kidane Mihret valley]] Di Kidane Mihret na wan riva wey dey insai [[:en:Nile|Nile]] basin. E dey start for di mountains of [[:en:Degua_Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] for north [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], e dey flow go north until e join di [[:en:Wari_River|Wari]] an [[:en:Tekezé_River|Tekezé Riva]].<ref>Jacob, M. and colleagues (2019). ''[https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546 Geo-trekking map of Dogu'a Tembien (1:50,000). In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District]''. SpringerNature. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] [[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|<bdi>978-3-030-04954-6</bdi>.]]</ref> == Characteristics == E be wan confined bedrock riva, wey get average slope gradient of 102 metres per kilometre. Wit di tributaries, di riva don cut one deep gorge.<ref>Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). ''The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District''. SpringerNature. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi:]][[doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14|10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> == Flash floods and flood buffering == Runoff mostly dey happen as high discharge events wey dey occur for short time (dem dey call am [[:en:Flash_floods|flash floods]]). Dis one dey happen because di land steep, vegetation no plenty, and rain dey fall heavy from convective storms. Di peak of dis flash floods fit get discharge wey big pass di [[:en:Baseflow|baseflow]] 50 to 100 times.<ref>Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). ''The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains – The Dogu'a Tembien District''. SpringerNature. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14|10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> Flood magnitude dey reduce small because di large Awhi Dur forest dey inside di catchment. Dem don also set up [[:en:Exclosure|exclosures]]; di dense vegetation dey help water soak inside ground, reduce flooding, and make [[:en:Baseflow|baseflow]] better<ref>Descheemaeker, K. and colleagues (2006). [https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900 "Runoff on slopes with restoring vegetation: A case study from the Tigray highlands, Ethiopia"]. ''Journal of Hydrology''. '''331''' (1–2): 219–241. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:1854/LU-378900|1854/LU-378900]]</ref>. Conservation structures like [[:en:Terrace_(earthworks)|stone bunds]]<ref>Nyssen, Jan; Poesen, Jean; Gebremichael, Desta; Vancampenhout, Karen; d'Aes, Margo; Yihdego, Gebremedhin; Govers, Gerard; Leirs, Herwig; Moeyersons, Jan; Naudts, Jozef; Haregeweyn, Nigussie; Haile, Mitiku; Deckers, Jozef (2007). "[https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/378900 Interdisciplinary on-site evaluation of stone bunds to control soil erosion on cropland in Northern Ethiopia]". ''Soil and Tillage Research''. '''94''' (1): 151–163. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011|10.1016/j.still.2006.07.011]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl:]][[hdl:1854/LU-378900|1854/LU-378900]]</ref><ref>Gebeyehu Taye and colleagues (2015). "Evolution of the effectiveness of stone bunds and trenches in reducing runoff and soil loss in the semi-arid Ethiopian highlands". ''Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie''. '''59''' (4): 477–493. [[:en:Bibcode_(identifier)|Bibcode]]:[https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015ZGm....59..477T 2015ZGm....59..477T.] [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1127/zfg/2015/0166|10.1127/zfg/2015/0166]].</ref> and [[:en:Check_dam|check dams]] dey intercept runoff too.<ref>Nyssen, J.; Veyret-Picot, M.; Poesen, J.; Moeyersons, J.; Haile, Mitiku; Deckers, J.; Govers, G. (2004). "The effectiveness of loose rock check dams for gully control in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia". ''Soil Use and Management''. '''20''': 55–64. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1111/j.1475-2743.2004.tb00337.x|10.1111/j.1475-2743.2004.tb00337.x.]]</ref><ref>Etefa Guyassa and colleagues (2017). "[https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8518957 Effects of check dams on runoff characteristics along gully reaches, the case of Northern Ethiopia]". ''Journal of Hydrology''. '''545''' (1): 299–309. [[:en:Bibcode_(identifier)|Bibcode]]:[https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017JHyd..545..299G 2017JHyd..545..299G]. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.12.019|10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.12.019]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:1854/LU-8518957|1854/LU-8518957]]</ref> == Transhumance towards the gorge == [[:en:Transhumance_in_Ethiopia|Transhumance]] dey happen for di summer rainy season, wen di land near village don full wit crops. Young shepherds go carry di village cattle go down di lower valley, dem go sleep overnight inside small caves. Di valley bottom dey very good as transhumance destination, because water dey and semi-natural vegetation dey grow well.<ref>Nyssen, Jan; Descheemaeker, Katrien; Zenebe, Amanuel; Poesen, Jean; Deckers, Jozef; Haile, Mitiku (2009). [[doi:10.1659/mrd.00033|"Transhumance in the Tigray highlands (Ethiopia)"]]. ''Mountain Research and Development''. '''29''' (3): 255–264. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1659/mrd.00033|10.1659/mrd.00033]]. [[:en:Hdl_(identifier)|hdl]]:[[hdl:1854/LU-854326|1854/LU-854326]]</ref> == Boulders and pebbles in the river bed == Boulders and pebbles wey you go see for di riva bed fit come from any place wey dey higher up inside di catchment. For di uppermost part of di riva, na only rock fragments from di upper lithological units go dey inside di riva bed. But as you go downstream, you go begin see mix of all di lithologies wey di riva don cross. From upstream go downstream, na di following lithological units dey inside di catchment.<ref>Sembroni, A.; Molin, P.; Dramis, F. (2019). [https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030049546 ''Regional geology of the Dogu'a Tembien massif. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains — The Dogu'a Tembien District''.] SpringerNature. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> == Reference == 02e5o2j8s2spv04miur68axh23ni3v3 14 27653 103644 2026-06-18T13:21:54Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103644 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27654 103645 2026-06-18T13:22:05Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103645 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27655 103646 2026-06-18T13:22:20Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103646 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27656 103647 2026-06-18T13:22:22Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 Created page with "Di Korowya na wan riva wey dey inside Nile basin. E dey rise from di mountains of Dogu’a Tembien for north Ethiopia, e dey flow go west until e finally empty inside di Weri’i and Tekezé Riva." 103647 wikitext text/x-wiki Di Korowya na wan riva wey dey inside Nile basin. E dey rise from di mountains of Dogu’a Tembien for north Ethiopia, e dey flow go west until e finally empty inside di Weri’i and Tekezé Riva. 8kj5jp8pmgxhb89sqxnfg8xzn7c93ez 103649 103647 2026-06-18T13:25:21Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103649 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Korowya''' na wan riva wey dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile]] basin. E dey rise from di mountains of [[:en:Degua_Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] for north [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], e dey flow go west until e finally empty inside di [[:en:Wari_River|Weri’i]] and [[:en:Tekezé_River|Tekezé Riva]]. c3g5xzglnng0k1a6bqaovybku5eo7hz 103650 103649 2026-06-18T13:29:23Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103650 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Korowya''' na wan riva wey dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile]] basin. E dey rise from di mountains of [[:en:Degua_Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] for north [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], e dey flow go west until e finally empty inside di [[:en:Wari_River|Weri’i]] and [[:en:Tekezé_River|Tekezé Riva]]. == Characteristics == E be wan [[:en:Meander|meandering]] stream wey dey inside semi-confined alluvial plain, wit average slope gradient of 31 metres per kilometre.<ref>Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). ''The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District''. SpringerNature. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14|10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> ph3tn6elocx9e9hlzcnvav75863ht7n 103651 103650 2026-06-18T13:29:50Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103651 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Korowya''' na wan riva wey dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile]] basin. E dey rise from di mountains of [[:en:Degua_Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] for north [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], e dey flow go west until e finally empty inside di [[:en:Wari_River|Weri’i]] and [[:en:Tekezé_River|Tekezé Riva]]. == Characteristics == E be wan [[:en:Meander|meandering]] stream wey dey inside semi-confined alluvial plain, wit average slope gradient of 31 metres per kilometre.<ref>Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). ''The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District''. SpringerNature. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14|10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> == Reference == nzulkzivzq0x4rkamytxrc4gvb330rp 103653 103651 2026-06-18T13:32:15Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103653 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Korowya''' na wan riva wey dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile]] basin. E dey rise from di mountains of [[:en:Degua_Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] for north [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], e dey flow go west until e finally empty inside di [[:en:Wari_River|Weri’i]] and [[:en:Tekezé_River|Tekezé Riva]]. == Characteristics == E be wan [[:en:Meander|meandering]] stream wey dey inside semi-confined alluvial plain, wit average slope gradient of 31 metres per kilometre.<ref>Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). ''The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District''. SpringerNature. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14|10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> == Flash floods and flood buffering == Runoff mostly dey happen as high discharge events wey dey occur for short time (dem dey call am flash floods). Dis one dey related to di steep topography, small vegetation cover, and heavy convective rainfall. Di peak of dis flash floods fit get discharge wey big pass di baseflow 50 to 100 times. For dis riva, flood magnitude never reduce because interventions for di catchment no plenty. Conservation structures like stone bunds and check dams dey few and no strong enough. For many steep slopes, remnant forests still dey; di dense vegetation dey help water soak inside ground, but e no fit buffer di floods. == Reference == 1bes38uuwgtt3hlnos02h7bboxp1vjc 103655 103653 2026-06-18T13:34:35Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103655 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Korowya''' na wan riva wey dey inside [[:en:Nile|Nile]] basin. E dey rise from di mountains of [[:en:Degua_Tembien|Dogu’a Tembien]] for north [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], e dey flow go west until e finally empty inside di [[:en:Wari_River|Weri’i]] and [[:en:Tekezé_River|Tekezé Riva]]. == Characteristics == E be wan [[:en:Meander|meandering]] stream wey dey inside semi-confined alluvial plain, wit average slope gradient of 31 metres per kilometre.<ref>Amanuel Zenebe, and colleagues (2019). ''The Giba, Tanqwa and Tsaliet rivers in the headwaters of the Tekezze basin. In: Geo-trekking in Ethiopia's Tropical Mountains - The Dogu'a Tembien District''. SpringerNature. [[:en:Doi_(identifier)|doi]]:[[doi:10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14|10.1007/978-3-030-04955-3_14]]. [[:en:ISBN_(identifier)|ISBN]] <bdi>[[:en:Special:BookSources/978-3-030-04954-6|978-3-030-04954-6]]</bdi>.</ref> == Flash floods and flood buffering == Runoff mostly dey happen as high discharge events wey dey occur for short time (dem dey call am [[:en:Flash_floods|flash floods]]). Dis one dey related to di steep topography, small vegetation cover, and heavy convective rainfall. Di peak of dis flash floods fit get discharge wey big pass di [[:en:Baseflow|baseflow]] 50 to 100 times. For dis riva, flood magnitude never reduce because interventions for di catchment no plenty. Conservation structures like stone bunds and check dams dey few and no strong enough. For many steep slopes, remnant forests still dey; di dense vegetation dey help water soak inside ground, but e no fit buffer di floods. == Reference == 7eng72b9in2yxilg9upc5ft6fbcav1k 14 27657 103648 2026-06-18T13:22:32Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103648 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27658 103652 2026-06-18T13:31:17Z DaSupremo 9 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1359878651|Tema Community 22 Polyclinic]]" 103652 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Tema Community 22 Polyclinic''' be a health facility wey locate insyd Ashaiman insyd de Ashaiman Municipal District insyd de Greater Accra Region of Ghana.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ashaiman Chief condemns oxygen shortage at Tema General Hospital, pledges support to community 22 Polyclinic |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1326058/ashaiman-chief-condemns-oxygen-shortage-at-tema.html |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=Modern Ghana |language=en}}</ref> As at 2024, de administrator of de facility be Dr Adolph Bansah.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Etefe |first=Juliet |date=2024-09-14 |title=FWF Microfinance extends benevolence to Tema Community 22 Polyclinic |url=https://thebftonline.com/2024/09/14/fwf-microfinance-extends-benevolence-to-tema-community-22-polyclinic/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=The Business & Financial Times |language=en-GB}}</ref> == History == Insyd October 2021, de Korea International Cooperation Agency (KOICA) donate [[COVID-19]] prevention den hospital items to de facility.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Times |first=Ghanaian |date=2021-10-27 |title=KOICA presents GH₵ 39,000 items to Ashaiman Municipal Hospital |url=https://ghanaiantimes.com.gh/koica-presents-gh%E2%82%B5-39000-items-to-ashaiman-municipal-hospital/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=Ghanaian Times |language=en-US}}</ref> Insyd November 2023, na de facility dey among eleven health facilities wich receive Splenda Sweeteners from Splenda Ghana.<ref>{{Cite web |last=GNA |date=2023-11-15 |title=Splenda Ghana donates to eleven health facilities |url=https://gna.org.gh/2023/11/splenda-ghana-donates-eleven-health-facilities/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=Ghana News Agency |language=en-US}}</ref> Insyd July 2024, Nii Annang Adzor, de Chief of Ashaiman pledge to support de facility during ein 5th anniversary celebration.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2024-07-11|title=Ashaiman chief condemns oxygen shortage at Tema General Hospital, pledges support to Community 22 Polyclinic|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Ashaiman-chief-condemns-oxygen-shortage-at-Tema-General-Hospital-pledges-support-to-Community-22-Polyclinic-1940000|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20241216084142/https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Ashaiman-chief-condemns-oxygen-shortage-at-Tema-General-Hospital-pledges-support-to-Community-22-Polyclinic-1940000|archive-date=2024-12-16|access-date=2026-06-17|work=GhanaWeb|language=en-US}}</ref> In September 2024, FWF Microfinance Limited donated items which included one unit of baby cot and five units of three-in-one visitors’ chairs to the facility.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Etefe |first=Juliet |date=2024-09-14 |title=FWF Microfinance extends benevolence to Tema Community 22 Polyclinic |url=https://thebftonline.com/2024/09/14/fwf-microfinance-extends-benevolence-to-tema-community-22-polyclinic/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=The Business & Financial Times |language=en-GB}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFEtefe2024">Etefe, Juliet (2024-09-14). [https://thebftonline.com/2024/09/14/fwf-microfinance-extends-benevolence-to-tema-community-22-polyclinic/ "FWF Microfinance extends benevolence to Tema Community 22 Polyclinic"]. ''The Business & Financial Times''<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2026-06-17</span></span>.</cite></ref> == Incident == Insyd June 2026, na a nurse be assaulted allegedly by a relative of a patient after she biz de person to leave de facility.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Adogla-Bessa |first=Delali |date=2026-06-05 |title=Nurse Allegedly Assaulted by Patient’s Relative at Tema Community 22 Polyclinic - YEN.COM.GH |url=https://yen.com.gh/ghana/305834-nurse-allegedly-assaulted-by-patients-relative-tema-community-22-polyclinic/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=yen.com.gh |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-06-05 |title=Patient's relative allegedly assaults nurse at Tema Com. 22 polyclinic - Adomonline.com |url=https://www.adomonline.com/patients-relative-allegedly-assaults-nurse-at-tema-comm-22-polyclinic/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |language=en-US}}</ref> De Greater Accra Health Directorate condemn de attack on de health worker.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-06-05 |title=Greater Accra Health Directorate condemns assault on midwife at Tema Community 22 Polyclinic - MyJoyOnline |url=https://www.myjoyonline.com/greater-accra-health-directorate-condemns-assault-on-midwife-at-tema-community-22-polyclinic/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=www.myjoyonline.com |language=en-US}}</ref> De Union of Professional Nurses and Midwives, Ghana (UPNMG) sanso condemn de assault of de health worker at de facility.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-06-05 |title=Nurses and Midwives Union condemns assault on midwife at Tema Community 22 Polyclinic - MyJoyOnline |url=https://www.myjoyonline.com/nurses-and-midwives-union-condemns-assault-on-midwife-at-tema-community-22-polyclinic/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=www.myjoyonline.com |language=en-US}}</ref> De Ghana Registered Nurses and Midwives Association (GRNMA) sanso condemn de attack.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lartey |first=Winifred |date=2026-06-05 |title=“Unacceptable and criminal”: GRNMA condemns assault on midwife |url=https://asaaseradio.com/unacceptable-and-criminal-grnma-condemns-assault-on-midwife/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=Asaase Radio |language=en-US}}</ref> De National Association of Registered Midwives, Ghana (NARM-GH) sanso condemn de incident.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 June 2026 |title=Midwives demand justice for colleague assaulted at Tema Hospital |url=https://ghanaiantimes.com.gh/midwives-demand-justice-for-colleague-assaulted-at-tema-hospital/ |access-date=17 June 2026 |website=Ghanaian Times}}</ref> Na dem arrest de suspect by de Ghana Police Service<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 June 2026 |title=Police arrest man in viral video attacking nurse - GHS reveals |url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Police-arrest-man-in-viral-video-attacking-nurse-GHS-reveals-2037870 |access-date=17 June 2026 |website=Ghana Web}}</ref> wey he be expected to appear insyd court on 8 June.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ofori |first=Jonathan |date=2026-06-06 |title=Tema Polyclinic midwife assault: suspect to face court 8 June |url=https://asaaseradio.com/health-ministry-condemns-assault-on-midwife-at-tema-polyclinic/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=Asaase Radio |language=en-US}}</ref> De man dem name Desmond Bosomtwe, dem convict am wey dem find am guilty of assaulting senior staff midwife Priscilla Addo.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-06-11 |title=MoH hails court ruling in Community 22 Polyclinic assault case |url=https://www.citinewsroom.com/2026/06/moh-hails-court-ruling-in-com-22-polyclinic-assault-case/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |language=en-US}}</ref> == References == [[Category:Hospitals insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Greater Accra Region]] qxp87f4kq4oa3145ksj9o8tad5adec9 103654 103652 2026-06-18T13:33:10Z DaSupremo 9 Add databox 103654 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Tema Community 22 Polyclinic''' be a health facility wey locate insyd Ashaiman insyd de Ashaiman Municipal District insyd de Greater Accra Region of Ghana.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ashaiman Chief condemns oxygen shortage at Tema General Hospital, pledges support to community 22 Polyclinic |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1326058/ashaiman-chief-condemns-oxygen-shortage-at-tema.html |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=Modern Ghana |language=en}}</ref> As at 2024, de administrator of de facility be Dr Adolph Bansah.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Etefe |first=Juliet |date=2024-09-14 |title=FWF Microfinance extends benevolence to Tema Community 22 Polyclinic |url=https://thebftonline.com/2024/09/14/fwf-microfinance-extends-benevolence-to-tema-community-22-polyclinic/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=The Business & Financial Times |language=en-GB}}</ref> == History == Insyd October 2021, de Korea International Cooperation Agency (KOICA) donate [[COVID-19]] prevention den hospital items to de facility.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Times |first=Ghanaian |date=2021-10-27 |title=KOICA presents GH₵ 39,000 items to Ashaiman Municipal Hospital |url=https://ghanaiantimes.com.gh/koica-presents-gh%E2%82%B5-39000-items-to-ashaiman-municipal-hospital/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=Ghanaian Times |language=en-US}}</ref> Insyd November 2023, na de facility dey among eleven health facilities wich receive Splenda Sweeteners from Splenda Ghana.<ref>{{Cite web |last=GNA |date=2023-11-15 |title=Splenda Ghana donates to eleven health facilities |url=https://gna.org.gh/2023/11/splenda-ghana-donates-eleven-health-facilities/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=Ghana News Agency |language=en-US}}</ref> Insyd July 2024, Nii Annang Adzor, de Chief of Ashaiman pledge to support de facility during ein 5th anniversary celebration.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2024-07-11|title=Ashaiman chief condemns oxygen shortage at Tema General Hospital, pledges support to Community 22 Polyclinic|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Ashaiman-chief-condemns-oxygen-shortage-at-Tema-General-Hospital-pledges-support-to-Community-22-Polyclinic-1940000|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20241216084142/https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Ashaiman-chief-condemns-oxygen-shortage-at-Tema-General-Hospital-pledges-support-to-Community-22-Polyclinic-1940000|archive-date=2024-12-16|access-date=2026-06-17|work=GhanaWeb|language=en-US}}</ref> In September 2024, FWF Microfinance Limited donated items which included one unit of baby cot and five units of three-in-one visitors’ chairs to the facility.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Etefe |first=Juliet |date=2024-09-14 |title=FWF Microfinance extends benevolence to Tema Community 22 Polyclinic |url=https://thebftonline.com/2024/09/14/fwf-microfinance-extends-benevolence-to-tema-community-22-polyclinic/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=The Business & Financial Times |language=en-GB}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFEtefe2024">Etefe, Juliet (2024-09-14). [https://thebftonline.com/2024/09/14/fwf-microfinance-extends-benevolence-to-tema-community-22-polyclinic/ "FWF Microfinance extends benevolence to Tema Community 22 Polyclinic"]. ''The Business & Financial Times''<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2026-06-17</span></span>.</cite></ref> == Incident == Insyd June 2026, na a nurse be assaulted allegedly by a relative of a patient after she biz de person to leave de facility.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Adogla-Bessa |first=Delali |date=2026-06-05 |title=Nurse Allegedly Assaulted by Patient’s Relative at Tema Community 22 Polyclinic - YEN.COM.GH |url=https://yen.com.gh/ghana/305834-nurse-allegedly-assaulted-by-patients-relative-tema-community-22-polyclinic/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=yen.com.gh |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-06-05 |title=Patient's relative allegedly assaults nurse at Tema Com. 22 polyclinic - Adomonline.com |url=https://www.adomonline.com/patients-relative-allegedly-assaults-nurse-at-tema-comm-22-polyclinic/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |language=en-US}}</ref> De Greater Accra Health Directorate condemn de attack on de health worker.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-06-05 |title=Greater Accra Health Directorate condemns assault on midwife at Tema Community 22 Polyclinic - MyJoyOnline |url=https://www.myjoyonline.com/greater-accra-health-directorate-condemns-assault-on-midwife-at-tema-community-22-polyclinic/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=www.myjoyonline.com |language=en-US}}</ref> De Union of Professional Nurses and Midwives, Ghana (UPNMG) sanso condemn de assault of de health worker at de facility.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-06-05 |title=Nurses and Midwives Union condemns assault on midwife at Tema Community 22 Polyclinic - MyJoyOnline |url=https://www.myjoyonline.com/nurses-and-midwives-union-condemns-assault-on-midwife-at-tema-community-22-polyclinic/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=www.myjoyonline.com |language=en-US}}</ref> De Ghana Registered Nurses and Midwives Association (GRNMA) sanso condemn de attack.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lartey |first=Winifred |date=2026-06-05 |title=“Unacceptable and criminal”: GRNMA condemns assault on midwife |url=https://asaaseradio.com/unacceptable-and-criminal-grnma-condemns-assault-on-midwife/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=Asaase Radio |language=en-US}}</ref> De National Association of Registered Midwives, Ghana (NARM-GH) sanso condemn de incident.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 June 2026 |title=Midwives demand justice for colleague assaulted at Tema Hospital |url=https://ghanaiantimes.com.gh/midwives-demand-justice-for-colleague-assaulted-at-tema-hospital/ |access-date=17 June 2026 |website=Ghanaian Times}}</ref> Na dem arrest de suspect by de Ghana Police Service<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 June 2026 |title=Police arrest man in viral video attacking nurse - GHS reveals |url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Police-arrest-man-in-viral-video-attacking-nurse-GHS-reveals-2037870 |access-date=17 June 2026 |website=Ghana Web}}</ref> wey he be expected to appear insyd court on 8 June.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ofori |first=Jonathan |date=2026-06-06 |title=Tema Polyclinic midwife assault: suspect to face court 8 June |url=https://asaaseradio.com/health-ministry-condemns-assault-on-midwife-at-tema-polyclinic/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=Asaase Radio |language=en-US}}</ref> De man dem name Desmond Bosomtwe, dem convict am wey dem find am guilty of assaulting senior staff midwife Priscilla Addo.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-06-11 |title=MoH hails court ruling in Community 22 Polyclinic assault case |url=https://www.citinewsroom.com/2026/06/moh-hails-court-ruling-in-com-22-polyclinic-assault-case/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |language=en-US}}</ref> == References == [[Category:Hospitals insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Greater Accra Region]] nyse99tf2cxc2ddmcgbyochcbqpks0u 103656 103654 2026-06-18T13:36:13Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 103656 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Tema Community 22 Polyclinic''' be a health facility wey locate insyd Ashaiman insyd de Ashaiman Municipal District insyd de Greater Accra Region of Ghana.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ashaiman Chief condemns oxygen shortage at Tema General Hospital, pledges support to community 22 Polyclinic |url=https://www.modernghana.com/news/1326058/ashaiman-chief-condemns-oxygen-shortage-at-tema.html |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=Modern Ghana |language=en}}</ref> As at 2024, de administrator of de facility be Dr Adolph Bansah.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=Etefe|first=Juliet|date=2024-09-14|title=FWF Microfinance extends benevolence to Tema Community 22 Polyclinic|url=https://thebftonline.com/2024/09/14/fwf-microfinance-extends-benevolence-to-tema-community-22-polyclinic/|access-date=2026-06-17|website=The Business & Financial Times|language=en-GB}}</ref> == History == Insyd October 2021, de Korea International Cooperation Agency (KOICA) donate [[COVID-19]] prevention den hospital items to de facility.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Times |first=Ghanaian |date=2021-10-27 |title=KOICA presents GH₵ 39,000 items to Ashaiman Municipal Hospital |url=https://ghanaiantimes.com.gh/koica-presents-gh%E2%82%B5-39000-items-to-ashaiman-municipal-hospital/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=Ghanaian Times |language=en-US}}</ref> Insyd November 2023, na de facility dey among eleven health facilities wich receive Splenda Sweeteners from Splenda Ghana.<ref>{{Cite web |last=GNA |date=2023-11-15 |title=Splenda Ghana donates to eleven health facilities |url=https://gna.org.gh/2023/11/splenda-ghana-donates-eleven-health-facilities/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=Ghana News Agency |language=en-US}}</ref> Insyd July 2024, Nii Annang Adzor, de Chief of Ashaiman pledge to support de facility during ein 5th anniversary celebration.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2024-07-11|title=Ashaiman chief condemns oxygen shortage at Tema General Hospital, pledges support to Community 22 Polyclinic|url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Ashaiman-chief-condemns-oxygen-shortage-at-Tema-General-Hospital-pledges-support-to-Community-22-Polyclinic-1940000|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20241216084142/https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Ashaiman-chief-condemns-oxygen-shortage-at-Tema-General-Hospital-pledges-support-to-Community-22-Polyclinic-1940000|archive-date=2024-12-16|access-date=2026-06-17|work=GhanaWeb|language=en-US}}</ref> Insyd September 2024, FWF Microfinance Limited donate items wich include one unit of baby cot den five units of three-in-one visitors dema chairs to de facility.<ref name=":02" /> == Incident == Insyd June 2026, na a nurse be assaulted allegedly by a relative of a patient after she biz de person to leave de facility.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Adogla-Bessa |first=Delali |date=2026-06-05 |title=Nurse Allegedly Assaulted by Patient’s Relative at Tema Community 22 Polyclinic - YEN.COM.GH |url=https://yen.com.gh/ghana/305834-nurse-allegedly-assaulted-by-patients-relative-tema-community-22-polyclinic/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=yen.com.gh |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-06-05 |title=Patient's relative allegedly assaults nurse at Tema Com. 22 polyclinic - Adomonline.com |url=https://www.adomonline.com/patients-relative-allegedly-assaults-nurse-at-tema-comm-22-polyclinic/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |language=en-US}}</ref> De Greater Accra Health Directorate condemn de attack on de health worker.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-06-05 |title=Greater Accra Health Directorate condemns assault on midwife at Tema Community 22 Polyclinic - MyJoyOnline |url=https://www.myjoyonline.com/greater-accra-health-directorate-condemns-assault-on-midwife-at-tema-community-22-polyclinic/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=www.myjoyonline.com |language=en-US}}</ref> De Union of Professional Nurses and Midwives, Ghana (UPNMG) sanso condemn de assault of de health worker at de facility.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-06-05 |title=Nurses and Midwives Union condemns assault on midwife at Tema Community 22 Polyclinic - MyJoyOnline |url=https://www.myjoyonline.com/nurses-and-midwives-union-condemns-assault-on-midwife-at-tema-community-22-polyclinic/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=www.myjoyonline.com |language=en-US}}</ref> De Ghana Registered Nurses and Midwives Association (GRNMA) sanso condemn de attack.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lartey |first=Winifred |date=2026-06-05 |title=“Unacceptable and criminal”: GRNMA condemns assault on midwife |url=https://asaaseradio.com/unacceptable-and-criminal-grnma-condemns-assault-on-midwife/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=Asaase Radio |language=en-US}}</ref> De National Association of Registered Midwives, Ghana (NARM-GH) sanso condemn de incident.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 June 2026 |title=Midwives demand justice for colleague assaulted at Tema Hospital |url=https://ghanaiantimes.com.gh/midwives-demand-justice-for-colleague-assaulted-at-tema-hospital/ |access-date=17 June 2026 |website=Ghanaian Times}}</ref> Na dem arrest de suspect by de Ghana Police Service<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 June 2026 |title=Police arrest man in viral video attacking nurse - GHS reveals |url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Police-arrest-man-in-viral-video-attacking-nurse-GHS-reveals-2037870 |access-date=17 June 2026 |website=Ghana Web}}</ref> wey he be expected to appear insyd court on 8 June.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ofori |first=Jonathan |date=2026-06-06 |title=Tema Polyclinic midwife assault: suspect to face court 8 June |url=https://asaaseradio.com/health-ministry-condemns-assault-on-midwife-at-tema-polyclinic/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |website=Asaase Radio |language=en-US}}</ref> De man dem name Desmond Bosomtwe, dem convict am wey dem find am guilty of assaulting senior staff midwife Priscilla Addo.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-06-11 |title=MoH hails court ruling in Community 22 Polyclinic assault case |url=https://www.citinewsroom.com/2026/06/moh-hails-court-ruling-in-com-22-polyclinic-assault-case/ |access-date=2026-06-17 |language=en-US}}</ref> == References == [[Category:Hospitals insyd Ghana]] [[Category:Greater Accra Region]] puj4ocqkqd9b7rgnfw44ybbk1f7n22i 0 27659 103658 2026-06-18T13:47:10Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 Created page with "Di '''Jikawo River''' na one riva wey dey southwestern [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]]. E be [[:en:Tributary|tributary]] of di [[:en:Baro_River|Baro River]], wey e join for latitude and longitude [https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Jikawo_River&params=8_22_N_33_46_E_region:ET_type:river 8°22′N 33°46′E]. Di riva dey rise for Ethiopia, and for e lower course e dey form di border wit [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]].<ref>[http://www.cde.unibe.ch/sudan/maps/s..." 103658 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Jikawo River''' na one riva wey dey southwestern [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]]. E be [[:en:Tributary|tributary]] of di [[:en:Baro_River|Baro River]], wey e join for latitude and longitude [https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Jikawo_River&params=8_22_N_33_46_E_region:ET_type:river 8°22′N 33°46′E]. Di riva dey rise for Ethiopia, and for e lower course e dey form di border wit [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]].<ref>[http://www.cde.unibe.ch/sudan/maps/south/statemaps/jonglei_highweb.JPG Topographical map of Jonglei] [https://web.archive.org/web/20110929152905/http://www.cde.unibe.ch/sudan/maps/south/statemaps/jonglei_highweb.JPG Archived] 2011-09-29 at the [[:en:Wayback_Machine|Wayback Machine]]</ref> ofs3504piv1n3oeblh19m9vkq4abe2g 103659 103658 2026-06-18T13:47:38Z Emmanuella Ackon 2562 103659 wikitext text/x-wiki Di '''Jikawo River''' na one riva wey dey southwestern [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]]. E be [[:en:Tributary|tributary]] of di [[:en:Baro_River|Baro River]], wey e join for latitude and longitude [https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Jikawo_River&params=8_22_N_33_46_E_region:ET_type:river 8°22′N 33°46′E]. Di riva dey rise for Ethiopia, and for e lower course e dey form di border wit [[:en:South_Sudan|South Sudan]].<ref>[http://www.cde.unibe.ch/sudan/maps/south/statemaps/jonglei_highweb.JPG Topographical map of Jonglei] [https://web.archive.org/web/20110929152905/http://www.cde.unibe.ch/sudan/maps/south/statemaps/jonglei_highweb.JPG Archived] 2011-09-29 at the [[:en:Wayback_Machine|Wayback Machine]]</ref> == Reference == rel2v2bwqb481tr3d54q2fumrgg5u8j 14 27660 103661 2026-06-18T13:59:09Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103661 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27661 103662 2026-06-18T13:59:31Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103662 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27662 103664 2026-06-18T14:10:31Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103664 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27663 103665 2026-06-18T14:10:41Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103665 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27664 103666 2026-06-18T14:10:53Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103666 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27665 103667 2026-06-18T14:11:48Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103667 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27666 103668 2026-06-18T14:12:03Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103668 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 3 27667 103670 2026-06-18T14:31:08Z MediaWiki message delivery 110 /* Thank you for being a part of Feminism and Folklore 2026 */ new section 103670 wikitext text/x-wiki == Thank you for being a part of Feminism and Folklore 2026 == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> [[File:Feminism and Folklore 2026 logo.svg|right|350px]] Dear {{PAGENAME}}, Your contributions helped make this year's [[:Feminism and Folklore 2026|Feminism and Folklore]] campaign a great success, and we are truly grateful for your time, knowledge, and dedication to documenting women's stories and folklore on Wikimedia projects. 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Best regards, Feminism and Folklore international Team. --[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 14:31, 18 June 2026 (GMT) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tiven2240/wlf2026&oldid=30704478 --> 5km7sbatq1dl8cb5bnplqpkpc273qml 14 27668 103721 2026-06-18T16:53:26Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103721 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27669 103722 2026-06-18T16:53:37Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103722 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27670 103723 2026-06-18T16:53:49Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103723 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27671 103724 2026-06-18T16:54:01Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103724 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27672 103725 2026-06-18T16:57:08Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103725 wikitext text/x-wiki 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phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27697 103761 2026-06-18T18:04:02Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103761 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27698 103762 2026-06-18T18:04:13Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103762 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27699 103763 2026-06-18T18:04:24Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103763 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27700 103830 2026-06-18T19:59:34Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Create a fresh article 103830 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} kzdj29jswfgtq7y8meaen7lvtvdjdm1 103831 103830 2026-06-18T20:01:08Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103831 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. 328gdje4l6chu01o7iqc4u6xi1l5tw8 103832 103831 2026-06-18T20:02:29Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103832 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> == References == ewsgdvzuvfnfwvy6b8euhj1zova7ep2 103833 103832 2026-06-18T20:03:19Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103833 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> Spy below each river's article for its tributaries, drainage areas, etc. == References == s1tjggn5but78rl4kys7wltegcqpir7 103834 103833 2026-06-18T20:04:06Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add databox 103834 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> Spy below each river's article for its tributaries, drainage areas, etc. == References == stmlqzd5z4ww1xtjf4lez6qxjztf1vg 103951 103834 2026-06-19T06:37:14Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add sub-heading 103951 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> Spy below each river's article for its tributaries, drainage areas, etc. ==Southern Africa== == References == breawy05m3urire50kqnyx4q15pg8ri 103952 103951 2026-06-19T06:39:36Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103952 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> Spy below each river's article for its tributaries, drainage areas, etc. ==Southern Africa== * [[Cuanza River|Cuanza]] - [[Angola]] * [[Great Fish River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Great Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[Black Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[White Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] * Groot River(s) - [[South Africa]] ** [[Groot River (Western Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Southern Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Eastern Cape)]] ** anoda name for de [[Orange River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] == References == 3n1eypg0be16t8nkuzgecragx5tz0cf 103954 103952 2026-06-19T06:43:41Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103954 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> Spy below each river's article for its tributaries, drainage areas, etc. ==Southern Africa== * [[Cuanza River|Cuanza]] - [[Angola]] * [[Great Fish River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Great Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[Black Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[White Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] * Groot River(s) - [[South Africa]] ** [[Groot River (Western Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Southern Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Eastern Cape)]] ** anoda name for de [[Orange River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] * [[Gamtoos River]] - South Africa * [[Ihosy River]] - [[Madagascar]] * [[Jukskei River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Kafue River]] - [[Zambia]] * Kowie River - [[South Africa]] * Kuiseb - [[Namibia]] * Kunene - [[Angola]] <small>''(as [[Cunene River|Cunene]])''</small>, [[Namibia]] * Kwando - [[Namibia]], sanso known as ''Linyanti'' den ''Chobe'' insyd places * [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] - [[Mozambique]], [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Botswana]] * Luangwa River - [[Zambia]] * Mania River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Maputo River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Eswatini]], [[Mozambique]] * Molopo - [[Botswana]], [[South Africa]] * Mooi River (Tugela) - [[South Africa]] * Mthatha River - [[South Africa]] == References == entxdq89qpsyj88a5x8xzvvw3lqq8py 103955 103954 2026-06-19T06:48:16Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103955 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> Spy below each river's article for its tributaries, drainage areas, etc. ==Southern Africa== * [[Cuanza River|Cuanza]] - [[Angola]] * [[Great Fish River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Great Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[Black Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[White Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] * Groot River(s) - [[South Africa]] ** [[Groot River (Western Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Southern Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Eastern Cape)]] ** anoda name for de [[Orange River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] * [[Gamtoos River]] - South Africa * [[Ihosy River]] - [[Madagascar]] * [[Jukskei River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Kafue River]] - [[Zambia]] * Kowie River - [[South Africa]] * Kuiseb - [[Namibia]] * Kunene - [[Angola]] <small>''(as [[Cunene River|Cunene]])''</small>, [[Namibia]] * Kwando - [[Namibia]], sanso known as ''Linyanti'' den ''Chobe'' insyd places * [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] - [[Mozambique]], [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Botswana]] * Luangwa River - [[Zambia]] * Mania River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Maputo River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Eswatini]], [[Mozambique]] * Molopo - [[Botswana]], [[South Africa]] * Mooi River (Tugela) - [[South Africa]] * Mthatha River - [[South Africa]] * [[Okavango River|Okavango]] - [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]], [[Angola]] <small>''(as "Cubango")''</small> * Onilahy River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Orange River|Orange]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] :* [[Caledon River|Caledon]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]] :* [[Vaal River|Vaal]] - [[South Africa]] :* Fish - [[Namibia]] * [[Shangani River]] - [[Zimbabwe]] * Swakop River - [[Namibia]] * Tugela - [[South Africa]] * Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* Black Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* White Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] * Umgeni River - [[South Africa]] * Umkomazi River- [[South Africa]] * [[Zambezi]] - [[Angola]], [[Zambia]], [[Namibia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] *Gairezi - [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] == References == 1fp9o7r1vak9b3i0p0l7ol3csa6p42l 103956 103955 2026-06-19T06:49:05Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add sub-heading 103956 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> Spy below each river's article for its tributaries, drainage areas, etc. ==Southern Africa== * [[Cuanza River|Cuanza]] - [[Angola]] * [[Great Fish River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Great Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[Black Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[White Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] * Groot River(s) - [[South Africa]] ** [[Groot River (Western Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Southern Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Eastern Cape)]] ** anoda name for de [[Orange River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] * [[Gamtoos River]] - South Africa * [[Ihosy River]] - [[Madagascar]] * [[Jukskei River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Kafue River]] - [[Zambia]] * Kowie River - [[South Africa]] * Kuiseb - [[Namibia]] * Kunene - [[Angola]] <small>''(as [[Cunene River|Cunene]])''</small>, [[Namibia]] * Kwando - [[Namibia]], sanso known as ''Linyanti'' den ''Chobe'' insyd places * [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] - [[Mozambique]], [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Botswana]] * Luangwa River - [[Zambia]] * Mania River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Maputo River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Eswatini]], [[Mozambique]] * Molopo - [[Botswana]], [[South Africa]] * Mooi River (Tugela) - [[South Africa]] * Mthatha River - [[South Africa]] * [[Okavango River|Okavango]] - [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]], [[Angola]] <small>''(as "Cubango")''</small> * Onilahy River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Orange River|Orange]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] :* [[Caledon River|Caledon]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]] :* [[Vaal River|Vaal]] - [[South Africa]] :* Fish - [[Namibia]] * [[Shangani River]] - [[Zimbabwe]] * Swakop River - [[Namibia]] * Tugela - [[South Africa]] * Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* Black Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* White Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] * Umgeni River - [[South Africa]] * Umkomazi River- [[South Africa]] * [[Zambezi]] - [[Angola]], [[Zambia]], [[Namibia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] *Gairezi - [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] ==Central Africa== == References == h6mrvzriurgiaicbj7l6zmj8izjhvrs 103957 103956 2026-06-19T06:56:56Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103957 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> Spy below each river's article for its tributaries, drainage areas, etc. ==Southern Africa== * [[Cuanza River|Cuanza]] - [[Angola]] * [[Great Fish River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Great Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[Black Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[White Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] * Groot River(s) - [[South Africa]] ** [[Groot River (Western Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Southern Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Eastern Cape)]] ** anoda name for de [[Orange River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] * [[Gamtoos River]] - South Africa * [[Ihosy River]] - [[Madagascar]] * [[Jukskei River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Kafue River]] - [[Zambia]] * Kowie River - [[South Africa]] * Kuiseb - [[Namibia]] * Kunene - [[Angola]] <small>''(as [[Cunene River|Cunene]])''</small>, [[Namibia]] * Kwando - [[Namibia]], sanso known as ''Linyanti'' den ''Chobe'' insyd places * [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] - [[Mozambique]], [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Botswana]] * Luangwa River - [[Zambia]] * Mania River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Maputo River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Eswatini]], [[Mozambique]] * Molopo - [[Botswana]], [[South Africa]] * Mooi River (Tugela) - [[South Africa]] * Mthatha River - [[South Africa]] * [[Okavango River|Okavango]] - [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]], [[Angola]] <small>''(as "Cubango")''</small> * Onilahy River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Orange River|Orange]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] :* [[Caledon River|Caledon]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]] :* [[Vaal River|Vaal]] - [[South Africa]] :* Fish - [[Namibia]] * [[Shangani River]] - [[Zimbabwe]] * Swakop River - [[Namibia]] * Tugela - [[South Africa]] * Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* Black Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* White Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] * Umgeni River - [[South Africa]] * Umkomazi River- [[South Africa]] * [[Zambezi]] - [[Angola]], [[Zambia]], [[Namibia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] *Gairezi - [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] ==Central Africa== * [[Chari River|Chari]] - [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Cameroon]] **Logone - [[Central African Republic]], [[Cameroon]] * Kagera River - [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * [[Congo River|Congo]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] ** Ebola River - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Kasai River|Kasai]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] *** Kwango - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***[[Sankuru River|Sankuru]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Lualaba River|Lualaba]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** Lomami - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Ubangi River|Ubangi]] - Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, [[Central African Republic]] ** Lulonga - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Lopori - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Maringa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] **Tshuapa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Uele - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Nyabarongo River - [[Rwanda]] * Rurubu River - [[Burundi]] * [[Ruzizi River]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]] * Mbomou - Central Africa Republic * [[Wouri River|Wouri]] - [[Cameroon]] * Xufexufe River - [[São Tomé and Príncipe|São Tomé den Príncipe]] == References == 1ir4mpxflbs1rlnb8ujrsw0lu2opwj0 103958 103957 2026-06-19T06:57:41Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add sub-heading 103958 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> Spy below each river's article for its tributaries, drainage areas, etc. ==Southern Africa== * [[Cuanza River|Cuanza]] - [[Angola]] * [[Great Fish River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Great Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[Black Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[White Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] * Groot River(s) - [[South Africa]] ** [[Groot River (Western Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Southern Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Eastern Cape)]] ** anoda name for de [[Orange River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] * [[Gamtoos River]] - South Africa * [[Ihosy River]] - [[Madagascar]] * [[Jukskei River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Kafue River]] - [[Zambia]] * Kowie River - [[South Africa]] * Kuiseb - [[Namibia]] * Kunene - [[Angola]] <small>''(as [[Cunene River|Cunene]])''</small>, [[Namibia]] * Kwando - [[Namibia]], sanso known as ''Linyanti'' den ''Chobe'' insyd places * [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] - [[Mozambique]], [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Botswana]] * Luangwa River - [[Zambia]] * Mania River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Maputo River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Eswatini]], [[Mozambique]] * Molopo - [[Botswana]], [[South Africa]] * Mooi River (Tugela) - [[South Africa]] * Mthatha River - [[South Africa]] * [[Okavango River|Okavango]] - [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]], [[Angola]] <small>''(as "Cubango")''</small> * Onilahy River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Orange River|Orange]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] :* [[Caledon River|Caledon]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]] :* [[Vaal River|Vaal]] - [[South Africa]] :* Fish - [[Namibia]] * [[Shangani River]] - [[Zimbabwe]] * Swakop River - [[Namibia]] * Tugela - [[South Africa]] * Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* Black Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* White Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] * Umgeni River - [[South Africa]] * Umkomazi River- [[South Africa]] * [[Zambezi]] - [[Angola]], [[Zambia]], [[Namibia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] *Gairezi - [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] ==Central Africa== * [[Chari River|Chari]] - [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Cameroon]] **Logone - [[Central African Republic]], [[Cameroon]] * Kagera River - [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * [[Congo River|Congo]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] ** Ebola River - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Kasai River|Kasai]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] *** Kwango - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***[[Sankuru River|Sankuru]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Lualaba River|Lualaba]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** Lomami - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Ubangi River|Ubangi]] - Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, [[Central African Republic]] ** Lulonga - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Lopori - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Maringa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] **Tshuapa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Uele - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Nyabarongo River - [[Rwanda]] * Rurubu River - [[Burundi]] * [[Ruzizi River]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]] * Mbomou - Central Africa Republic * [[Wouri River|Wouri]] - [[Cameroon]] * Xufexufe River - [[São Tomé and Príncipe|São Tomé den Príncipe]] ==East Africa== == References == 9qjnmrzx8hqd38jynd8ubzu4ekvrr8f 103959 103958 2026-06-19T07:00:37Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103959 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> Spy below each river's article for its tributaries, drainage areas, etc. ==Southern Africa== * [[Cuanza River|Cuanza]] - [[Angola]] * [[Great Fish River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Great Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[Black Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[White Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] * Groot River(s) - [[South Africa]] ** [[Groot River (Western Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Southern Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Eastern Cape)]] ** anoda name for de [[Orange River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] * [[Gamtoos River]] - South Africa * [[Ihosy River]] - [[Madagascar]] * [[Jukskei River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Kafue River]] - [[Zambia]] * Kowie River - [[South Africa]] * Kuiseb - [[Namibia]] * Kunene - [[Angola]] <small>''(as [[Cunene River|Cunene]])''</small>, [[Namibia]] * Kwando - [[Namibia]], sanso known as ''Linyanti'' den ''Chobe'' insyd places * [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] - [[Mozambique]], [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Botswana]] * Luangwa River - [[Zambia]] * Mania River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Maputo River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Eswatini]], [[Mozambique]] * Molopo - [[Botswana]], [[South Africa]] * Mooi River (Tugela) - [[South Africa]] * Mthatha River - [[South Africa]] * [[Okavango River|Okavango]] - [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]], [[Angola]] <small>''(as "Cubango")''</small> * Onilahy River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Orange River|Orange]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] :* [[Caledon River|Caledon]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]] :* [[Vaal River|Vaal]] - [[South Africa]] :* Fish - [[Namibia]] * [[Shangani River]] - [[Zimbabwe]] * Swakop River - [[Namibia]] * Tugela - [[South Africa]] * Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* Black Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* White Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] * Umgeni River - [[South Africa]] * Umkomazi River- [[South Africa]] * [[Zambezi]] - [[Angola]], [[Zambia]], [[Namibia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] *Gairezi - [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] ==Central Africa== * [[Chari River|Chari]] - [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Cameroon]] **Logone - [[Central African Republic]], [[Cameroon]] * Kagera River - [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * [[Congo River|Congo]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] ** Ebola River - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Kasai River|Kasai]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] *** Kwango - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***[[Sankuru River|Sankuru]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Lualaba River|Lualaba]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** Lomami - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Ubangi River|Ubangi]] - Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, [[Central African Republic]] ** Lulonga - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Lopori - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Maringa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] **Tshuapa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Uele - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Nyabarongo River - [[Rwanda]] * Rurubu River - [[Burundi]] * [[Ruzizi River]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]] * Mbomou - Central Africa Republic * [[Wouri River|Wouri]] - [[Cameroon]] * Xufexufe River - [[São Tomé and Príncipe|São Tomé den Príncipe]] ==East Africa== *[[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] - Kenya *[[Athi-Galana-Sabaki River|Athi]] - Kenya *[[Mara River|Mara]] - Kenya den Tanzania *[[Ewaso Ng'iro|Ewaso]] - Nyiro-Kenya *Sondu - Mirio-Kenya *[[Ruvuma River|Ruvoma]] - Tanzania *[[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] - Tanzania *[[Ruvu River|Ruvu]] - Tanzania *[[Shebelle River|Shebelle]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Jubba River|Jubba]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Nile]] - Uganda, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Sudan den Egypt *Sezibwa - Uganda *[[Maputo River|Maputo]] - Tanzania *Awash - Ethiopia den Somalia *Genale - Ethiopia den Somalia *Dawa - Ethiopia den Somalia *Omo - Ethiopia den Somalia *Ruzizi - Rwanda den Burundi *Ruvubu - Rwanda den Burundi *Akanyaru - Rwanda den Burundi *Nyabarongo - Rwanda den Burundi *Victoria Nile - Uganda *Albert Nile - Uganda *Achwa - Uganda *Kafu - Uganda *Katonga - Uganda *Mpongo - Uganda *Pager - Uganda == References == 25lq74gygo4nw3ibuq454jb5uoq518w 103961 103959 2026-06-19T07:01:13Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add sub-heading 103961 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> Spy below each river's article for its tributaries, drainage areas, etc. ==Southern Africa== * [[Cuanza River|Cuanza]] - [[Angola]] * [[Great Fish River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Great Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[Black Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[White Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] * Groot River(s) - [[South Africa]] ** [[Groot River (Western Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Southern Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Eastern Cape)]] ** anoda name for de [[Orange River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] * [[Gamtoos River]] - South Africa * [[Ihosy River]] - [[Madagascar]] * [[Jukskei River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Kafue River]] - [[Zambia]] * Kowie River - [[South Africa]] * Kuiseb - [[Namibia]] * Kunene - [[Angola]] <small>''(as [[Cunene River|Cunene]])''</small>, [[Namibia]] * Kwando - [[Namibia]], sanso known as ''Linyanti'' den ''Chobe'' insyd places * [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] - [[Mozambique]], [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Botswana]] * Luangwa River - [[Zambia]] * Mania River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Maputo River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Eswatini]], [[Mozambique]] * Molopo - [[Botswana]], [[South Africa]] * Mooi River (Tugela) - [[South Africa]] * Mthatha River - [[South Africa]] * [[Okavango River|Okavango]] - [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]], [[Angola]] <small>''(as "Cubango")''</small> * Onilahy River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Orange River|Orange]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] :* [[Caledon River|Caledon]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]] :* [[Vaal River|Vaal]] - [[South Africa]] :* Fish - [[Namibia]] * [[Shangani River]] - [[Zimbabwe]] * Swakop River - [[Namibia]] * Tugela - [[South Africa]] * Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* Black Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* White Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] * Umgeni River - [[South Africa]] * Umkomazi River- [[South Africa]] * [[Zambezi]] - [[Angola]], [[Zambia]], [[Namibia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] *Gairezi - [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] ==Central Africa== * [[Chari River|Chari]] - [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Cameroon]] **Logone - [[Central African Republic]], [[Cameroon]] * Kagera River - [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * [[Congo River|Congo]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] ** Ebola River - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Kasai River|Kasai]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] *** Kwango - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***[[Sankuru River|Sankuru]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Lualaba River|Lualaba]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** Lomami - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Ubangi River|Ubangi]] - Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, [[Central African Republic]] ** Lulonga - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Lopori - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Maringa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] **Tshuapa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Uele - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Nyabarongo River - [[Rwanda]] * Rurubu River - [[Burundi]] * [[Ruzizi River]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]] * Mbomou - Central Africa Republic * [[Wouri River|Wouri]] - [[Cameroon]] * Xufexufe River - [[São Tomé and Príncipe|São Tomé den Príncipe]] ==East Africa== *[[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] - Kenya *[[Athi-Galana-Sabaki River|Athi]] - Kenya *[[Mara River|Mara]] - Kenya den Tanzania *[[Ewaso Ng'iro|Ewaso]] - Nyiro-Kenya *Sondu - Mirio-Kenya *[[Ruvuma River|Ruvoma]] - Tanzania *[[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] - Tanzania *[[Ruvu River|Ruvu]] - Tanzania *[[Shebelle River|Shebelle]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Jubba River|Jubba]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Nile]] - Uganda, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Sudan den Egypt *Sezibwa - Uganda *[[Maputo River|Maputo]] - Tanzania *Awash - Ethiopia den Somalia *Genale - Ethiopia den Somalia *Dawa - Ethiopia den Somalia *Omo - Ethiopia den Somalia *Ruzizi - Rwanda den Burundi *Ruvubu - Rwanda den Burundi *Akanyaru - Rwanda den Burundi *Nyabarongo - Rwanda den Burundi *Victoria Nile - Uganda *Albert Nile - Uganda *Achwa - Uganda *Kafu - Uganda *Katonga - Uganda *Mpongo - Uganda *Pager - Uganda ==West Africa== == References == tj31b94cb1mypgbso3q9weck8x81wzo 103962 103961 2026-06-19T07:05:22Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103962 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> Spy below each river's article for its tributaries, drainage areas, etc. ==Southern Africa== * [[Cuanza River|Cuanza]] - [[Angola]] * [[Great Fish River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Great Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[Black Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[White Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] * Groot River(s) - [[South Africa]] ** [[Groot River (Western Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Southern Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Eastern Cape)]] ** anoda name for de [[Orange River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] * [[Gamtoos River]] - South Africa * [[Ihosy River]] - [[Madagascar]] * [[Jukskei River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Kafue River]] - [[Zambia]] * Kowie River - [[South Africa]] * Kuiseb - [[Namibia]] * Kunene - [[Angola]] <small>''(as [[Cunene River|Cunene]])''</small>, [[Namibia]] * Kwando - [[Namibia]], sanso known as ''Linyanti'' den ''Chobe'' insyd places * [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] - [[Mozambique]], [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Botswana]] * Luangwa River - [[Zambia]] * Mania River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Maputo River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Eswatini]], [[Mozambique]] * Molopo - [[Botswana]], [[South Africa]] * Mooi River (Tugela) - [[South Africa]] * Mthatha River - [[South Africa]] * [[Okavango River|Okavango]] - [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]], [[Angola]] <small>''(as "Cubango")''</small> * Onilahy River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Orange River|Orange]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] :* [[Caledon River|Caledon]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]] :* [[Vaal River|Vaal]] - [[South Africa]] :* Fish - [[Namibia]] * [[Shangani River]] - [[Zimbabwe]] * Swakop River - [[Namibia]] * Tugela - [[South Africa]] * Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* Black Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* White Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] * Umgeni River - [[South Africa]] * Umkomazi River- [[South Africa]] * [[Zambezi]] - [[Angola]], [[Zambia]], [[Namibia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] *Gairezi - [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] ==Central Africa== * [[Chari River|Chari]] - [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Cameroon]] **Logone - [[Central African Republic]], [[Cameroon]] * Kagera River - [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * [[Congo River|Congo]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] ** Ebola River - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Kasai River|Kasai]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] *** Kwango - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***[[Sankuru River|Sankuru]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Lualaba River|Lualaba]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** Lomami - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Ubangi River|Ubangi]] - Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, [[Central African Republic]] ** Lulonga - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Lopori - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Maringa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] **Tshuapa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Uele - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Nyabarongo River - [[Rwanda]] * Rurubu River - [[Burundi]] * [[Ruzizi River]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]] * Mbomou - Central Africa Republic * [[Wouri River|Wouri]] - [[Cameroon]] * Xufexufe River - [[São Tomé and Príncipe|São Tomé den Príncipe]] ==East Africa== *[[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] - Kenya *[[Athi-Galana-Sabaki River|Athi]] - Kenya *[[Mara River|Mara]] - Kenya den Tanzania *[[Ewaso Ng'iro|Ewaso]] - Nyiro-Kenya *Sondu - Mirio-Kenya *[[Ruvuma River|Ruvoma]] - Tanzania *[[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] - Tanzania *[[Ruvu River|Ruvu]] - Tanzania *[[Shebelle River|Shebelle]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Jubba River|Jubba]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Nile]] - Uganda, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Sudan den Egypt *Sezibwa - Uganda *[[Maputo River|Maputo]] - Tanzania *Awash - Ethiopia den Somalia *Genale - Ethiopia den Somalia *Dawa - Ethiopia den Somalia *Omo - Ethiopia den Somalia *Ruzizi - Rwanda den Burundi *Ruvubu - Rwanda den Burundi *Akanyaru - Rwanda den Burundi *Nyabarongo - Rwanda den Burundi *Victoria Nile - Uganda *Albert Nile - Uganda *Achwa - Uganda *Kafu - Uganda *Katonga - Uganda *Mpongo - Uganda *Pager - Uganda ==West Africa== * [[Aba River (Nigeria)|Aba]] - Nigeria * [[Bandama River]] * Benin - Nigeria * [[Benue River|Benue]] - Nigeria * [[Cavalla River]] - Liberia * Ethiope River - Nigeria * [[Gambia River|Gambia]] - [[The Gambia]], [[Senegal]], [[Guinea]] * [[Imo River|Imo]] - Nigeria * Kaduna - Nigeria * Kolenté (Great Scarcies) - Guinea, [[Sierra Leone]] * [[Little Scarcies River|Little Scarcies (Kaba)]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Moa River|Moa]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Niger River|Niger]] - Nigeria, Benin, [[Niger]], Mali, Guinea * [[Oba River|Oba]] - Nigeria * Ose - Nigeria * Oyan - Nigeria * [[Osun River|Osun]] - Nigeria * Oteghelli - Nigeria * Oueme - Benin * [[Rokel River|Rokel]] - Sierra Leone * [[Saint Paul River|Saint Paul]] - Liberia * [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] - [[Cameroon]] * Sankarani - Mali * [[Senegal River|Senegal]] - Senegal, [[Mauritania]], Mali * [[Sewa River]] * [[Volta River|Volta]] - [[Ghana]], [[Burkina Faso]] * [[Cross River (Nigeria)]] - Nigeria * Nuon River - Liberia, Ivory Coast * [[Cestos River]] - Liberia * [[Yobe River]] - Nigeria == References == o7exa4bnoq3o3z0axccqgasnfp7v96e 103963 103962 2026-06-19T07:06:00Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add sub-heading 103963 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> Spy below each river's article for its tributaries, drainage areas, etc. ==Southern Africa== * [[Cuanza River|Cuanza]] - [[Angola]] * [[Great Fish River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Great Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[Black Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[White Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] * Groot River(s) - [[South Africa]] ** [[Groot River (Western Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Southern Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Eastern Cape)]] ** anoda name for de [[Orange River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] * [[Gamtoos River]] - South Africa * [[Ihosy River]] - [[Madagascar]] * [[Jukskei River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Kafue River]] - [[Zambia]] * Kowie River - [[South Africa]] * Kuiseb - [[Namibia]] * Kunene - [[Angola]] <small>''(as [[Cunene River|Cunene]])''</small>, [[Namibia]] * Kwando - [[Namibia]], sanso known as ''Linyanti'' den ''Chobe'' insyd places * [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] - [[Mozambique]], [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Botswana]] * Luangwa River - [[Zambia]] * Mania River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Maputo River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Eswatini]], [[Mozambique]] * Molopo - [[Botswana]], [[South Africa]] * Mooi River (Tugela) - [[South Africa]] * Mthatha River - [[South Africa]] * [[Okavango River|Okavango]] - [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]], [[Angola]] <small>''(as "Cubango")''</small> * Onilahy River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Orange River|Orange]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] :* [[Caledon River|Caledon]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]] :* [[Vaal River|Vaal]] - [[South Africa]] :* Fish - [[Namibia]] * [[Shangani River]] - [[Zimbabwe]] * Swakop River - [[Namibia]] * Tugela - [[South Africa]] * Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* Black Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* White Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] * Umgeni River - [[South Africa]] * Umkomazi River- [[South Africa]] * [[Zambezi]] - [[Angola]], [[Zambia]], [[Namibia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] *Gairezi - [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] ==Central Africa== * [[Chari River|Chari]] - [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Cameroon]] **Logone - [[Central African Republic]], [[Cameroon]] * Kagera River - [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * [[Congo River|Congo]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] ** Ebola River - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Kasai River|Kasai]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] *** Kwango - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***[[Sankuru River|Sankuru]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Lualaba River|Lualaba]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** Lomami - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Ubangi River|Ubangi]] - Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, [[Central African Republic]] ** Lulonga - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Lopori - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Maringa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] **Tshuapa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Uele - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Nyabarongo River - [[Rwanda]] * Rurubu River - [[Burundi]] * [[Ruzizi River]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]] * Mbomou - Central Africa Republic * [[Wouri River|Wouri]] - [[Cameroon]] * Xufexufe River - [[São Tomé and Príncipe|São Tomé den Príncipe]] ==East Africa== *[[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] - Kenya *[[Athi-Galana-Sabaki River|Athi]] - Kenya *[[Mara River|Mara]] - Kenya den Tanzania *[[Ewaso Ng'iro|Ewaso]] - Nyiro-Kenya *Sondu - Mirio-Kenya *[[Ruvuma River|Ruvoma]] - Tanzania *[[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] - Tanzania *[[Ruvu River|Ruvu]] - Tanzania *[[Shebelle River|Shebelle]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Jubba River|Jubba]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Nile]] - Uganda, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Sudan den Egypt *Sezibwa - Uganda *[[Maputo River|Maputo]] - Tanzania *Awash - Ethiopia den Somalia *Genale - Ethiopia den Somalia *Dawa - Ethiopia den Somalia *Omo - Ethiopia den Somalia *Ruzizi - Rwanda den Burundi *Ruvubu - Rwanda den Burundi *Akanyaru - Rwanda den Burundi *Nyabarongo - Rwanda den Burundi *Victoria Nile - Uganda *Albert Nile - Uganda *Achwa - Uganda *Kafu - Uganda *Katonga - Uganda *Mpongo - Uganda *Pager - Uganda ==West Africa== * [[Aba River (Nigeria)|Aba]] - Nigeria * [[Bandama River]] * Benin - Nigeria * [[Benue River|Benue]] - Nigeria * [[Cavalla River]] - Liberia * Ethiope River - Nigeria * [[Gambia River|Gambia]] - [[The Gambia]], [[Senegal]], [[Guinea]] * [[Imo River|Imo]] - Nigeria * Kaduna - Nigeria * Kolenté (Great Scarcies) - Guinea, [[Sierra Leone]] * [[Little Scarcies River|Little Scarcies (Kaba)]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Moa River|Moa]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Niger River|Niger]] - Nigeria, Benin, [[Niger]], Mali, Guinea * [[Oba River|Oba]] - Nigeria * Ose - Nigeria * Oyan - Nigeria * [[Osun River|Osun]] - Nigeria * Oteghelli - Nigeria * Oueme - Benin * [[Rokel River|Rokel]] - Sierra Leone * [[Saint Paul River|Saint Paul]] - Liberia * [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] - [[Cameroon]] * Sankarani - Mali * [[Senegal River|Senegal]] - Senegal, [[Mauritania]], Mali * [[Sewa River]] * [[Volta River|Volta]] - [[Ghana]], [[Burkina Faso]] * [[Cross River (Nigeria)]] - Nigeria * Nuon River - Liberia, Ivory Coast * [[Cestos River]] - Liberia * [[Yobe River]] - Nigeria ==North Africa== == References == 1y2ppcvti9bkcgakodzf4p5jw6464kh 103964 103963 2026-06-19T07:09:26Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103964 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> Spy below each river's article for its tributaries, drainage areas, etc. ==Southern Africa== * [[Cuanza River|Cuanza]] - [[Angola]] * [[Great Fish River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Great Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[Black Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[White Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] * Groot River(s) - [[South Africa]] ** [[Groot River (Western Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Southern Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Eastern Cape)]] ** anoda name for de [[Orange River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] * [[Gamtoos River]] - South Africa * [[Ihosy River]] - [[Madagascar]] * [[Jukskei River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Kafue River]] - [[Zambia]] * Kowie River - [[South Africa]] * Kuiseb - [[Namibia]] * Kunene - [[Angola]] <small>''(as [[Cunene River|Cunene]])''</small>, [[Namibia]] * Kwando - [[Namibia]], sanso known as ''Linyanti'' den ''Chobe'' insyd places * [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] - [[Mozambique]], [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Botswana]] * Luangwa River - [[Zambia]] * Mania River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Maputo River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Eswatini]], [[Mozambique]] * Molopo - [[Botswana]], [[South Africa]] * Mooi River (Tugela) - [[South Africa]] * Mthatha River - [[South Africa]] * [[Okavango River|Okavango]] - [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]], [[Angola]] <small>''(as "Cubango")''</small> * Onilahy River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Orange River|Orange]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] :* [[Caledon River|Caledon]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]] :* [[Vaal River|Vaal]] - [[South Africa]] :* Fish - [[Namibia]] * [[Shangani River]] - [[Zimbabwe]] * Swakop River - [[Namibia]] * Tugela - [[South Africa]] * Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* Black Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* White Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] * Umgeni River - [[South Africa]] * Umkomazi River- [[South Africa]] * [[Zambezi]] - [[Angola]], [[Zambia]], [[Namibia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] *Gairezi - [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] ==Central Africa== * [[Chari River|Chari]] - [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Cameroon]] **Logone - [[Central African Republic]], [[Cameroon]] * Kagera River - [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * [[Congo River|Congo]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] ** Ebola River - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Kasai River|Kasai]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] *** Kwango - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***[[Sankuru River|Sankuru]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Lualaba River|Lualaba]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** Lomami - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Ubangi River|Ubangi]] - Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, [[Central African Republic]] ** Lulonga - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Lopori - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Maringa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] **Tshuapa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Uele - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Nyabarongo River - [[Rwanda]] * Rurubu River - [[Burundi]] * [[Ruzizi River]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]] * Mbomou - Central Africa Republic * [[Wouri River|Wouri]] - [[Cameroon]] * Xufexufe River - [[São Tomé and Príncipe|São Tomé den Príncipe]] ==East Africa== *[[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] - Kenya *[[Athi-Galana-Sabaki River|Athi]] - Kenya *[[Mara River|Mara]] - Kenya den Tanzania *[[Ewaso Ng'iro|Ewaso]] - Nyiro-Kenya *Sondu - Mirio-Kenya *[[Ruvuma River|Ruvoma]] - Tanzania *[[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] - Tanzania *[[Ruvu River|Ruvu]] - Tanzania *[[Shebelle River|Shebelle]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Jubba River|Jubba]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Nile]] - Uganda, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Sudan den Egypt *Sezibwa - Uganda *[[Maputo River|Maputo]] - Tanzania *Awash - Ethiopia den Somalia *Genale - Ethiopia den Somalia *Dawa - Ethiopia den Somalia *Omo - Ethiopia den Somalia *Ruzizi - Rwanda den Burundi *Ruvubu - Rwanda den Burundi *Akanyaru - Rwanda den Burundi *Nyabarongo - Rwanda den Burundi *Victoria Nile - Uganda *Albert Nile - Uganda *Achwa - Uganda *Kafu - Uganda *Katonga - Uganda *Mpongo - Uganda *Pager - Uganda ==West Africa== * [[Aba River (Nigeria)|Aba]] - Nigeria * [[Bandama River]] * Benin - Nigeria * [[Benue River|Benue]] - Nigeria * [[Cavalla River]] - Liberia * Ethiope River - Nigeria * [[Gambia River|Gambia]] - [[The Gambia]], [[Senegal]], [[Guinea]] * [[Imo River|Imo]] - Nigeria * Kaduna - Nigeria * Kolenté (Great Scarcies) - Guinea, [[Sierra Leone]] * [[Little Scarcies River|Little Scarcies (Kaba)]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Moa River|Moa]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Niger River|Niger]] - Nigeria, Benin, [[Niger]], Mali, Guinea * [[Oba River|Oba]] - Nigeria * Ose - Nigeria * Oyan - Nigeria * [[Osun River|Osun]] - Nigeria * Oteghelli - Nigeria * Oueme - Benin * [[Rokel River|Rokel]] - Sierra Leone * [[Saint Paul River|Saint Paul]] - Liberia * [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] - [[Cameroon]] * Sankarani - Mali * [[Senegal River|Senegal]] - Senegal, [[Mauritania]], Mali * [[Sewa River]] * [[Volta River|Volta]] - [[Ghana]], [[Burkina Faso]] * [[Cross River (Nigeria)]] - Nigeria * Nuon River - Liberia, Ivory Coast * [[Cestos River]] - Liberia * [[Yobe River]] - Nigeria ==North Africa== * [[Nile]] - [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]]. 6,650km ** [[Atbarah River]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** [[Blue Nile]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** Didessa River - Ethiopia ** [[Nile]] - Egypt ** [[Bahr el Zeraf]] - South Sudan ** [[White Nile]] - [[Sudan]], [[South Sudan]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * Bou Regreg - [[Morocco]]. 240km * [[Draa River]] - [[Morocco]]. 1100km * Moulouya River - [[Morocco]]. 520km * Oum Er-Rbia River - [[Morocco]]. 555km * Sebou River - [[Morocco]]. 496km * Chelif River - [[Algeria]]. 725km == References == tdzb1kmfrswtjfcn3pfgmoid1c2rk85 103965 103964 2026-06-19T07:11:37Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103965 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> Spy below each river's article for its tributaries, drainage areas, etc. ==Southern Africa== * [[Cuanza River|Cuanza]] - [[Angola]] * [[Great Fish River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Great Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[Black Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[White Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] * Groot River(s) - [[South Africa]] ** [[Groot River (Western Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Southern Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Eastern Cape)]] ** anoda name for de [[Orange River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] * [[Gamtoos River]] - South Africa * [[Ihosy River]] - [[Madagascar]] * [[Jukskei River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Kafue River]] - [[Zambia]] * Kowie River - [[South Africa]] * Kuiseb - [[Namibia]] * Kunene - [[Angola]] <small>''(as [[Cunene River|Cunene]])''</small>, [[Namibia]] * Kwando - [[Namibia]], sanso known as ''Linyanti'' den ''Chobe'' insyd places * [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] - [[Mozambique]], [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Botswana]] * Luangwa River - [[Zambia]] * Mania River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Maputo River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Eswatini]], [[Mozambique]] * Molopo - [[Botswana]], [[South Africa]] * Mooi River (Tugela) - [[South Africa]] * Mthatha River - [[South Africa]] * [[Okavango River|Okavango]] - [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]], [[Angola]] <small>''(as "Cubango")''</small> * Onilahy River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Orange River|Orange]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] :* [[Caledon River|Caledon]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]] :* [[Vaal River|Vaal]] - [[South Africa]] :* Fish - [[Namibia]] * [[Shangani River]] - [[Zimbabwe]] * Swakop River - [[Namibia]] * Tugela - [[South Africa]] * Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* Black Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* White Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] * Umgeni River - [[South Africa]] * Umkomazi River- [[South Africa]] * [[Zambezi]] - [[Angola]], [[Zambia]], [[Namibia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] *Gairezi - [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] ==Central Africa== * [[Chari River|Chari]] - [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Cameroon]] **Logone - [[Central African Republic]], [[Cameroon]] * Kagera River - [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * [[Congo River|Congo]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] ** Ebola River - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Kasai River|Kasai]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] *** Kwango - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***[[Sankuru River|Sankuru]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Lualaba River|Lualaba]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** Lomami - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Ubangi River|Ubangi]] - Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, [[Central African Republic]] ** Lulonga - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Lopori - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Maringa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] **Tshuapa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Uele - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Nyabarongo River - [[Rwanda]] * Rurubu River - [[Burundi]] * [[Ruzizi River]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]] * Mbomou - Central Africa Republic * [[Wouri River|Wouri]] - [[Cameroon]] * Xufexufe River - [[São Tomé and Príncipe|São Tomé den Príncipe]] ==East Africa== *[[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] - Kenya *[[Athi-Galana-Sabaki River|Athi]] - Kenya *[[Mara River|Mara]] - Kenya den Tanzania *[[Ewaso Ng'iro|Ewaso]] - Nyiro-Kenya *Sondu - Mirio-Kenya *[[Ruvuma River|Ruvoma]] - Tanzania *[[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] - Tanzania *[[Ruvu River|Ruvu]] - Tanzania *[[Shebelle River|Shebelle]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Jubba River|Jubba]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Nile]] - Uganda, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Sudan den Egypt *Sezibwa - Uganda *[[Maputo River|Maputo]] - Tanzania *Awash - Ethiopia den Somalia *Genale - Ethiopia den Somalia *Dawa - Ethiopia den Somalia *Omo - Ethiopia den Somalia *Ruzizi - Rwanda den Burundi *Ruvubu - Rwanda den Burundi *Akanyaru - Rwanda den Burundi *Nyabarongo - Rwanda den Burundi *Victoria Nile - Uganda *Albert Nile - Uganda *Achwa - Uganda *Kafu - Uganda *Katonga - Uganda *Mpongo - Uganda *Pager - Uganda ==West Africa== * [[Aba River (Nigeria)|Aba]] - Nigeria * [[Bandama River]] * Benin - Nigeria * [[Benue River|Benue]] - Nigeria * [[Cavalla River]] - Liberia * Ethiope River - Nigeria * [[Gambia River|Gambia]] - [[The Gambia]], [[Senegal]], [[Guinea]] * [[Imo River|Imo]] - Nigeria * Kaduna - Nigeria * Kolenté (Great Scarcies) - Guinea, [[Sierra Leone]] * [[Little Scarcies River|Little Scarcies (Kaba)]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Moa River|Moa]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Niger River|Niger]] - Nigeria, Benin, [[Niger]], Mali, Guinea * [[Oba River|Oba]] - Nigeria * Ose - Nigeria * Oyan - Nigeria * [[Osun River|Osun]] - Nigeria * Oteghelli - Nigeria * Oueme - Benin * [[Rokel River|Rokel]] - Sierra Leone * [[Saint Paul River|Saint Paul]] - Liberia * [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] - [[Cameroon]] * Sankarani - Mali * [[Senegal River|Senegal]] - Senegal, [[Mauritania]], Mali * [[Sewa River]] * [[Volta River|Volta]] - [[Ghana]], [[Burkina Faso]] * [[Cross River (Nigeria)]] - Nigeria * Nuon River - Liberia, Ivory Coast * [[Cestos River]] - Liberia * [[Yobe River]] - Nigeria ==North Africa== * [[Nile]] - [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]]. 6,650km ** [[Atbarah River]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** [[Blue Nile]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** Didessa River - Ethiopia ** [[Nile]] - Egypt ** [[Bahr el Zeraf]] - South Sudan ** [[White Nile]] - [[Sudan]], [[South Sudan]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * Bou Regreg - [[Morocco]]. 240km * [[Draa River]] - [[Morocco]]. 1100km * Moulouya River - [[Morocco]]. 520km * Oum Er-Rbia River - [[Morocco]]. 555km * Sebou River - [[Morocco]]. 496km * Chelif River - [[Algeria]]. 725km {{Bar chart | title = Largest primary rivers of Africa by discharge (>100 m³/s): | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 41,400 | label1 = 001 [[Congo River|Congo]] | data1 = 41,400 | label2 = 002 [[Niger River|Niger]] | data2 = 8,630 | label3 = 003 [[Ogooue River|Ogooué]] | data3 = 5,890 | label4 = 004 [[Zambezi River|Zambezi]] | data4 = 4,200 | label5 = 005 [[Nile River|Nile]] | data5 = 2,830 | label6 = 006 [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] | data6 = 2,730 | label7 = 007 [[Cross River (Nigeria)|Cross]] | data7 = 2,647 | label8 = 008 [[Cuanza River|Kwanza]] | data8 = 1,944 | label9 = 009 [[Rovuma River|Rovuma]] | data9 = 1,773 | label10 = 010 [[Betsiboka River|Betsiboka]] | data10 = 1,407 | label11 = 011 [[Wouri River|Wouri]] | data11 = 1,389 | label12 = 012 [[Tsiribihina River|Tsiribihina]] | data12 = 1,316 | label13 = 013 [[Volta River|Volta]] | data13 = 1,290 | label14 = 014 [[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] | data14 = 1,268 | label15 = 015 [[Chari River|Chari]] | data15 = 1,200 | label16 = 016 [[Cavalla River|Cavally]] | data16 = 1,192 | label17 = 017 [[Konkouré River|Konkouré]] | data17 = 1,170 | label18 = 018 [[Saint Paul River|St Paul]] | data18 = 1,125 | label19 = 019 [[Benin River|Benin]] | data19 = 1,084 | label20 = 020 [[Sofia River|Sofia]] | data20 = 1,062 | label21 = 021 [[Moa River|Moa]] | data21 = 1,044 | label22 = 022 [[Kouilou River|Kouilou]] | data22 = 1,000 }} == References == aectxwh7gngj2zdg7n7rdp954nq02gk 103966 103965 2026-06-19T07:12:41Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103966 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> Spy below each river's article for its tributaries, drainage areas, etc. ==Southern Africa== * [[Cuanza River|Cuanza]] - [[Angola]] * [[Great Fish River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Great Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[Black Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[White Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] * Groot River(s) - [[South Africa]] ** [[Groot River (Western Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Southern Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Eastern Cape)]] ** anoda name for de [[Orange River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] * [[Gamtoos River]] - South Africa * [[Ihosy River]] - [[Madagascar]] * [[Jukskei River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Kafue River]] - [[Zambia]] * Kowie River - [[South Africa]] * Kuiseb - [[Namibia]] * Kunene - [[Angola]] <small>''(as [[Cunene River|Cunene]])''</small>, [[Namibia]] * Kwando - [[Namibia]], sanso known as ''Linyanti'' den ''Chobe'' insyd places * [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] - [[Mozambique]], [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Botswana]] * Luangwa River - [[Zambia]] * Mania River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Maputo River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Eswatini]], [[Mozambique]] * Molopo - [[Botswana]], [[South Africa]] * Mooi River (Tugela) - [[South Africa]] * Mthatha River - [[South Africa]] * [[Okavango River|Okavango]] - [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]], [[Angola]] <small>''(as "Cubango")''</small> * Onilahy River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Orange River|Orange]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] :* [[Caledon River|Caledon]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]] :* [[Vaal River|Vaal]] - [[South Africa]] :* Fish - [[Namibia]] * [[Shangani River]] - [[Zimbabwe]] * Swakop River - [[Namibia]] * Tugela - [[South Africa]] * Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* Black Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* White Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] * Umgeni River - [[South Africa]] * Umkomazi River- [[South Africa]] * [[Zambezi]] - [[Angola]], [[Zambia]], [[Namibia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] *Gairezi - [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] ==Central Africa== * [[Chari River|Chari]] - [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Cameroon]] **Logone - [[Central African Republic]], [[Cameroon]] * Kagera River - [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * [[Congo River|Congo]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] ** Ebola River - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Kasai River|Kasai]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] *** Kwango - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***[[Sankuru River|Sankuru]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Lualaba River|Lualaba]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** Lomami - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Ubangi River|Ubangi]] - Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, [[Central African Republic]] ** Lulonga - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Lopori - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Maringa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] **Tshuapa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Uele - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Nyabarongo River - [[Rwanda]] * Rurubu River - [[Burundi]] * [[Ruzizi River]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]] * Mbomou - Central Africa Republic * [[Wouri River|Wouri]] - [[Cameroon]] * Xufexufe River - [[São Tomé and Príncipe|São Tomé den Príncipe]] ==East Africa== *[[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] - Kenya *[[Athi-Galana-Sabaki River|Athi]] - Kenya *[[Mara River|Mara]] - Kenya den Tanzania *[[Ewaso Ng'iro|Ewaso]] - Nyiro-Kenya *Sondu - Mirio-Kenya *[[Ruvuma River|Ruvoma]] - Tanzania *[[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] - Tanzania *[[Ruvu River|Ruvu]] - Tanzania *[[Shebelle River|Shebelle]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Jubba River|Jubba]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Nile]] - Uganda, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Sudan den Egypt *Sezibwa - Uganda *[[Maputo River|Maputo]] - Tanzania *Awash - Ethiopia den Somalia *Genale - Ethiopia den Somalia *Dawa - Ethiopia den Somalia *Omo - Ethiopia den Somalia *Ruzizi - Rwanda den Burundi *Ruvubu - Rwanda den Burundi *Akanyaru - Rwanda den Burundi *Nyabarongo - Rwanda den Burundi *Victoria Nile - Uganda *Albert Nile - Uganda *Achwa - Uganda *Kafu - Uganda *Katonga - Uganda *Mpongo - Uganda *Pager - Uganda ==West Africa== * [[Aba River (Nigeria)|Aba]] - Nigeria * [[Bandama River]] * Benin - Nigeria * [[Benue River|Benue]] - Nigeria * [[Cavalla River]] - Liberia * Ethiope River - Nigeria * [[Gambia River|Gambia]] - [[The Gambia]], [[Senegal]], [[Guinea]] * [[Imo River|Imo]] - Nigeria * Kaduna - Nigeria * Kolenté (Great Scarcies) - Guinea, [[Sierra Leone]] * [[Little Scarcies River|Little Scarcies (Kaba)]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Moa River|Moa]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Niger River|Niger]] - Nigeria, Benin, [[Niger]], Mali, Guinea * [[Oba River|Oba]] - Nigeria * Ose - Nigeria * Oyan - Nigeria * [[Osun River|Osun]] - Nigeria * Oteghelli - Nigeria * Oueme - Benin * [[Rokel River|Rokel]] - Sierra Leone * [[Saint Paul River|Saint Paul]] - Liberia * [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] - [[Cameroon]] * Sankarani - Mali * [[Senegal River|Senegal]] - Senegal, [[Mauritania]], Mali * [[Sewa River]] * [[Volta River|Volta]] - [[Ghana]], [[Burkina Faso]] * [[Cross River (Nigeria)]] - Nigeria * Nuon River - Liberia, Ivory Coast * [[Cestos River]] - Liberia * [[Yobe River]] - Nigeria ==North Africa== * [[Nile]] - [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]]. 6,650km ** [[Atbarah River]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** [[Blue Nile]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** Didessa River - Ethiopia ** [[Nile]] - Egypt ** [[Bahr el Zeraf]] - South Sudan ** [[White Nile]] - [[Sudan]], [[South Sudan]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * Bou Regreg - [[Morocco]]. 240km * [[Draa River]] - [[Morocco]]. 1100km * Moulouya River - [[Morocco]]. 520km * Oum Er-Rbia River - [[Morocco]]. 555km * Sebou River - [[Morocco]]. 496km * Chelif River - [[Algeria]]. 725km {{Bar chart | title = Largest primary rivers of Africa by discharge (>100 m³/s): | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 41,400 | label1 = 001 [[Congo River|Congo]] | data1 = 41,400 | label2 = 002 [[Niger River|Niger]] | data2 = 8,630 | label3 = 003 [[Ogooue River|Ogooué]] | data3 = 5,890 | label4 = 004 [[Zambezi River|Zambezi]] | data4 = 4,200 | label5 = 005 [[Nile River|Nile]] | data5 = 2,830 | label6 = 006 [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] | data6 = 2,730 | label7 = 007 [[Cross River (Nigeria)|Cross]] | data7 = 2,647 | label8 = 008 [[Cuanza River|Kwanza]] | data8 = 1,944 | label9 = 009 [[Rovuma River|Rovuma]] | data9 = 1,773 | label10 = 010 [[Betsiboka River|Betsiboka]] | data10 = 1,407 | label11 = 011 [[Wouri River|Wouri]] | data11 = 1,389 | label12 = 012 [[Tsiribihina River|Tsiribihina]] | data12 = 1,316 | label13 = 013 [[Volta River|Volta]] | data13 = 1,290 | label14 = 014 [[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] | data14 = 1,268 | label15 = 015 [[Chari River|Chari]] | data15 = 1,200 | label16 = 016 [[Cavalla River|Cavally]] | data16 = 1,192 | label17 = 017 [[Konkouré River|Konkouré]] | data17 = 1,170 | label18 = 018 [[Saint Paul River|St Paul]] | data18 = 1,125 | label19 = 019 [[Benin River|Benin]] | data19 = 1,084 | label20 = 020 [[Sofia River|Sofia]] | data20 = 1,062 | label21 = 021 [[Moa River|Moa]] | data21 = 1,044 | label22 = 022 [[Kouilou River|Kouilou]] | data22 = 1,000 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 022 [[Kouilou River|Kouilou]] | data1 = 1,000 | label2 = 023 [[Sassandra River|Sassandra]] | data2 = 978 | label3 = 024 [[Little Scarcies River|L. Scarcies]] | data3 = 967 | label4 = 025 [[Sewa River|Sewa]] | data4 = 952 | label5 = 026 [[Saint John River (Liberia)|St John]] | data5 = 864 | label6 = 027 [[Maningory River|Maningory]] | data6 = 776 | label7 = 028 [[Lúrio River|Lúrio]] | data7 = 741 | label8 = 029 [[Campo River|Ntem]] | data8 = 718 | label9 = 030 [[Omo River|Omo]] | data9 = 660 | label10 = 031 [[Nyanga River|Nyanga]] | data10 = 651 | label11 = 032 [[Mangoky River|Mangoky]] | data11 = 597 | label12 = 033 [[Sénégal River|Sénégal]] | data12 = 596 | label13 = 034 [[Nyong River|Nyong]] | data13 = 595 | label14 = 035 [[Lofa River|Loffa]] | data14 = 590 | label15 = 036 [[Bandama River|Bandama]] | data15 = 583 | label16 = 037 [[Cestos River|Cestos]] | data16 = 581 | label17 = 038 [[Mahavavy Sud River|Mahavavy]] | data17 = 578 | label18 = 039 [[Corubal River|Corubal]] | data18 = 555 | label19 = 040 [[Rokel River|Rokel]] | data19 = 547 | label20 = 041 [[Benito River|Mbini]] | data20 = 515 | label21 = 042 [[Pungwe River|Pungwe]] | data21 = 492 | label22 = 043 [[Mahajamba River|Mahajamba]] | data22 = 483 | label23 = 044 [[Jong River|Jong]] | data23 = 477 | label24 = 045 [[Save River (Africa)|Save]] | data24 = 437 | label25 = 046 [[Kolenté River|Kolenté]] | data25 = 424 | label26 = 047 [[Licungo River|Licungo]] | data26 = 421 | label27 = 048 [[Mitimele River|Mitimele]] | data27 = 416 | label28 = 049 [[Mangoro River|Mangoro]] | data28 = 386 | label29 = 050 [[Imo River|Imo]] | data29 = 384 | label30 = 051 [[Gambia River|Gambia]] | data30 = 374 }} == References == oomhrphoesqyzv68i8ffc9bewfybi96 103967 103966 2026-06-19T07:13:42Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103967 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> Spy below each river's article for its tributaries, drainage areas, etc. ==Southern Africa== * [[Cuanza River|Cuanza]] - [[Angola]] * [[Great Fish River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Great Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[Black Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[White Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] * Groot River(s) - [[South Africa]] ** [[Groot River (Western Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Southern Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Eastern Cape)]] ** anoda name for de [[Orange River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] * [[Gamtoos River]] - South Africa * [[Ihosy River]] - [[Madagascar]] * [[Jukskei River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Kafue River]] - [[Zambia]] * Kowie River - [[South Africa]] * Kuiseb - [[Namibia]] * Kunene - [[Angola]] <small>''(as [[Cunene River|Cunene]])''</small>, [[Namibia]] * Kwando - [[Namibia]], sanso known as ''Linyanti'' den ''Chobe'' insyd places * [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] - [[Mozambique]], [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Botswana]] * Luangwa River - [[Zambia]] * Mania River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Maputo River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Eswatini]], [[Mozambique]] * Molopo - [[Botswana]], [[South Africa]] * Mooi River (Tugela) - [[South Africa]] * Mthatha River - [[South Africa]] * [[Okavango River|Okavango]] - [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]], [[Angola]] <small>''(as "Cubango")''</small> * Onilahy River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Orange River|Orange]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] :* [[Caledon River|Caledon]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]] :* [[Vaal River|Vaal]] - [[South Africa]] :* Fish - [[Namibia]] * [[Shangani River]] - [[Zimbabwe]] * Swakop River - [[Namibia]] * Tugela - [[South Africa]] * Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* Black Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* White Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] * Umgeni River - [[South Africa]] * Umkomazi River- [[South Africa]] * [[Zambezi]] - [[Angola]], [[Zambia]], [[Namibia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] *Gairezi - [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] ==Central Africa== * [[Chari River|Chari]] - [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Cameroon]] **Logone - [[Central African Republic]], [[Cameroon]] * Kagera River - [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * [[Congo River|Congo]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] ** Ebola River - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Kasai River|Kasai]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] *** Kwango - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***[[Sankuru River|Sankuru]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Lualaba River|Lualaba]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** Lomami - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Ubangi River|Ubangi]] - Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, [[Central African Republic]] ** Lulonga - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Lopori - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Maringa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] **Tshuapa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Uele - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Nyabarongo River - [[Rwanda]] * Rurubu River - [[Burundi]] * [[Ruzizi River]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]] * Mbomou - Central Africa Republic * [[Wouri River|Wouri]] - [[Cameroon]] * Xufexufe River - [[São Tomé and Príncipe|São Tomé den Príncipe]] ==East Africa== *[[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] - Kenya *[[Athi-Galana-Sabaki River|Athi]] - Kenya *[[Mara River|Mara]] - Kenya den Tanzania *[[Ewaso Ng'iro|Ewaso]] - Nyiro-Kenya *Sondu - Mirio-Kenya *[[Ruvuma River|Ruvoma]] - Tanzania *[[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] - Tanzania *[[Ruvu River|Ruvu]] - Tanzania *[[Shebelle River|Shebelle]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Jubba River|Jubba]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Nile]] - Uganda, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Sudan den Egypt *Sezibwa - Uganda *[[Maputo River|Maputo]] - Tanzania *Awash - Ethiopia den Somalia *Genale - Ethiopia den Somalia *Dawa - Ethiopia den Somalia *Omo - Ethiopia den Somalia *Ruzizi - Rwanda den Burundi *Ruvubu - Rwanda den Burundi *Akanyaru - Rwanda den Burundi *Nyabarongo - Rwanda den Burundi *Victoria Nile - Uganda *Albert Nile - Uganda *Achwa - Uganda *Kafu - Uganda *Katonga - Uganda *Mpongo - Uganda *Pager - Uganda ==West Africa== * [[Aba River (Nigeria)|Aba]] - Nigeria * [[Bandama River]] * Benin - Nigeria * [[Benue River|Benue]] - Nigeria * [[Cavalla River]] - Liberia * Ethiope River - Nigeria * [[Gambia River|Gambia]] - [[The Gambia]], [[Senegal]], [[Guinea]] * [[Imo River|Imo]] - Nigeria * Kaduna - Nigeria * Kolenté (Great Scarcies) - Guinea, [[Sierra Leone]] * [[Little Scarcies River|Little Scarcies (Kaba)]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Moa River|Moa]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Niger River|Niger]] - Nigeria, Benin, [[Niger]], Mali, Guinea * [[Oba River|Oba]] - Nigeria * Ose - Nigeria * Oyan - Nigeria * [[Osun River|Osun]] - Nigeria * Oteghelli - Nigeria * Oueme - Benin * [[Rokel River|Rokel]] - Sierra Leone * [[Saint Paul River|Saint Paul]] - Liberia * [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] - [[Cameroon]] * Sankarani - Mali * [[Senegal River|Senegal]] - Senegal, [[Mauritania]], Mali * [[Sewa River]] * [[Volta River|Volta]] - [[Ghana]], [[Burkina Faso]] * [[Cross River (Nigeria)]] - Nigeria * Nuon River - Liberia, Ivory Coast * [[Cestos River]] - Liberia * [[Yobe River]] - Nigeria ==North Africa== * [[Nile]] - [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]]. 6,650km ** [[Atbarah River]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** [[Blue Nile]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** Didessa River - Ethiopia ** [[Nile]] - Egypt ** [[Bahr el Zeraf]] - South Sudan ** [[White Nile]] - [[Sudan]], [[South Sudan]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * Bou Regreg - [[Morocco]]. 240km * [[Draa River]] - [[Morocco]]. 1100km * Moulouya River - [[Morocco]]. 520km * Oum Er-Rbia River - [[Morocco]]. 555km * Sebou River - [[Morocco]]. 496km * Chelif River - [[Algeria]]. 725km {{Bar chart | title = Largest primary rivers of Africa by discharge (>100 m³/s): | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 41,400 | label1 = 001 [[Congo River|Congo]] | data1 = 41,400 | label2 = 002 [[Niger River|Niger]] | data2 = 8,630 | label3 = 003 [[Ogooue River|Ogooué]] | data3 = 5,890 | label4 = 004 [[Zambezi River|Zambezi]] | data4 = 4,200 | label5 = 005 [[Nile River|Nile]] | data5 = 2,830 | label6 = 006 [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] | data6 = 2,730 | label7 = 007 [[Cross River (Nigeria)|Cross]] | data7 = 2,647 | label8 = 008 [[Cuanza River|Kwanza]] | data8 = 1,944 | label9 = 009 [[Rovuma River|Rovuma]] | data9 = 1,773 | label10 = 010 [[Betsiboka River|Betsiboka]] | data10 = 1,407 | label11 = 011 [[Wouri River|Wouri]] | data11 = 1,389 | label12 = 012 [[Tsiribihina River|Tsiribihina]] | data12 = 1,316 | label13 = 013 [[Volta River|Volta]] | data13 = 1,290 | label14 = 014 [[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] | data14 = 1,268 | label15 = 015 [[Chari River|Chari]] | data15 = 1,200 | label16 = 016 [[Cavalla River|Cavally]] | data16 = 1,192 | label17 = 017 [[Konkouré River|Konkouré]] | data17 = 1,170 | label18 = 018 [[Saint Paul River|St Paul]] | data18 = 1,125 | label19 = 019 [[Benin River|Benin]] | data19 = 1,084 | label20 = 020 [[Sofia River|Sofia]] | data20 = 1,062 | label21 = 021 [[Moa River|Moa]] | data21 = 1,044 | label22 = 022 [[Kouilou River|Kouilou]] | data22 = 1,000 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 022 [[Kouilou River|Kouilou]] | data1 = 1,000 | label2 = 023 [[Sassandra River|Sassandra]] | data2 = 978 | label3 = 024 [[Little Scarcies River|L. Scarcies]] | data3 = 967 | label4 = 025 [[Sewa River|Sewa]] | data4 = 952 | label5 = 026 [[Saint John River (Liberia)|St John]] | data5 = 864 | label6 = 027 [[Maningory River|Maningory]] | data6 = 776 | label7 = 028 [[Lúrio River|Lúrio]] | data7 = 741 | label8 = 029 [[Campo River|Ntem]] | data8 = 718 | label9 = 030 [[Omo River|Omo]] | data9 = 660 | label10 = 031 [[Nyanga River|Nyanga]] | data10 = 651 | label11 = 032 [[Mangoky River|Mangoky]] | data11 = 597 | label12 = 033 [[Sénégal River|Sénégal]] | data12 = 596 | label13 = 034 [[Nyong River|Nyong]] | data13 = 595 | label14 = 035 [[Lofa River|Loffa]] | data14 = 590 | label15 = 036 [[Bandama River|Bandama]] | data15 = 583 | label16 = 037 [[Cestos River|Cestos]] | data16 = 581 | label17 = 038 [[Mahavavy Sud River|Mahavavy]] | data17 = 578 | label18 = 039 [[Corubal River|Corubal]] | data18 = 555 | label19 = 040 [[Rokel River|Rokel]] | data19 = 547 | label20 = 041 [[Benito River|Mbini]] | data20 = 515 | label21 = 042 [[Pungwe River|Pungwe]] | data21 = 492 | label22 = 043 [[Mahajamba River|Mahajamba]] | data22 = 483 | label23 = 044 [[Jong River|Jong]] | data23 = 477 | label24 = 045 [[Save River (Africa)|Save]] | data24 = 437 | label25 = 046 [[Kolenté River|Kolenté]] | data25 = 424 | label26 = 047 [[Licungo River|Licungo]] | data26 = 421 | label27 = 048 [[Mitimele River|Mitimele]] | data27 = 416 | label28 = 049 [[Mangoro River|Mangoro]] | data28 = 386 | label29 = 050 [[Imo River|Imo]] | data29 = 384 | label30 = 051 [[Gambia River|Gambia]] | data30 = 374 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 052 [[Mano River|Mano]] | data1 = 370 | label2 = 053 [[Orange River|Orange]] | data2 = 369 | label3 = 054 [[Cuvo River|Cuvo]] | data3 = 369 | label4 = 055 [[Mbridge River|Mebridege]] | data4 = 329 | label5 = 056 [[Jubba River|Jubba]] | data5 = 328 | label6 = 057 [[Rianila River|Rianila]] | data6 = 325 | label7 = 058 [[Ogun River|Ogun]] | data7 = 320 | label8 = 059 [[Buzi River (Mozambique)|Búzi]] | data8 = 315 | label9 = 060 [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] | data9 = 313 | label10 = 061 [[Fatala River|Fatala]] | data10 = 312 | label11 = 062 [[Okavango River|Okavango]] | data11 = 297 | label12 = 063 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Sehnkwehn]] | data12 = 296 | label13 = 064 [[List of rivers of Guinea|Kogon]] | data13 = 289 | label14 = 065 [[Pra River (Ghana)|Pra]] | data14 = 288 | label15 = 066 [[Farmington River (Liberia)|Farmington]] | data15 = 288 | label16 = 067 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Simianona]] | data16 = 285 | label17 = 068 [[Komo River|Komo]] | data17 = 273 | label18 = 069 [[Komoé River|Komoé]] | data18 = 264 | label19 = 070 [[Oueme River|Ouémé]] | data19 = 254 | label20 = 071 [[Mungo River (Cameroon)|Mungo]] | data20 = 245 | label21 = 072 [[Mananara River|Mananara]] | data21 = 244 | label22 = 073 [[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] | data22 = 243 | label23 = 074 [[Manambolo River|Manambolo]] | data23 = 240 | label24 = 075 [[Messalo River|Messalo]] | data24 = 235 | label25 = 076 [[Ivondro River|Ivondro]] | data25 = 234 | label26 = 077 [[Geba River|Geba]] | data26 = 232 | label27 = 078 [[Antainambalana River|Antainambalana]] | data27 = 226 | label28 = 079 [[Cunene River|Cunene]] | data28 = 222 | label29 = 080 [[Catumbela River|Catumbela]] | data29 = 216 | label30 = 081 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Maevarano]] | data30 = 203 }} == References == ttxf5s2ewt531r778kco18em6p1irzn 103968 103967 2026-06-19T07:14:46Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add template 103968 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> Spy below each river's article for its tributaries, drainage areas, etc. ==Southern Africa== * [[Cuanza River|Cuanza]] - [[Angola]] * [[Great Fish River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Great Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[Black Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[White Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] * Groot River(s) - [[South Africa]] ** [[Groot River (Western Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Southern Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Eastern Cape)]] ** anoda name for de [[Orange River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] * [[Gamtoos River]] - South Africa * [[Ihosy River]] - [[Madagascar]] * [[Jukskei River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Kafue River]] - [[Zambia]] * Kowie River - [[South Africa]] * Kuiseb - [[Namibia]] * Kunene - [[Angola]] <small>''(as [[Cunene River|Cunene]])''</small>, [[Namibia]] * Kwando - [[Namibia]], sanso known as ''Linyanti'' den ''Chobe'' insyd places * [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] - [[Mozambique]], [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Botswana]] * Luangwa River - [[Zambia]] * Mania River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Maputo River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Eswatini]], [[Mozambique]] * Molopo - [[Botswana]], [[South Africa]] * Mooi River (Tugela) - [[South Africa]] * Mthatha River - [[South Africa]] * [[Okavango River|Okavango]] - [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]], [[Angola]] <small>''(as "Cubango")''</small> * Onilahy River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Orange River|Orange]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] :* [[Caledon River|Caledon]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]] :* [[Vaal River|Vaal]] - [[South Africa]] :* Fish - [[Namibia]] * [[Shangani River]] - [[Zimbabwe]] * Swakop River - [[Namibia]] * Tugela - [[South Africa]] * Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* Black Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* White Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] * Umgeni River - [[South Africa]] * Umkomazi River- [[South Africa]] * [[Zambezi]] - [[Angola]], [[Zambia]], [[Namibia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] *Gairezi - [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] ==Central Africa== * [[Chari River|Chari]] - [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Cameroon]] **Logone - [[Central African Republic]], [[Cameroon]] * Kagera River - [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * [[Congo River|Congo]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] ** Ebola River - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Kasai River|Kasai]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] *** Kwango - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***[[Sankuru River|Sankuru]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Lualaba River|Lualaba]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** Lomami - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Ubangi River|Ubangi]] - Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, [[Central African Republic]] ** Lulonga - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Lopori - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Maringa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] **Tshuapa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Uele - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Nyabarongo River - [[Rwanda]] * Rurubu River - [[Burundi]] * [[Ruzizi River]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]] * Mbomou - Central Africa Republic * [[Wouri River|Wouri]] - [[Cameroon]] * Xufexufe River - [[São Tomé and Príncipe|São Tomé den Príncipe]] ==East Africa== *[[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] - Kenya *[[Athi-Galana-Sabaki River|Athi]] - Kenya *[[Mara River|Mara]] - Kenya den Tanzania *[[Ewaso Ng'iro|Ewaso]] - Nyiro-Kenya *Sondu - Mirio-Kenya *[[Ruvuma River|Ruvoma]] - Tanzania *[[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] - Tanzania *[[Ruvu River|Ruvu]] - Tanzania *[[Shebelle River|Shebelle]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Jubba River|Jubba]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Nile]] - Uganda, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Sudan den Egypt *Sezibwa - Uganda *[[Maputo River|Maputo]] - Tanzania *Awash - Ethiopia den Somalia *Genale - Ethiopia den Somalia *Dawa - Ethiopia den Somalia *Omo - Ethiopia den Somalia *Ruzizi - Rwanda den Burundi *Ruvubu - Rwanda den Burundi *Akanyaru - Rwanda den Burundi *Nyabarongo - Rwanda den Burundi *Victoria Nile - Uganda *Albert Nile - Uganda *Achwa - Uganda *Kafu - Uganda *Katonga - Uganda *Mpongo - Uganda *Pager - Uganda ==West Africa== * [[Aba River (Nigeria)|Aba]] - Nigeria * [[Bandama River]] * Benin - Nigeria * [[Benue River|Benue]] - Nigeria * [[Cavalla River]] - Liberia * Ethiope River - Nigeria * [[Gambia River|Gambia]] - [[The Gambia]], [[Senegal]], [[Guinea]] * [[Imo River|Imo]] - Nigeria * Kaduna - Nigeria * Kolenté (Great Scarcies) - Guinea, [[Sierra Leone]] * [[Little Scarcies River|Little Scarcies (Kaba)]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Moa River|Moa]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Niger River|Niger]] - Nigeria, Benin, [[Niger]], Mali, Guinea * [[Oba River|Oba]] - Nigeria * Ose - Nigeria * Oyan - Nigeria * [[Osun River|Osun]] - Nigeria * Oteghelli - Nigeria * Oueme - Benin * [[Rokel River|Rokel]] - Sierra Leone * [[Saint Paul River|Saint Paul]] - Liberia * [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] - [[Cameroon]] * Sankarani - Mali * [[Senegal River|Senegal]] - Senegal, [[Mauritania]], Mali * [[Sewa River]] * [[Volta River|Volta]] - [[Ghana]], [[Burkina Faso]] * [[Cross River (Nigeria)]] - Nigeria * Nuon River - Liberia, Ivory Coast * [[Cestos River]] - Liberia * [[Yobe River]] - Nigeria ==North Africa== * [[Nile]] - [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]]. 6,650km ** [[Atbarah River]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** [[Blue Nile]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** Didessa River - Ethiopia ** [[Nile]] - Egypt ** [[Bahr el Zeraf]] - South Sudan ** [[White Nile]] - [[Sudan]], [[South Sudan]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * Bou Regreg - [[Morocco]]. 240km * [[Draa River]] - [[Morocco]]. 1100km * Moulouya River - [[Morocco]]. 520km * Oum Er-Rbia River - [[Morocco]]. 555km * Sebou River - [[Morocco]]. 496km * Chelif River - [[Algeria]]. 725km {{Bar chart | title = Largest primary rivers of Africa by discharge (>100 m³/s): | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 41,400 | label1 = 001 [[Congo River|Congo]] | data1 = 41,400 | label2 = 002 [[Niger River|Niger]] | data2 = 8,630 | label3 = 003 [[Ogooue River|Ogooué]] | data3 = 5,890 | label4 = 004 [[Zambezi River|Zambezi]] | data4 = 4,200 | label5 = 005 [[Nile River|Nile]] | data5 = 2,830 | label6 = 006 [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] | data6 = 2,730 | label7 = 007 [[Cross River (Nigeria)|Cross]] | data7 = 2,647 | label8 = 008 [[Cuanza River|Kwanza]] | data8 = 1,944 | label9 = 009 [[Rovuma River|Rovuma]] | data9 = 1,773 | label10 = 010 [[Betsiboka River|Betsiboka]] | data10 = 1,407 | label11 = 011 [[Wouri River|Wouri]] | data11 = 1,389 | label12 = 012 [[Tsiribihina River|Tsiribihina]] | data12 = 1,316 | label13 = 013 [[Volta River|Volta]] | data13 = 1,290 | label14 = 014 [[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] | data14 = 1,268 | label15 = 015 [[Chari River|Chari]] | data15 = 1,200 | label16 = 016 [[Cavalla River|Cavally]] | data16 = 1,192 | label17 = 017 [[Konkouré River|Konkouré]] | data17 = 1,170 | label18 = 018 [[Saint Paul River|St Paul]] | data18 = 1,125 | label19 = 019 [[Benin River|Benin]] | data19 = 1,084 | label20 = 020 [[Sofia River|Sofia]] | data20 = 1,062 | label21 = 021 [[Moa River|Moa]] | data21 = 1,044 | label22 = 022 [[Kouilou River|Kouilou]] | data22 = 1,000 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 022 [[Kouilou River|Kouilou]] | data1 = 1,000 | label2 = 023 [[Sassandra River|Sassandra]] | data2 = 978 | label3 = 024 [[Little Scarcies River|L. Scarcies]] | data3 = 967 | label4 = 025 [[Sewa River|Sewa]] | data4 = 952 | label5 = 026 [[Saint John River (Liberia)|St John]] | data5 = 864 | label6 = 027 [[Maningory River|Maningory]] | data6 = 776 | label7 = 028 [[Lúrio River|Lúrio]] | data7 = 741 | label8 = 029 [[Campo River|Ntem]] | data8 = 718 | label9 = 030 [[Omo River|Omo]] | data9 = 660 | label10 = 031 [[Nyanga River|Nyanga]] | data10 = 651 | label11 = 032 [[Mangoky River|Mangoky]] | data11 = 597 | label12 = 033 [[Sénégal River|Sénégal]] | data12 = 596 | label13 = 034 [[Nyong River|Nyong]] | data13 = 595 | label14 = 035 [[Lofa River|Loffa]] | data14 = 590 | label15 = 036 [[Bandama River|Bandama]] | data15 = 583 | label16 = 037 [[Cestos River|Cestos]] | data16 = 581 | label17 = 038 [[Mahavavy Sud River|Mahavavy]] | data17 = 578 | label18 = 039 [[Corubal River|Corubal]] | data18 = 555 | label19 = 040 [[Rokel River|Rokel]] | data19 = 547 | label20 = 041 [[Benito River|Mbini]] | data20 = 515 | label21 = 042 [[Pungwe River|Pungwe]] | data21 = 492 | label22 = 043 [[Mahajamba River|Mahajamba]] | data22 = 483 | label23 = 044 [[Jong River|Jong]] | data23 = 477 | label24 = 045 [[Save River (Africa)|Save]] | data24 = 437 | label25 = 046 [[Kolenté River|Kolenté]] | data25 = 424 | label26 = 047 [[Licungo River|Licungo]] | data26 = 421 | label27 = 048 [[Mitimele River|Mitimele]] | data27 = 416 | label28 = 049 [[Mangoro River|Mangoro]] | data28 = 386 | label29 = 050 [[Imo River|Imo]] | data29 = 384 | label30 = 051 [[Gambia River|Gambia]] | data30 = 374 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 052 [[Mano River|Mano]] | data1 = 370 | label2 = 053 [[Orange River|Orange]] | data2 = 369 | label3 = 054 [[Cuvo River|Cuvo]] | data3 = 369 | label4 = 055 [[Mbridge River|Mebridege]] | data4 = 329 | label5 = 056 [[Jubba River|Jubba]] | data5 = 328 | label6 = 057 [[Rianila River|Rianila]] | data6 = 325 | label7 = 058 [[Ogun River|Ogun]] | data7 = 320 | label8 = 059 [[Buzi River (Mozambique)|Búzi]] | data8 = 315 | label9 = 060 [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] | data9 = 313 | label10 = 061 [[Fatala River|Fatala]] | data10 = 312 | label11 = 062 [[Okavango River|Okavango]] | data11 = 297 | label12 = 063 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Sehnkwehn]] | data12 = 296 | label13 = 064 [[List of rivers of Guinea|Kogon]] | data13 = 289 | label14 = 065 [[Pra River (Ghana)|Pra]] | data14 = 288 | label15 = 066 [[Farmington River (Liberia)|Farmington]] | data15 = 288 | label16 = 067 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Simianona]] | data16 = 285 | label17 = 068 [[Komo River|Komo]] | data17 = 273 | label18 = 069 [[Komoé River|Komoé]] | data18 = 264 | label19 = 070 [[Oueme River|Ouémé]] | data19 = 254 | label20 = 071 [[Mungo River (Cameroon)|Mungo]] | data20 = 245 | label21 = 072 [[Mananara River|Mananara]] | data21 = 244 | label22 = 073 [[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] | data22 = 243 | label23 = 074 [[Manambolo River|Manambolo]] | data23 = 240 | label24 = 075 [[Messalo River|Messalo]] | data24 = 235 | label25 = 076 [[Ivondro River|Ivondro]] | data25 = 234 | label26 = 077 [[Geba River|Geba]] | data26 = 232 | label27 = 078 [[Antainambalana River|Antainambalana]] | data27 = 226 | label28 = 079 [[Cunene River|Cunene]] | data28 = 222 | label29 = 080 [[Catumbela River|Catumbela]] | data29 = 216 | label30 = 081 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Maevarano]] | data30 = 203 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 082 [[Longa River (Angola)|Longa]] | data1 = 200 | label2 = 083 [[Kwa Ibo River|Kwa Ibo]] | data2 = 195 | label3 = 084 [[Osun River|Osun]] | data3 = 193 | label4 = 085 [[Nunez River|Tinguilinta]] | data4 = 192 | label5 = 086 [[Mananjary River|Mananjary]] | data5 = 191 | label6 = 087 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Timbo]] | data6 = 187 | label7 = 088 [[Onilahy River|Onilahy]] | data7 = 183 | label8 = 089 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Maningoza]] | data8 = 173 | label9 = 090 [[Tano River|Tano]] | data9 = 172 | label10= 091 [[Mananara River (Analanjirofo)|Analanjirofo]] | data10 = 172 | label11= 092 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Dugbe]] | data11 = 169 | label12= 093 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Mananara]] | data12 = 166 | label13= 094 [[List of rivers of Sierra Leone|Gbangbaia]] | data13 = 166 | label14= 095 [[Onive River|Onive]] | data14 = 164 | label15= 096 [[Sibiti River|Sibiti]] | data15 = 162 | label16= 097 [[Komati River|Incomáti]] | data16 = 160 | label17= 098 [[Ankobra River|Ankobra]] | data17 = 158 | label18= 099 [[Awash River|Awash]] | data18 = 152 | label19= 100 [[Manambaho River|Manambaho]] | data19 = 151 | label20= 101 [[Mzimvubu River|Mzimvubu]] | data20 = 151 | label21= 102 [[List of rivers of Mozambique|Ligonha]] | data21 = 150 | label22= 103 [[Lake Rukwa|Rungwa]] | data22 = 149 | label23= 104 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Dibamba]] | data23 = 148 | label24= 105 [[Matandu River|Matandu]] | data24 = 147 | label25= 106 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Ramboué]] | data25 = 142 | label26= 107 [[Sebou River|Sebou]] | data26 = 137 | label27= 108 [[Manampatrana River|Manampatrana]] | data27 = 137 | label28= 109 [[Lake Rukwa|Momba]] | data28 = 136 | label29= 110 [[Sambirano River|Sambirano]] | data29 = 135 | label30= 111 [[Akwayafe River|Akpakorum]] | data30 = 133 }} == References == s9o1a5lp0fxj01zmzf0idsm08u17wah 103969 103968 2026-06-19T07:15:48Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add template 103969 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> Spy below each river's article for its tributaries, drainage areas, etc. ==Southern Africa== * [[Cuanza River|Cuanza]] - [[Angola]] * [[Great Fish River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Great Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[Black Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[White Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] * Groot River(s) - [[South Africa]] ** [[Groot River (Western Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Southern Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Eastern Cape)]] ** anoda name for de [[Orange River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] * [[Gamtoos River]] - South Africa * [[Ihosy River]] - [[Madagascar]] * [[Jukskei River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Kafue River]] - [[Zambia]] * Kowie River - [[South Africa]] * Kuiseb - [[Namibia]] * Kunene - [[Angola]] <small>''(as [[Cunene River|Cunene]])''</small>, [[Namibia]] * Kwando - [[Namibia]], sanso known as ''Linyanti'' den ''Chobe'' insyd places * [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] - [[Mozambique]], [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Botswana]] * Luangwa River - [[Zambia]] * Mania River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Maputo River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Eswatini]], [[Mozambique]] * Molopo - [[Botswana]], [[South Africa]] * Mooi River (Tugela) - [[South Africa]] * Mthatha River - [[South Africa]] * [[Okavango River|Okavango]] - [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]], [[Angola]] <small>''(as "Cubango")''</small> * Onilahy River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Orange River|Orange]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] :* [[Caledon River|Caledon]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]] :* [[Vaal River|Vaal]] - [[South Africa]] :* Fish - [[Namibia]] * [[Shangani River]] - [[Zimbabwe]] * Swakop River - [[Namibia]] * Tugela - [[South Africa]] * Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* Black Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* White Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] * Umgeni River - [[South Africa]] * Umkomazi River- [[South Africa]] * [[Zambezi]] - [[Angola]], [[Zambia]], [[Namibia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] *Gairezi - [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] ==Central Africa== * [[Chari River|Chari]] - [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Cameroon]] **Logone - [[Central African Republic]], [[Cameroon]] * Kagera River - [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * [[Congo River|Congo]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] ** Ebola River - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Kasai River|Kasai]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] *** Kwango - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***[[Sankuru River|Sankuru]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Lualaba River|Lualaba]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** Lomami - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Ubangi River|Ubangi]] - Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, [[Central African Republic]] ** Lulonga - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Lopori - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Maringa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] **Tshuapa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Uele - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Nyabarongo River - [[Rwanda]] * Rurubu River - [[Burundi]] * [[Ruzizi River]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]] * Mbomou - Central Africa Republic * [[Wouri River|Wouri]] - [[Cameroon]] * Xufexufe River - [[São Tomé and Príncipe|São Tomé den Príncipe]] ==East Africa== *[[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] - Kenya *[[Athi-Galana-Sabaki River|Athi]] - Kenya *[[Mara River|Mara]] - Kenya den Tanzania *[[Ewaso Ng'iro|Ewaso]] - Nyiro-Kenya *Sondu - Mirio-Kenya *[[Ruvuma River|Ruvoma]] - Tanzania *[[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] - Tanzania *[[Ruvu River|Ruvu]] - Tanzania *[[Shebelle River|Shebelle]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Jubba River|Jubba]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Nile]] - Uganda, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Sudan den Egypt *Sezibwa - Uganda *[[Maputo River|Maputo]] - Tanzania *Awash - Ethiopia den Somalia *Genale - Ethiopia den Somalia *Dawa - Ethiopia den Somalia *Omo - Ethiopia den Somalia *Ruzizi - Rwanda den Burundi *Ruvubu - Rwanda den Burundi *Akanyaru - Rwanda den Burundi *Nyabarongo - Rwanda den Burundi *Victoria Nile - Uganda *Albert Nile - Uganda *Achwa - Uganda *Kafu - Uganda *Katonga - Uganda *Mpongo - Uganda *Pager - Uganda ==West Africa== * [[Aba River (Nigeria)|Aba]] - Nigeria * [[Bandama River]] * Benin - Nigeria * [[Benue River|Benue]] - Nigeria * [[Cavalla River]] - Liberia * Ethiope River - Nigeria * [[Gambia River|Gambia]] - [[The Gambia]], [[Senegal]], [[Guinea]] * [[Imo River|Imo]] - Nigeria * Kaduna - Nigeria * Kolenté (Great Scarcies) - Guinea, [[Sierra Leone]] * [[Little Scarcies River|Little Scarcies (Kaba)]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Moa River|Moa]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Niger River|Niger]] - Nigeria, Benin, [[Niger]], Mali, Guinea * [[Oba River|Oba]] - Nigeria * Ose - Nigeria * Oyan - Nigeria * [[Osun River|Osun]] - Nigeria * Oteghelli - Nigeria * Oueme - Benin * [[Rokel River|Rokel]] - Sierra Leone * [[Saint Paul River|Saint Paul]] - Liberia * [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] - [[Cameroon]] * Sankarani - Mali * [[Senegal River|Senegal]] - Senegal, [[Mauritania]], Mali * [[Sewa River]] * [[Volta River|Volta]] - [[Ghana]], [[Burkina Faso]] * [[Cross River (Nigeria)]] - Nigeria * Nuon River - Liberia, Ivory Coast * [[Cestos River]] - Liberia * [[Yobe River]] - Nigeria ==North Africa== * [[Nile]] - [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]]. 6,650km ** [[Atbarah River]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** [[Blue Nile]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** Didessa River - Ethiopia ** [[Nile]] - Egypt ** [[Bahr el Zeraf]] - South Sudan ** [[White Nile]] - [[Sudan]], [[South Sudan]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * Bou Regreg - [[Morocco]]. 240km * [[Draa River]] - [[Morocco]]. 1100km * Moulouya River - [[Morocco]]. 520km * Oum Er-Rbia River - [[Morocco]]. 555km * Sebou River - [[Morocco]]. 496km * Chelif River - [[Algeria]]. 725km {{Bar chart | title = Largest primary rivers of Africa by discharge (>100 m³/s): | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 41,400 | label1 = 001 [[Congo River|Congo]] | data1 = 41,400 | label2 = 002 [[Niger River|Niger]] | data2 = 8,630 | label3 = 003 [[Ogooue River|Ogooué]] | data3 = 5,890 | label4 = 004 [[Zambezi River|Zambezi]] | data4 = 4,200 | label5 = 005 [[Nile River|Nile]] | data5 = 2,830 | label6 = 006 [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] | data6 = 2,730 | label7 = 007 [[Cross River (Nigeria)|Cross]] | data7 = 2,647 | label8 = 008 [[Cuanza River|Kwanza]] | data8 = 1,944 | label9 = 009 [[Rovuma River|Rovuma]] | data9 = 1,773 | label10 = 010 [[Betsiboka River|Betsiboka]] | data10 = 1,407 | label11 = 011 [[Wouri River|Wouri]] | data11 = 1,389 | label12 = 012 [[Tsiribihina River|Tsiribihina]] | data12 = 1,316 | label13 = 013 [[Volta River|Volta]] | data13 = 1,290 | label14 = 014 [[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] | data14 = 1,268 | label15 = 015 [[Chari River|Chari]] | data15 = 1,200 | label16 = 016 [[Cavalla River|Cavally]] | data16 = 1,192 | label17 = 017 [[Konkouré River|Konkouré]] | data17 = 1,170 | label18 = 018 [[Saint Paul River|St Paul]] | data18 = 1,125 | label19 = 019 [[Benin River|Benin]] | data19 = 1,084 | label20 = 020 [[Sofia River|Sofia]] | data20 = 1,062 | label21 = 021 [[Moa River|Moa]] | data21 = 1,044 | label22 = 022 [[Kouilou River|Kouilou]] | data22 = 1,000 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 022 [[Kouilou River|Kouilou]] | data1 = 1,000 | label2 = 023 [[Sassandra River|Sassandra]] | data2 = 978 | label3 = 024 [[Little Scarcies River|L. Scarcies]] | data3 = 967 | label4 = 025 [[Sewa River|Sewa]] | data4 = 952 | label5 = 026 [[Saint John River (Liberia)|St John]] | data5 = 864 | label6 = 027 [[Maningory River|Maningory]] | data6 = 776 | label7 = 028 [[Lúrio River|Lúrio]] | data7 = 741 | label8 = 029 [[Campo River|Ntem]] | data8 = 718 | label9 = 030 [[Omo River|Omo]] | data9 = 660 | label10 = 031 [[Nyanga River|Nyanga]] | data10 = 651 | label11 = 032 [[Mangoky River|Mangoky]] | data11 = 597 | label12 = 033 [[Sénégal River|Sénégal]] | data12 = 596 | label13 = 034 [[Nyong River|Nyong]] | data13 = 595 | label14 = 035 [[Lofa River|Loffa]] | data14 = 590 | label15 = 036 [[Bandama River|Bandama]] | data15 = 583 | label16 = 037 [[Cestos River|Cestos]] | data16 = 581 | label17 = 038 [[Mahavavy Sud River|Mahavavy]] | data17 = 578 | label18 = 039 [[Corubal River|Corubal]] | data18 = 555 | label19 = 040 [[Rokel River|Rokel]] | data19 = 547 | label20 = 041 [[Benito River|Mbini]] | data20 = 515 | label21 = 042 [[Pungwe River|Pungwe]] | data21 = 492 | label22 = 043 [[Mahajamba River|Mahajamba]] | data22 = 483 | label23 = 044 [[Jong River|Jong]] | data23 = 477 | label24 = 045 [[Save River (Africa)|Save]] | data24 = 437 | label25 = 046 [[Kolenté River|Kolenté]] | data25 = 424 | label26 = 047 [[Licungo River|Licungo]] | data26 = 421 | label27 = 048 [[Mitimele River|Mitimele]] | data27 = 416 | label28 = 049 [[Mangoro River|Mangoro]] | data28 = 386 | label29 = 050 [[Imo River|Imo]] | data29 = 384 | label30 = 051 [[Gambia River|Gambia]] | data30 = 374 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 052 [[Mano River|Mano]] | data1 = 370 | label2 = 053 [[Orange River|Orange]] | data2 = 369 | label3 = 054 [[Cuvo River|Cuvo]] | data3 = 369 | label4 = 055 [[Mbridge River|Mebridege]] | data4 = 329 | label5 = 056 [[Jubba River|Jubba]] | data5 = 328 | label6 = 057 [[Rianila River|Rianila]] | data6 = 325 | label7 = 058 [[Ogun River|Ogun]] | data7 = 320 | label8 = 059 [[Buzi River (Mozambique)|Búzi]] | data8 = 315 | label9 = 060 [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] | data9 = 313 | label10 = 061 [[Fatala River|Fatala]] | data10 = 312 | label11 = 062 [[Okavango River|Okavango]] | data11 = 297 | label12 = 063 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Sehnkwehn]] | data12 = 296 | label13 = 064 [[List of rivers of Guinea|Kogon]] | data13 = 289 | label14 = 065 [[Pra River (Ghana)|Pra]] | data14 = 288 | label15 = 066 [[Farmington River (Liberia)|Farmington]] | data15 = 288 | label16 = 067 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Simianona]] | data16 = 285 | label17 = 068 [[Komo River|Komo]] | data17 = 273 | label18 = 069 [[Komoé River|Komoé]] | data18 = 264 | label19 = 070 [[Oueme River|Ouémé]] | data19 = 254 | label20 = 071 [[Mungo River (Cameroon)|Mungo]] | data20 = 245 | label21 = 072 [[Mananara River|Mananara]] | data21 = 244 | label22 = 073 [[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] | data22 = 243 | label23 = 074 [[Manambolo River|Manambolo]] | data23 = 240 | label24 = 075 [[Messalo River|Messalo]] | data24 = 235 | label25 = 076 [[Ivondro River|Ivondro]] | data25 = 234 | label26 = 077 [[Geba River|Geba]] | data26 = 232 | label27 = 078 [[Antainambalana River|Antainambalana]] | data27 = 226 | label28 = 079 [[Cunene River|Cunene]] | data28 = 222 | label29 = 080 [[Catumbela River|Catumbela]] | data29 = 216 | label30 = 081 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Maevarano]] | data30 = 203 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 082 [[Longa River (Angola)|Longa]] | data1 = 200 | label2 = 083 [[Kwa Ibo River|Kwa Ibo]] | data2 = 195 | label3 = 084 [[Osun River|Osun]] | data3 = 193 | label4 = 085 [[Nunez River|Tinguilinta]] | data4 = 192 | label5 = 086 [[Mananjary River|Mananjary]] | data5 = 191 | label6 = 087 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Timbo]] | data6 = 187 | label7 = 088 [[Onilahy River|Onilahy]] | data7 = 183 | label8 = 089 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Maningoza]] | data8 = 173 | label9 = 090 [[Tano River|Tano]] | data9 = 172 | label10= 091 [[Mananara River (Analanjirofo)|Analanjirofo]] | data10 = 172 | label11= 092 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Dugbe]] | data11 = 169 | label12= 093 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Mananara]] | data12 = 166 | label13= 094 [[List of rivers of Sierra Leone|Gbangbaia]] | data13 = 166 | label14= 095 [[Onive River|Onive]] | data14 = 164 | label15= 096 [[Sibiti River|Sibiti]] | data15 = 162 | label16= 097 [[Komati River|Incomáti]] | data16 = 160 | label17= 098 [[Ankobra River|Ankobra]] | data17 = 158 | label18= 099 [[Awash River|Awash]] | data18 = 152 | label19= 100 [[Manambaho River|Manambaho]] | data19 = 151 | label20= 101 [[Mzimvubu River|Mzimvubu]] | data20 = 151 | label21= 102 [[List of rivers of Mozambique|Ligonha]] | data21 = 150 | label22= 103 [[Lake Rukwa|Rungwa]] | data22 = 149 | label23= 104 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Dibamba]] | data23 = 148 | label24= 105 [[Matandu River|Matandu]] | data24 = 147 | label25= 106 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Ramboué]] | data25 = 142 | label26= 107 [[Sebou River|Sebou]] | data26 = 137 | label27= 108 [[Manampatrana River|Manampatrana]] | data27 = 137 | label28= 109 [[Lake Rukwa|Momba]] | data28 = 136 | label29= 110 [[Sambirano River|Sambirano]] | data29 = 135 | label30= 111 [[Akwayafe River|Akpakorum]] | data30 = 133 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 112 [[Sinoe River|Sinoe]] | data1 = 133 | label2 = 113 [[List of rivers of Tanzania|Mbewmburu]] | data2 = 126 | label3 = 114 [[Mono River|Mono]] | data3 = 125 | label4 = 115 [[Kerio River|Kerio]] | data4 = 123 | label5 = 116 [[Chiloango River|Chiloango]] | data5 = 121 | label6 = 117 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Douengui]] | data6 = 119 | label7 = 118 [[Tugela River|Tugela]] | data7 = 119 | label8 = 119 [[Maputo River|Maputo]] | data8 = 117 | label9 = 120 [[Pangani River|Pangani]] | data9 = 117 | label10= 121 [[Coporolo River|Coporolo]] | data10 = 106 | label11= 122 [[Oum Er-Rbia River|Rbia]] | data11 = 105 | label12= 123 [[Great Kwa River| Great Kwa]] | data12 = 105 | label13= 124 [[List of rivers of Cameroon|Mémé]] | data13 = 103 | label14= 125 [[List of rivers of Guinea|Forécariah]] | data14 = 100 }} == References == ayslruczi636g4yfvm8ii2dc75qo74f 103970 103969 2026-06-19T07:16:42Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add template 103970 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> Spy below each river's article for its tributaries, drainage areas, etc. ==Southern Africa== * [[Cuanza River|Cuanza]] - [[Angola]] * [[Great Fish River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Great Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[Black Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[White Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] * Groot River(s) - [[South Africa]] ** [[Groot River (Western Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Southern Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Eastern Cape)]] ** anoda name for de [[Orange River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] * [[Gamtoos River]] - South Africa * [[Ihosy River]] - [[Madagascar]] * [[Jukskei River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Kafue River]] - [[Zambia]] * Kowie River - [[South Africa]] * Kuiseb - [[Namibia]] * Kunene - [[Angola]] <small>''(as [[Cunene River|Cunene]])''</small>, [[Namibia]] * Kwando - [[Namibia]], sanso known as ''Linyanti'' den ''Chobe'' insyd places * [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] - [[Mozambique]], [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Botswana]] * Luangwa River - [[Zambia]] * Mania River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Maputo River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Eswatini]], [[Mozambique]] * Molopo - [[Botswana]], [[South Africa]] * Mooi River (Tugela) - [[South Africa]] * Mthatha River - [[South Africa]] * [[Okavango River|Okavango]] - [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]], [[Angola]] <small>''(as "Cubango")''</small> * Onilahy River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Orange River|Orange]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] :* [[Caledon River|Caledon]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]] :* [[Vaal River|Vaal]] - [[South Africa]] :* Fish - [[Namibia]] * [[Shangani River]] - [[Zimbabwe]] * Swakop River - [[Namibia]] * Tugela - [[South Africa]] * Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* Black Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* White Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] * Umgeni River - [[South Africa]] * Umkomazi River- [[South Africa]] * [[Zambezi]] - [[Angola]], [[Zambia]], [[Namibia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] *Gairezi - [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] ==Central Africa== * [[Chari River|Chari]] - [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Cameroon]] **Logone - [[Central African Republic]], [[Cameroon]] * Kagera River - [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * [[Congo River|Congo]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] ** Ebola River - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Kasai River|Kasai]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] *** Kwango - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***[[Sankuru River|Sankuru]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Lualaba River|Lualaba]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** Lomami - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Ubangi River|Ubangi]] - Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, [[Central African Republic]] ** Lulonga - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Lopori - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Maringa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] **Tshuapa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Uele - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Nyabarongo River - [[Rwanda]] * Rurubu River - [[Burundi]] * [[Ruzizi River]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]] * Mbomou - Central Africa Republic * [[Wouri River|Wouri]] - [[Cameroon]] * Xufexufe River - [[São Tomé and Príncipe|São Tomé den Príncipe]] ==East Africa== *[[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] - Kenya *[[Athi-Galana-Sabaki River|Athi]] - Kenya *[[Mara River|Mara]] - Kenya den Tanzania *[[Ewaso Ng'iro|Ewaso]] - Nyiro-Kenya *Sondu - Mirio-Kenya *[[Ruvuma River|Ruvoma]] - Tanzania *[[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] - Tanzania *[[Ruvu River|Ruvu]] - Tanzania *[[Shebelle River|Shebelle]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Jubba River|Jubba]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Nile]] - Uganda, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Sudan den Egypt *Sezibwa - Uganda *[[Maputo River|Maputo]] - Tanzania *Awash - Ethiopia den Somalia *Genale - Ethiopia den Somalia *Dawa - Ethiopia den Somalia *Omo - Ethiopia den Somalia *Ruzizi - Rwanda den Burundi *Ruvubu - Rwanda den Burundi *Akanyaru - Rwanda den Burundi *Nyabarongo - Rwanda den Burundi *Victoria Nile - Uganda *Albert Nile - Uganda *Achwa - Uganda *Kafu - Uganda *Katonga - Uganda *Mpongo - Uganda *Pager - Uganda ==West Africa== * [[Aba River (Nigeria)|Aba]] - Nigeria * [[Bandama River]] * Benin - Nigeria * [[Benue River|Benue]] - Nigeria * [[Cavalla River]] - Liberia * Ethiope River - Nigeria * [[Gambia River|Gambia]] - [[The Gambia]], [[Senegal]], [[Guinea]] * [[Imo River|Imo]] - Nigeria * Kaduna - Nigeria * Kolenté (Great Scarcies) - Guinea, [[Sierra Leone]] * [[Little Scarcies River|Little Scarcies (Kaba)]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Moa River|Moa]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Niger River|Niger]] - Nigeria, Benin, [[Niger]], Mali, Guinea * [[Oba River|Oba]] - Nigeria * Ose - Nigeria * Oyan - Nigeria * [[Osun River|Osun]] - Nigeria * Oteghelli - Nigeria * Oueme - Benin * [[Rokel River|Rokel]] - Sierra Leone * [[Saint Paul River|Saint Paul]] - Liberia * [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] - [[Cameroon]] * Sankarani - Mali * [[Senegal River|Senegal]] - Senegal, [[Mauritania]], Mali * [[Sewa River]] * [[Volta River|Volta]] - [[Ghana]], [[Burkina Faso]] * [[Cross River (Nigeria)]] - Nigeria * Nuon River - Liberia, Ivory Coast * [[Cestos River]] - Liberia * [[Yobe River]] - Nigeria ==North Africa== * [[Nile]] - [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]]. 6,650km ** [[Atbarah River]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** [[Blue Nile]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** Didessa River - Ethiopia ** [[Nile]] - Egypt ** [[Bahr el Zeraf]] - South Sudan ** [[White Nile]] - [[Sudan]], [[South Sudan]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * Bou Regreg - [[Morocco]]. 240km * [[Draa River]] - [[Morocco]]. 1100km * Moulouya River - [[Morocco]]. 520km * Oum Er-Rbia River - [[Morocco]]. 555km * Sebou River - [[Morocco]]. 496km * Chelif River - [[Algeria]]. 725km {{Bar chart | title = Largest primary rivers of Africa by discharge (>100 m³/s): | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 41,400 | label1 = 001 [[Congo River|Congo]] | data1 = 41,400 | label2 = 002 [[Niger River|Niger]] | data2 = 8,630 | label3 = 003 [[Ogooue River|Ogooué]] | data3 = 5,890 | label4 = 004 [[Zambezi River|Zambezi]] | data4 = 4,200 | label5 = 005 [[Nile River|Nile]] | data5 = 2,830 | label6 = 006 [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] | data6 = 2,730 | label7 = 007 [[Cross River (Nigeria)|Cross]] | data7 = 2,647 | label8 = 008 [[Cuanza River|Kwanza]] | data8 = 1,944 | label9 = 009 [[Rovuma River|Rovuma]] | data9 = 1,773 | label10 = 010 [[Betsiboka River|Betsiboka]] | data10 = 1,407 | label11 = 011 [[Wouri River|Wouri]] | data11 = 1,389 | label12 = 012 [[Tsiribihina River|Tsiribihina]] | data12 = 1,316 | label13 = 013 [[Volta River|Volta]] | data13 = 1,290 | label14 = 014 [[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] | data14 = 1,268 | label15 = 015 [[Chari River|Chari]] | data15 = 1,200 | label16 = 016 [[Cavalla River|Cavally]] | data16 = 1,192 | label17 = 017 [[Konkouré River|Konkouré]] | data17 = 1,170 | label18 = 018 [[Saint Paul River|St Paul]] | data18 = 1,125 | label19 = 019 [[Benin River|Benin]] | data19 = 1,084 | label20 = 020 [[Sofia River|Sofia]] | data20 = 1,062 | label21 = 021 [[Moa River|Moa]] | data21 = 1,044 | label22 = 022 [[Kouilou River|Kouilou]] | data22 = 1,000 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 022 [[Kouilou River|Kouilou]] | data1 = 1,000 | label2 = 023 [[Sassandra River|Sassandra]] | data2 = 978 | label3 = 024 [[Little Scarcies River|L. Scarcies]] | data3 = 967 | label4 = 025 [[Sewa River|Sewa]] | data4 = 952 | label5 = 026 [[Saint John River (Liberia)|St John]] | data5 = 864 | label6 = 027 [[Maningory River|Maningory]] | data6 = 776 | label7 = 028 [[Lúrio River|Lúrio]] | data7 = 741 | label8 = 029 [[Campo River|Ntem]] | data8 = 718 | label9 = 030 [[Omo River|Omo]] | data9 = 660 | label10 = 031 [[Nyanga River|Nyanga]] | data10 = 651 | label11 = 032 [[Mangoky River|Mangoky]] | data11 = 597 | label12 = 033 [[Sénégal River|Sénégal]] | data12 = 596 | label13 = 034 [[Nyong River|Nyong]] | data13 = 595 | label14 = 035 [[Lofa River|Loffa]] | data14 = 590 | label15 = 036 [[Bandama River|Bandama]] | data15 = 583 | label16 = 037 [[Cestos River|Cestos]] | data16 = 581 | label17 = 038 [[Mahavavy Sud River|Mahavavy]] | data17 = 578 | label18 = 039 [[Corubal River|Corubal]] | data18 = 555 | label19 = 040 [[Rokel River|Rokel]] | data19 = 547 | label20 = 041 [[Benito River|Mbini]] | data20 = 515 | label21 = 042 [[Pungwe River|Pungwe]] | data21 = 492 | label22 = 043 [[Mahajamba River|Mahajamba]] | data22 = 483 | label23 = 044 [[Jong River|Jong]] | data23 = 477 | label24 = 045 [[Save River (Africa)|Save]] | data24 = 437 | label25 = 046 [[Kolenté River|Kolenté]] | data25 = 424 | label26 = 047 [[Licungo River|Licungo]] | data26 = 421 | label27 = 048 [[Mitimele River|Mitimele]] | data27 = 416 | label28 = 049 [[Mangoro River|Mangoro]] | data28 = 386 | label29 = 050 [[Imo River|Imo]] | data29 = 384 | label30 = 051 [[Gambia River|Gambia]] | data30 = 374 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 052 [[Mano River|Mano]] | data1 = 370 | label2 = 053 [[Orange River|Orange]] | data2 = 369 | label3 = 054 [[Cuvo River|Cuvo]] | data3 = 369 | label4 = 055 [[Mbridge River|Mebridege]] | data4 = 329 | label5 = 056 [[Jubba River|Jubba]] | data5 = 328 | label6 = 057 [[Rianila River|Rianila]] | data6 = 325 | label7 = 058 [[Ogun River|Ogun]] | data7 = 320 | label8 = 059 [[Buzi River (Mozambique)|Búzi]] | data8 = 315 | label9 = 060 [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] | data9 = 313 | label10 = 061 [[Fatala River|Fatala]] | data10 = 312 | label11 = 062 [[Okavango River|Okavango]] | data11 = 297 | label12 = 063 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Sehnkwehn]] | data12 = 296 | label13 = 064 [[List of rivers of Guinea|Kogon]] | data13 = 289 | label14 = 065 [[Pra River (Ghana)|Pra]] | data14 = 288 | label15 = 066 [[Farmington River (Liberia)|Farmington]] | data15 = 288 | label16 = 067 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Simianona]] | data16 = 285 | label17 = 068 [[Komo River|Komo]] | data17 = 273 | label18 = 069 [[Komoé River|Komoé]] | data18 = 264 | label19 = 070 [[Oueme River|Ouémé]] | data19 = 254 | label20 = 071 [[Mungo River (Cameroon)|Mungo]] | data20 = 245 | label21 = 072 [[Mananara River|Mananara]] | data21 = 244 | label22 = 073 [[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] | data22 = 243 | label23 = 074 [[Manambolo River|Manambolo]] | data23 = 240 | label24 = 075 [[Messalo River|Messalo]] | data24 = 235 | label25 = 076 [[Ivondro River|Ivondro]] | data25 = 234 | label26 = 077 [[Geba River|Geba]] | data26 = 232 | label27 = 078 [[Antainambalana River|Antainambalana]] | data27 = 226 | label28 = 079 [[Cunene River|Cunene]] | data28 = 222 | label29 = 080 [[Catumbela River|Catumbela]] | data29 = 216 | label30 = 081 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Maevarano]] | data30 = 203 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 082 [[Longa River (Angola)|Longa]] | data1 = 200 | label2 = 083 [[Kwa Ibo River|Kwa Ibo]] | data2 = 195 | label3 = 084 [[Osun River|Osun]] | data3 = 193 | label4 = 085 [[Nunez River|Tinguilinta]] | data4 = 192 | label5 = 086 [[Mananjary River|Mananjary]] | data5 = 191 | label6 = 087 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Timbo]] | data6 = 187 | label7 = 088 [[Onilahy River|Onilahy]] | data7 = 183 | label8 = 089 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Maningoza]] | data8 = 173 | label9 = 090 [[Tano River|Tano]] | data9 = 172 | label10= 091 [[Mananara River (Analanjirofo)|Analanjirofo]] | data10 = 172 | label11= 092 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Dugbe]] | data11 = 169 | label12= 093 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Mananara]] | data12 = 166 | label13= 094 [[List of rivers of Sierra Leone|Gbangbaia]] | data13 = 166 | label14= 095 [[Onive River|Onive]] | data14 = 164 | label15= 096 [[Sibiti River|Sibiti]] | data15 = 162 | label16= 097 [[Komati River|Incomáti]] | data16 = 160 | label17= 098 [[Ankobra River|Ankobra]] | data17 = 158 | label18= 099 [[Awash River|Awash]] | data18 = 152 | label19= 100 [[Manambaho River|Manambaho]] | data19 = 151 | label20= 101 [[Mzimvubu River|Mzimvubu]] | data20 = 151 | label21= 102 [[List of rivers of Mozambique|Ligonha]] | data21 = 150 | label22= 103 [[Lake Rukwa|Rungwa]] | data22 = 149 | label23= 104 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Dibamba]] | data23 = 148 | label24= 105 [[Matandu River|Matandu]] | data24 = 147 | label25= 106 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Ramboué]] | data25 = 142 | label26= 107 [[Sebou River|Sebou]] | data26 = 137 | label27= 108 [[Manampatrana River|Manampatrana]] | data27 = 137 | label28= 109 [[Lake Rukwa|Momba]] | data28 = 136 | label29= 110 [[Sambirano River|Sambirano]] | data29 = 135 | label30= 111 [[Akwayafe River|Akpakorum]] | data30 = 133 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 112 [[Sinoe River|Sinoe]] | data1 = 133 | label2 = 113 [[List of rivers of Tanzania|Mbewmburu]] | data2 = 126 | label3 = 114 [[Mono River|Mono]] | data3 = 125 | label4 = 115 [[Kerio River|Kerio]] | data4 = 123 | label5 = 116 [[Chiloango River|Chiloango]] | data5 = 121 | label6 = 117 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Douengui]] | data6 = 119 | label7 = 118 [[Tugela River|Tugela]] | data7 = 119 | label8 = 119 [[Maputo River|Maputo]] | data8 = 117 | label9 = 120 [[Pangani River|Pangani]] | data9 = 117 | label10= 121 [[Coporolo River|Coporolo]] | data10 = 106 | label11= 122 [[Oum Er-Rbia River|Rbia]] | data11 = 105 | label12= 123 [[Great Kwa River| Great Kwa]] | data12 = 105 | label13= 124 [[List of rivers of Cameroon|Mémé]] | data13 = 103 | label14= 125 [[List of rivers of Guinea|Forécariah]] | data14 = 100 }} {{Bar chart | title = (10 to 100 m³/s) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 98 | label1 = [[Lake Rukwa|Katuma]] | data1 = 98 | label2 = [[Cacheu River|Cacheu]] | data2 = 94 | label3 = [[List of rivers of Liberia|Grand Cess]] | data3 = 93 | label4 = [[Athi-Galana-Sabaki River|Galana]] | data4 = 90 | label5 = [[Casamance River|Casamance]] | data5 = 86 | label6 = [[Tensift River|Tensift]] | data6 = 74 | label7 = [[Lake Rukwa|Songwe]] | data7 = 70 | label8 = [[Ruvu River|Ruvu]] | data8 = 68 | label9 = [[Great Kei River|Great Kei]] | data9 = 67 | label10= [[List of rivers of Ivory Coast|San Pedro]] | data10 = 67 | label11= [[Wami River|Wami]] | data11 = 61 | label12= [[Gourits River|Gourits]] | data12 = 43 | label13= [[Moulouya River|Moulouya]] | data13 = 41 | label14= [[Sous River|Sous]] | data14 = 35 | label15= [[Medjerda River|Medjerda]] | data15 = 29 | label16= [[Great Fish River|Great Fish]] | data16 = 26 | label17= [[Yobe River|Komadougou]] | data17 = 25 | label18= [[Draa River|Drâa]] | data18 = 25 | label19= [[Bou Regreg]] | data19 = 24 | label20= [[Chelif River|Chelif]] | data20 = 24 | label21= [[Sundays River|Sundays]] | data21 = 16 }} == References == 5zcg5ovx45cq02k0xkwp9npxtfhkszx 103971 103970 2026-06-19T07:17:34Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add sub-heading 103971 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> Spy below each river's article for its tributaries, drainage areas, etc. ==Southern Africa== * [[Cuanza River|Cuanza]] - [[Angola]] * [[Great Fish River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Great Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[Black Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[White Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] * Groot River(s) - [[South Africa]] ** [[Groot River (Western Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Southern Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Eastern Cape)]] ** anoda name for de [[Orange River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] * [[Gamtoos River]] - South Africa * [[Ihosy River]] - [[Madagascar]] * [[Jukskei River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Kafue River]] - [[Zambia]] * Kowie River - [[South Africa]] * Kuiseb - [[Namibia]] * Kunene - [[Angola]] <small>''(as [[Cunene River|Cunene]])''</small>, [[Namibia]] * Kwando - [[Namibia]], sanso known as ''Linyanti'' den ''Chobe'' insyd places * [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] - [[Mozambique]], [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Botswana]] * Luangwa River - [[Zambia]] * Mania River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Maputo River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Eswatini]], [[Mozambique]] * Molopo - [[Botswana]], [[South Africa]] * Mooi River (Tugela) - [[South Africa]] * Mthatha River - [[South Africa]] * [[Okavango River|Okavango]] - [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]], [[Angola]] <small>''(as "Cubango")''</small> * Onilahy River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Orange River|Orange]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] :* [[Caledon River|Caledon]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]] :* [[Vaal River|Vaal]] - [[South Africa]] :* Fish - [[Namibia]] * [[Shangani River]] - [[Zimbabwe]] * Swakop River - [[Namibia]] * Tugela - [[South Africa]] * Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* Black Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* White Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] * Umgeni River - [[South Africa]] * Umkomazi River- [[South Africa]] * [[Zambezi]] - [[Angola]], [[Zambia]], [[Namibia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] *Gairezi - [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] ==Central Africa== * [[Chari River|Chari]] - [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Cameroon]] **Logone - [[Central African Republic]], [[Cameroon]] * Kagera River - [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * [[Congo River|Congo]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] ** Ebola River - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Kasai River|Kasai]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] *** Kwango - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***[[Sankuru River|Sankuru]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Lualaba River|Lualaba]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** Lomami - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Ubangi River|Ubangi]] - Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, [[Central African Republic]] ** Lulonga - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Lopori - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Maringa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] **Tshuapa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Uele - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Nyabarongo River - [[Rwanda]] * Rurubu River - [[Burundi]] * [[Ruzizi River]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]] * Mbomou - Central Africa Republic * [[Wouri River|Wouri]] - [[Cameroon]] * Xufexufe River - [[São Tomé and Príncipe|São Tomé den Príncipe]] ==East Africa== *[[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] - Kenya *[[Athi-Galana-Sabaki River|Athi]] - Kenya *[[Mara River|Mara]] - Kenya den Tanzania *[[Ewaso Ng'iro|Ewaso]] - Nyiro-Kenya *Sondu - Mirio-Kenya *[[Ruvuma River|Ruvoma]] - Tanzania *[[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] - Tanzania *[[Ruvu River|Ruvu]] - Tanzania *[[Shebelle River|Shebelle]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Jubba River|Jubba]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Nile]] - Uganda, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Sudan den Egypt *Sezibwa - Uganda *[[Maputo River|Maputo]] - Tanzania *Awash - Ethiopia den Somalia *Genale - Ethiopia den Somalia *Dawa - Ethiopia den Somalia *Omo - Ethiopia den Somalia *Ruzizi - Rwanda den Burundi *Ruvubu - Rwanda den Burundi *Akanyaru - Rwanda den Burundi *Nyabarongo - Rwanda den Burundi *Victoria Nile - Uganda *Albert Nile - Uganda *Achwa - Uganda *Kafu - Uganda *Katonga - Uganda *Mpongo - Uganda *Pager - Uganda ==West Africa== * [[Aba River (Nigeria)|Aba]] - Nigeria * [[Bandama River]] * Benin - Nigeria * [[Benue River|Benue]] - Nigeria * [[Cavalla River]] - Liberia * Ethiope River - Nigeria * [[Gambia River|Gambia]] - [[The Gambia]], [[Senegal]], [[Guinea]] * [[Imo River|Imo]] - Nigeria * Kaduna - Nigeria * Kolenté (Great Scarcies) - Guinea, [[Sierra Leone]] * [[Little Scarcies River|Little Scarcies (Kaba)]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Moa River|Moa]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Niger River|Niger]] - Nigeria, Benin, [[Niger]], Mali, Guinea * [[Oba River|Oba]] - Nigeria * Ose - Nigeria * Oyan - Nigeria * [[Osun River|Osun]] - Nigeria * Oteghelli - Nigeria * Oueme - Benin * [[Rokel River|Rokel]] - Sierra Leone * [[Saint Paul River|Saint Paul]] - Liberia * [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] - [[Cameroon]] * Sankarani - Mali * [[Senegal River|Senegal]] - Senegal, [[Mauritania]], Mali * [[Sewa River]] * [[Volta River|Volta]] - [[Ghana]], [[Burkina Faso]] * [[Cross River (Nigeria)]] - Nigeria * Nuon River - Liberia, Ivory Coast * [[Cestos River]] - Liberia * [[Yobe River]] - Nigeria ==North Africa== * [[Nile]] - [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]]. 6,650km ** [[Atbarah River]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** [[Blue Nile]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** Didessa River - Ethiopia ** [[Nile]] - Egypt ** [[Bahr el Zeraf]] - South Sudan ** [[White Nile]] - [[Sudan]], [[South Sudan]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * Bou Regreg - [[Morocco]]. 240km * [[Draa River]] - [[Morocco]]. 1100km * Moulouya River - [[Morocco]]. 520km * Oum Er-Rbia River - [[Morocco]]. 555km * Sebou River - [[Morocco]]. 496km * Chelif River - [[Algeria]]. 725km {{Bar chart | title = Largest primary rivers of Africa by discharge (>100 m³/s): | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 41,400 | label1 = 001 [[Congo River|Congo]] | data1 = 41,400 | label2 = 002 [[Niger River|Niger]] | data2 = 8,630 | label3 = 003 [[Ogooue River|Ogooué]] | data3 = 5,890 | label4 = 004 [[Zambezi River|Zambezi]] | data4 = 4,200 | label5 = 005 [[Nile River|Nile]] | data5 = 2,830 | label6 = 006 [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] | data6 = 2,730 | label7 = 007 [[Cross River (Nigeria)|Cross]] | data7 = 2,647 | label8 = 008 [[Cuanza River|Kwanza]] | data8 = 1,944 | label9 = 009 [[Rovuma River|Rovuma]] | data9 = 1,773 | label10 = 010 [[Betsiboka River|Betsiboka]] | data10 = 1,407 | label11 = 011 [[Wouri River|Wouri]] | data11 = 1,389 | label12 = 012 [[Tsiribihina River|Tsiribihina]] | data12 = 1,316 | label13 = 013 [[Volta River|Volta]] | data13 = 1,290 | label14 = 014 [[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] | data14 = 1,268 | label15 = 015 [[Chari River|Chari]] | data15 = 1,200 | label16 = 016 [[Cavalla River|Cavally]] | data16 = 1,192 | label17 = 017 [[Konkouré River|Konkouré]] | data17 = 1,170 | label18 = 018 [[Saint Paul River|St Paul]] | data18 = 1,125 | label19 = 019 [[Benin River|Benin]] | data19 = 1,084 | label20 = 020 [[Sofia River|Sofia]] | data20 = 1,062 | label21 = 021 [[Moa River|Moa]] | data21 = 1,044 | label22 = 022 [[Kouilou River|Kouilou]] | data22 = 1,000 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 022 [[Kouilou River|Kouilou]] | data1 = 1,000 | label2 = 023 [[Sassandra River|Sassandra]] | data2 = 978 | label3 = 024 [[Little Scarcies River|L. Scarcies]] | data3 = 967 | label4 = 025 [[Sewa River|Sewa]] | data4 = 952 | label5 = 026 [[Saint John River (Liberia)|St John]] | data5 = 864 | label6 = 027 [[Maningory River|Maningory]] | data6 = 776 | label7 = 028 [[Lúrio River|Lúrio]] | data7 = 741 | label8 = 029 [[Campo River|Ntem]] | data8 = 718 | label9 = 030 [[Omo River|Omo]] | data9 = 660 | label10 = 031 [[Nyanga River|Nyanga]] | data10 = 651 | label11 = 032 [[Mangoky River|Mangoky]] | data11 = 597 | label12 = 033 [[Sénégal River|Sénégal]] | data12 = 596 | label13 = 034 [[Nyong River|Nyong]] | data13 = 595 | label14 = 035 [[Lofa River|Loffa]] | data14 = 590 | label15 = 036 [[Bandama River|Bandama]] | data15 = 583 | label16 = 037 [[Cestos River|Cestos]] | data16 = 581 | label17 = 038 [[Mahavavy Sud River|Mahavavy]] | data17 = 578 | label18 = 039 [[Corubal River|Corubal]] | data18 = 555 | label19 = 040 [[Rokel River|Rokel]] | data19 = 547 | label20 = 041 [[Benito River|Mbini]] | data20 = 515 | label21 = 042 [[Pungwe River|Pungwe]] | data21 = 492 | label22 = 043 [[Mahajamba River|Mahajamba]] | data22 = 483 | label23 = 044 [[Jong River|Jong]] | data23 = 477 | label24 = 045 [[Save River (Africa)|Save]] | data24 = 437 | label25 = 046 [[Kolenté River|Kolenté]] | data25 = 424 | label26 = 047 [[Licungo River|Licungo]] | data26 = 421 | label27 = 048 [[Mitimele River|Mitimele]] | data27 = 416 | label28 = 049 [[Mangoro River|Mangoro]] | data28 = 386 | label29 = 050 [[Imo River|Imo]] | data29 = 384 | label30 = 051 [[Gambia River|Gambia]] | data30 = 374 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 052 [[Mano River|Mano]] | data1 = 370 | label2 = 053 [[Orange River|Orange]] | data2 = 369 | label3 = 054 [[Cuvo River|Cuvo]] | data3 = 369 | label4 = 055 [[Mbridge River|Mebridege]] | data4 = 329 | label5 = 056 [[Jubba River|Jubba]] | data5 = 328 | label6 = 057 [[Rianila River|Rianila]] | data6 = 325 | label7 = 058 [[Ogun River|Ogun]] | data7 = 320 | label8 = 059 [[Buzi River (Mozambique)|Búzi]] | data8 = 315 | label9 = 060 [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] | data9 = 313 | label10 = 061 [[Fatala River|Fatala]] | data10 = 312 | label11 = 062 [[Okavango River|Okavango]] | data11 = 297 | label12 = 063 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Sehnkwehn]] | data12 = 296 | label13 = 064 [[List of rivers of Guinea|Kogon]] | data13 = 289 | label14 = 065 [[Pra River (Ghana)|Pra]] | data14 = 288 | label15 = 066 [[Farmington River (Liberia)|Farmington]] | data15 = 288 | label16 = 067 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Simianona]] | data16 = 285 | label17 = 068 [[Komo River|Komo]] | data17 = 273 | label18 = 069 [[Komoé River|Komoé]] | data18 = 264 | label19 = 070 [[Oueme River|Ouémé]] | data19 = 254 | label20 = 071 [[Mungo River (Cameroon)|Mungo]] | data20 = 245 | label21 = 072 [[Mananara River|Mananara]] | data21 = 244 | label22 = 073 [[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] | data22 = 243 | label23 = 074 [[Manambolo River|Manambolo]] | data23 = 240 | label24 = 075 [[Messalo River|Messalo]] | data24 = 235 | label25 = 076 [[Ivondro River|Ivondro]] | data25 = 234 | label26 = 077 [[Geba River|Geba]] | data26 = 232 | label27 = 078 [[Antainambalana River|Antainambalana]] | data27 = 226 | label28 = 079 [[Cunene River|Cunene]] | data28 = 222 | label29 = 080 [[Catumbela River|Catumbela]] | data29 = 216 | label30 = 081 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Maevarano]] | data30 = 203 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 082 [[Longa River (Angola)|Longa]] | data1 = 200 | label2 = 083 [[Kwa Ibo River|Kwa Ibo]] | data2 = 195 | label3 = 084 [[Osun River|Osun]] | data3 = 193 | label4 = 085 [[Nunez River|Tinguilinta]] | data4 = 192 | label5 = 086 [[Mananjary River|Mananjary]] | data5 = 191 | label6 = 087 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Timbo]] | data6 = 187 | label7 = 088 [[Onilahy River|Onilahy]] | data7 = 183 | label8 = 089 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Maningoza]] | data8 = 173 | label9 = 090 [[Tano River|Tano]] | data9 = 172 | label10= 091 [[Mananara River (Analanjirofo)|Analanjirofo]] | data10 = 172 | label11= 092 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Dugbe]] | data11 = 169 | label12= 093 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Mananara]] | data12 = 166 | label13= 094 [[List of rivers of Sierra Leone|Gbangbaia]] | data13 = 166 | label14= 095 [[Onive River|Onive]] | data14 = 164 | label15= 096 [[Sibiti River|Sibiti]] | data15 = 162 | label16= 097 [[Komati River|Incomáti]] | data16 = 160 | label17= 098 [[Ankobra River|Ankobra]] | data17 = 158 | label18= 099 [[Awash River|Awash]] | data18 = 152 | label19= 100 [[Manambaho River|Manambaho]] | data19 = 151 | label20= 101 [[Mzimvubu River|Mzimvubu]] | data20 = 151 | label21= 102 [[List of rivers of Mozambique|Ligonha]] | data21 = 150 | label22= 103 [[Lake Rukwa|Rungwa]] | data22 = 149 | label23= 104 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Dibamba]] | data23 = 148 | label24= 105 [[Matandu River|Matandu]] | data24 = 147 | label25= 106 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Ramboué]] | data25 = 142 | label26= 107 [[Sebou River|Sebou]] | data26 = 137 | label27= 108 [[Manampatrana River|Manampatrana]] | data27 = 137 | label28= 109 [[Lake Rukwa|Momba]] | data28 = 136 | label29= 110 [[Sambirano River|Sambirano]] | data29 = 135 | label30= 111 [[Akwayafe River|Akpakorum]] | data30 = 133 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 112 [[Sinoe River|Sinoe]] | data1 = 133 | label2 = 113 [[List of rivers of Tanzania|Mbewmburu]] | data2 = 126 | label3 = 114 [[Mono River|Mono]] | data3 = 125 | label4 = 115 [[Kerio River|Kerio]] | data4 = 123 | label5 = 116 [[Chiloango River|Chiloango]] | data5 = 121 | label6 = 117 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Douengui]] | data6 = 119 | label7 = 118 [[Tugela River|Tugela]] | data7 = 119 | label8 = 119 [[Maputo River|Maputo]] | data8 = 117 | label9 = 120 [[Pangani River|Pangani]] | data9 = 117 | label10= 121 [[Coporolo River|Coporolo]] | data10 = 106 | label11= 122 [[Oum Er-Rbia River|Rbia]] | data11 = 105 | label12= 123 [[Great Kwa River| Great Kwa]] | data12 = 105 | label13= 124 [[List of rivers of Cameroon|Mémé]] | data13 = 103 | label14= 125 [[List of rivers of Guinea|Forécariah]] | data14 = 100 }} {{Bar chart | title = (10 to 100 m³/s) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 98 | label1 = [[Lake Rukwa|Katuma]] | data1 = 98 | label2 = [[Cacheu River|Cacheu]] | data2 = 94 | label3 = [[List of rivers of Liberia|Grand Cess]] | data3 = 93 | label4 = [[Athi-Galana-Sabaki River|Galana]] | data4 = 90 | label5 = [[Casamance River|Casamance]] | data5 = 86 | label6 = [[Tensift River|Tensift]] | data6 = 74 | label7 = [[Lake Rukwa|Songwe]] | data7 = 70 | label8 = [[Ruvu River|Ruvu]] | data8 = 68 | label9 = [[Great Kei River|Great Kei]] | data9 = 67 | label10= [[List of rivers of Ivory Coast|San Pedro]] | data10 = 67 | label11= [[Wami River|Wami]] | data11 = 61 | label12= [[Gourits River|Gourits]] | data12 = 43 | label13= [[Moulouya River|Moulouya]] | data13 = 41 | label14= [[Sous River|Sous]] | data14 = 35 | label15= [[Medjerda River|Medjerda]] | data15 = 29 | label16= [[Great Fish River|Great Fish]] | data16 = 26 | label17= [[Yobe River|Komadougou]] | data17 = 25 | label18= [[Draa River|Drâa]] | data18 = 25 | label19= [[Bou Regreg]] | data19 = 24 | label20= [[Chelif River|Chelif]] | data20 = 24 | label21= [[Sundays River|Sundays]] | data21 = 16 }} ==Spy sanso== == References == emutvhfi2vugo1fv8wqmyiwgh2owvgv 103972 103971 2026-06-19T07:18:19Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add template 103972 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> Spy below each river's article for its tributaries, drainage areas, etc. ==Southern Africa== * [[Cuanza River|Cuanza]] - [[Angola]] * [[Great Fish River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Great Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[Black Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[White Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] * Groot River(s) - [[South Africa]] ** [[Groot River (Western Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Southern Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Eastern Cape)]] ** anoda name for de [[Orange River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] * [[Gamtoos River]] - South Africa * [[Ihosy River]] - [[Madagascar]] * [[Jukskei River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Kafue River]] - [[Zambia]] * Kowie River - [[South Africa]] * Kuiseb - [[Namibia]] * Kunene - [[Angola]] <small>''(as [[Cunene River|Cunene]])''</small>, [[Namibia]] * Kwando - [[Namibia]], sanso known as ''Linyanti'' den ''Chobe'' insyd places * [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] - [[Mozambique]], [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Botswana]] * Luangwa River - [[Zambia]] * Mania River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Maputo River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Eswatini]], [[Mozambique]] * Molopo - [[Botswana]], [[South Africa]] * Mooi River (Tugela) - [[South Africa]] * Mthatha River - [[South Africa]] * [[Okavango River|Okavango]] - [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]], [[Angola]] <small>''(as "Cubango")''</small> * Onilahy River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Orange River|Orange]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] :* [[Caledon River|Caledon]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]] :* [[Vaal River|Vaal]] - [[South Africa]] :* Fish - [[Namibia]] * [[Shangani River]] - [[Zimbabwe]] * Swakop River - [[Namibia]] * Tugela - [[South Africa]] * Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* Black Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* White Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] * Umgeni River - [[South Africa]] * Umkomazi River- [[South Africa]] * [[Zambezi]] - [[Angola]], [[Zambia]], [[Namibia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] *Gairezi - [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] ==Central Africa== * [[Chari River|Chari]] - [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Cameroon]] **Logone - [[Central African Republic]], [[Cameroon]] * Kagera River - [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * [[Congo River|Congo]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] ** Ebola River - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Kasai River|Kasai]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] *** Kwango - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***[[Sankuru River|Sankuru]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Lualaba River|Lualaba]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** Lomami - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Ubangi River|Ubangi]] - Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, [[Central African Republic]] ** Lulonga - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Lopori - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Maringa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] **Tshuapa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Uele - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Nyabarongo River - [[Rwanda]] * Rurubu River - [[Burundi]] * [[Ruzizi River]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]] * Mbomou - Central Africa Republic * [[Wouri River|Wouri]] - [[Cameroon]] * Xufexufe River - [[São Tomé and Príncipe|São Tomé den Príncipe]] ==East Africa== *[[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] - Kenya *[[Athi-Galana-Sabaki River|Athi]] - Kenya *[[Mara River|Mara]] - Kenya den Tanzania *[[Ewaso Ng'iro|Ewaso]] - Nyiro-Kenya *Sondu - Mirio-Kenya *[[Ruvuma River|Ruvoma]] - Tanzania *[[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] - Tanzania *[[Ruvu River|Ruvu]] - Tanzania *[[Shebelle River|Shebelle]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Jubba River|Jubba]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Nile]] - Uganda, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Sudan den Egypt *Sezibwa - Uganda *[[Maputo River|Maputo]] - Tanzania *Awash - Ethiopia den Somalia *Genale - Ethiopia den Somalia *Dawa - Ethiopia den Somalia *Omo - Ethiopia den Somalia *Ruzizi - Rwanda den Burundi *Ruvubu - Rwanda den Burundi *Akanyaru - Rwanda den Burundi *Nyabarongo - Rwanda den Burundi *Victoria Nile - Uganda *Albert Nile - Uganda *Achwa - Uganda *Kafu - Uganda *Katonga - Uganda *Mpongo - Uganda *Pager - Uganda ==West Africa== * [[Aba River (Nigeria)|Aba]] - Nigeria * [[Bandama River]] * Benin - Nigeria * [[Benue River|Benue]] - Nigeria * [[Cavalla River]] - Liberia * Ethiope River - Nigeria * [[Gambia River|Gambia]] - [[The Gambia]], [[Senegal]], [[Guinea]] * [[Imo River|Imo]] - Nigeria * Kaduna - Nigeria * Kolenté (Great Scarcies) - Guinea, [[Sierra Leone]] * [[Little Scarcies River|Little Scarcies (Kaba)]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Moa River|Moa]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Niger River|Niger]] - Nigeria, Benin, [[Niger]], Mali, Guinea * [[Oba River|Oba]] - Nigeria * Ose - Nigeria * Oyan - Nigeria * [[Osun River|Osun]] - Nigeria * Oteghelli - Nigeria * Oueme - Benin * [[Rokel River|Rokel]] - Sierra Leone * [[Saint Paul River|Saint Paul]] - Liberia * [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] - [[Cameroon]] * Sankarani - Mali * [[Senegal River|Senegal]] - Senegal, [[Mauritania]], Mali * [[Sewa River]] * [[Volta River|Volta]] - [[Ghana]], [[Burkina Faso]] * [[Cross River (Nigeria)]] - Nigeria * Nuon River - Liberia, Ivory Coast * [[Cestos River]] - Liberia * [[Yobe River]] - Nigeria ==North Africa== * [[Nile]] - [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]]. 6,650km ** [[Atbarah River]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** [[Blue Nile]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** Didessa River - Ethiopia ** [[Nile]] - Egypt ** [[Bahr el Zeraf]] - South Sudan ** [[White Nile]] - [[Sudan]], [[South Sudan]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * Bou Regreg - [[Morocco]]. 240km * [[Draa River]] - [[Morocco]]. 1100km * Moulouya River - [[Morocco]]. 520km * Oum Er-Rbia River - [[Morocco]]. 555km * Sebou River - [[Morocco]]. 496km * Chelif River - [[Algeria]]. 725km {{Bar chart | title = Largest primary rivers of Africa by discharge (>100 m³/s): | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 41,400 | label1 = 001 [[Congo River|Congo]] | data1 = 41,400 | label2 = 002 [[Niger River|Niger]] | data2 = 8,630 | label3 = 003 [[Ogooue River|Ogooué]] | data3 = 5,890 | label4 = 004 [[Zambezi River|Zambezi]] | data4 = 4,200 | label5 = 005 [[Nile River|Nile]] | data5 = 2,830 | label6 = 006 [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] | data6 = 2,730 | label7 = 007 [[Cross River (Nigeria)|Cross]] | data7 = 2,647 | label8 = 008 [[Cuanza River|Kwanza]] | data8 = 1,944 | label9 = 009 [[Rovuma River|Rovuma]] | data9 = 1,773 | label10 = 010 [[Betsiboka River|Betsiboka]] | data10 = 1,407 | label11 = 011 [[Wouri River|Wouri]] | data11 = 1,389 | label12 = 012 [[Tsiribihina River|Tsiribihina]] | data12 = 1,316 | label13 = 013 [[Volta River|Volta]] | data13 = 1,290 | label14 = 014 [[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] | data14 = 1,268 | label15 = 015 [[Chari River|Chari]] | data15 = 1,200 | label16 = 016 [[Cavalla River|Cavally]] | data16 = 1,192 | label17 = 017 [[Konkouré River|Konkouré]] | data17 = 1,170 | label18 = 018 [[Saint Paul River|St Paul]] | data18 = 1,125 | label19 = 019 [[Benin River|Benin]] | data19 = 1,084 | label20 = 020 [[Sofia River|Sofia]] | data20 = 1,062 | label21 = 021 [[Moa River|Moa]] | data21 = 1,044 | label22 = 022 [[Kouilou River|Kouilou]] | data22 = 1,000 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 022 [[Kouilou River|Kouilou]] | data1 = 1,000 | label2 = 023 [[Sassandra River|Sassandra]] | data2 = 978 | label3 = 024 [[Little Scarcies River|L. Scarcies]] | data3 = 967 | label4 = 025 [[Sewa River|Sewa]] | data4 = 952 | label5 = 026 [[Saint John River (Liberia)|St John]] | data5 = 864 | label6 = 027 [[Maningory River|Maningory]] | data6 = 776 | label7 = 028 [[Lúrio River|Lúrio]] | data7 = 741 | label8 = 029 [[Campo River|Ntem]] | data8 = 718 | label9 = 030 [[Omo River|Omo]] | data9 = 660 | label10 = 031 [[Nyanga River|Nyanga]] | data10 = 651 | label11 = 032 [[Mangoky River|Mangoky]] | data11 = 597 | label12 = 033 [[Sénégal River|Sénégal]] | data12 = 596 | label13 = 034 [[Nyong River|Nyong]] | data13 = 595 | label14 = 035 [[Lofa River|Loffa]] | data14 = 590 | label15 = 036 [[Bandama River|Bandama]] | data15 = 583 | label16 = 037 [[Cestos River|Cestos]] | data16 = 581 | label17 = 038 [[Mahavavy Sud River|Mahavavy]] | data17 = 578 | label18 = 039 [[Corubal River|Corubal]] | data18 = 555 | label19 = 040 [[Rokel River|Rokel]] | data19 = 547 | label20 = 041 [[Benito River|Mbini]] | data20 = 515 | label21 = 042 [[Pungwe River|Pungwe]] | data21 = 492 | label22 = 043 [[Mahajamba River|Mahajamba]] | data22 = 483 | label23 = 044 [[Jong River|Jong]] | data23 = 477 | label24 = 045 [[Save River (Africa)|Save]] | data24 = 437 | label25 = 046 [[Kolenté River|Kolenté]] | data25 = 424 | label26 = 047 [[Licungo River|Licungo]] | data26 = 421 | label27 = 048 [[Mitimele River|Mitimele]] | data27 = 416 | label28 = 049 [[Mangoro River|Mangoro]] | data28 = 386 | label29 = 050 [[Imo River|Imo]] | data29 = 384 | label30 = 051 [[Gambia River|Gambia]] | data30 = 374 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 052 [[Mano River|Mano]] | data1 = 370 | label2 = 053 [[Orange River|Orange]] | data2 = 369 | label3 = 054 [[Cuvo River|Cuvo]] | data3 = 369 | label4 = 055 [[Mbridge River|Mebridege]] | data4 = 329 | label5 = 056 [[Jubba River|Jubba]] | data5 = 328 | label6 = 057 [[Rianila River|Rianila]] | data6 = 325 | label7 = 058 [[Ogun River|Ogun]] | data7 = 320 | label8 = 059 [[Buzi River (Mozambique)|Búzi]] | data8 = 315 | label9 = 060 [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] | data9 = 313 | label10 = 061 [[Fatala River|Fatala]] | data10 = 312 | label11 = 062 [[Okavango River|Okavango]] | data11 = 297 | label12 = 063 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Sehnkwehn]] | data12 = 296 | label13 = 064 [[List of rivers of Guinea|Kogon]] | data13 = 289 | label14 = 065 [[Pra River (Ghana)|Pra]] | data14 = 288 | label15 = 066 [[Farmington River (Liberia)|Farmington]] | data15 = 288 | label16 = 067 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Simianona]] | data16 = 285 | label17 = 068 [[Komo River|Komo]] | data17 = 273 | label18 = 069 [[Komoé River|Komoé]] | data18 = 264 | label19 = 070 [[Oueme River|Ouémé]] | data19 = 254 | label20 = 071 [[Mungo River (Cameroon)|Mungo]] | data20 = 245 | label21 = 072 [[Mananara River|Mananara]] | data21 = 244 | label22 = 073 [[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] | data22 = 243 | label23 = 074 [[Manambolo River|Manambolo]] | data23 = 240 | label24 = 075 [[Messalo River|Messalo]] | data24 = 235 | label25 = 076 [[Ivondro River|Ivondro]] | data25 = 234 | label26 = 077 [[Geba River|Geba]] | data26 = 232 | label27 = 078 [[Antainambalana River|Antainambalana]] | data27 = 226 | label28 = 079 [[Cunene River|Cunene]] | data28 = 222 | label29 = 080 [[Catumbela River|Catumbela]] | data29 = 216 | label30 = 081 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Maevarano]] | data30 = 203 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 082 [[Longa River (Angola)|Longa]] | data1 = 200 | label2 = 083 [[Kwa Ibo River|Kwa Ibo]] | data2 = 195 | label3 = 084 [[Osun River|Osun]] | data3 = 193 | label4 = 085 [[Nunez River|Tinguilinta]] | data4 = 192 | label5 = 086 [[Mananjary River|Mananjary]] | data5 = 191 | label6 = 087 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Timbo]] | data6 = 187 | label7 = 088 [[Onilahy River|Onilahy]] | data7 = 183 | label8 = 089 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Maningoza]] | data8 = 173 | label9 = 090 [[Tano River|Tano]] | data9 = 172 | label10= 091 [[Mananara River (Analanjirofo)|Analanjirofo]] | data10 = 172 | label11= 092 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Dugbe]] | data11 = 169 | label12= 093 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Mananara]] | data12 = 166 | label13= 094 [[List of rivers of Sierra Leone|Gbangbaia]] | data13 = 166 | label14= 095 [[Onive River|Onive]] | data14 = 164 | label15= 096 [[Sibiti River|Sibiti]] | data15 = 162 | label16= 097 [[Komati River|Incomáti]] | data16 = 160 | label17= 098 [[Ankobra River|Ankobra]] | data17 = 158 | label18= 099 [[Awash River|Awash]] | data18 = 152 | label19= 100 [[Manambaho River|Manambaho]] | data19 = 151 | label20= 101 [[Mzimvubu River|Mzimvubu]] | data20 = 151 | label21= 102 [[List of rivers of Mozambique|Ligonha]] | data21 = 150 | label22= 103 [[Lake Rukwa|Rungwa]] | data22 = 149 | label23= 104 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Dibamba]] | data23 = 148 | label24= 105 [[Matandu River|Matandu]] | data24 = 147 | label25= 106 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Ramboué]] | data25 = 142 | label26= 107 [[Sebou River|Sebou]] | data26 = 137 | label27= 108 [[Manampatrana River|Manampatrana]] | data27 = 137 | label28= 109 [[Lake Rukwa|Momba]] | data28 = 136 | label29= 110 [[Sambirano River|Sambirano]] | data29 = 135 | label30= 111 [[Akwayafe River|Akpakorum]] | data30 = 133 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 112 [[Sinoe River|Sinoe]] | data1 = 133 | label2 = 113 [[List of rivers of Tanzania|Mbewmburu]] | data2 = 126 | label3 = 114 [[Mono River|Mono]] | data3 = 125 | label4 = 115 [[Kerio River|Kerio]] | data4 = 123 | label5 = 116 [[Chiloango River|Chiloango]] | data5 = 121 | label6 = 117 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Douengui]] | data6 = 119 | label7 = 118 [[Tugela River|Tugela]] | data7 = 119 | label8 = 119 [[Maputo River|Maputo]] | data8 = 117 | label9 = 120 [[Pangani River|Pangani]] | data9 = 117 | label10= 121 [[Coporolo River|Coporolo]] | data10 = 106 | label11= 122 [[Oum Er-Rbia River|Rbia]] | data11 = 105 | label12= 123 [[Great Kwa River| Great Kwa]] | data12 = 105 | label13= 124 [[List of rivers of Cameroon|Mémé]] | data13 = 103 | label14= 125 [[List of rivers of Guinea|Forécariah]] | data14 = 100 }} {{Bar chart | title = (10 to 100 m³/s) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 98 | label1 = [[Lake Rukwa|Katuma]] | data1 = 98 | label2 = [[Cacheu River|Cacheu]] | data2 = 94 | label3 = [[List of rivers of Liberia|Grand Cess]] | data3 = 93 | label4 = [[Athi-Galana-Sabaki River|Galana]] | data4 = 90 | label5 = [[Casamance River|Casamance]] | data5 = 86 | label6 = [[Tensift River|Tensift]] | data6 = 74 | label7 = [[Lake Rukwa|Songwe]] | data7 = 70 | label8 = [[Ruvu River|Ruvu]] | data8 = 68 | label9 = [[Great Kei River|Great Kei]] | data9 = 67 | label10= [[List of rivers of Ivory Coast|San Pedro]] | data10 = 67 | label11= [[Wami River|Wami]] | data11 = 61 | label12= [[Gourits River|Gourits]] | data12 = 43 | label13= [[Moulouya River|Moulouya]] | data13 = 41 | label14= [[Sous River|Sous]] | data14 = 35 | label15= [[Medjerda River|Medjerda]] | data15 = 29 | label16= [[Great Fish River|Great Fish]] | data16 = 26 | label17= [[Yobe River|Komadougou]] | data17 = 25 | label18= [[Draa River|Drâa]] | data18 = 25 | label19= [[Bou Regreg]] | data19 = 24 | label20= [[Chelif River|Chelif]] | data20 = 24 | label21= [[Sundays River|Sundays]] | data21 = 16 }} ==Spy sanso== {{Portal|water|geography|Africa}} {{div col|colwidth=20em}} == References == 15v4wa7mvipsovn5umurori76781fqa 103973 103972 2026-06-19T07:19:15Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103973 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> Spy below each river's article for its tributaries, drainage areas, etc. ==Southern Africa== * [[Cuanza River|Cuanza]] - [[Angola]] * [[Great Fish River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Great Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[Black Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[White Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] * Groot River(s) - [[South Africa]] ** [[Groot River (Western Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Southern Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Eastern Cape)]] ** anoda name for de [[Orange River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] * [[Gamtoos River]] - South Africa * [[Ihosy River]] - [[Madagascar]] * [[Jukskei River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Kafue River]] - [[Zambia]] * Kowie River - [[South Africa]] * Kuiseb - [[Namibia]] * Kunene - [[Angola]] <small>''(as [[Cunene River|Cunene]])''</small>, [[Namibia]] * Kwando - [[Namibia]], sanso known as ''Linyanti'' den ''Chobe'' insyd places * [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] - [[Mozambique]], [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Botswana]] * Luangwa River - [[Zambia]] * Mania River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Maputo River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Eswatini]], [[Mozambique]] * Molopo - [[Botswana]], [[South Africa]] * Mooi River (Tugela) - [[South Africa]] * Mthatha River - [[South Africa]] * [[Okavango River|Okavango]] - [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]], [[Angola]] <small>''(as "Cubango")''</small> * Onilahy River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Orange River|Orange]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] :* [[Caledon River|Caledon]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]] :* [[Vaal River|Vaal]] - [[South Africa]] :* Fish - [[Namibia]] * [[Shangani River]] - [[Zimbabwe]] * Swakop River - [[Namibia]] * Tugela - [[South Africa]] * Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* Black Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* White Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] * Umgeni River - [[South Africa]] * Umkomazi River- [[South Africa]] * [[Zambezi]] - [[Angola]], [[Zambia]], [[Namibia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] *Gairezi - [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] ==Central Africa== * [[Chari River|Chari]] - [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Cameroon]] **Logone - [[Central African Republic]], [[Cameroon]] * Kagera River - [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * [[Congo River|Congo]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] ** Ebola River - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Kasai River|Kasai]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] *** Kwango - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***[[Sankuru River|Sankuru]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Lualaba River|Lualaba]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** Lomami - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Ubangi River|Ubangi]] - Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, [[Central African Republic]] ** Lulonga - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Lopori - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Maringa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] **Tshuapa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Uele - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Nyabarongo River - [[Rwanda]] * Rurubu River - [[Burundi]] * [[Ruzizi River]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]] * Mbomou - Central Africa Republic * [[Wouri River|Wouri]] - [[Cameroon]] * Xufexufe River - [[São Tomé and Príncipe|São Tomé den Príncipe]] ==East Africa== *[[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] - Kenya *[[Athi-Galana-Sabaki River|Athi]] - Kenya *[[Mara River|Mara]] - Kenya den Tanzania *[[Ewaso Ng'iro|Ewaso]] - Nyiro-Kenya *Sondu - Mirio-Kenya *[[Ruvuma River|Ruvoma]] - Tanzania *[[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] - Tanzania *[[Ruvu River|Ruvu]] - Tanzania *[[Shebelle River|Shebelle]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Jubba River|Jubba]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Nile]] - Uganda, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Sudan den Egypt *Sezibwa - Uganda *[[Maputo River|Maputo]] - Tanzania *Awash - Ethiopia den Somalia *Genale - Ethiopia den Somalia *Dawa - Ethiopia den Somalia *Omo - Ethiopia den Somalia *Ruzizi - Rwanda den Burundi *Ruvubu - Rwanda den Burundi *Akanyaru - Rwanda den Burundi *Nyabarongo - Rwanda den Burundi *Victoria Nile - Uganda *Albert Nile - Uganda *Achwa - Uganda *Kafu - Uganda *Katonga - Uganda *Mpongo - Uganda *Pager - Uganda ==West Africa== * [[Aba River (Nigeria)|Aba]] - Nigeria * [[Bandama River]] * Benin - Nigeria * [[Benue River|Benue]] - Nigeria * [[Cavalla River]] - Liberia * Ethiope River - Nigeria * [[Gambia River|Gambia]] - [[The Gambia]], [[Senegal]], [[Guinea]] * [[Imo River|Imo]] - Nigeria * Kaduna - Nigeria * Kolenté (Great Scarcies) - Guinea, [[Sierra Leone]] * [[Little Scarcies River|Little Scarcies (Kaba)]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Moa River|Moa]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Niger River|Niger]] - Nigeria, Benin, [[Niger]], Mali, Guinea * [[Oba River|Oba]] - Nigeria * Ose - Nigeria * Oyan - Nigeria * [[Osun River|Osun]] - Nigeria * Oteghelli - Nigeria * Oueme - Benin * [[Rokel River|Rokel]] - Sierra Leone * [[Saint Paul River|Saint Paul]] - Liberia * [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] - [[Cameroon]] * Sankarani - Mali * [[Senegal River|Senegal]] - Senegal, [[Mauritania]], Mali * [[Sewa River]] * [[Volta River|Volta]] - [[Ghana]], [[Burkina Faso]] * [[Cross River (Nigeria)]] - Nigeria * Nuon River - Liberia, Ivory Coast * [[Cestos River]] - Liberia * [[Yobe River]] - Nigeria ==North Africa== * [[Nile]] - [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]]. 6,650km ** [[Atbarah River]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** [[Blue Nile]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** Didessa River - Ethiopia ** [[Nile]] - Egypt ** [[Bahr el Zeraf]] - South Sudan ** [[White Nile]] - [[Sudan]], [[South Sudan]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * Bou Regreg - [[Morocco]]. 240km * [[Draa River]] - [[Morocco]]. 1100km * Moulouya River - [[Morocco]]. 520km * Oum Er-Rbia River - [[Morocco]]. 555km * Sebou River - [[Morocco]]. 496km * Chelif River - [[Algeria]]. 725km {{Bar chart | title = Largest primary rivers of Africa by discharge (>100 m³/s): | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 41,400 | label1 = 001 [[Congo River|Congo]] | data1 = 41,400 | label2 = 002 [[Niger River|Niger]] | data2 = 8,630 | label3 = 003 [[Ogooue River|Ogooué]] | data3 = 5,890 | label4 = 004 [[Zambezi River|Zambezi]] | data4 = 4,200 | label5 = 005 [[Nile River|Nile]] | data5 = 2,830 | label6 = 006 [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] | data6 = 2,730 | label7 = 007 [[Cross River (Nigeria)|Cross]] | data7 = 2,647 | label8 = 008 [[Cuanza River|Kwanza]] | data8 = 1,944 | label9 = 009 [[Rovuma River|Rovuma]] | data9 = 1,773 | label10 = 010 [[Betsiboka River|Betsiboka]] | data10 = 1,407 | label11 = 011 [[Wouri River|Wouri]] | data11 = 1,389 | label12 = 012 [[Tsiribihina River|Tsiribihina]] | data12 = 1,316 | label13 = 013 [[Volta River|Volta]] | data13 = 1,290 | label14 = 014 [[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] | data14 = 1,268 | label15 = 015 [[Chari River|Chari]] | data15 = 1,200 | label16 = 016 [[Cavalla River|Cavally]] | data16 = 1,192 | label17 = 017 [[Konkouré River|Konkouré]] | data17 = 1,170 | label18 = 018 [[Saint Paul River|St Paul]] | data18 = 1,125 | label19 = 019 [[Benin River|Benin]] | data19 = 1,084 | label20 = 020 [[Sofia River|Sofia]] | data20 = 1,062 | label21 = 021 [[Moa River|Moa]] | data21 = 1,044 | label22 = 022 [[Kouilou River|Kouilou]] | data22 = 1,000 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 022 [[Kouilou River|Kouilou]] | data1 = 1,000 | label2 = 023 [[Sassandra River|Sassandra]] | data2 = 978 | label3 = 024 [[Little Scarcies River|L. Scarcies]] | data3 = 967 | label4 = 025 [[Sewa River|Sewa]] | data4 = 952 | label5 = 026 [[Saint John River (Liberia)|St John]] | data5 = 864 | label6 = 027 [[Maningory River|Maningory]] | data6 = 776 | label7 = 028 [[Lúrio River|Lúrio]] | data7 = 741 | label8 = 029 [[Campo River|Ntem]] | data8 = 718 | label9 = 030 [[Omo River|Omo]] | data9 = 660 | label10 = 031 [[Nyanga River|Nyanga]] | data10 = 651 | label11 = 032 [[Mangoky River|Mangoky]] | data11 = 597 | label12 = 033 [[Sénégal River|Sénégal]] | data12 = 596 | label13 = 034 [[Nyong River|Nyong]] | data13 = 595 | label14 = 035 [[Lofa River|Loffa]] | data14 = 590 | label15 = 036 [[Bandama River|Bandama]] | data15 = 583 | label16 = 037 [[Cestos River|Cestos]] | data16 = 581 | label17 = 038 [[Mahavavy Sud River|Mahavavy]] | data17 = 578 | label18 = 039 [[Corubal River|Corubal]] | data18 = 555 | label19 = 040 [[Rokel River|Rokel]] | data19 = 547 | label20 = 041 [[Benito River|Mbini]] | data20 = 515 | label21 = 042 [[Pungwe River|Pungwe]] | data21 = 492 | label22 = 043 [[Mahajamba River|Mahajamba]] | data22 = 483 | label23 = 044 [[Jong River|Jong]] | data23 = 477 | label24 = 045 [[Save River (Africa)|Save]] | data24 = 437 | label25 = 046 [[Kolenté River|Kolenté]] | data25 = 424 | label26 = 047 [[Licungo River|Licungo]] | data26 = 421 | label27 = 048 [[Mitimele River|Mitimele]] | data27 = 416 | label28 = 049 [[Mangoro River|Mangoro]] | data28 = 386 | label29 = 050 [[Imo River|Imo]] | data29 = 384 | label30 = 051 [[Gambia River|Gambia]] | data30 = 374 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 052 [[Mano River|Mano]] | data1 = 370 | label2 = 053 [[Orange River|Orange]] | data2 = 369 | label3 = 054 [[Cuvo River|Cuvo]] | data3 = 369 | label4 = 055 [[Mbridge River|Mebridege]] | data4 = 329 | label5 = 056 [[Jubba River|Jubba]] | data5 = 328 | label6 = 057 [[Rianila River|Rianila]] | data6 = 325 | label7 = 058 [[Ogun River|Ogun]] | data7 = 320 | label8 = 059 [[Buzi River (Mozambique)|Búzi]] | data8 = 315 | label9 = 060 [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] | data9 = 313 | label10 = 061 [[Fatala River|Fatala]] | data10 = 312 | label11 = 062 [[Okavango River|Okavango]] | data11 = 297 | label12 = 063 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Sehnkwehn]] | data12 = 296 | label13 = 064 [[List of rivers of Guinea|Kogon]] | data13 = 289 | label14 = 065 [[Pra River (Ghana)|Pra]] | data14 = 288 | label15 = 066 [[Farmington River (Liberia)|Farmington]] | data15 = 288 | label16 = 067 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Simianona]] | data16 = 285 | label17 = 068 [[Komo River|Komo]] | data17 = 273 | label18 = 069 [[Komoé River|Komoé]] | data18 = 264 | label19 = 070 [[Oueme River|Ouémé]] | data19 = 254 | label20 = 071 [[Mungo River (Cameroon)|Mungo]] | data20 = 245 | label21 = 072 [[Mananara River|Mananara]] | data21 = 244 | label22 = 073 [[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] | data22 = 243 | label23 = 074 [[Manambolo River|Manambolo]] | data23 = 240 | label24 = 075 [[Messalo River|Messalo]] | data24 = 235 | label25 = 076 [[Ivondro River|Ivondro]] | data25 = 234 | label26 = 077 [[Geba River|Geba]] | data26 = 232 | label27 = 078 [[Antainambalana River|Antainambalana]] | data27 = 226 | label28 = 079 [[Cunene River|Cunene]] | data28 = 222 | label29 = 080 [[Catumbela River|Catumbela]] | data29 = 216 | label30 = 081 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Maevarano]] | data30 = 203 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 082 [[Longa River (Angola)|Longa]] | data1 = 200 | label2 = 083 [[Kwa Ibo River|Kwa Ibo]] | data2 = 195 | label3 = 084 [[Osun River|Osun]] | data3 = 193 | label4 = 085 [[Nunez River|Tinguilinta]] | data4 = 192 | label5 = 086 [[Mananjary River|Mananjary]] | data5 = 191 | label6 = 087 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Timbo]] | data6 = 187 | label7 = 088 [[Onilahy River|Onilahy]] | data7 = 183 | label8 = 089 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Maningoza]] | data8 = 173 | label9 = 090 [[Tano River|Tano]] | data9 = 172 | label10= 091 [[Mananara River (Analanjirofo)|Analanjirofo]] | data10 = 172 | label11= 092 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Dugbe]] | data11 = 169 | label12= 093 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Mananara]] | data12 = 166 | label13= 094 [[List of rivers of Sierra Leone|Gbangbaia]] | data13 = 166 | label14= 095 [[Onive River|Onive]] | data14 = 164 | label15= 096 [[Sibiti River|Sibiti]] | data15 = 162 | label16= 097 [[Komati River|Incomáti]] | data16 = 160 | label17= 098 [[Ankobra River|Ankobra]] | data17 = 158 | label18= 099 [[Awash River|Awash]] | data18 = 152 | label19= 100 [[Manambaho River|Manambaho]] | data19 = 151 | label20= 101 [[Mzimvubu River|Mzimvubu]] | data20 = 151 | label21= 102 [[List of rivers of Mozambique|Ligonha]] | data21 = 150 | label22= 103 [[Lake Rukwa|Rungwa]] | data22 = 149 | label23= 104 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Dibamba]] | data23 = 148 | label24= 105 [[Matandu River|Matandu]] | data24 = 147 | label25= 106 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Ramboué]] | data25 = 142 | label26= 107 [[Sebou River|Sebou]] | data26 = 137 | label27= 108 [[Manampatrana River|Manampatrana]] | data27 = 137 | label28= 109 [[Lake Rukwa|Momba]] | data28 = 136 | label29= 110 [[Sambirano River|Sambirano]] | data29 = 135 | label30= 111 [[Akwayafe River|Akpakorum]] | data30 = 133 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 112 [[Sinoe River|Sinoe]] | data1 = 133 | label2 = 113 [[List of rivers of Tanzania|Mbewmburu]] | data2 = 126 | label3 = 114 [[Mono River|Mono]] | data3 = 125 | label4 = 115 [[Kerio River|Kerio]] | data4 = 123 | label5 = 116 [[Chiloango River|Chiloango]] | data5 = 121 | label6 = 117 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Douengui]] | data6 = 119 | label7 = 118 [[Tugela River|Tugela]] | data7 = 119 | label8 = 119 [[Maputo River|Maputo]] | data8 = 117 | label9 = 120 [[Pangani River|Pangani]] | data9 = 117 | label10= 121 [[Coporolo River|Coporolo]] | data10 = 106 | label11= 122 [[Oum Er-Rbia River|Rbia]] | data11 = 105 | label12= 123 [[Great Kwa River| Great Kwa]] | data12 = 105 | label13= 124 [[List of rivers of Cameroon|Mémé]] | data13 = 103 | label14= 125 [[List of rivers of Guinea|Forécariah]] | data14 = 100 }} {{Bar chart | title = (10 to 100 m³/s) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 98 | label1 = [[Lake Rukwa|Katuma]] | data1 = 98 | label2 = [[Cacheu River|Cacheu]] | data2 = 94 | label3 = [[List of rivers of Liberia|Grand Cess]] | data3 = 93 | label4 = [[Athi-Galana-Sabaki River|Galana]] | data4 = 90 | label5 = [[Casamance River|Casamance]] | data5 = 86 | label6 = [[Tensift River|Tensift]] | data6 = 74 | label7 = [[Lake Rukwa|Songwe]] | data7 = 70 | label8 = [[Ruvu River|Ruvu]] | data8 = 68 | label9 = [[Great Kei River|Great Kei]] | data9 = 67 | label10= [[List of rivers of Ivory Coast|San Pedro]] | data10 = 67 | label11= [[Wami River|Wami]] | data11 = 61 | label12= [[Gourits River|Gourits]] | data12 = 43 | label13= [[Moulouya River|Moulouya]] | data13 = 41 | label14= [[Sous River|Sous]] | data14 = 35 | label15= [[Medjerda River|Medjerda]] | data15 = 29 | label16= [[Great Fish River|Great Fish]] | data16 = 26 | label17= [[Yobe River|Komadougou]] | data17 = 25 | label18= [[Draa River|Drâa]] | data18 = 25 | label19= [[Bou Regreg]] | data19 = 24 | label20= [[Chelif River|Chelif]] | data20 = 24 | label21= [[Sundays River|Sundays]] | data21 = 16 }} ==Spy sanso== {{Portal|water|geography|Africa}} {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Geography of Africa]] * [[List of rivers of Europe]] * [[List of rivers of Asia]] * [[List of rivers of the Americas]] * [[List of rivers of Oceania]] * [[Lists of rivers]] * [[Dry rivers of Africa|List of dry rivers in Africa]] {{end div col}} == References == 2z6gfcayxik18zmxl82bwcpw0sdij1v 103974 103973 2026-06-19T07:21:04Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 103974 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> Spy below each river's article for its tributaries, drainage areas, etc. ==Southern Africa== * [[Cuanza River|Cuanza]] - [[Angola]] * [[Great Fish River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Great Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[Black Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[White Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] * Groot River(s) - [[South Africa]] ** [[Groot River (Western Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Southern Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Eastern Cape)]] ** anoda name for de [[Orange River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] * [[Gamtoos River]] - South Africa * [[Ihosy River]] - [[Madagascar]] * [[Jukskei River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Kafue River]] - [[Zambia]] * Kowie River - [[South Africa]] * Kuiseb - [[Namibia]] * Kunene - [[Angola]] <small>''(as [[Cunene River|Cunene]])''</small>, [[Namibia]] * Kwando - [[Namibia]], sanso known as ''Linyanti'' den ''Chobe'' insyd places * [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] - [[Mozambique]], [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Botswana]] * Luangwa River - [[Zambia]] * Mania River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Maputo River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Eswatini]], [[Mozambique]] * Molopo - [[Botswana]], [[South Africa]] * Mooi River (Tugela) - [[South Africa]] * Mthatha River - [[South Africa]] * [[Okavango River|Okavango]] - [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]], [[Angola]] <small>''(as "Cubango")''</small> * Onilahy River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Orange River|Orange]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] :* [[Caledon River|Caledon]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]] :* [[Vaal River|Vaal]] - [[South Africa]] :* Fish - [[Namibia]] * [[Shangani River]] - [[Zimbabwe]] * Swakop River - [[Namibia]] * Tugela - [[South Africa]] * Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* Black Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* White Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] * Umgeni River - [[South Africa]] * Umkomazi River- [[South Africa]] * [[Zambezi]] - [[Angola]], [[Zambia]], [[Namibia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] *Gairezi - [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] ==Central Africa== * [[Chari River|Chari]] - [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Cameroon]] **Logone - [[Central African Republic]], [[Cameroon]] * Kagera River - [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * [[Congo River|Congo]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] ** Ebola River - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Kasai River|Kasai]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] *** Kwango - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***[[Sankuru River|Sankuru]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Lualaba River|Lualaba]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** Lomami - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Ubangi River|Ubangi]] - Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, [[Central African Republic]] ** Lulonga - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Lopori - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Maringa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] **Tshuapa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Uele - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Nyabarongo River - [[Rwanda]] * Rurubu River - [[Burundi]] * [[Ruzizi River]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]] * Mbomou - Central Africa Republic * [[Wouri River|Wouri]] - [[Cameroon]] * Xufexufe River - [[São Tomé and Príncipe|São Tomé den Príncipe]] ==East Africa== *[[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] - Kenya *[[Athi-Galana-Sabaki River|Athi]] - Kenya *[[Mara River|Mara]] - Kenya den Tanzania *[[Ewaso Ng'iro|Ewaso]] - Nyiro-Kenya *Sondu - Mirio-Kenya *[[Ruvuma River|Ruvoma]] - Tanzania *[[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] - Tanzania *[[Ruvu River|Ruvu]] - Tanzania *[[Shebelle River|Shebelle]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Jubba River|Jubba]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Nile]] - Uganda, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Sudan den Egypt *Sezibwa - Uganda *[[Maputo River|Maputo]] - Tanzania *Awash - Ethiopia den Somalia *Genale - Ethiopia den Somalia *Dawa - Ethiopia den Somalia *Omo - Ethiopia den Somalia *Ruzizi - Rwanda den Burundi *Ruvubu - Rwanda den Burundi *Akanyaru - Rwanda den Burundi *Nyabarongo - Rwanda den Burundi *Victoria Nile - Uganda *Albert Nile - Uganda *Achwa - Uganda *Kafu - Uganda *Katonga - Uganda *Mpongo - Uganda *Pager - Uganda ==West Africa== * [[Aba River (Nigeria)|Aba]] - Nigeria * [[Bandama River]] * Benin - Nigeria * [[Benue River|Benue]] - Nigeria * [[Cavalla River]] - Liberia * Ethiope River - Nigeria * [[Gambia River|Gambia]] - [[The Gambia]], [[Senegal]], [[Guinea]] * [[Imo River|Imo]] - Nigeria * Kaduna - Nigeria * Kolenté (Great Scarcies) - Guinea, [[Sierra Leone]] * [[Little Scarcies River|Little Scarcies (Kaba)]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Moa River|Moa]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Niger River|Niger]] - Nigeria, Benin, [[Niger]], Mali, Guinea * [[Oba River|Oba]] - Nigeria * Ose - Nigeria * Oyan - Nigeria * [[Osun River|Osun]] - Nigeria * Oteghelli - Nigeria * Oueme - Benin * [[Rokel River|Rokel]] - Sierra Leone * [[Saint Paul River|Saint Paul]] - Liberia * [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] - [[Cameroon]] * Sankarani - Mali * [[Senegal River|Senegal]] - Senegal, [[Mauritania]], Mali * [[Sewa River]] * [[Volta River|Volta]] - [[Ghana]], [[Burkina Faso]] * [[Cross River (Nigeria)]] - Nigeria * Nuon River - Liberia, Ivory Coast * [[Cestos River]] - Liberia * [[Yobe River]] - Nigeria ==North Africa== * [[Nile]] - [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]]. 6,650km ** [[Atbarah River]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** [[Blue Nile]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** Didessa River - Ethiopia ** [[Nile]] - Egypt ** [[Bahr el Zeraf]] - South Sudan ** [[White Nile]] - [[Sudan]], [[South Sudan]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * Bou Regreg - [[Morocco]]. 240km * [[Draa River]] - [[Morocco]]. 1100km * Moulouya River - [[Morocco]]. 520km * Oum Er-Rbia River - [[Morocco]]. 555km * Sebou River - [[Morocco]]. 496km * Chelif River - [[Algeria]]. 725km {{Bar chart | title = Largest primary rivers of Africa by discharge (>100 m³/s): | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 41,400 | label1 = 001 [[Congo River|Congo]] | data1 = 41,400 | label2 = 002 [[Niger River|Niger]] | data2 = 8,630 | label3 = 003 [[Ogooue River|Ogooué]] | data3 = 5,890 | label4 = 004 [[Zambezi River|Zambezi]] | data4 = 4,200 | label5 = 005 [[Nile River|Nile]] | data5 = 2,830 | label6 = 006 [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] | data6 = 2,730 | label7 = 007 [[Cross River (Nigeria)|Cross]] | data7 = 2,647 | label8 = 008 [[Cuanza River|Kwanza]] | data8 = 1,944 | label9 = 009 [[Rovuma River|Rovuma]] | data9 = 1,773 | label10 = 010 [[Betsiboka River|Betsiboka]] | data10 = 1,407 | label11 = 011 [[Wouri River|Wouri]] | data11 = 1,389 | label12 = 012 [[Tsiribihina River|Tsiribihina]] | data12 = 1,316 | label13 = 013 [[Volta River|Volta]] | data13 = 1,290 | label14 = 014 [[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] | data14 = 1,268 | label15 = 015 [[Chari River|Chari]] | data15 = 1,200 | label16 = 016 [[Cavalla River|Cavally]] | data16 = 1,192 | label17 = 017 [[Konkouré River|Konkouré]] | data17 = 1,170 | label18 = 018 [[Saint Paul River|St Paul]] | data18 = 1,125 | label19 = 019 [[Benin River|Benin]] | data19 = 1,084 | label20 = 020 [[Sofia River|Sofia]] | data20 = 1,062 | label21 = 021 [[Moa River|Moa]] | data21 = 1,044 | label22 = 022 [[Kouilou River|Kouilou]] | data22 = 1,000 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 022 [[Kouilou River|Kouilou]] | data1 = 1,000 | label2 = 023 [[Sassandra River|Sassandra]] | data2 = 978 | label3 = 024 [[Little Scarcies River|L. Scarcies]] | data3 = 967 | label4 = 025 [[Sewa River|Sewa]] | data4 = 952 | label5 = 026 [[Saint John River (Liberia)|St John]] | data5 = 864 | label6 = 027 [[Maningory River|Maningory]] | data6 = 776 | label7 = 028 [[Lúrio River|Lúrio]] | data7 = 741 | label8 = 029 [[Campo River|Ntem]] | data8 = 718 | label9 = 030 [[Omo River|Omo]] | data9 = 660 | label10 = 031 [[Nyanga River|Nyanga]] | data10 = 651 | label11 = 032 [[Mangoky River|Mangoky]] | data11 = 597 | label12 = 033 [[Sénégal River|Sénégal]] | data12 = 596 | label13 = 034 [[Nyong River|Nyong]] | data13 = 595 | label14 = 035 [[Lofa River|Loffa]] | data14 = 590 | label15 = 036 [[Bandama River|Bandama]] | data15 = 583 | label16 = 037 [[Cestos River|Cestos]] | data16 = 581 | label17 = 038 [[Mahavavy Sud River|Mahavavy]] | data17 = 578 | label18 = 039 [[Corubal River|Corubal]] | data18 = 555 | label19 = 040 [[Rokel River|Rokel]] | data19 = 547 | label20 = 041 [[Benito River|Mbini]] | data20 = 515 | label21 = 042 [[Pungwe River|Pungwe]] | data21 = 492 | label22 = 043 [[Mahajamba River|Mahajamba]] | data22 = 483 | label23 = 044 [[Jong River|Jong]] | data23 = 477 | label24 = 045 [[Save River (Africa)|Save]] | data24 = 437 | label25 = 046 [[Kolenté River|Kolenté]] | data25 = 424 | label26 = 047 [[Licungo River|Licungo]] | data26 = 421 | label27 = 048 [[Mitimele River|Mitimele]] | data27 = 416 | label28 = 049 [[Mangoro River|Mangoro]] | data28 = 386 | label29 = 050 [[Imo River|Imo]] | data29 = 384 | label30 = 051 [[Gambia River|Gambia]] | data30 = 374 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 052 [[Mano River|Mano]] | data1 = 370 | label2 = 053 [[Orange River|Orange]] | data2 = 369 | label3 = 054 [[Cuvo River|Cuvo]] | data3 = 369 | label4 = 055 [[Mbridge River|Mebridege]] | data4 = 329 | label5 = 056 [[Jubba River|Jubba]] | data5 = 328 | label6 = 057 [[Rianila River|Rianila]] | data6 = 325 | label7 = 058 [[Ogun River|Ogun]] | data7 = 320 | label8 = 059 [[Buzi River (Mozambique)|Búzi]] | data8 = 315 | label9 = 060 [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] | data9 = 313 | label10 = 061 [[Fatala River|Fatala]] | data10 = 312 | label11 = 062 [[Okavango River|Okavango]] | data11 = 297 | label12 = 063 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Sehnkwehn]] | data12 = 296 | label13 = 064 [[List of rivers of Guinea|Kogon]] | data13 = 289 | label14 = 065 [[Pra River (Ghana)|Pra]] | data14 = 288 | label15 = 066 [[Farmington River (Liberia)|Farmington]] | data15 = 288 | label16 = 067 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Simianona]] | data16 = 285 | label17 = 068 [[Komo River|Komo]] | data17 = 273 | label18 = 069 [[Komoé River|Komoé]] | data18 = 264 | label19 = 070 [[Oueme River|Ouémé]] | data19 = 254 | label20 = 071 [[Mungo River (Cameroon)|Mungo]] | data20 = 245 | label21 = 072 [[Mananara River|Mananara]] | data21 = 244 | label22 = 073 [[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] | data22 = 243 | label23 = 074 [[Manambolo River|Manambolo]] | data23 = 240 | label24 = 075 [[Messalo River|Messalo]] | data24 = 235 | label25 = 076 [[Ivondro River|Ivondro]] | data25 = 234 | label26 = 077 [[Geba River|Geba]] | data26 = 232 | label27 = 078 [[Antainambalana River|Antainambalana]] | data27 = 226 | label28 = 079 [[Cunene River|Cunene]] | data28 = 222 | label29 = 080 [[Catumbela River|Catumbela]] | data29 = 216 | label30 = 081 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Maevarano]] | data30 = 203 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 082 [[Longa River (Angola)|Longa]] | data1 = 200 | label2 = 083 [[Kwa Ibo River|Kwa Ibo]] | data2 = 195 | label3 = 084 [[Osun River|Osun]] | data3 = 193 | label4 = 085 [[Nunez River|Tinguilinta]] | data4 = 192 | label5 = 086 [[Mananjary River|Mananjary]] | data5 = 191 | label6 = 087 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Timbo]] | data6 = 187 | label7 = 088 [[Onilahy River|Onilahy]] | data7 = 183 | label8 = 089 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Maningoza]] | data8 = 173 | label9 = 090 [[Tano River|Tano]] | data9 = 172 | label10= 091 [[Mananara River (Analanjirofo)|Analanjirofo]] | data10 = 172 | label11= 092 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Dugbe]] | data11 = 169 | label12= 093 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Mananara]] | data12 = 166 | label13= 094 [[List of rivers of Sierra Leone|Gbangbaia]] | data13 = 166 | label14= 095 [[Onive River|Onive]] | data14 = 164 | label15= 096 [[Sibiti River|Sibiti]] | data15 = 162 | label16= 097 [[Komati River|Incomáti]] | data16 = 160 | label17= 098 [[Ankobra River|Ankobra]] | data17 = 158 | label18= 099 [[Awash River|Awash]] | data18 = 152 | label19= 100 [[Manambaho River|Manambaho]] | data19 = 151 | label20= 101 [[Mzimvubu River|Mzimvubu]] | data20 = 151 | label21= 102 [[List of rivers of Mozambique|Ligonha]] | data21 = 150 | label22= 103 [[Lake Rukwa|Rungwa]] | data22 = 149 | label23= 104 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Dibamba]] | data23 = 148 | label24= 105 [[Matandu River|Matandu]] | data24 = 147 | label25= 106 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Ramboué]] | data25 = 142 | label26= 107 [[Sebou River|Sebou]] | data26 = 137 | label27= 108 [[Manampatrana River|Manampatrana]] | data27 = 137 | label28= 109 [[Lake Rukwa|Momba]] | data28 = 136 | label29= 110 [[Sambirano River|Sambirano]] | data29 = 135 | label30= 111 [[Akwayafe River|Akpakorum]] | data30 = 133 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 112 [[Sinoe River|Sinoe]] | data1 = 133 | label2 = 113 [[List of rivers of Tanzania|Mbewmburu]] | data2 = 126 | label3 = 114 [[Mono River|Mono]] | data3 = 125 | label4 = 115 [[Kerio River|Kerio]] | data4 = 123 | label5 = 116 [[Chiloango River|Chiloango]] | data5 = 121 | label6 = 117 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Douengui]] | data6 = 119 | label7 = 118 [[Tugela River|Tugela]] | data7 = 119 | label8 = 119 [[Maputo River|Maputo]] | data8 = 117 | label9 = 120 [[Pangani River|Pangani]] | data9 = 117 | label10= 121 [[Coporolo River|Coporolo]] | data10 = 106 | label11= 122 [[Oum Er-Rbia River|Rbia]] | data11 = 105 | label12= 123 [[Great Kwa River| Great Kwa]] | data12 = 105 | label13= 124 [[List of rivers of Cameroon|Mémé]] | data13 = 103 | label14= 125 [[List of rivers of Guinea|Forécariah]] | data14 = 100 }} {{Bar chart | title = (10 to 100 m³/s) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 98 | label1 = [[Lake Rukwa|Katuma]] | data1 = 98 | label2 = [[Cacheu River|Cacheu]] | data2 = 94 | label3 = [[List of rivers of Liberia|Grand Cess]] | data3 = 93 | label4 = [[Athi-Galana-Sabaki River|Galana]] | data4 = 90 | label5 = [[Casamance River|Casamance]] | data5 = 86 | label6 = [[Tensift River|Tensift]] | data6 = 74 | label7 = [[Lake Rukwa|Songwe]] | data7 = 70 | label8 = [[Ruvu River|Ruvu]] | data8 = 68 | label9 = [[Great Kei River|Great Kei]] | data9 = 67 | label10= [[List of rivers of Ivory Coast|San Pedro]] | data10 = 67 | label11= [[Wami River|Wami]] | data11 = 61 | label12= [[Gourits River|Gourits]] | data12 = 43 | label13= [[Moulouya River|Moulouya]] | data13 = 41 | label14= [[Sous River|Sous]] | data14 = 35 | label15= [[Medjerda River|Medjerda]] | data15 = 29 | label16= [[Great Fish River|Great Fish]] | data16 = 26 | label17= [[Yobe River|Komadougou]] | data17 = 25 | label18= [[Draa River|Drâa]] | data18 = 25 | label19= [[Bou Regreg]] | data19 = 24 | label20= [[Chelif River|Chelif]] | data20 = 24 | label21= [[Sundays River|Sundays]] | data21 = 16 }} ==Spy sanso== {{Portal|water|geography|Africa}} {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Geography of Africa]] * [[List of rivers of Europe]] * [[List of rivers of Asia]] * [[List of rivers of the Americas]] * [[List of rivers of Oceania]] * [[Lists of rivers]] * [[Dry rivers of Africa|List of dry rivers in Africa]] {{end div col}} == References == <references /> [[Category:List of rivers by continent]] pkltt5u9by8f000lk9d7rtj01g321iv 103975 103974 2026-06-19T07:21:36Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 103975 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> Spy below each river's article for its tributaries, drainage areas, etc. ==Southern Africa== * [[Cuanza River|Cuanza]] - [[Angola]] * [[Great Fish River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Great Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[Black Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[White Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] * Groot River(s) - [[South Africa]] ** [[Groot River (Western Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Southern Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Eastern Cape)]] ** anoda name for de [[Orange River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] * [[Gamtoos River]] - South Africa * [[Ihosy River]] - [[Madagascar]] * [[Jukskei River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Kafue River]] - [[Zambia]] * Kowie River - [[South Africa]] * Kuiseb - [[Namibia]] * Kunene - [[Angola]] <small>''(as [[Cunene River|Cunene]])''</small>, [[Namibia]] * Kwando - [[Namibia]], sanso known as ''Linyanti'' den ''Chobe'' insyd places * [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] - [[Mozambique]], [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Botswana]] * Luangwa River - [[Zambia]] * Mania River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Maputo River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Eswatini]], [[Mozambique]] * Molopo - [[Botswana]], [[South Africa]] * Mooi River (Tugela) - [[South Africa]] * Mthatha River - [[South Africa]] * [[Okavango River|Okavango]] - [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]], [[Angola]] <small>''(as "Cubango")''</small> * Onilahy River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Orange River|Orange]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] :* [[Caledon River|Caledon]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]] :* [[Vaal River|Vaal]] - [[South Africa]] :* Fish - [[Namibia]] * [[Shangani River]] - [[Zimbabwe]] * Swakop River - [[Namibia]] * Tugela - [[South Africa]] * Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* Black Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* White Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] * Umgeni River - [[South Africa]] * Umkomazi River- [[South Africa]] * [[Zambezi]] - [[Angola]], [[Zambia]], [[Namibia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] *Gairezi - [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] ==Central Africa== * [[Chari River|Chari]] - [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Cameroon]] **Logone - [[Central African Republic]], [[Cameroon]] * Kagera River - [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * [[Congo River|Congo]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] ** Ebola River - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Kasai River|Kasai]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] *** Kwango - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***[[Sankuru River|Sankuru]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Lualaba River|Lualaba]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** Lomami - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Ubangi River|Ubangi]] - Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, [[Central African Republic]] ** Lulonga - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Lopori - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Maringa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] **Tshuapa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Uele - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Nyabarongo River - [[Rwanda]] * Rurubu River - [[Burundi]] * [[Ruzizi River]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]] * Mbomou - Central Africa Republic * [[Wouri River|Wouri]] - [[Cameroon]] * Xufexufe River - [[São Tomé and Príncipe|São Tomé den Príncipe]] ==East Africa== *[[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] - Kenya *[[Athi-Galana-Sabaki River|Athi]] - Kenya *[[Mara River|Mara]] - Kenya den Tanzania *[[Ewaso Ng'iro|Ewaso]] - Nyiro-Kenya *Sondu - Mirio-Kenya *[[Ruvuma River|Ruvoma]] - Tanzania *[[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] - Tanzania *[[Ruvu River|Ruvu]] - Tanzania *[[Shebelle River|Shebelle]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Jubba River|Jubba]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Nile]] - Uganda, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Sudan den Egypt *Sezibwa - Uganda *[[Maputo River|Maputo]] - Tanzania *Awash - Ethiopia den Somalia *Genale - Ethiopia den Somalia *Dawa - Ethiopia den Somalia *Omo - Ethiopia den Somalia *Ruzizi - Rwanda den Burundi *Ruvubu - Rwanda den Burundi *Akanyaru - Rwanda den Burundi *Nyabarongo - Rwanda den Burundi *Victoria Nile - Uganda *Albert Nile - Uganda *Achwa - Uganda *Kafu - Uganda *Katonga - Uganda *Mpongo - Uganda *Pager - Uganda ==West Africa== * [[Aba River (Nigeria)|Aba]] - Nigeria * [[Bandama River]] * Benin - Nigeria * [[Benue River|Benue]] - Nigeria * [[Cavalla River]] - Liberia * Ethiope River - Nigeria * [[Gambia River|Gambia]] - [[The Gambia]], [[Senegal]], [[Guinea]] * [[Imo River|Imo]] - Nigeria * Kaduna - Nigeria * Kolenté (Great Scarcies) - Guinea, [[Sierra Leone]] * [[Little Scarcies River|Little Scarcies (Kaba)]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Moa River|Moa]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Niger River|Niger]] - Nigeria, Benin, [[Niger]], Mali, Guinea * [[Oba River|Oba]] - Nigeria * Ose - Nigeria * Oyan - Nigeria * [[Osun River|Osun]] - Nigeria * Oteghelli - Nigeria * Oueme - Benin * [[Rokel River|Rokel]] - Sierra Leone * [[Saint Paul River|Saint Paul]] - Liberia * [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] - [[Cameroon]] * Sankarani - Mali * [[Senegal River|Senegal]] - Senegal, [[Mauritania]], Mali * [[Sewa River]] * [[Volta River|Volta]] - [[Ghana]], [[Burkina Faso]] * [[Cross River (Nigeria)]] - Nigeria * Nuon River - Liberia, Ivory Coast * [[Cestos River]] - Liberia * [[Yobe River]] - Nigeria ==North Africa== * [[Nile]] - [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]]. 6,650km ** [[Atbarah River]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** [[Blue Nile]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** Didessa River - Ethiopia ** [[Nile]] - Egypt ** [[Bahr el Zeraf]] - South Sudan ** [[White Nile]] - [[Sudan]], [[South Sudan]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * Bou Regreg - [[Morocco]]. 240km * [[Draa River]] - [[Morocco]]. 1100km * Moulouya River - [[Morocco]]. 520km * Oum Er-Rbia River - [[Morocco]]. 555km * Sebou River - [[Morocco]]. 496km * Chelif River - [[Algeria]]. 725km {{Bar chart | title = Largest primary rivers of Africa by discharge (>100 m³/s): | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 41,400 | label1 = 001 [[Congo River|Congo]] | data1 = 41,400 | label2 = 002 [[Niger River|Niger]] | data2 = 8,630 | label3 = 003 [[Ogooue River|Ogooué]] | data3 = 5,890 | label4 = 004 [[Zambezi River|Zambezi]] | data4 = 4,200 | label5 = 005 [[Nile River|Nile]] | data5 = 2,830 | label6 = 006 [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] | data6 = 2,730 | label7 = 007 [[Cross River (Nigeria)|Cross]] | data7 = 2,647 | label8 = 008 [[Cuanza River|Kwanza]] | data8 = 1,944 | label9 = 009 [[Rovuma River|Rovuma]] | data9 = 1,773 | label10 = 010 [[Betsiboka River|Betsiboka]] | data10 = 1,407 | label11 = 011 [[Wouri River|Wouri]] | data11 = 1,389 | label12 = 012 [[Tsiribihina River|Tsiribihina]] | data12 = 1,316 | label13 = 013 [[Volta River|Volta]] | data13 = 1,290 | label14 = 014 [[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] | data14 = 1,268 | label15 = 015 [[Chari River|Chari]] | data15 = 1,200 | label16 = 016 [[Cavalla River|Cavally]] | data16 = 1,192 | label17 = 017 [[Konkouré River|Konkouré]] | data17 = 1,170 | label18 = 018 [[Saint Paul River|St Paul]] | data18 = 1,125 | label19 = 019 [[Benin River|Benin]] | data19 = 1,084 | label20 = 020 [[Sofia River|Sofia]] | data20 = 1,062 | label21 = 021 [[Moa River|Moa]] | data21 = 1,044 | label22 = 022 [[Kouilou River|Kouilou]] | data22 = 1,000 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 022 [[Kouilou River|Kouilou]] | data1 = 1,000 | label2 = 023 [[Sassandra River|Sassandra]] | data2 = 978 | label3 = 024 [[Little Scarcies River|L. Scarcies]] | data3 = 967 | label4 = 025 [[Sewa River|Sewa]] | data4 = 952 | label5 = 026 [[Saint John River (Liberia)|St John]] | data5 = 864 | label6 = 027 [[Maningory River|Maningory]] | data6 = 776 | label7 = 028 [[Lúrio River|Lúrio]] | data7 = 741 | label8 = 029 [[Campo River|Ntem]] | data8 = 718 | label9 = 030 [[Omo River|Omo]] | data9 = 660 | label10 = 031 [[Nyanga River|Nyanga]] | data10 = 651 | label11 = 032 [[Mangoky River|Mangoky]] | data11 = 597 | label12 = 033 [[Sénégal River|Sénégal]] | data12 = 596 | label13 = 034 [[Nyong River|Nyong]] | data13 = 595 | label14 = 035 [[Lofa River|Loffa]] | data14 = 590 | label15 = 036 [[Bandama River|Bandama]] | data15 = 583 | label16 = 037 [[Cestos River|Cestos]] | data16 = 581 | label17 = 038 [[Mahavavy Sud River|Mahavavy]] | data17 = 578 | label18 = 039 [[Corubal River|Corubal]] | data18 = 555 | label19 = 040 [[Rokel River|Rokel]] | data19 = 547 | label20 = 041 [[Benito River|Mbini]] | data20 = 515 | label21 = 042 [[Pungwe River|Pungwe]] | data21 = 492 | label22 = 043 [[Mahajamba River|Mahajamba]] | data22 = 483 | label23 = 044 [[Jong River|Jong]] | data23 = 477 | label24 = 045 [[Save River (Africa)|Save]] | data24 = 437 | label25 = 046 [[Kolenté River|Kolenté]] | data25 = 424 | label26 = 047 [[Licungo River|Licungo]] | data26 = 421 | label27 = 048 [[Mitimele River|Mitimele]] | data27 = 416 | label28 = 049 [[Mangoro River|Mangoro]] | data28 = 386 | label29 = 050 [[Imo River|Imo]] | data29 = 384 | label30 = 051 [[Gambia River|Gambia]] | data30 = 374 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 052 [[Mano River|Mano]] | data1 = 370 | label2 = 053 [[Orange River|Orange]] | data2 = 369 | label3 = 054 [[Cuvo River|Cuvo]] | data3 = 369 | label4 = 055 [[Mbridge River|Mebridege]] | data4 = 329 | label5 = 056 [[Jubba River|Jubba]] | data5 = 328 | label6 = 057 [[Rianila River|Rianila]] | data6 = 325 | label7 = 058 [[Ogun River|Ogun]] | data7 = 320 | label8 = 059 [[Buzi River (Mozambique)|Búzi]] | data8 = 315 | label9 = 060 [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] | data9 = 313 | label10 = 061 [[Fatala River|Fatala]] | data10 = 312 | label11 = 062 [[Okavango River|Okavango]] | data11 = 297 | label12 = 063 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Sehnkwehn]] | data12 = 296 | label13 = 064 [[List of rivers of Guinea|Kogon]] | data13 = 289 | label14 = 065 [[Pra River (Ghana)|Pra]] | data14 = 288 | label15 = 066 [[Farmington River (Liberia)|Farmington]] | data15 = 288 | label16 = 067 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Simianona]] | data16 = 285 | label17 = 068 [[Komo River|Komo]] | data17 = 273 | label18 = 069 [[Komoé River|Komoé]] | data18 = 264 | label19 = 070 [[Oueme River|Ouémé]] | data19 = 254 | label20 = 071 [[Mungo River (Cameroon)|Mungo]] | data20 = 245 | label21 = 072 [[Mananara River|Mananara]] | data21 = 244 | label22 = 073 [[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] | data22 = 243 | label23 = 074 [[Manambolo River|Manambolo]] | data23 = 240 | label24 = 075 [[Messalo River|Messalo]] | data24 = 235 | label25 = 076 [[Ivondro River|Ivondro]] | data25 = 234 | label26 = 077 [[Geba River|Geba]] | data26 = 232 | label27 = 078 [[Antainambalana River|Antainambalana]] | data27 = 226 | label28 = 079 [[Cunene River|Cunene]] | data28 = 222 | label29 = 080 [[Catumbela River|Catumbela]] | data29 = 216 | label30 = 081 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Maevarano]] | data30 = 203 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 082 [[Longa River (Angola)|Longa]] | data1 = 200 | label2 = 083 [[Kwa Ibo River|Kwa Ibo]] | data2 = 195 | label3 = 084 [[Osun River|Osun]] | data3 = 193 | label4 = 085 [[Nunez River|Tinguilinta]] | data4 = 192 | label5 = 086 [[Mananjary River|Mananjary]] | data5 = 191 | label6 = 087 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Timbo]] | data6 = 187 | label7 = 088 [[Onilahy River|Onilahy]] | data7 = 183 | label8 = 089 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Maningoza]] | data8 = 173 | label9 = 090 [[Tano River|Tano]] | data9 = 172 | label10= 091 [[Mananara River (Analanjirofo)|Analanjirofo]] | data10 = 172 | label11= 092 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Dugbe]] | data11 = 169 | label12= 093 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Mananara]] | data12 = 166 | label13= 094 [[List of rivers of Sierra Leone|Gbangbaia]] | data13 = 166 | label14= 095 [[Onive River|Onive]] | data14 = 164 | label15= 096 [[Sibiti River|Sibiti]] | data15 = 162 | label16= 097 [[Komati River|Incomáti]] | data16 = 160 | label17= 098 [[Ankobra River|Ankobra]] | data17 = 158 | label18= 099 [[Awash River|Awash]] | data18 = 152 | label19= 100 [[Manambaho River|Manambaho]] | data19 = 151 | label20= 101 [[Mzimvubu River|Mzimvubu]] | data20 = 151 | label21= 102 [[List of rivers of Mozambique|Ligonha]] | data21 = 150 | label22= 103 [[Lake Rukwa|Rungwa]] | data22 = 149 | label23= 104 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Dibamba]] | data23 = 148 | label24= 105 [[Matandu River|Matandu]] | data24 = 147 | label25= 106 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Ramboué]] | data25 = 142 | label26= 107 [[Sebou River|Sebou]] | data26 = 137 | label27= 108 [[Manampatrana River|Manampatrana]] | data27 = 137 | label28= 109 [[Lake Rukwa|Momba]] | data28 = 136 | label29= 110 [[Sambirano River|Sambirano]] | data29 = 135 | label30= 111 [[Akwayafe River|Akpakorum]] | data30 = 133 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 112 [[Sinoe River|Sinoe]] | data1 = 133 | label2 = 113 [[List of rivers of Tanzania|Mbewmburu]] | data2 = 126 | label3 = 114 [[Mono River|Mono]] | data3 = 125 | label4 = 115 [[Kerio River|Kerio]] | data4 = 123 | label5 = 116 [[Chiloango River|Chiloango]] | data5 = 121 | label6 = 117 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Douengui]] | data6 = 119 | label7 = 118 [[Tugela River|Tugela]] | data7 = 119 | label8 = 119 [[Maputo River|Maputo]] | data8 = 117 | label9 = 120 [[Pangani River|Pangani]] | data9 = 117 | label10= 121 [[Coporolo River|Coporolo]] | data10 = 106 | label11= 122 [[Oum Er-Rbia River|Rbia]] | data11 = 105 | label12= 123 [[Great Kwa River| Great Kwa]] | data12 = 105 | label13= 124 [[List of rivers of Cameroon|Mémé]] | data13 = 103 | label14= 125 [[List of rivers of Guinea|Forécariah]] | data14 = 100 }} {{Bar chart | title = (10 to 100 m³/s) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 98 | label1 = [[Lake Rukwa|Katuma]] | data1 = 98 | label2 = [[Cacheu River|Cacheu]] | data2 = 94 | label3 = [[List of rivers of Liberia|Grand Cess]] | data3 = 93 | label4 = [[Athi-Galana-Sabaki River|Galana]] | data4 = 90 | label5 = [[Casamance River|Casamance]] | data5 = 86 | label6 = [[Tensift River|Tensift]] | data6 = 74 | label7 = [[Lake Rukwa|Songwe]] | data7 = 70 | label8 = [[Ruvu River|Ruvu]] | data8 = 68 | label9 = [[Great Kei River|Great Kei]] | data9 = 67 | label10= [[List of rivers of Ivory Coast|San Pedro]] | data10 = 67 | label11= [[Wami River|Wami]] | data11 = 61 | label12= [[Gourits River|Gourits]] | data12 = 43 | label13= [[Moulouya River|Moulouya]] | data13 = 41 | label14= [[Sous River|Sous]] | data14 = 35 | label15= [[Medjerda River|Medjerda]] | data15 = 29 | label16= [[Great Fish River|Great Fish]] | data16 = 26 | label17= [[Yobe River|Komadougou]] | data17 = 25 | label18= [[Draa River|Drâa]] | data18 = 25 | label19= [[Bou Regreg]] | data19 = 24 | label20= [[Chelif River|Chelif]] | data20 = 24 | label21= [[Sundays River|Sundays]] | data21 = 16 }} ==Spy sanso== {{Portal|water|geography|Africa}} {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Geography of Africa]] * [[List of rivers of Europe]] * [[List of rivers of Asia]] * [[List of rivers of the Americas]] * [[List of rivers of Oceania]] * [[Lists of rivers]] * [[Dry rivers of Africa|List of dry rivers in Africa]] {{end div col}} == References == <references /> [[Category:List of rivers by continent]] [[Category:Rivers of Africa]] hdmvnbg2lppmixths2zfz8lgty0mdd9 103976 103975 2026-06-19T07:22:38Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 103976 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> Spy below each river's article for its tributaries, drainage areas, etc. ==Southern Africa== * [[Cuanza River|Cuanza]] - [[Angola]] * [[Great Fish River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Great Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[Black Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[White Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] * Groot River(s) - [[South Africa]] ** [[Groot River (Western Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Southern Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Eastern Cape)]] ** anoda name for de [[Orange River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] * [[Gamtoos River]] - South Africa * [[Ihosy River]] - [[Madagascar]] * [[Jukskei River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Kafue River]] - [[Zambia]] * Kowie River - [[South Africa]] * Kuiseb - [[Namibia]] * Kunene - [[Angola]] <small>''(as [[Cunene River|Cunene]])''</small>, [[Namibia]] * Kwando - [[Namibia]], sanso known as ''Linyanti'' den ''Chobe'' insyd places * [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] - [[Mozambique]], [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Botswana]] * Luangwa River - [[Zambia]] * Mania River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Maputo River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Eswatini]], [[Mozambique]] * Molopo - [[Botswana]], [[South Africa]] * Mooi River (Tugela) - [[South Africa]] * Mthatha River - [[South Africa]] * [[Okavango River|Okavango]] - [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]], [[Angola]] <small>''(as "Cubango")''</small> * Onilahy River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Orange River|Orange]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] :* [[Caledon River|Caledon]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]] :* [[Vaal River|Vaal]] - [[South Africa]] :* Fish - [[Namibia]] * [[Shangani River]] - [[Zimbabwe]] * Swakop River - [[Namibia]] * Tugela - [[South Africa]] * Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* Black Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* White Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] * Umgeni River - [[South Africa]] * Umkomazi River- [[South Africa]] * [[Zambezi]] - [[Angola]], [[Zambia]], [[Namibia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] *Gairezi - [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] ==Central Africa== * [[Chari River|Chari]] - [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Cameroon]] **Logone - [[Central African Republic]], [[Cameroon]] * Kagera River - [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * [[Congo River|Congo]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] ** Ebola River - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Kasai River|Kasai]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] *** Kwango - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***[[Sankuru River|Sankuru]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Lualaba River|Lualaba]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** Lomami - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Ubangi River|Ubangi]] - Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, [[Central African Republic]] ** Lulonga - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Lopori - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Maringa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] **Tshuapa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Uele - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Nyabarongo River - [[Rwanda]] * Rurubu River - [[Burundi]] * [[Ruzizi River]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]] * Mbomou - Central Africa Republic * [[Wouri River|Wouri]] - [[Cameroon]] * Xufexufe River - [[São Tomé and Príncipe|São Tomé den Príncipe]] ==East Africa== *[[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] - Kenya *[[Athi-Galana-Sabaki River|Athi]] - Kenya *[[Mara River|Mara]] - Kenya den Tanzania *[[Ewaso Ng'iro|Ewaso]] - Nyiro-Kenya *Sondu - Mirio-Kenya *[[Ruvuma River|Ruvoma]] - Tanzania *[[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] - Tanzania *[[Ruvu River|Ruvu]] - Tanzania *[[Shebelle River|Shebelle]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Jubba River|Jubba]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Nile]] - Uganda, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Sudan den Egypt *Sezibwa - Uganda *[[Maputo River|Maputo]] - Tanzania *Awash - Ethiopia den Somalia *Genale - Ethiopia den Somalia *Dawa - Ethiopia den Somalia *Omo - Ethiopia den Somalia *Ruzizi - Rwanda den Burundi *Ruvubu - Rwanda den Burundi *Akanyaru - Rwanda den Burundi *Nyabarongo - Rwanda den Burundi *Victoria Nile - Uganda *Albert Nile - Uganda *Achwa - Uganda *Kafu - Uganda *Katonga - Uganda *Mpongo - Uganda *Pager - Uganda ==West Africa== * [[Aba River (Nigeria)|Aba]] - Nigeria * [[Bandama River]] * Benin - Nigeria * [[Benue River|Benue]] - Nigeria * [[Cavalla River]] - Liberia * Ethiope River - Nigeria * [[Gambia River|Gambia]] - [[The Gambia]], [[Senegal]], [[Guinea]] * [[Imo River|Imo]] - Nigeria * Kaduna - Nigeria * Kolenté (Great Scarcies) - Guinea, [[Sierra Leone]] * [[Little Scarcies River|Little Scarcies (Kaba)]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Moa River|Moa]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Niger River|Niger]] - Nigeria, Benin, [[Niger]], Mali, Guinea * [[Oba River|Oba]] - Nigeria * Ose - Nigeria * Oyan - Nigeria * [[Osun River|Osun]] - Nigeria * Oteghelli - Nigeria * Oueme - Benin * [[Rokel River|Rokel]] - Sierra Leone * [[Saint Paul River|Saint Paul]] - Liberia * [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] - [[Cameroon]] * Sankarani - Mali * [[Senegal River|Senegal]] - Senegal, [[Mauritania]], Mali * [[Sewa River]] * [[Volta River|Volta]] - [[Ghana]], [[Burkina Faso]] * [[Cross River (Nigeria)]] - Nigeria * Nuon River - Liberia, Ivory Coast * [[Cestos River]] - Liberia * [[Yobe River]] - Nigeria ==North Africa== * [[Nile]] - [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]]. 6,650km ** [[Atbarah River]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** [[Blue Nile]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** Didessa River - Ethiopia ** [[Nile]] - Egypt ** [[Bahr el Zeraf]] - South Sudan ** [[White Nile]] - [[Sudan]], [[South Sudan]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * Bou Regreg - [[Morocco]]. 240km * [[Draa River]] - [[Morocco]]. 1100km * Moulouya River - [[Morocco]]. 520km * Oum Er-Rbia River - [[Morocco]]. 555km * Sebou River - [[Morocco]]. 496km * Chelif River - [[Algeria]]. 725km {{Bar chart | title = Largest primary rivers of Africa by discharge (>100 m³/s): | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 41,400 | label1 = 001 [[Congo River|Congo]] | data1 = 41,400 | label2 = 002 [[Niger River|Niger]] | data2 = 8,630 | label3 = 003 [[Ogooue River|Ogooué]] | data3 = 5,890 | label4 = 004 [[Zambezi River|Zambezi]] | data4 = 4,200 | label5 = 005 [[Nile River|Nile]] | data5 = 2,830 | label6 = 006 [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] | data6 = 2,730 | label7 = 007 [[Cross River (Nigeria)|Cross]] | data7 = 2,647 | label8 = 008 [[Cuanza River|Kwanza]] | data8 = 1,944 | label9 = 009 [[Rovuma River|Rovuma]] | data9 = 1,773 | label10 = 010 [[Betsiboka River|Betsiboka]] | data10 = 1,407 | label11 = 011 [[Wouri River|Wouri]] | data11 = 1,389 | label12 = 012 [[Tsiribihina River|Tsiribihina]] | data12 = 1,316 | label13 = 013 [[Volta River|Volta]] | data13 = 1,290 | label14 = 014 [[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] | data14 = 1,268 | label15 = 015 [[Chari River|Chari]] | data15 = 1,200 | label16 = 016 [[Cavalla River|Cavally]] | data16 = 1,192 | label17 = 017 [[Konkouré River|Konkouré]] | data17 = 1,170 | label18 = 018 [[Saint Paul River|St Paul]] | data18 = 1,125 | label19 = 019 [[Benin River|Benin]] | data19 = 1,084 | label20 = 020 [[Sofia River|Sofia]] | data20 = 1,062 | label21 = 021 [[Moa River|Moa]] | data21 = 1,044 | label22 = 022 [[Kouilou River|Kouilou]] | data22 = 1,000 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 022 [[Kouilou River|Kouilou]] | data1 = 1,000 | label2 = 023 [[Sassandra River|Sassandra]] | data2 = 978 | label3 = 024 [[Little Scarcies River|L. Scarcies]] | data3 = 967 | label4 = 025 [[Sewa River|Sewa]] | data4 = 952 | label5 = 026 [[Saint John River (Liberia)|St John]] | data5 = 864 | label6 = 027 [[Maningory River|Maningory]] | data6 = 776 | label7 = 028 [[Lúrio River|Lúrio]] | data7 = 741 | label8 = 029 [[Campo River|Ntem]] | data8 = 718 | label9 = 030 [[Omo River|Omo]] | data9 = 660 | label10 = 031 [[Nyanga River|Nyanga]] | data10 = 651 | label11 = 032 [[Mangoky River|Mangoky]] | data11 = 597 | label12 = 033 [[Sénégal River|Sénégal]] | data12 = 596 | label13 = 034 [[Nyong River|Nyong]] | data13 = 595 | label14 = 035 [[Lofa River|Loffa]] | data14 = 590 | label15 = 036 [[Bandama River|Bandama]] | data15 = 583 | label16 = 037 [[Cestos River|Cestos]] | data16 = 581 | label17 = 038 [[Mahavavy Sud River|Mahavavy]] | data17 = 578 | label18 = 039 [[Corubal River|Corubal]] | data18 = 555 | label19 = 040 [[Rokel River|Rokel]] | data19 = 547 | label20 = 041 [[Benito River|Mbini]] | data20 = 515 | label21 = 042 [[Pungwe River|Pungwe]] | data21 = 492 | label22 = 043 [[Mahajamba River|Mahajamba]] | data22 = 483 | label23 = 044 [[Jong River|Jong]] | data23 = 477 | label24 = 045 [[Save River (Africa)|Save]] | data24 = 437 | label25 = 046 [[Kolenté River|Kolenté]] | data25 = 424 | label26 = 047 [[Licungo River|Licungo]] | data26 = 421 | label27 = 048 [[Mitimele River|Mitimele]] | data27 = 416 | label28 = 049 [[Mangoro River|Mangoro]] | data28 = 386 | label29 = 050 [[Imo River|Imo]] | data29 = 384 | label30 = 051 [[Gambia River|Gambia]] | data30 = 374 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 052 [[Mano River|Mano]] | data1 = 370 | label2 = 053 [[Orange River|Orange]] | data2 = 369 | label3 = 054 [[Cuvo River|Cuvo]] | data3 = 369 | label4 = 055 [[Mbridge River|Mebridege]] | data4 = 329 | label5 = 056 [[Jubba River|Jubba]] | data5 = 328 | label6 = 057 [[Rianila River|Rianila]] | data6 = 325 | label7 = 058 [[Ogun River|Ogun]] | data7 = 320 | label8 = 059 [[Buzi River (Mozambique)|Búzi]] | data8 = 315 | label9 = 060 [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] | data9 = 313 | label10 = 061 [[Fatala River|Fatala]] | data10 = 312 | label11 = 062 [[Okavango River|Okavango]] | data11 = 297 | label12 = 063 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Sehnkwehn]] | data12 = 296 | label13 = 064 [[List of rivers of Guinea|Kogon]] | data13 = 289 | label14 = 065 [[Pra River (Ghana)|Pra]] | data14 = 288 | label15 = 066 [[Farmington River (Liberia)|Farmington]] | data15 = 288 | label16 = 067 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Simianona]] | data16 = 285 | label17 = 068 [[Komo River|Komo]] | data17 = 273 | label18 = 069 [[Komoé River|Komoé]] | data18 = 264 | label19 = 070 [[Oueme River|Ouémé]] | data19 = 254 | label20 = 071 [[Mungo River (Cameroon)|Mungo]] | data20 = 245 | label21 = 072 [[Mananara River|Mananara]] | data21 = 244 | label22 = 073 [[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] | data22 = 243 | label23 = 074 [[Manambolo River|Manambolo]] | data23 = 240 | label24 = 075 [[Messalo River|Messalo]] | data24 = 235 | label25 = 076 [[Ivondro River|Ivondro]] | data25 = 234 | label26 = 077 [[Geba River|Geba]] | data26 = 232 | label27 = 078 [[Antainambalana River|Antainambalana]] | data27 = 226 | label28 = 079 [[Cunene River|Cunene]] | data28 = 222 | label29 = 080 [[Catumbela River|Catumbela]] | data29 = 216 | label30 = 081 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Maevarano]] | data30 = 203 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 082 [[Longa River (Angola)|Longa]] | data1 = 200 | label2 = 083 [[Kwa Ibo River|Kwa Ibo]] | data2 = 195 | label3 = 084 [[Osun River|Osun]] | data3 = 193 | label4 = 085 [[Nunez River|Tinguilinta]] | data4 = 192 | label5 = 086 [[Mananjary River|Mananjary]] | data5 = 191 | label6 = 087 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Timbo]] | data6 = 187 | label7 = 088 [[Onilahy River|Onilahy]] | data7 = 183 | label8 = 089 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Maningoza]] | data8 = 173 | label9 = 090 [[Tano River|Tano]] | data9 = 172 | label10= 091 [[Mananara River (Analanjirofo)|Analanjirofo]] | data10 = 172 | label11= 092 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Dugbe]] | data11 = 169 | label12= 093 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Mananara]] | data12 = 166 | label13= 094 [[List of rivers of Sierra Leone|Gbangbaia]] | data13 = 166 | label14= 095 [[Onive River|Onive]] | data14 = 164 | label15= 096 [[Sibiti River|Sibiti]] | data15 = 162 | label16= 097 [[Komati River|Incomáti]] | data16 = 160 | label17= 098 [[Ankobra River|Ankobra]] | data17 = 158 | label18= 099 [[Awash River|Awash]] | data18 = 152 | label19= 100 [[Manambaho River|Manambaho]] | data19 = 151 | label20= 101 [[Mzimvubu River|Mzimvubu]] | data20 = 151 | label21= 102 [[List of rivers of Mozambique|Ligonha]] | data21 = 150 | label22= 103 [[Lake Rukwa|Rungwa]] | data22 = 149 | label23= 104 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Dibamba]] | data23 = 148 | label24= 105 [[Matandu River|Matandu]] | data24 = 147 | label25= 106 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Ramboué]] | data25 = 142 | label26= 107 [[Sebou River|Sebou]] | data26 = 137 | label27= 108 [[Manampatrana River|Manampatrana]] | data27 = 137 | label28= 109 [[Lake Rukwa|Momba]] | data28 = 136 | label29= 110 [[Sambirano River|Sambirano]] | data29 = 135 | label30= 111 [[Akwayafe River|Akpakorum]] | data30 = 133 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 112 [[Sinoe River|Sinoe]] | data1 = 133 | label2 = 113 [[List of rivers of Tanzania|Mbewmburu]] | data2 = 126 | label3 = 114 [[Mono River|Mono]] | data3 = 125 | label4 = 115 [[Kerio River|Kerio]] | data4 = 123 | label5 = 116 [[Chiloango River|Chiloango]] | data5 = 121 | label6 = 117 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Douengui]] | data6 = 119 | label7 = 118 [[Tugela River|Tugela]] | data7 = 119 | label8 = 119 [[Maputo River|Maputo]] | data8 = 117 | label9 = 120 [[Pangani River|Pangani]] | data9 = 117 | label10= 121 [[Coporolo River|Coporolo]] | data10 = 106 | label11= 122 [[Oum Er-Rbia River|Rbia]] | data11 = 105 | label12= 123 [[Great Kwa River| Great Kwa]] | data12 = 105 | label13= 124 [[List of rivers of Cameroon|Mémé]] | data13 = 103 | label14= 125 [[List of rivers of Guinea|Forécariah]] | data14 = 100 }} {{Bar chart | title = (10 to 100 m³/s) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 98 | label1 = [[Lake Rukwa|Katuma]] | data1 = 98 | label2 = [[Cacheu River|Cacheu]] | data2 = 94 | label3 = [[List of rivers of Liberia|Grand Cess]] | data3 = 93 | label4 = [[Athi-Galana-Sabaki River|Galana]] | data4 = 90 | label5 = [[Casamance River|Casamance]] | data5 = 86 | label6 = [[Tensift River|Tensift]] | data6 = 74 | label7 = [[Lake Rukwa|Songwe]] | data7 = 70 | label8 = [[Ruvu River|Ruvu]] | data8 = 68 | label9 = [[Great Kei River|Great Kei]] | data9 = 67 | label10= [[List of rivers of Ivory Coast|San Pedro]] | data10 = 67 | label11= [[Wami River|Wami]] | data11 = 61 | label12= [[Gourits River|Gourits]] | data12 = 43 | label13= [[Moulouya River|Moulouya]] | data13 = 41 | label14= [[Sous River|Sous]] | data14 = 35 | label15= [[Medjerda River|Medjerda]] | data15 = 29 | label16= [[Great Fish River|Great Fish]] | data16 = 26 | label17= [[Yobe River|Komadougou]] | data17 = 25 | label18= [[Draa River|Drâa]] | data18 = 25 | label19= [[Bou Regreg]] | data19 = 24 | label20= [[Chelif River|Chelif]] | data20 = 24 | label21= [[Sundays River|Sundays]] | data21 = 16 }} ==Spy sanso== {{Portal|water|geography|Africa}} {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Geography of Africa]] * [[List of rivers of Europe]] * [[List of rivers of Asia]] * [[List of rivers of the Americas]] * [[List of rivers of Oceania]] * [[Lists of rivers]] * [[Dry rivers of Africa|List of dry rivers in Africa]] {{end div col}} == References == <references /> [[Category:List of rivers by continent]] [[Category:Rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Africa-related lists]] ik0txoua6kjw8mdreojz5c7bbde6enx 103977 103976 2026-06-19T07:23:03Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 103977 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Location of river basins and lakes in Africa.png|thumb|Location of river basins den lakes insyd Africa]] {{Short description|none}} Dis be a '''list of''' rivers '''insyd [[Africa]]'''. De African continent hosts sam of de largest freshwater systems worldwide including de Nile den de Congo River.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Papa |first=Fabrice |last2=Crétaux |first2=Jean-François |last3=Grippa |first3=Manuela |last4=Robert |first4=Elodie |last5=Trigg |first5=Mark |last6=Tshimanga |first6=Raphael M. |last7=Kitambo |first7=Benjamin |last8=Paris |first8=Adrien |last9=Carr |first9=Andrew |last10=Fleischmann |first10=Ayan Santos |last11=de Fleury |first11=Mathilde |last12=Gbetkom |first12=Paul Gerard |last13=Calmettes |first13=Beatriz |last14=Calmant |first14=Stephane |date=2023-02-01 |title=Water Resources in Africa under Global Change: Monitoring Surface Waters from Space |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |language=en |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=43–93 |doi=10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 |issn=1573-0956 |pmc=9019293 |pmid=35462853}}</ref> Spy below each river's article for its tributaries, drainage areas, etc. ==Southern Africa== * [[Cuanza River|Cuanza]] - [[Angola]] * [[Great Fish River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Great Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[Black Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] :*[[White Kei River]] - [[South Africa]] * Groot River(s) - [[South Africa]] ** [[Groot River (Western Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Southern Cape)]] ** [[Groot River (Eastern Cape)]] ** anoda name for de [[Orange River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] * [[Gamtoos River]] - South Africa * [[Ihosy River]] - [[Madagascar]] * [[Jukskei River]] - [[South Africa]] * [[Kafue River]] - [[Zambia]] * Kowie River - [[South Africa]] * Kuiseb - [[Namibia]] * Kunene - [[Angola]] <small>''(as [[Cunene River|Cunene]])''</small>, [[Namibia]] * Kwando - [[Namibia]], sanso known as ''Linyanti'' den ''Chobe'' insyd places * [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] - [[Mozambique]], [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Botswana]] * Luangwa River - [[Zambia]] * Mania River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Maputo River]] - [[South Africa]], [[Eswatini]], [[Mozambique]] * Molopo - [[Botswana]], [[South Africa]] * Mooi River (Tugela) - [[South Africa]] * Mthatha River - [[South Africa]] * [[Okavango River|Okavango]] - [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]], [[Angola]] <small>''(as "Cubango")''</small> * Onilahy River - [[Madagascar]] * [[Orange River|Orange]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]] :* [[Caledon River|Caledon]] - [[South Africa]], [[Lesotho]] :* [[Vaal River|Vaal]] - [[South Africa]] :* Fish - [[Namibia]] * [[Shangani River]] - [[Zimbabwe]] * Swakop River - [[Namibia]] * Tugela - [[South Africa]] * Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* Black Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] :* White Umfolozi River - [[South Africa]] * Umgeni River - [[South Africa]] * Umkomazi River- [[South Africa]] * [[Zambezi]] - [[Angola]], [[Zambia]], [[Namibia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] *Gairezi - [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] ==Central Africa== * [[Chari River|Chari]] - [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Cameroon]] **Logone - [[Central African Republic]], [[Cameroon]] * Kagera River - [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * [[Congo River|Congo]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] ** Ebola River - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Kasai River|Kasai]] - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]] *** Kwango - [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***[[Sankuru River|Sankuru]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Lualaba River|Lualaba]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** Lomami - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ** [[Ubangi River|Ubangi]] - Democratic Republic of Congo, Republic of Congo, [[Central African Republic]] ** Lulonga - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Lopori - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] ***Maringa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] **Tshuapa - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Uele - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]] * Nyabarongo River - [[Rwanda]] * Rurubu River - [[Burundi]] * [[Ruzizi River]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]] * Mbomou - Central Africa Republic * [[Wouri River|Wouri]] - [[Cameroon]] * Xufexufe River - [[São Tomé and Príncipe|São Tomé den Príncipe]] ==East Africa== *[[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] - Kenya *[[Athi-Galana-Sabaki River|Athi]] - Kenya *[[Mara River|Mara]] - Kenya den Tanzania *[[Ewaso Ng'iro|Ewaso]] - Nyiro-Kenya *Sondu - Mirio-Kenya *[[Ruvuma River|Ruvoma]] - Tanzania *[[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] - Tanzania *[[Ruvu River|Ruvu]] - Tanzania *[[Shebelle River|Shebelle]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Jubba River|Jubba]] - Somalia den Ethiopia *[[Nile]] - Uganda, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Sudan den Egypt *Sezibwa - Uganda *[[Maputo River|Maputo]] - Tanzania *Awash - Ethiopia den Somalia *Genale - Ethiopia den Somalia *Dawa - Ethiopia den Somalia *Omo - Ethiopia den Somalia *Ruzizi - Rwanda den Burundi *Ruvubu - Rwanda den Burundi *Akanyaru - Rwanda den Burundi *Nyabarongo - Rwanda den Burundi *Victoria Nile - Uganda *Albert Nile - Uganda *Achwa - Uganda *Kafu - Uganda *Katonga - Uganda *Mpongo - Uganda *Pager - Uganda ==West Africa== * [[Aba River (Nigeria)|Aba]] - Nigeria * [[Bandama River]] * Benin - Nigeria * [[Benue River|Benue]] - Nigeria * [[Cavalla River]] - Liberia * Ethiope River - Nigeria * [[Gambia River|Gambia]] - [[The Gambia]], [[Senegal]], [[Guinea]] * [[Imo River|Imo]] - Nigeria * Kaduna - Nigeria * Kolenté (Great Scarcies) - Guinea, [[Sierra Leone]] * [[Little Scarcies River|Little Scarcies (Kaba)]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Moa River|Moa]] - Guinea, Sierra Leone * [[Niger River|Niger]] - Nigeria, Benin, [[Niger]], Mali, Guinea * [[Oba River|Oba]] - Nigeria * Ose - Nigeria * Oyan - Nigeria * [[Osun River|Osun]] - Nigeria * Oteghelli - Nigeria * Oueme - Benin * [[Rokel River|Rokel]] - Sierra Leone * [[Saint Paul River|Saint Paul]] - Liberia * [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] - [[Cameroon]] * Sankarani - Mali * [[Senegal River|Senegal]] - Senegal, [[Mauritania]], Mali * [[Sewa River]] * [[Volta River|Volta]] - [[Ghana]], [[Burkina Faso]] * [[Cross River (Nigeria)]] - Nigeria * Nuon River - Liberia, Ivory Coast * [[Cestos River]] - Liberia * [[Yobe River]] - Nigeria ==North Africa== * [[Nile]] - [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]]. 6,650km ** [[Atbarah River]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** [[Blue Nile]] - Sudan, Ethiopia ** Didessa River - Ethiopia ** [[Nile]] - Egypt ** [[Bahr el Zeraf]] - South Sudan ** [[White Nile]] - [[Sudan]], [[South Sudan]], [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]] * Bou Regreg - [[Morocco]]. 240km * [[Draa River]] - [[Morocco]]. 1100km * Moulouya River - [[Morocco]]. 520km * Oum Er-Rbia River - [[Morocco]]. 555km * Sebou River - [[Morocco]]. 496km * Chelif River - [[Algeria]]. 725km {{Bar chart | title = Largest primary rivers of Africa by discharge (>100 m³/s): | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 41,400 | label1 = 001 [[Congo River|Congo]] | data1 = 41,400 | label2 = 002 [[Niger River|Niger]] | data2 = 8,630 | label3 = 003 [[Ogooue River|Ogooué]] | data3 = 5,890 | label4 = 004 [[Zambezi River|Zambezi]] | data4 = 4,200 | label5 = 005 [[Nile River|Nile]] | data5 = 2,830 | label6 = 006 [[Sanaga River|Sanaga]] | data6 = 2,730 | label7 = 007 [[Cross River (Nigeria)|Cross]] | data7 = 2,647 | label8 = 008 [[Cuanza River|Kwanza]] | data8 = 1,944 | label9 = 009 [[Rovuma River|Rovuma]] | data9 = 1,773 | label10 = 010 [[Betsiboka River|Betsiboka]] | data10 = 1,407 | label11 = 011 [[Wouri River|Wouri]] | data11 = 1,389 | label12 = 012 [[Tsiribihina River|Tsiribihina]] | data12 = 1,316 | label13 = 013 [[Volta River|Volta]] | data13 = 1,290 | label14 = 014 [[Rufiji River|Rufiji]] | data14 = 1,268 | label15 = 015 [[Chari River|Chari]] | data15 = 1,200 | label16 = 016 [[Cavalla River|Cavally]] | data16 = 1,192 | label17 = 017 [[Konkouré River|Konkouré]] | data17 = 1,170 | label18 = 018 [[Saint Paul River|St Paul]] | data18 = 1,125 | label19 = 019 [[Benin River|Benin]] | data19 = 1,084 | label20 = 020 [[Sofia River|Sofia]] | data20 = 1,062 | label21 = 021 [[Moa River|Moa]] | data21 = 1,044 | label22 = 022 [[Kouilou River|Kouilou]] | data22 = 1,000 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 022 [[Kouilou River|Kouilou]] | data1 = 1,000 | label2 = 023 [[Sassandra River|Sassandra]] | data2 = 978 | label3 = 024 [[Little Scarcies River|L. Scarcies]] | data3 = 967 | label4 = 025 [[Sewa River|Sewa]] | data4 = 952 | label5 = 026 [[Saint John River (Liberia)|St John]] | data5 = 864 | label6 = 027 [[Maningory River|Maningory]] | data6 = 776 | label7 = 028 [[Lúrio River|Lúrio]] | data7 = 741 | label8 = 029 [[Campo River|Ntem]] | data8 = 718 | label9 = 030 [[Omo River|Omo]] | data9 = 660 | label10 = 031 [[Nyanga River|Nyanga]] | data10 = 651 | label11 = 032 [[Mangoky River|Mangoky]] | data11 = 597 | label12 = 033 [[Sénégal River|Sénégal]] | data12 = 596 | label13 = 034 [[Nyong River|Nyong]] | data13 = 595 | label14 = 035 [[Lofa River|Loffa]] | data14 = 590 | label15 = 036 [[Bandama River|Bandama]] | data15 = 583 | label16 = 037 [[Cestos River|Cestos]] | data16 = 581 | label17 = 038 [[Mahavavy Sud River|Mahavavy]] | data17 = 578 | label18 = 039 [[Corubal River|Corubal]] | data18 = 555 | label19 = 040 [[Rokel River|Rokel]] | data19 = 547 | label20 = 041 [[Benito River|Mbini]] | data20 = 515 | label21 = 042 [[Pungwe River|Pungwe]] | data21 = 492 | label22 = 043 [[Mahajamba River|Mahajamba]] | data22 = 483 | label23 = 044 [[Jong River|Jong]] | data23 = 477 | label24 = 045 [[Save River (Africa)|Save]] | data24 = 437 | label25 = 046 [[Kolenté River|Kolenté]] | data25 = 424 | label26 = 047 [[Licungo River|Licungo]] | data26 = 421 | label27 = 048 [[Mitimele River|Mitimele]] | data27 = 416 | label28 = 049 [[Mangoro River|Mangoro]] | data28 = 386 | label29 = 050 [[Imo River|Imo]] | data29 = 384 | label30 = 051 [[Gambia River|Gambia]] | data30 = 374 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 052 [[Mano River|Mano]] | data1 = 370 | label2 = 053 [[Orange River|Orange]] | data2 = 369 | label3 = 054 [[Cuvo River|Cuvo]] | data3 = 369 | label4 = 055 [[Mbridge River|Mebridege]] | data4 = 329 | label5 = 056 [[Jubba River|Jubba]] | data5 = 328 | label6 = 057 [[Rianila River|Rianila]] | data6 = 325 | label7 = 058 [[Ogun River|Ogun]] | data7 = 320 | label8 = 059 [[Buzi River (Mozambique)|Búzi]] | data8 = 315 | label9 = 060 [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] | data9 = 313 | label10 = 061 [[Fatala River|Fatala]] | data10 = 312 | label11 = 062 [[Okavango River|Okavango]] | data11 = 297 | label12 = 063 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Sehnkwehn]] | data12 = 296 | label13 = 064 [[List of rivers of Guinea|Kogon]] | data13 = 289 | label14 = 065 [[Pra River (Ghana)|Pra]] | data14 = 288 | label15 = 066 [[Farmington River (Liberia)|Farmington]] | data15 = 288 | label16 = 067 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Simianona]] | data16 = 285 | label17 = 068 [[Komo River|Komo]] | data17 = 273 | label18 = 069 [[Komoé River|Komoé]] | data18 = 264 | label19 = 070 [[Oueme River|Ouémé]] | data19 = 254 | label20 = 071 [[Mungo River (Cameroon)|Mungo]] | data20 = 245 | label21 = 072 [[Mananara River|Mananara]] | data21 = 244 | label22 = 073 [[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana]] | data22 = 243 | label23 = 074 [[Manambolo River|Manambolo]] | data23 = 240 | label24 = 075 [[Messalo River|Messalo]] | data24 = 235 | label25 = 076 [[Ivondro River|Ivondro]] | data25 = 234 | label26 = 077 [[Geba River|Geba]] | data26 = 232 | label27 = 078 [[Antainambalana River|Antainambalana]] | data27 = 226 | label28 = 079 [[Cunene River|Cunene]] | data28 = 222 | label29 = 080 [[Catumbela River|Catumbela]] | data29 = 216 | label30 = 081 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Maevarano]] | data30 = 203 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 082 [[Longa River (Angola)|Longa]] | data1 = 200 | label2 = 083 [[Kwa Ibo River|Kwa Ibo]] | data2 = 195 | label3 = 084 [[Osun River|Osun]] | data3 = 193 | label4 = 085 [[Nunez River|Tinguilinta]] | data4 = 192 | label5 = 086 [[Mananjary River|Mananjary]] | data5 = 191 | label6 = 087 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Timbo]] | data6 = 187 | label7 = 088 [[Onilahy River|Onilahy]] | data7 = 183 | label8 = 089 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Maningoza]] | data8 = 173 | label9 = 090 [[Tano River|Tano]] | data9 = 172 | label10= 091 [[Mananara River (Analanjirofo)|Analanjirofo]] | data10 = 172 | label11= 092 [[List of rivers of Liberia|Dugbe]] | data11 = 169 | label12= 093 [[List of rivers of Madagascar|Mananara]] | data12 = 166 | label13= 094 [[List of rivers of Sierra Leone|Gbangbaia]] | data13 = 166 | label14= 095 [[Onive River|Onive]] | data14 = 164 | label15= 096 [[Sibiti River|Sibiti]] | data15 = 162 | label16= 097 [[Komati River|Incomáti]] | data16 = 160 | label17= 098 [[Ankobra River|Ankobra]] | data17 = 158 | label18= 099 [[Awash River|Awash]] | data18 = 152 | label19= 100 [[Manambaho River|Manambaho]] | data19 = 151 | label20= 101 [[Mzimvubu River|Mzimvubu]] | data20 = 151 | label21= 102 [[List of rivers of Mozambique|Ligonha]] | data21 = 150 | label22= 103 [[Lake Rukwa|Rungwa]] | data22 = 149 | label23= 104 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Dibamba]] | data23 = 148 | label24= 105 [[Matandu River|Matandu]] | data24 = 147 | label25= 106 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Ramboué]] | data25 = 142 | label26= 107 [[Sebou River|Sebou]] | data26 = 137 | label27= 108 [[Manampatrana River|Manampatrana]] | data27 = 137 | label28= 109 [[Lake Rukwa|Momba]] | data28 = 136 | label29= 110 [[Sambirano River|Sambirano]] | data29 = 135 | label30= 111 [[Akwayafe River|Akpakorum]] | data30 = 133 }} {{Bar chart | title = (continues) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 1,000 | label1 = 112 [[Sinoe River|Sinoe]] | data1 = 133 | label2 = 113 [[List of rivers of Tanzania|Mbewmburu]] | data2 = 126 | label3 = 114 [[Mono River|Mono]] | data3 = 125 | label4 = 115 [[Kerio River|Kerio]] | data4 = 123 | label5 = 116 [[Chiloango River|Chiloango]] | data5 = 121 | label6 = 117 [[List of rivers of Gabon|Douengui]] | data6 = 119 | label7 = 118 [[Tugela River|Tugela]] | data7 = 119 | label8 = 119 [[Maputo River|Maputo]] | data8 = 117 | label9 = 120 [[Pangani River|Pangani]] | data9 = 117 | label10= 121 [[Coporolo River|Coporolo]] | data10 = 106 | label11= 122 [[Oum Er-Rbia River|Rbia]] | data11 = 105 | label12= 123 [[Great Kwa River| Great Kwa]] | data12 = 105 | label13= 124 [[List of rivers of Cameroon|Mémé]] | data13 = 103 | label14= 125 [[List of rivers of Guinea|Forécariah]] | data14 = 100 }} {{Bar chart | title = (10 to 100 m³/s) | label_type = River | data_type = Average discharge (m³/s) at mouth | bar_width = 13 | width_units = em | data_max = 98 | label1 = [[Lake Rukwa|Katuma]] | data1 = 98 | label2 = [[Cacheu River|Cacheu]] | data2 = 94 | label3 = [[List of rivers of Liberia|Grand Cess]] | data3 = 93 | label4 = [[Athi-Galana-Sabaki River|Galana]] | data4 = 90 | label5 = [[Casamance River|Casamance]] | data5 = 86 | label6 = [[Tensift River|Tensift]] | data6 = 74 | label7 = [[Lake Rukwa|Songwe]] | data7 = 70 | label8 = [[Ruvu River|Ruvu]] | data8 = 68 | label9 = [[Great Kei River|Great Kei]] | data9 = 67 | label10= [[List of rivers of Ivory Coast|San Pedro]] | data10 = 67 | label11= [[Wami River|Wami]] | data11 = 61 | label12= [[Gourits River|Gourits]] | data12 = 43 | label13= [[Moulouya River|Moulouya]] | data13 = 41 | label14= [[Sous River|Sous]] | data14 = 35 | label15= [[Medjerda River|Medjerda]] | data15 = 29 | label16= [[Great Fish River|Great Fish]] | data16 = 26 | label17= [[Yobe River|Komadougou]] | data17 = 25 | label18= [[Draa River|Drâa]] | data18 = 25 | label19= [[Bou Regreg]] | data19 = 24 | label20= [[Chelif River|Chelif]] | data20 = 24 | label21= [[Sundays River|Sundays]] | data21 = 16 }} ==Spy sanso== {{Portal|water|geography|Africa}} {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Geography of Africa]] * [[List of rivers of Europe]] * [[List of rivers of Asia]] * [[List of rivers of the Americas]] * [[List of rivers of Oceania]] * [[Lists of rivers]] * [[Dry rivers of Africa|List of dry rivers in Africa]] {{end div col}} == References == <references /> [[Category:List of rivers by continent]] [[Category:Rivers of Africa]] [[Category:Africa-related lists]] [[Category:AWC2026]] r2ff97xfow0jpd0idtg6lmsu56kjct2 0 27701 103924 2026-06-18T23:04:30Z Ibnali1 62 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1306305358|Konkouré River]]" 103924 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Konkouré_Bassin_OSM.png|right|thumb|409x409px]] De '''Konkouré River''' dey arise insyd west-central [[Guinea]] den dey flow into de [[Atlantic Ocean]].<ref name="HDoG">{{Cite book |last=Camara |first=Mohamed Saliou |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TfcKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA97 |title=Historical Dictionary of Guinea |last2=O'Toole |first2=Thomas |last3=Baker |first3=Janice E. |date=7 November 2013 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=9780810879690 |pages=195–196 |access-date=22 November 2016}}</ref> Several dams for de river top dey provide de country plus much of ein electricity. == Geography == De river dey originate insyd de Futa Jallon highland region den dey flow insyd a westerly direction 303 km (188 mi) to de Atlantic Ocean north of de Baie de Sangareya (Sangareya Bay)<ref name="HDoG">{{Cite book |last=Camara |first=Mohamed Saliou |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TfcKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA97 |title=Historical Dictionary of Guinea |last2=O'Toole |first2=Thomas |last3=Baker |first3=Janice E. |date=7 November 2013 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=9780810879690 |pages=195–196 |access-date=22 November 2016}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFCamaraO'TooleBaker2013">Camara, Mohamed Saliou; O'Toole, Thomas; Baker, Janice E. (7 November 2013). [https://books.google.com/books?id=TfcKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA97 ''Historical Dictionary of Guinea'']. Scarecrow Press. pp.&nbsp;<span class="nowrap">195–</span>196. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/9780810879690|<bdi>9780810879690</bdi>]]<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite></ref> at 9°46'N, 14°19'W.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web |title=Source book for the inland fishery resources of Africa Vol. 2: Country Files (Contd.): Guinea |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/t0360e/T0360E07.htm |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]]}}</ref> De Kakrima River be ein major tributary.<ref name="FAO" /> De river delta dey cover 320 km2 (120 sq mi).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wolanski |first=Eric |last2=Cassagne |first2=Bernard |date=February 2000 |title=Salinity intrusion and rice farming in the mangrove-fringed Konkoure River delta, Guinea |journal=Wetlands Ecology and Management |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=29–36 |bibcode=2000WetEM...8...29W |doi=10.1023/A:1008470005880}}</ref> Vessels of up to 3 m (9.8 ft) draft fi navigate upstream to Konkouré; beyond dat point, der be rapids.<ref>{{Cite book |last=National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency |author-link=National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hMDL-iCyOwwC&pg=PA240 |title=NGA Sailing Directions-Enroute: 2008 West Coast of Europe and Northwest Africa |date=1 October 2009 |publisher=ProStar Publications |isbn=9781577858850 |edition=11th |page=240}}</ref> == Environment == De upper river dey flow over a rocky substrate plus chaw rapids den waterfalls, wey dey make am unsuitable for navigation, though e dey make am suitable for electricity production. De lower river be a shallow, funnel-shaped, mesotidal, mangrove-fringed, tide-dominated estuary.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Capo |first=Sylvain |last2=Sottolichio |first2=Aldo |last3=Brenon |first3=I. |last4=Ferry |first4=Luc |date=May 2006 |title=Morphology, hydrography and sediment dynamics in a mangrove estuary: The Konkoure Estuary, Guinea |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235967426 |journal=[[Marine Geology (journal)|Marine Geology]] |volume=230 |issue=3–4 |pages=199–215 |bibcode=2006MGeol.230..199C |doi=10.1016/j.margeo.2006.05.003}}</ref> Rice farms be established insyd de mangrove areas of de delta "plus sam success".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Saenger |first=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WUbrCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA290 |title=Mangrove Ecology, Silviculture and Conservation |date=29 June 2013 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=9789401599627 |pages=290–291}}</ref> === Wildlife === De river be home to 96 recorded freshwater fish species.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Kevin G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t63jrAxKykAC&pg=PA22 |title=The Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in Western Africa |publisher=IUCN |year=2009 |isbn=9782831711638 |page=22 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> De estuary, along plus part of Sangareya Bay den de mouths of de Konkouré den Bouramaya rivers, be designated an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International secof e dey support significant populations of western reef egrets, pied avocets den common redshanks. E dey encompass 28,000&nbsp;ha of mangroves, mudflats, sandbanks den rice-fields. African manatees dey occur insyd de mangroves den common bottlenose dolphins insyd de bay.<ref name="bli">{{Cite web |last=<!--Not stated--> |date=2024 |title=Konkouré |url=https://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/konkour%C3%A9-iba-guinea |access-date=2024-11-02 |website=BirdLife Data Zone |publisher=BirdLife International}}</ref> == Dams == Insyd 1999, dem gbele Garafiri Dam at a cost of $221 million; e fi produce 75 megawatts (101,000 hp) of electricity.<ref name="HDoG">{{Cite book |last=Camara |first=Mohamed Saliou |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TfcKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA97 |title=Historical Dictionary of Guinea |last2=O'Toole |first2=Thomas |last3=Baker |first3=Janice E. |date=7 November 2013 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=9780810879690 |pages=195–196 |access-date=22 November 2016}}<cite class="citation book cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFCamaraO'TooleBaker2013">Camara, Mohamed Saliou; O'Toole, Thomas; Baker, Janice E. (7 November 2013). [https://books.google.com/books?id=TfcKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA97 ''Historical Dictionary of Guinea'']. Scarecrow Press. pp.&nbsp;<span class="nowrap">195–</span>196. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]]&nbsp;[[Special:BookSources/9780810879690|<bdi>9780810879690</bdi>]]<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 November</span> 2016</span>.</cite></ref> Construction of a 240-megawatt (320,000 hp) hydroelectric dam for de river top near Kaleta, de Kaleta Hydropower Plant, dem plete insyd June 2015 wey dem commission on 28 September at a cost of $526 million;<ref name="HW2015">{{Cite journal |last=Poindexter |first=Gregory B. |date=1 October 2015 |title=Guinea increases generating capacity with US$526 million 240-MW Kaleta hydroelectric facility |url=http://www.hydroworld.com/articles/2015/09/guinea-increases-generating-capacity-with-us-526-million-240-mw-kaleta-hydroelectric-facility.html |journal=HydroWorld}}</ref> de 1,545-metre-long (5,069 ft) dam dey lie about 120 kilometres (75 mi)<ref name="Bloomberg">{{Cite web |last=Wild |first=Franz |last2=Camara |first2=Ougna |date=14 September 2015 |title=China's CWE in Talks to Build $2 Billion Dam in Guinea |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-09-15/china-s-cwe-in-talks-to-build-2-billion-dam-in-guinea |publisher=[[Bloomberg News]]}}<cite class="citation web cs1" data-ve-ignore="" id="CITEREFWildCamara2015">Wild, Franz; Camara, Ougna (14 September 2015). [https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-09-15/china-s-cwe-in-talks-to-build-2-billion-dam-in-guinea "China's CWE in Talks to Build $2 Billion Dam in Guinea"]. [[Bloomberg News]].</cite></ref> anaa 85 miles (137 km)<ref name="HW2015" /> north of de capital city of Conakry.<ref name="Bloomberg" /> Insyd 2015, de central government contract plus Chinese firms to begin building a 550-megawatt (740,000 hp) dam (de Souapiti Hydropower Station), near Souapiti, about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) further upstream,<ref name="Bloomberg">{{Cite web |last=Wild |first=Franz |last2=Camara |first2=Ougna |date=14 September 2015 |title=China's CWE in Talks to Build $2 Billion Dam in Guinea |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-09-15/china-s-cwe-in-talks-to-build-2-billion-dam-in-guinea |publisher=[[Bloomberg News]]}}</ref> wich go almost double Guinea ein power generation output at an estimated cost of $2 billion. Dis go, however, require say 15,000 people go move out of wat go cam be a flood plain.<ref name="Bloomberg" /> == References == iniy9w95jiqjwzz0xb9bzkch0rrf2fv 14 27702 103927 2026-06-18T23:34:58Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103927 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27703 103928 2026-06-18T23:35:14Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103928 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 27704 103930 2026-06-18T23:51:28Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 103930 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 27705 103978 2026-06-19T07:39:49Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Create a fresh article 103978 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|River in Democratic Republic of the Congo}} {{Infobox river | name = Ebola River | name_native = {{native name|ngb|Legbala}} | name_native_lang = | name_other = | name_etymology = <!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP --> | image = | image_size = | image_caption = | map = Rio ebola.png | map_size = | map_caption = | pushpin_map = | pushpin_map_size = | pushpin_map_caption= <!---------------------- LOCATION --> | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] | subdivision_type2 = | subdivision_name2 = | subdivision_type3 = | subdivision_name3 = | subdivision_type4 = | subdivision_name4 = | subdivision_type5 = | subdivision_name5 = <!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS --> | length = {{convert|250|km|mi|abbr=on}} | width_min = | width_avg = | width_max = | depth_min = | depth_avg = | depth_max = | discharge1_location= | discharge1_min = | discharge1_avg = | discharge1_max = <!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES --> | source1 = | source1_location = | source1_coordinates= | source1_elevation = | mouth = [[Mongala River]] | mouth_location = | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|3|19|24|N|20|57|38|E|display=title,inline|region:CD_type:landmark_source:ruwiki}} | mouth_elevation = | progression = | river_system = | basin_size = | tributaries_left = | tributaries_right = | custom_label = | custom_data = | extra = }} lcki9vwpgyj197mr9ecb0t7r1thsr68 103979 103978 2026-06-19T07:42:44Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103979 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|River in Democratic Republic of the Congo}} {{Infobox river | name = Ebola River | name_native = {{native name|ngb|Legbala}} | name_native_lang = | name_other = | name_etymology = <!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP --> | image = | image_size = | image_caption = | map = Rio ebola.png | map_size = | map_caption = | pushpin_map = | pushpin_map_size = | pushpin_map_caption= <!---------------------- LOCATION --> | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] | subdivision_type2 = | subdivision_name2 = | subdivision_type3 = | subdivision_name3 = | subdivision_type4 = | subdivision_name4 = | subdivision_type5 = | subdivision_name5 = <!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS --> | length = {{convert|250|km|mi|abbr=on}} | width_min = | width_avg = | width_max = | depth_min = | depth_avg = | depth_max = | discharge1_location= | discharge1_min = | discharge1_avg = | discharge1_max = <!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES --> | source1 = | source1_location = | source1_coordinates= | source1_elevation = | mouth = [[Mongala River]] | mouth_location = | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|3|19|24|N|20|57|38|E|display=title,inline|region:CD_type:landmark_source:ruwiki}} | mouth_elevation = | progression = | river_system = | basin_size = | tributaries_left = | tributaries_right = | custom_label = | custom_data = | extra = }} De '''Ebola River''' ({{IPAc-en|i|ˌ||b|oʊ|l|ə}} anaa {{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|b|oʊ|l|ə}}),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Ebola|title=The American Heritage Dictionary entry: Ebola|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company|website=The American Heritage Dictionary|access-date=2020-04-15|archive-date=2021-07-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729180544/https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=ebola|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ebola|title=Ebola &#124; meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary|website=Cambridge English Dictionary|access-date=2020-04-15|archive-date=2018-01-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124205104/http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ebola|url-status=live}}</ref> sanso commonly known by its Ngbandi name '''Legbala''',<ref name="Tanghe">{{cite journal |last1=Tanghe |first1=Basile |last2=Vangele |first2=A. |date=June 1939 |url=http://www.aequatoria.be/04common/020publications_pdf/Aequatoria%201939.pdf#page=64 |title=Région de la Haute Ebola: Notes d'histoire (1890-1900) |journal=[[Aequatoria]] |volume=2 |issue=6 |pages=61–65 |language=fr |jstor=25837382 |access-date=2020-02-03 |archive-date=2020-07-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711063728/http://www.aequatoria.be/04common/020publications_pdf/Aequatoria%201939.pdf#page=64 |url-status=live }}</ref> be de headstream of de Mongala River, a tributary of de [[Congo River]], insyd northern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]].<ref> {{cite book|last1=vanden Bossche|first1=J.-P.|last2=Bernacsek|first2=G. M. |title=Zaire |journal= Source Book for the Inland Fishery Resources of Africa |issue=18 |volume=1 |date=1990 |page=336 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=WLZRxM9vfXoC&pg=PA336 |access-date= 31 July 2014|isbn=9789251029831}} </ref> E be roughly {{convert|250|km|sp=us}} insyd length.{{cn|date=January 2023}} == References == lgjzmbgyo4ok15d9t4d2x1eff3wvop1 103980 103979 2026-06-19T07:44:52Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103980 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|River in Democratic Republic of the Congo}} {{Infobox river | name = Ebola River | name_native = {{native name|ngb|Legbala}} | name_native_lang = | name_other = | name_etymology = <!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP --> | image = | image_size = | image_caption = | map = Rio ebola.png | map_size = | map_caption = | pushpin_map = | pushpin_map_size = | pushpin_map_caption= <!---------------------- LOCATION --> | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] | subdivision_type2 = | subdivision_name2 = | subdivision_type3 = | subdivision_name3 = | subdivision_type4 = | subdivision_name4 = | subdivision_type5 = | subdivision_name5 = <!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS --> | length = {{convert|250|km|mi|abbr=on}} | width_min = | width_avg = | width_max = | depth_min = | depth_avg = | depth_max = | discharge1_location= | discharge1_min = | discharge1_avg = | discharge1_max = <!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES --> | source1 = | source1_location = | source1_coordinates= | source1_elevation = | mouth = [[Mongala River]] | mouth_location = | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|3|19|24|N|20|57|38|E|display=title,inline|region:CD_type:landmark_source:ruwiki}} | mouth_elevation = | progression = | river_system = | basin_size = | tributaries_left = | tributaries_right = | custom_label = | custom_data = | extra = }} De '''Ebola River''' ({{IPAc-en|i|ˌ||b|oʊ|l|ə}} anaa {{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|b|oʊ|l|ə}}),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Ebola|title=The American Heritage Dictionary entry: Ebola|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company|website=The American Heritage Dictionary|access-date=2020-04-15|archive-date=2021-07-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729180544/https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=ebola|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ebola|title=Ebola &#124; meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary|website=Cambridge English Dictionary|access-date=2020-04-15|archive-date=2018-01-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124205104/http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ebola|url-status=live}}</ref> sanso commonly known by its Ngbandi name '''Legbala''',<ref name="Tanghe">{{cite journal |last1=Tanghe |first1=Basile |last2=Vangele |first2=A. |date=June 1939 |url=http://www.aequatoria.be/04common/020publications_pdf/Aequatoria%201939.pdf#page=64 |title=Région de la Haute Ebola: Notes d'histoire (1890-1900) |journal=[[Aequatoria]] |volume=2 |issue=6 |pages=61–65 |language=fr |jstor=25837382 |access-date=2020-02-03 |archive-date=2020-07-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711063728/http://www.aequatoria.be/04common/020publications_pdf/Aequatoria%201939.pdf#page=64 |url-status=live }}</ref> be de headstream of de Mongala River, a tributary of de [[Congo River]], insyd northern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]].<ref> {{cite book|last1=vanden Bossche|first1=J.-P.|last2=Bernacsek|first2=G. M. |title=Zaire |journal= Source Book for the Inland Fishery Resources of Africa |issue=18 |volume=1 |date=1990 |page=336 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=WLZRxM9vfXoC&pg=PA336 |access-date= 31 July 2014|isbn=9789251029831}} </ref> E be roughly {{convert|250|km|sp=us}} insyd length.{{cn|date=January 2023}} De name ''Ebola'' be a French corruption of ''Legbala'', its name insyd Ngbandi wich means 'white water'.<ref name="Wordsworth">{{cite journal |last=Wordsworth |first=Dot |date=25 October 2014 |title=How Ebola got its name |url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/2014/10/how-ebola-got-its-name/ |journal=[[The Spectator]] |access-date=26 October 2014 |archive-date=1 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191201184826/https://www.spectator.co.uk/2014/10/how-ebola-got-its-name/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> During de [[Belgian Congo|Belgian administration]] these names were interchangeable along plus de French names ''Eau Blanche''<ref name="Tanghe" /> den rarely ''L'Ébola''.<ref name="Wordsworth" /> == References == d1k7542azgeeu98vr10qsmokeggs5hg 103981 103980 2026-06-19T07:49:04Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve am 103981 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|River in Democratic Republic of the Congo}} {{Infobox river | name = Ebola River | name_native = {{native name|ngb|Legbala}} | name_native_lang = | name_other = | name_etymology = <!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP --> | image = | image_size = | image_caption = | map = Rio ebola.png | map_size = | map_caption = | pushpin_map = | pushpin_map_size = | pushpin_map_caption= <!---------------------- LOCATION --> | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] | subdivision_type2 = | subdivision_name2 = | subdivision_type3 = | subdivision_name3 = | subdivision_type4 = | subdivision_name4 = | subdivision_type5 = | subdivision_name5 = <!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS --> | length = {{convert|250|km|mi|abbr=on}} | width_min = | width_avg = | width_max = | depth_min = | depth_avg = | depth_max = | discharge1_location= | discharge1_min = | discharge1_avg = | discharge1_max = <!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES --> | source1 = | source1_location = | source1_coordinates= | source1_elevation = | mouth = [[Mongala River]] | mouth_location = | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|3|19|24|N|20|57|38|E|display=title,inline|region:CD_type:landmark_source:ruwiki}} | mouth_elevation = | progression = | river_system = | basin_size = | tributaries_left = | tributaries_right = | custom_label = | custom_data = | extra = }} De '''Ebola River''' ({{IPAc-en|i|ˌ||b|oʊ|l|ə}} anaa {{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|b|oʊ|l|ə}}),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Ebola|title=The American Heritage Dictionary entry: Ebola|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company|website=The American Heritage Dictionary|access-date=2020-04-15|archive-date=2021-07-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729180544/https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=ebola|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ebola|title=Ebola &#124; meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary|website=Cambridge English Dictionary|access-date=2020-04-15|archive-date=2018-01-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124205104/http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ebola|url-status=live}}</ref> sanso commonly known by its Ngbandi name '''Legbala''',<ref name="Tanghe">{{cite journal |last1=Tanghe |first1=Basile |last2=Vangele |first2=A. |date=June 1939 |url=http://www.aequatoria.be/04common/020publications_pdf/Aequatoria%201939.pdf#page=64 |title=Région de la Haute Ebola: Notes d'histoire (1890-1900) |journal=[[Aequatoria]] |volume=2 |issue=6 |pages=61–65 |language=fr |jstor=25837382 |access-date=2020-02-03 |archive-date=2020-07-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711063728/http://www.aequatoria.be/04common/020publications_pdf/Aequatoria%201939.pdf#page=64 |url-status=live }}</ref> be de headstream of de Mongala River, a tributary of de [[Congo River]], insyd northern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]].<ref> {{cite book|last1=vanden Bossche|first1=J.-P.|last2=Bernacsek|first2=G. M. |title=Zaire |journal= Source Book for the Inland Fishery Resources of Africa |issue=18 |volume=1 |date=1990 |page=336 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=WLZRxM9vfXoC&pg=PA336 |access-date= 31 July 2014|isbn=9789251029831}} </ref> E be roughly {{convert|250|km|sp=us}} insyd length.{{cn|date=January 2023}} De name ''Ebola'' be a French corruption of ''Legbala'', its name insyd Ngbandi wich means 'white water'.<ref name="Wordsworth">{{cite journal |last=Wordsworth |first=Dot |date=25 October 2014 |title=How Ebola got its name |url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/2014/10/how-ebola-got-its-name/ |journal=[[The Spectator]] |access-date=26 October 2014 |archive-date=1 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191201184826/https://www.spectator.co.uk/2014/10/how-ebola-got-its-name/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> During de [[Belgian Congo|Belgian administration]] these names were interchangeable along plus de French names ''Eau Blanche''<ref name="Tanghe" /> den rarely ''L'Ébola''.<ref name="Wordsworth" /> Insyd 1976, Ebola virus was first identified insyd Yambuku, {{convert|111|km|sp=us}} from de Ebola River, but de virologist Karl Johnson decide to name am after de river so dat de town would not be associated plus de disease's stigma.<ref name="Wordsworth" /> Thus, de river be eponymous to de terms Ebola virus, ''Ebolavirus'', den Ebola virus disease (usually referred to as simply "Ebola").<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-28922290 |title= Ebola outbreak confirmed by DR Congo |work= [[BBC News]] |date= 2014-08-25 |access-date= 2018-06-21 |archive-date= 2018-12-28 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181228135106/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-28922290 |url-status= live }}</ref> == References == q7yp2u0c3yl1nfkgwwuu30zh8nbxl01 103982 103981 2026-06-19T07:49:56Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 103982 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|River in Democratic Republic of the Congo}} {{Infobox river | name = Ebola River | name_native = {{native name|ngb|Legbala}} | name_native_lang = | name_other = | name_etymology = <!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP --> | image = | image_size = | image_caption = | map = Rio ebola.png | map_size = | map_caption = | pushpin_map = | pushpin_map_size = | pushpin_map_caption= <!---------------------- LOCATION --> | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] | subdivision_type2 = | subdivision_name2 = | subdivision_type3 = | subdivision_name3 = | subdivision_type4 = | subdivision_name4 = | subdivision_type5 = | subdivision_name5 = <!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS --> | length = {{convert|250|km|mi|abbr=on}} | width_min = | width_avg = | width_max = | depth_min = | depth_avg = | depth_max = | discharge1_location= | discharge1_min = | discharge1_avg = | discharge1_max = <!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES --> | source1 = | source1_location = | source1_coordinates= | source1_elevation = | mouth = [[Mongala River]] | mouth_location = | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|3|19|24|N|20|57|38|E|display=title,inline|region:CD_type:landmark_source:ruwiki}} | mouth_elevation = | progression = | river_system = | basin_size = | tributaries_left = | tributaries_right = | custom_label = | custom_data = | extra = }} De '''Ebola River''' ({{IPAc-en|i|ˌ||b|oʊ|l|ə}} anaa {{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|b|oʊ|l|ə}}),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Ebola|title=The American Heritage Dictionary entry: Ebola|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company|website=The American Heritage Dictionary|access-date=2020-04-15|archive-date=2021-07-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729180544/https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=ebola|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ebola|title=Ebola &#124; meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary|website=Cambridge English Dictionary|access-date=2020-04-15|archive-date=2018-01-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124205104/http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ebola|url-status=live}}</ref> sanso commonly known by its Ngbandi name '''Legbala''',<ref name="Tanghe">{{cite journal |last1=Tanghe |first1=Basile |last2=Vangele |first2=A. |date=June 1939 |url=http://www.aequatoria.be/04common/020publications_pdf/Aequatoria%201939.pdf#page=64 |title=Région de la Haute Ebola: Notes d'histoire (1890-1900) |journal=[[Aequatoria]] |volume=2 |issue=6 |pages=61–65 |language=fr |jstor=25837382 |access-date=2020-02-03 |archive-date=2020-07-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711063728/http://www.aequatoria.be/04common/020publications_pdf/Aequatoria%201939.pdf#page=64 |url-status=live }}</ref> be de headstream of de Mongala River, a tributary of de [[Congo River]], insyd northern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]].<ref> {{cite book|last1=vanden Bossche|first1=J.-P.|last2=Bernacsek|first2=G. M. |title=Zaire |journal= Source Book for the Inland Fishery Resources of Africa |issue=18 |volume=1 |date=1990 |page=336 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=WLZRxM9vfXoC&pg=PA336 |access-date= 31 July 2014|isbn=9789251029831}} </ref> E be roughly {{convert|250|km|sp=us}} insyd length.{{cn|date=January 2023}} De name ''Ebola'' be a French corruption of ''Legbala'', its name insyd Ngbandi wich means 'white water'.<ref name="Wordsworth">{{cite journal |last=Wordsworth |first=Dot |date=25 October 2014 |title=How Ebola got its name |url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/2014/10/how-ebola-got-its-name/ |journal=[[The Spectator]] |access-date=26 October 2014 |archive-date=1 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191201184826/https://www.spectator.co.uk/2014/10/how-ebola-got-its-name/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> During de [[Belgian Congo|Belgian administration]] these names were interchangeable along plus de French names ''Eau Blanche''<ref name="Tanghe" /> den rarely ''L'Ébola''.<ref name="Wordsworth" /> Insyd 1976, Ebola virus was first identified insyd Yambuku, {{convert|111|km|sp=us}} from de Ebola River, but de virologist Karl Johnson decide to name am after de river so dat de town would not be associated plus de disease's stigma.<ref name="Wordsworth" /> Thus, de river be eponymous to de terms Ebola virus, ''Ebolavirus'', den Ebola virus disease (usually referred to as simply "Ebola").<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-28922290 |title= Ebola outbreak confirmed by DR Congo |work= [[BBC News]] |date= 2014-08-25 |access-date= 2018-06-21 |archive-date= 2018-12-28 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181228135106/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-28922290 |url-status= live }}</ref> == References == <references /> [[Category:Ebola]] 74zj8dax568y8754lxdbhd88imbwoc3 103983 103982 2026-06-19T07:50:27Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 103983 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|River in Democratic Republic of the Congo}} {{Infobox river | name = Ebola River | name_native = {{native name|ngb|Legbala}} | name_native_lang = | name_other = | name_etymology = <!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP --> | image = | image_size = | image_caption = | map = Rio ebola.png | map_size = | map_caption = | pushpin_map = | pushpin_map_size = | pushpin_map_caption= <!---------------------- LOCATION --> | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] | subdivision_type2 = | subdivision_name2 = | subdivision_type3 = | subdivision_name3 = | subdivision_type4 = | subdivision_name4 = | subdivision_type5 = | subdivision_name5 = <!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS --> | length = {{convert|250|km|mi|abbr=on}} | width_min = | width_avg = | width_max = | depth_min = | depth_avg = | depth_max = | discharge1_location= | discharge1_min = | discharge1_avg = | discharge1_max = <!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES --> | source1 = | source1_location = | source1_coordinates= | source1_elevation = | mouth = [[Mongala River]] | mouth_location = | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|3|19|24|N|20|57|38|E|display=title,inline|region:CD_type:landmark_source:ruwiki}} | mouth_elevation = | progression = | river_system = | basin_size = | tributaries_left = | tributaries_right = | custom_label = | custom_data = | extra = }} De '''Ebola River''' ({{IPAc-en|i|ˌ||b|oʊ|l|ə}} anaa {{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|b|oʊ|l|ə}}),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Ebola|title=The American Heritage Dictionary entry: Ebola|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company|website=The American Heritage Dictionary|access-date=2020-04-15|archive-date=2021-07-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729180544/https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=ebola|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ebola|title=Ebola &#124; meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary|website=Cambridge English Dictionary|access-date=2020-04-15|archive-date=2018-01-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124205104/http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ebola|url-status=live}}</ref> sanso commonly known by its Ngbandi name '''Legbala''',<ref name="Tanghe">{{cite journal |last1=Tanghe |first1=Basile |last2=Vangele |first2=A. |date=June 1939 |url=http://www.aequatoria.be/04common/020publications_pdf/Aequatoria%201939.pdf#page=64 |title=Région de la Haute Ebola: Notes d'histoire (1890-1900) |journal=[[Aequatoria]] |volume=2 |issue=6 |pages=61–65 |language=fr |jstor=25837382 |access-date=2020-02-03 |archive-date=2020-07-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711063728/http://www.aequatoria.be/04common/020publications_pdf/Aequatoria%201939.pdf#page=64 |url-status=live }}</ref> be de headstream of de Mongala River, a tributary of de [[Congo River]], insyd northern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]].<ref> {{cite book|last1=vanden Bossche|first1=J.-P.|last2=Bernacsek|first2=G. M. |title=Zaire |journal= Source Book for the Inland Fishery Resources of Africa |issue=18 |volume=1 |date=1990 |page=336 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=WLZRxM9vfXoC&pg=PA336 |access-date= 31 July 2014|isbn=9789251029831}} </ref> E be roughly {{convert|250|km|sp=us}} insyd length.{{cn|date=January 2023}} De name ''Ebola'' be a French corruption of ''Legbala'', its name insyd Ngbandi wich means 'white water'.<ref name="Wordsworth">{{cite journal |last=Wordsworth |first=Dot |date=25 October 2014 |title=How Ebola got its name |url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/2014/10/how-ebola-got-its-name/ |journal=[[The Spectator]] |access-date=26 October 2014 |archive-date=1 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191201184826/https://www.spectator.co.uk/2014/10/how-ebola-got-its-name/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> During de [[Belgian Congo|Belgian administration]] these names were interchangeable along plus de French names ''Eau Blanche''<ref name="Tanghe" /> den rarely ''L'Ébola''.<ref name="Wordsworth" /> Insyd 1976, Ebola virus was first identified insyd Yambuku, {{convert|111|km|sp=us}} from de Ebola River, but de virologist Karl Johnson decide to name am after de river so dat de town would not be associated plus de disease's stigma.<ref name="Wordsworth" /> Thus, de river be eponymous to de terms Ebola virus, ''Ebolavirus'', den Ebola virus disease (usually referred to as simply "Ebola").<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-28922290 |title= Ebola outbreak confirmed by DR Congo |work= [[BBC News]] |date= 2014-08-25 |access-date= 2018-06-21 |archive-date= 2018-12-28 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181228135106/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-28922290 |url-status= live }}</ref> == References == <references /> [[Category:Ebola]] [[Category:Rivers of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] h2t34pkntooperm63u12sstwn3b6myg 103984 103983 2026-06-19T07:50:46Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 103984 wikitext text/x-wiki {{short description|River in Democratic Republic of the Congo}} {{Infobox river | name = Ebola River | name_native = {{native name|ngb|Legbala}} | name_native_lang = | name_other = | name_etymology = <!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP --> | image = | image_size = | image_caption = | map = Rio ebola.png | map_size = | map_caption = | pushpin_map = | pushpin_map_size = | pushpin_map_caption= <!---------------------- LOCATION --> | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] | subdivision_type2 = | subdivision_name2 = | subdivision_type3 = | subdivision_name3 = | subdivision_type4 = | subdivision_name4 = | subdivision_type5 = | subdivision_name5 = <!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS --> | length = {{convert|250|km|mi|abbr=on}} | width_min = | width_avg = | width_max = | depth_min = | depth_avg = | depth_max = | discharge1_location= | discharge1_min = | discharge1_avg = | discharge1_max = <!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES --> | source1 = | source1_location = | source1_coordinates= | source1_elevation = | mouth = [[Mongala River]] | mouth_location = | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|3|19|24|N|20|57|38|E|display=title,inline|region:CD_type:landmark_source:ruwiki}} | mouth_elevation = | progression = | river_system = | basin_size = | tributaries_left = | tributaries_right = | custom_label = | custom_data = | extra = }} De '''Ebola River''' ({{IPAc-en|i|ˌ||b|oʊ|l|ə}} anaa {{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|b|oʊ|l|ə}}),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Ebola|title=The American Heritage Dictionary entry: Ebola|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company|website=The American Heritage Dictionary|access-date=2020-04-15|archive-date=2021-07-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729180544/https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=ebola|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ebola|title=Ebola &#124; meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary|website=Cambridge English Dictionary|access-date=2020-04-15|archive-date=2018-01-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124205104/http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ebola|url-status=live}}</ref> sanso commonly known by its Ngbandi name '''Legbala''',<ref name="Tanghe">{{cite journal |last1=Tanghe |first1=Basile |last2=Vangele |first2=A. |date=June 1939 |url=http://www.aequatoria.be/04common/020publications_pdf/Aequatoria%201939.pdf#page=64 |title=Région de la Haute Ebola: Notes d'histoire (1890-1900) |journal=[[Aequatoria]] |volume=2 |issue=6 |pages=61–65 |language=fr |jstor=25837382 |access-date=2020-02-03 |archive-date=2020-07-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711063728/http://www.aequatoria.be/04common/020publications_pdf/Aequatoria%201939.pdf#page=64 |url-status=live }}</ref> be de headstream of de Mongala River, a tributary of de [[Congo River]], insyd northern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]].<ref> {{cite book|last1=vanden Bossche|first1=J.-P.|last2=Bernacsek|first2=G. M. |title=Zaire |journal= Source Book for the Inland Fishery Resources of Africa |issue=18 |volume=1 |date=1990 |page=336 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=WLZRxM9vfXoC&pg=PA336 |access-date= 31 July 2014|isbn=9789251029831}} </ref> E be roughly {{convert|250|km|sp=us}} insyd length.{{cn|date=January 2023}} De name ''Ebola'' be a French corruption of ''Legbala'', its name insyd Ngbandi wich means 'white water'.<ref name="Wordsworth">{{cite journal |last=Wordsworth |first=Dot |date=25 October 2014 |title=How Ebola got its name |url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/2014/10/how-ebola-got-its-name/ |journal=[[The Spectator]] |access-date=26 October 2014 |archive-date=1 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191201184826/https://www.spectator.co.uk/2014/10/how-ebola-got-its-name/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> During de [[Belgian Congo|Belgian administration]] these names were interchangeable along plus de French names ''Eau Blanche''<ref name="Tanghe" /> den rarely ''L'Ébola''.<ref name="Wordsworth" /> Insyd 1976, Ebola virus was first identified insyd Yambuku, {{convert|111|km|sp=us}} from de Ebola River, but de virologist Karl Johnson decide to name am after de river so dat de town would not be associated plus de disease's stigma.<ref name="Wordsworth" /> Thus, de river be eponymous to de terms Ebola virus, ''Ebolavirus'', den Ebola virus disease (usually referred to as simply "Ebola").<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-28922290 |title= Ebola outbreak confirmed by DR Congo |work= [[BBC News]] |date= 2014-08-25 |access-date= 2018-06-21 |archive-date= 2018-12-28 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181228135106/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-28922290 |url-status= live }}</ref> == References == <references /> [[Category:Ebola]] [[Category:Rivers of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:AWC2026]] 9heay0sied7tnthgnwgq3yedpataezu 103985 103984 2026-06-19T07:51:50Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add databox 103985 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} {{short description|River in Democratic Republic of the Congo}} {{Infobox river | name = Ebola River | name_native = {{native name|ngb|Legbala}} | name_native_lang = | name_other = | name_etymology = <!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP --> | image = | image_size = | image_caption = | map = Rio ebola.png | map_size = | map_caption = | pushpin_map = | pushpin_map_size = | pushpin_map_caption= <!---------------------- LOCATION --> | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] | subdivision_type2 = | subdivision_name2 = | subdivision_type3 = | subdivision_name3 = | subdivision_type4 = | subdivision_name4 = | subdivision_type5 = | subdivision_name5 = <!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS --> | length = {{convert|250|km|mi|abbr=on}} | width_min = | width_avg = | width_max = | depth_min = | depth_avg = | depth_max = | discharge1_location= | discharge1_min = | discharge1_avg = | discharge1_max = <!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES --> | source1 = | source1_location = | source1_coordinates= | source1_elevation = | mouth = [[Mongala River]] | mouth_location = | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|3|19|24|N|20|57|38|E|display=title,inline|region:CD_type:landmark_source:ruwiki}} | mouth_elevation = | progression = | river_system = | basin_size = | tributaries_left = | tributaries_right = | custom_label = | custom_data = | extra = }} De '''Ebola River''' ({{IPAc-en|i|ˌ||b|oʊ|l|ə}} anaa {{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|b|oʊ|l|ə}}),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Ebola|title=The American Heritage Dictionary entry: Ebola|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company|website=The American Heritage Dictionary|access-date=2020-04-15|archive-date=2021-07-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729180544/https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=ebola|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ebola|title=Ebola &#124; meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary|website=Cambridge English Dictionary|access-date=2020-04-15|archive-date=2018-01-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124205104/http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ebola|url-status=live}}</ref> sanso commonly known by its Ngbandi name '''Legbala''',<ref name="Tanghe">{{cite journal |last1=Tanghe |first1=Basile |last2=Vangele |first2=A. |date=June 1939 |url=http://www.aequatoria.be/04common/020publications_pdf/Aequatoria%201939.pdf#page=64 |title=Région de la Haute Ebola: Notes d'histoire (1890-1900) |journal=[[Aequatoria]] |volume=2 |issue=6 |pages=61–65 |language=fr |jstor=25837382 |access-date=2020-02-03 |archive-date=2020-07-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711063728/http://www.aequatoria.be/04common/020publications_pdf/Aequatoria%201939.pdf#page=64 |url-status=live }}</ref> be de headstream of de Mongala River, a tributary of de [[Congo River]], insyd northern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of de Congo]].<ref> {{cite book|last1=vanden Bossche|first1=J.-P.|last2=Bernacsek|first2=G. M. |title=Zaire |journal= Source Book for the Inland Fishery Resources of Africa |issue=18 |volume=1 |date=1990 |page=336 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=WLZRxM9vfXoC&pg=PA336 |access-date= 31 July 2014|isbn=9789251029831}} </ref> E be roughly {{convert|250|km|sp=us}} insyd length.{{cn|date=January 2023}} De name ''Ebola'' be a French corruption of ''Legbala'', its name insyd Ngbandi wich means 'white water'.<ref name="Wordsworth">{{cite journal |last=Wordsworth |first=Dot |date=25 October 2014 |title=How Ebola got its name |url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/2014/10/how-ebola-got-its-name/ |journal=[[The Spectator]] |access-date=26 October 2014 |archive-date=1 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191201184826/https://www.spectator.co.uk/2014/10/how-ebola-got-its-name/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> During de [[Belgian Congo|Belgian administration]] these names were interchangeable along plus de French names ''Eau Blanche''<ref name="Tanghe" /> den rarely ''L'Ébola''.<ref name="Wordsworth" /> Insyd 1976, Ebola virus was first identified insyd Yambuku, {{convert|111|km|sp=us}} from de Ebola River, but de virologist Karl Johnson decide to name am after de river so dat de town would not be associated plus de disease's stigma.<ref name="Wordsworth" /> Thus, de river be eponymous to de terms Ebola virus, ''Ebolavirus'', den Ebola virus disease (usually referred to as simply "Ebola").<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-28922290 |title= Ebola outbreak confirmed by DR Congo |work= [[BBC News]] |date= 2014-08-25 |access-date= 2018-06-21 |archive-date= 2018-12-28 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181228135106/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-28922290 |url-status= live }}</ref> == References == <references /> [[Category:Ebola]] [[Category:Rivers of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:AWC2026]] 3nvqth9en18gxhi1df2tibenl5b1e1k 0 27706 103986 2026-06-19T07:55:02Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Create a fresh article 103986 wikitext text/x-wiki {{pp-pc|small=yes}} {{short description|Water located beneath the ground surface}} [[File:Groundwater (aquifer, aquitard, 3 type wells).PNG|right|thumb|upright=1.5|An illustration showing groundwater insyd aquifers (insyd blue) (1, 5 den 6) below de water table (4), den three different wells (7, 8 and 9) dug to reach am.]] f5uf7u5qcfdfmiq9ydjc2ycl3dl3sdt 103987 103986 2026-06-19T08:04:03Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Improve aim 103987 wikitext text/x-wiki {{pp-pc|small=yes}} {{short description|Water located beneath the ground surface}} [[File:Groundwater (aquifer, aquitard, 3 type wells).PNG|right|thumb|upright=1.5|An illustration showing groundwater insyd aquifers (insyd blue) (1, 5 den 6) below de water table (4), den three different wells (7, 8 and 9) dug to reach am.]] '''Groundwater''' be de [[water]] present beneath [[Earth]]'s surface insyd rock den soil pore spaces den insyd de fractures of rock formations . About 30 percent of all readily available fresh water insyd de world be groundwater.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Groundwater? {{!}} International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre |url=https://www.un-igrac.org/what-groundwater |access-date=2022-03-14 |website=www.un-igrac.org |language=en}}</ref> A unit of rock anaa an unconsolidated deposit be bell an ''aquifer'' wen e fit yield a usable quantity of water. De depth at wich soil pore spaces anaa fractures den voids insyd rock becam completely saturated plus water be bell de ''water table''. Groundwater be recharged from de surface; e may discharge from de surface naturally at springs den seeps, den fit form oases anaa wetlands. Groundwater be sanso often withdrawn for agricultural, municipal, den industrial use by constructing den operating extraction wells. De study of de distribution den movement of groundwater be ''hydrogeology'', sanso bell groundwater hydrology. == References == 7e99950r53gm0ri835evcy6tvznin5f 103988 103987 2026-06-19T08:04:43Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add databox 103988 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} {{pp-pc|small=yes}} {{short description|Water located beneath the ground surface}} [[File:Groundwater (aquifer, aquitard, 3 type wells).PNG|right|thumb|upright=1.5|An illustration showing groundwater insyd aquifers (insyd blue) (1, 5 den 6) below de water table (4), den three different wells (7, 8 and 9) dug to reach am.]] '''Groundwater''' be de [[water]] present beneath [[Earth]]'s surface insyd rock den soil pore spaces den insyd de fractures of rock formations . About 30 percent of all readily available fresh water insyd de world be groundwater.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Groundwater? {{!}} International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre |url=https://www.un-igrac.org/what-groundwater |access-date=2022-03-14 |website=www.un-igrac.org |language=en}}</ref> A unit of rock anaa an unconsolidated deposit be bell an ''aquifer'' wen e fit yield a usable quantity of water. De depth at wich soil pore spaces anaa fractures den voids insyd rock becam completely saturated plus water be bell de ''water table''. Groundwater be recharged from de surface; e may discharge from de surface naturally at springs den seeps, den fit form oases anaa wetlands. Groundwater be sanso often withdrawn for agricultural, municipal, den industrial use by constructing den operating extraction wells. De study of de distribution den movement of groundwater be ''hydrogeology'', sanso bell groundwater hydrology. == References == 4ni6wwjzx15j6cde609xr42b9hrc2d8 0 27707 103989 2026-06-19T08:20:39Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Create a fresh article 103989 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|River of South Sudan}} {{Infobox river | name = Adar River | name_native = | name_native_lang = | name_other = | name_etymology = | nickname = <!---------------------- IMAGE--> | image = | image_size = | image_caption = | image_alt = <!---------------------- MAPS --> | map = | map_size = | map_caption = | map_alt = | pushpin_map = South Sudan | pushpin_map_size = | pushpin_map_caption= Location of mouth in South Sudan | pushpin_map_alt = <!---------------------- LOCATION --> | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = [[South Sudan]] | subdivision_type2 = | subdivision_name2 = | subdivision_type3 = | subdivision_name3 = | subdivision_type4 = | subdivision_name4 = | subdivision_type5 = | subdivision_name5 = <!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS --> | length = | width_min = | width_avg = | width_max = | depth_min = | depth_avg = | depth_max = | discharge1_location= | discharge1_min = | discharge1_avg = | discharge1_max = <!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES --> | source1 = | source1_location = | source1_coordinates= <!-- {{Coord|...}} --> | source1_elevation = | mouth = | mouth_location = | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|10|23|N|32|15|E|display=it|type:river}} | mouth_elevation = | progression = | river_system = [[White Nile]] | basin_size = | basin_landmarks = | basin_population = | tributaries_left = | tributaries_right = | waterbodies = | waterfalls = | bridges = | ports = | custom_label = | custom_data = | extra = }} De '''Adar River''' (anaa '''Khor Adar'''), known to de Dinka as de '''Yal''',<ref>{{cite web|author=P.P. Howell and Mahmoud Eff. Abu Sineina|title=Game in the Machar Marshes|year=c. 1951|url=http://www.sudanarchive.net/cgi-bin/pagessoa?a=pdf&d=Dunepd77&dl=1|accessdate=2011-07-22|archive-date=2019-12-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191215030713/https://www.sudanarchive.net/cgi-bin/pagessoa?a=pdf&d=Dunepd77&dl=1|url-status=dead}}</ref> be a tributary of de [[White Nile]] insyd de state of Upper Nile, [[South Sudan]]. E flows north west from de Machar Marshes<ref>{{cite book|last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |last2=Parks |first2=Y.P. |title=The Hydrology of the Nile |year=1999 |chapter=The Sobat Basin and the Machar Marshes |url=http://iahs.info/bluebooks/SP005/BB_005_0103.pdf |accessdate=2011-07-22 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110705132235/http://iahs.info/bluebooks/SP005/BB_005_0103.pdf |archivedate=5 July 2011 |url-status=dead }} page 108</ref> den enters de White Nile just upstream of de town of Melut. == References == 1im7dv1fenpklfyn5m1adn5zhmskjmo 103990 103989 2026-06-19T08:21:27Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 103990 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|River of South Sudan}} {{Infobox river | name = Adar River | name_native = | name_native_lang = | name_other = | name_etymology = | nickname = <!---------------------- IMAGE--> | image = | image_size = | image_caption = | image_alt = <!---------------------- MAPS --> | map = | map_size = | map_caption = | map_alt = | pushpin_map = South Sudan | pushpin_map_size = | pushpin_map_caption= Location of mouth in South Sudan | pushpin_map_alt = <!---------------------- LOCATION --> | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = [[South Sudan]] | subdivision_type2 = | subdivision_name2 = | subdivision_type3 = | subdivision_name3 = | subdivision_type4 = | subdivision_name4 = | subdivision_type5 = | subdivision_name5 = <!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS --> | length = | width_min = | width_avg = | width_max = | depth_min = | depth_avg = | depth_max = | discharge1_location= | discharge1_min = | discharge1_avg = | discharge1_max = <!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES --> | source1 = | source1_location = | source1_coordinates= <!-- {{Coord|...}} --> | source1_elevation = | mouth = | mouth_location = | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|10|23|N|32|15|E|display=it|type:river}} | mouth_elevation = | progression = | river_system = [[White Nile]] | basin_size = | basin_landmarks = | basin_population = | tributaries_left = | tributaries_right = | waterbodies = | waterfalls = | bridges = | ports = | custom_label = | custom_data = | extra = }} De '''Adar River''' (anaa '''Khor Adar'''), known to de Dinka as de '''Yal''',<ref>{{cite web|author=P.P. Howell and Mahmoud Eff. Abu Sineina|title=Game in the Machar Marshes|year=c. 1951|url=http://www.sudanarchive.net/cgi-bin/pagessoa?a=pdf&d=Dunepd77&dl=1|accessdate=2011-07-22|archive-date=2019-12-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191215030713/https://www.sudanarchive.net/cgi-bin/pagessoa?a=pdf&d=Dunepd77&dl=1|url-status=dead}}</ref> be a tributary of de [[White Nile]] insyd de state of Upper Nile, [[South Sudan]]. E flows north west from de Machar Marshes<ref>{{cite book|last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |last2=Parks |first2=Y.P. |title=The Hydrology of the Nile |year=1999 |chapter=The Sobat Basin and the Machar Marshes |url=http://iahs.info/bluebooks/SP005/BB_005_0103.pdf |accessdate=2011-07-22 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110705132235/http://iahs.info/bluebooks/SP005/BB_005_0103.pdf |archivedate=5 July 2011 |url-status=dead }} page 108</ref> den enters de White Nile just upstream of de town of Melut. == References == <references /> [[Category:Rivers of South Sudan]] 98g05w7fwyrhh9offdm2pb5dp9h190m 103991 103990 2026-06-19T08:22:00Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 103991 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|River of South Sudan}} {{Infobox river | name = Adar River | name_native = | name_native_lang = | name_other = | name_etymology = | nickname = <!---------------------- IMAGE--> | image = | image_size = | image_caption = | image_alt = <!---------------------- MAPS --> | map = | map_size = | map_caption = | map_alt = | pushpin_map = South Sudan | pushpin_map_size = | pushpin_map_caption= Location of mouth in South Sudan | pushpin_map_alt = <!---------------------- LOCATION --> | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = [[South Sudan]] | subdivision_type2 = | subdivision_name2 = | subdivision_type3 = | subdivision_name3 = | subdivision_type4 = | subdivision_name4 = | subdivision_type5 = | subdivision_name5 = <!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS --> | length = | width_min = | width_avg = | width_max = | depth_min = | depth_avg = | depth_max = | discharge1_location= | discharge1_min = | discharge1_avg = | discharge1_max = <!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES --> | source1 = | source1_location = | source1_coordinates= <!-- {{Coord|...}} --> | source1_elevation = | mouth = | mouth_location = | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|10|23|N|32|15|E|display=it|type:river}} | mouth_elevation = | progression = | river_system = [[White Nile]] | basin_size = | basin_landmarks = | basin_population = | tributaries_left = | tributaries_right = | waterbodies = | waterfalls = | bridges = | ports = | custom_label = | custom_data = | extra = }} De '''Adar River''' (anaa '''Khor Adar'''), known to de Dinka as de '''Yal''',<ref>{{cite web|author=P.P. Howell and Mahmoud Eff. Abu Sineina|title=Game in the Machar Marshes|year=c. 1951|url=http://www.sudanarchive.net/cgi-bin/pagessoa?a=pdf&d=Dunepd77&dl=1|accessdate=2011-07-22|archive-date=2019-12-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191215030713/https://www.sudanarchive.net/cgi-bin/pagessoa?a=pdf&d=Dunepd77&dl=1|url-status=dead}}</ref> be a tributary of de [[White Nile]] insyd de state of Upper Nile, [[South Sudan]]. E flows north west from de Machar Marshes<ref>{{cite book|last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |last2=Parks |first2=Y.P. |title=The Hydrology of the Nile |year=1999 |chapter=The Sobat Basin and the Machar Marshes |url=http://iahs.info/bluebooks/SP005/BB_005_0103.pdf |accessdate=2011-07-22 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110705132235/http://iahs.info/bluebooks/SP005/BB_005_0103.pdf |archivedate=5 July 2011 |url-status=dead }} page 108</ref> den enters de White Nile just upstream of de town of Melut. == References == <references /> [[Category:Rivers of South Sudan]] [[Category:Tributaries of de Nile]] mn93vve3fnp5r3pubs94seck6tkdhbz 103992 103991 2026-06-19T08:22:25Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 103992 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|River of South Sudan}} {{Infobox river | name = Adar River | name_native = | name_native_lang = | name_other = | name_etymology = | nickname = <!---------------------- IMAGE--> | image = | image_size = | image_caption = | image_alt = <!---------------------- MAPS --> | map = | map_size = | map_caption = | map_alt = | pushpin_map = South Sudan | pushpin_map_size = | pushpin_map_caption= Location of mouth in South Sudan | pushpin_map_alt = <!---------------------- LOCATION --> | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = [[South Sudan]] | subdivision_type2 = | subdivision_name2 = | subdivision_type3 = | subdivision_name3 = | subdivision_type4 = | subdivision_name4 = | subdivision_type5 = | subdivision_name5 = <!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS --> | length = | width_min = | width_avg = | width_max = | depth_min = | depth_avg = | depth_max = | discharge1_location= | discharge1_min = | discharge1_avg = | discharge1_max = <!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES --> | source1 = | source1_location = | source1_coordinates= <!-- {{Coord|...}} --> | source1_elevation = | mouth = | mouth_location = | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|10|23|N|32|15|E|display=it|type:river}} | mouth_elevation = | progression = | river_system = [[White Nile]] | basin_size = | basin_landmarks = | basin_population = | tributaries_left = | tributaries_right = | waterbodies = | waterfalls = | bridges = | ports = | custom_label = | custom_data = | extra = }} De '''Adar River''' (anaa '''Khor Adar'''), known to de Dinka as de '''Yal''',<ref>{{cite web|author=P.P. Howell and Mahmoud Eff. Abu Sineina|title=Game in the Machar Marshes|year=c. 1951|url=http://www.sudanarchive.net/cgi-bin/pagessoa?a=pdf&d=Dunepd77&dl=1|accessdate=2011-07-22|archive-date=2019-12-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191215030713/https://www.sudanarchive.net/cgi-bin/pagessoa?a=pdf&d=Dunepd77&dl=1|url-status=dead}}</ref> be a tributary of de [[White Nile]] insyd de state of Upper Nile, [[South Sudan]]. E flows north west from de Machar Marshes<ref>{{cite book|last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |last2=Parks |first2=Y.P. |title=The Hydrology of the Nile |year=1999 |chapter=The Sobat Basin and the Machar Marshes |url=http://iahs.info/bluebooks/SP005/BB_005_0103.pdf |accessdate=2011-07-22 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110705132235/http://iahs.info/bluebooks/SP005/BB_005_0103.pdf |archivedate=5 July 2011 |url-status=dead }} page 108</ref> den enters de White Nile just upstream of de town of Melut. == References == <references /> [[Category:Rivers of South Sudan]] [[Category:Tributaries of de Nile]] [[Category:Upper Nile (state)]] jaa0dai8dvm3y7dc2w4achc5xfak9xf 103993 103992 2026-06-19T08:22:51Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Dey add category 103993 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|River of South Sudan}} {{Infobox river | name = Adar River | name_native = | name_native_lang = | name_other = | name_etymology = | nickname = <!---------------------- IMAGE--> | image = | image_size = | image_caption = | image_alt = <!---------------------- MAPS --> | map = | map_size = | map_caption = | map_alt = | pushpin_map = South Sudan | pushpin_map_size = | pushpin_map_caption= Location of mouth in South Sudan | pushpin_map_alt = <!---------------------- LOCATION --> | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = [[South Sudan]] | subdivision_type2 = | subdivision_name2 = | subdivision_type3 = | subdivision_name3 = | subdivision_type4 = | subdivision_name4 = | subdivision_type5 = | subdivision_name5 = <!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS --> | length = | width_min = | width_avg = | width_max = | depth_min = | depth_avg = | depth_max = | discharge1_location= | discharge1_min = | discharge1_avg = | discharge1_max = <!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES --> | source1 = | source1_location = | source1_coordinates= <!-- {{Coord|...}} --> | source1_elevation = | mouth = | mouth_location = | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|10|23|N|32|15|E|display=it|type:river}} | mouth_elevation = | progression = | river_system = [[White Nile]] | basin_size = | basin_landmarks = | basin_population = | tributaries_left = | tributaries_right = | waterbodies = | waterfalls = | bridges = | ports = | custom_label = | custom_data = | extra = }} De '''Adar River''' (anaa '''Khor Adar'''), known to de Dinka as de '''Yal''',<ref>{{cite web|author=P.P. Howell and Mahmoud Eff. Abu Sineina|title=Game in the Machar Marshes|year=c. 1951|url=http://www.sudanarchive.net/cgi-bin/pagessoa?a=pdf&d=Dunepd77&dl=1|accessdate=2011-07-22|archive-date=2019-12-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191215030713/https://www.sudanarchive.net/cgi-bin/pagessoa?a=pdf&d=Dunepd77&dl=1|url-status=dead}}</ref> be a tributary of de [[White Nile]] insyd de state of Upper Nile, [[South Sudan]]. E flows north west from de Machar Marshes<ref>{{cite book|last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |last2=Parks |first2=Y.P. |title=The Hydrology of the Nile |year=1999 |chapter=The Sobat Basin and the Machar Marshes |url=http://iahs.info/bluebooks/SP005/BB_005_0103.pdf |accessdate=2011-07-22 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110705132235/http://iahs.info/bluebooks/SP005/BB_005_0103.pdf |archivedate=5 July 2011 |url-status=dead }} page 108</ref> den enters de White Nile just upstream of de town of Melut. == References == <references /> [[Category:Rivers of South Sudan]] [[Category:Tributaries of de Nile]] [[Category:Upper Nile (state)]] [[Category:AWC2026]] atwagiyfo4gtuvackc06hdbztzh5hti 103994 103993 2026-06-19T08:23:29Z Tenaciuos Ntaawa 1645 Add databox 103994 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} {{Short description|River of South Sudan}} {{Infobox river | name = Adar River | name_native = | name_native_lang = | name_other = | name_etymology = | nickname = <!---------------------- IMAGE--> | image = | image_size = | image_caption = | image_alt = <!---------------------- MAPS --> | map = | map_size = | map_caption = | map_alt = | pushpin_map = South Sudan | pushpin_map_size = | pushpin_map_caption= Location of mouth in South Sudan | pushpin_map_alt = <!---------------------- LOCATION --> | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = [[South Sudan]] | subdivision_type2 = | subdivision_name2 = | subdivision_type3 = | subdivision_name3 = | subdivision_type4 = | subdivision_name4 = | subdivision_type5 = | subdivision_name5 = <!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS --> | length = | width_min = | width_avg = | width_max = | depth_min = | depth_avg = | depth_max = | discharge1_location= | discharge1_min = | discharge1_avg = | discharge1_max = <!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES --> | source1 = | source1_location = | source1_coordinates= <!-- {{Coord|...}} --> | source1_elevation = | mouth = | mouth_location = | mouth_coordinates = {{coord|10|23|N|32|15|E|display=it|type:river}} | mouth_elevation = | progression = | river_system = [[White Nile]] | basin_size = | basin_landmarks = | basin_population = | tributaries_left = | tributaries_right = | waterbodies = | waterfalls = | bridges = | ports = | custom_label = | custom_data = | extra = }} De '''Adar River''' (anaa '''Khor Adar'''), known to de Dinka as de '''Yal''',<ref>{{cite web|author=P.P. Howell and Mahmoud Eff. Abu Sineina|title=Game in the Machar Marshes|year=c. 1951|url=http://www.sudanarchive.net/cgi-bin/pagessoa?a=pdf&d=Dunepd77&dl=1|accessdate=2011-07-22|archive-date=2019-12-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191215030713/https://www.sudanarchive.net/cgi-bin/pagessoa?a=pdf&d=Dunepd77&dl=1|url-status=dead}}</ref> be a tributary of de [[White Nile]] insyd de state of Upper Nile, [[South Sudan]]. E flows north west from de Machar Marshes<ref>{{cite book|last=Sutcliffe |first=J.V. |last2=Parks |first2=Y.P. |title=The Hydrology of the Nile |year=1999 |chapter=The Sobat Basin and the Machar Marshes |url=http://iahs.info/bluebooks/SP005/BB_005_0103.pdf |accessdate=2011-07-22 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110705132235/http://iahs.info/bluebooks/SP005/BB_005_0103.pdf |archivedate=5 July 2011 |url-status=dead }} page 108</ref> den enters de White Nile just upstream of de town of Melut. == References == <references /> [[Category:Rivers of South Sudan]] [[Category:Tributaries of de Nile]] [[Category:Upper Nile (state)]] [[Category:AWC2026]] 5bn2pyghqirk6c3j7oe2y3zg9k4twd3