Wikipedia hifwiki https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pahila_Panna MediaWiki 1.45.0-wmf.5 first-letter saadhan khaas baat sadasya sadasya ke baat Wikipedia Wikipedia baat file file ke baat MediaWiki MediaWiki ke baat Template Template ke baat madat madat ke baat vibhag voibhag ke baat TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk 4 738 323747 323549 2025-06-17T17:43:56Z MediaWiki message delivery 9512 /* Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees 2025 - Call for Candidates */ nawaa vibhag 323747 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Samaj Portal Header}} [[Category:Portals]] <!-- Please, put your message below. --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">Last days to vote on the Charter for the Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> :''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/wiki/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Charter/Announcement - voting reminder|You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.]] [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:wiki/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Charter/Announcement - voting reminder}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]'' Hello all, I am reaching out to you today to remind you that the voting period for the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee]] (U4C) charter will close on '''2 February 2024'''. Community members may [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Charter/Voter_information|cast their vote and provide comments about the charter via SecurePoll]]. Those of you who voiced your opinions during the development of the [[foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Enforcement_guidelines|UCoC Enforcement Guidelines]] will find this process familiar. The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Charter|current version of the U4C charter]] is on Meta-wiki with translations available. Read the charter, go vote and share this note with others in your community. I can confidently say the U4C Building Committee looks forward to your participation. On behalf of the UCoC Project team,<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> [[m:User:RamzyM (WMF)|RamzyM (WMF)]] 17:00, 31 Janwari 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=25853527 --> == Invitation for Hindi-Fiji Wikipedians online meetup == Dear {{ping|Girmitya|00sin01|Bihari|K._G._Sub|Lal123|Sampaadak|Smcnarayan}} {{ping|Snandan|Sprakash|Sundaresan|Sampaadak|Tarchu|Thakurji|Tota_Ram_Sharma}} {{ping|Tarchu|Shreya.Bhopal|Rbhai|Saroj|Pardesi}} and Hindi-Fiji Wikipedians friends, I extend a warm invitation to you to join me for an online meetup. This is an opportunity for us to share stories, discuss how to grow the community, conduct an online editathon, improve articles, and strengthen collaboration. The meetup will take place on <u>18 February, 2024</u> (Sunday) from 7:30 AM UTC (7:30 PM Fiji time) to 8:30 AM UTC (8:30 PM Fiji time). To participate, please access the meeting link [Google Meet link - meet.google.com/wnb-zsnm-min ]. I look forward to your participation. Your contribution to this dialogue will be greatly appreciated. -- [[sadasya:Suyash.dwivedi|Suyash Dwivedi]] ([[sadasya ke baat:Suyash.dwivedi|talk]]) 16:09, 7 Farwari 2024 (UTC) ===Meeting Link=== '''Google Meet''' : http://meet.google.com/wnb-zsnm-min {{ping|Girmitya|00sin01|Bihari|K._G._Sub|Lal123|Sampaadak|Smcnarayan}} {{ping|Snandan|Sprakash|Sundaresan|Sampaadak|Tarchu|Thakurji|Tota_Ram_Sharma}} {{ping|Tarchu|Shreya.Bhopal|Rbhai|Saroj|Pardesi}} Meeting starts with in 1 hour 45 minutes ie at 7 UTC. ===Participants=== # [[sadasya:Suyash.dwivedi|Suyash Dwivedi]] ([[sadasya ke baat:Suyash.dwivedi|talk]]) 16:09, 7 Farwari 2024 (UTC) # Oops! Looks like you left me hanging without a ping! [[sadasya:DreamRimmer|DreamRimmer]] ([[sadasya ke baat:DreamRimmer|talk]]) 16:19, 7 Farwari 2024 (UTC) # [[sadasya:Saroj|Saroj]] ([[sadasya ke baat:Saroj|talk]]) 17:16, 7 Farwari 2024 (UTC) #[[sadasya:Shreya.Bhopal|Shreya.Bhopal]] ([[sadasya ke baat:Shreya.Bhopal|talk]]) 05:43, 18 Farwari 2024 (UTC) ===Outcome of discussions=== A big thank you to all who joined our recent Hindi-Fiji Wikipedians online meetup! Your presence and enthusiasm made it a success. Here's a snapshot of what we discussed and decided: 1. Gadgets Setup: We're implementing helpful gadgets to ease editing and management tasks on Hindi Fiji Wikipedia. 2. Local Clock Option: Soon, you'll see a local clock option on the top right side for easy timekeeping while editing. 3. Article Improvement Campaign: Get ready for campaigns to enhance existing articles on our platform. 4. [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Feminism_and_Folklore_2024 Feminism and Folklore] : We're gearing up to participate and contribute to articles on feminism and folklore. Participants left excited and eager for more meetups. Let's keep the momentum going and look forward to future gatherings. Apologies for the delayed post, and thank you once again for your valuable contributions and commitment. Together, let's make Hindi Fiji Wikipedia thrive! Best, -- [[sadasya:Suyash.dwivedi|Suyash Dwivedi]] ([[sadasya ke baat:Suyash.dwivedi|talk]]) 18:32, 24 Farwari 2024 (UTC) == <span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">Announcing the results of the UCoC Coordinating Committee Charter ratification vote</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> :''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/wiki/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Charter/Announcement - results|You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.]] [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:wiki/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Charter/Announcement - results}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]'' Dear all, Thank you everyone for following the progress of the Universal Code of Conduct. I am writing to you today to announce the outcome of the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Charter/Voter_information|ratification vote]] on the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Charter|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee Charter]]. 1746 contributors voted in this ratification vote with 1249 voters supporting the Charter and 420 voters not. The ratification vote process allowed for voters to provide comments about the Charter. A report of voting statistics and a summary of voter comments will be published on Meta-wiki in the coming weeks. Please look forward to hearing about the next steps soon. On behalf of the UCoC Project team,<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> [[m:User:RamzyM (WMF)|RamzyM (WMF)]] 18:23, 12 Farwari 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=26160150 --> == Enabling machine translation support, Section and Content translation tools in your Wikipedia == {{int:Hello}} Fiji Hindi Wikipedians! Apologies as this message is not in your language, {{int:Please-translate}}. The WMF Language team plans to enable the Section and Content translation tools to Fiji Hindi Wikipedia by default. Also, the team is considering adding [[mw:Help:Content_translation/Translating/Initial_machine_translation|machine translation]] (MT) support with [[mw:MinT|MinT]] to the tools. MinT may be providing limited support for your language, so we want to make sure it is useful for the community. For this, my team would like members of your community to: * Test the machine translation support [https://translate.wmcloud.org/ in a test instance]. You can paste multiple pieces of content from different Wikipedia articles and check whether the provided result is a useful starting point for a translation. * Give us feedback if the machine translation quality is okay to be on your Wikipedia by default, as an optional service or if it is not useful at all. * Let us know if you have any objections to having the Section and Content translation enabled by default in this Wikipedia. Below is background information about the tools and how you can test them. '''Background information''' [[mw:Content_translation|Content Translation]] has been a successful tool for editors to create content in their language. Since its release in 2015, the tool has aided the translation of more than one million articles across all languages. However, the tool is in beta in Fiji Hindi Wikipedia, limiting its discoverability and use. Being in beta also blocks enabling the Section translation in your Wikipedia. [[mw:Content_translation/Section_translation|Section Translation]] extends the capabilities of Content Translation to support mobile devices. On mobile, the tool will: * Guide you to translate one section at a time to expand existing articles or create new ones * Make it easy to transfer knowledge across languages anytime from your mobile device MinT (Machine in Translation) is a machine translation service hosted in the Wikimedia Infrastructure. It is designed to provide translations from many MT models. The model available for your Wikipedia is the [https://github.com/google-research/google-research/tree/master/madlad_400 MADLAD-400 open-source translation model]. '''Our request''' The MADLAD-400 MT is available for your Wiki in our test instance. We want you to test it (translate sentences and paragraphs from articles) in our test instance:[https://translate.wmcloud.org/ https://translate.wmcloud.org]. Let us know in this thread if the quality of the automatic translation generated is okay to enable it in Fiji Hindi Wikipedia along with the Section and Content translation tool. '''Our plans to enable the tools and the machine translation support''' We plan to deploy the tools with the MT support by the 4th of March. If there are no objections from your community, we will deploy them. We want to provide the tools in the way they best serve the community, so we are open to make further adjustments after the deployment based on the experience of the community. We look forward to getting your feedback in this thread. Thank you! On behalf of the WMF Language team. [[sadasya:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]] ([[sadasya ke baat:UOzurumba (WMF)|talk]]) 03:10, 15 Farwari 2024 (UTC) :Tried the translation support to translate from English to Fiji Hindi. Although the translation was not totally correct, it would still be useful for Fiji Hindi speakers as they will be able to do further corrections after translation has been done and there are no other translation tools for Fiji Hindi. At this stage, an optional service could be tried. By the way, what is the source of Fiji Hindi used in this tool? [[sadasya:Girmitya|Girmitya]] ([[sadasya ke baat:Girmitya|talk]]) 10:24, 15 Farwari 2024 (UTC) ::Hello @[[sadasya:Girmitya|Girmitya]], ::Thank you for your question, and I apologise for my late reply. The training data used for Fiji Hindi is described in detail in this research paper: https://arxiv.org/abs/2309.04662. ::This week, the WMF Language team will enable the machine translation support and the tools by default. Let us know if you have any objections to having the tool in this Wiki. ::Best regards, ::[[sadasya:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]] ([[sadasya ke baat:UOzurumba (WMF)|talk]]) 14:19, 4 Maach 2024 (UTC) == Feminism and Folklore 2024 in Fiji-Hindi == [[File:Feminism and Folklore 2024 logo.svg|500px|center|frameless]] [[Feminism]] and Folklore is an international writing contest organized on Wikipedia annually in the months of February and March. Its aim is to document folk cultures and women in folklore from different regions of the world. We are delighted to announce that Fiji-Hindi Wikipedia is also participating this year. The competition will run from '''March 1st to March 31st'''. This year, Feminism and Folklore will focus on feminism, women's issues, and gender-centric topics. Additionally, it will incorporate a Wiki Loves Folklore gender gap emphasis and a folk culture theme on Wikipedia. [[Wikipedia:Feminism and Folklore 2024|'''You can find more details here''']]. We invite you to participate and help us translate the campaign page. We are also looking for jury members (maximum of 2). If you are interested, please leave a message on my [[sadasya ke baat:Suyash.dwivedi|talk page]] or send a [[khaas:EmailUser/Suyash.dwivedi|Wikimail]]. === International prizes === Prizes for top contributors globally (most articles): * '''1st prize:''' – 300 USD * '''2nd prize:''' – 200 USD * '''3rd prize:''' – 100 USD * '''Consolation top 10 winners:''' – 50 USD <!-- === Local prizes === * '''1st prize:''' – 100 USD * '''2nd prize:''' – 50 USD * '''3rd prize:''' – 25 USD --> ''Prizes will be given in Gift voucher/coupons.'' -- [[sadasya:Suyash.dwivedi|Suyash Dwivedi]] ([[sadasya ke baat:Suyash.dwivedi|talk]]) 14:00, 25 Farwari 2024 (UTC) == Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy Month 2024: We are back! == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> [[File:UCDM 2024 general.jpg|180px|right]] {{int:please-translate}} Hello, dear Wikipedians!<br/> [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Ukraine|Wikimedia Ukraine]], in cooperation with the [[:en:Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine|MFA of Ukraine]] and [[:en:Ukrainian Institute|Ukrainian Institute]], has launched the forth edition of writing challenge "'''[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy Month 2024|Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy Month]]'''", which lasts from 1st until 31st March 2024. The campaign is dedicated to famous Ukrainian artists of cinema, music, literature, architecture, design and cultural phenomena of Ukraine that are now part of world heritage. We accept contribution in every language! The most active contesters will receive prizes.<br/> We invite you to take part and help us improve the coverage of Ukrainian culture on Wikipedia in your language! Also, we plan to set up a [[:m:CentralNotice/Request/UCDM 2024|banner]] to notify users of the possibility to participate in such a challenge! [[:m:User:ValentynNefedov (WMUA)|ValentynNefedov (WMUA)]] ([[:m:User talk:ValentynNefedov (WMUA)|talk]]) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:ValentynNefedov (WMUA)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery/Wikipedia&oldid=26166467 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> Report of the U4C Charter ratification and U4C Call for Candidates now available</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> :''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024/Announcement – call for candidates| You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.]] [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024/Announcement – call for candidates}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]'' Hello all, I am writing to you today with two important pieces of information. First, the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Charter/Vote results|report of the comments from the Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C) Charter ratification]] is now available. Secondly, the call for candidates for the U4C is open now through April 1, 2024. The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee]] (U4C) is a global group dedicated to providing an equitable and consistent implementation of the UCoC. Community members are invited to submit their applications for the U4C. For more information and the responsibilities of the U4C, please [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Charter|review the U4C Charter]]. Per the charter, there are 16 seats on the U4C: eight community-at-large seats and eight regional seats to ensure the U4C represents the diversity of the movement. Read more and submit your application on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024|Meta-wiki]]. On behalf of the UCoC project team,<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> [[m:User:RamzyM (WMF)|RamzyM (WMF)]] 16:25, 5 Maach 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=26276337 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees 2024 Selection</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> : ''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2024/Announcement/Selection announcement| You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.]]'' : ''<div class="plainlinks">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2024/Announcement/Selection announcement|{{int:interlanguage-link-mul}}]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Wikimedia Foundation elections/2024/Announcement/Selection announcement}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]</div>'' Dear all, This year, the term of 4 (four) Community- and Affiliate-selected Trustees on the Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees will come to an end [1]. The Board invites the whole movement to participate in this year’s selection process and vote to fill those seats. The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections committee|Elections Committee]] will oversee this process with support from Foundation staff [2]. The Board Governance Committee created a Board Selection Working Group from Trustees who cannot be candidates in the 2024 community- and affiliate-selected trustee selection process composed of Dariusz Jemielniak, Nataliia Tymkiv, Esra'a Al Shafei, Kathy Collins, and Shani Evenstein Sigalov [3]. The group is tasked with providing Board oversight for the 2024 trustee selection process, and for keeping the Board informed. More details on the roles of the Elections Committee, Board, and staff are here [4]. Here are the key planned dates: * May 2024: Call for candidates and call for questions * June 2024: Affiliates vote to shortlist 12 candidates (no shortlisting if 15 or less candidates apply) [5] * June-August 2024: Campaign period * End of August / beginning of September 2024: Two-week community voting period * October–November 2024: Background check of selected candidates * Board's Meeting in December 2024: New trustees seated Learn more about the 2024 selection process - including the detailed timeline, the candidacy process, the campaign rules, and the voter eligibility criteria - on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2024|this Meta-wiki page]], and make your plan. '''Election Volunteers''' Another way to be involved with the 2024 selection process is to be an Election Volunteer. Election Volunteers are a bridge between the Elections Committee and their respective community. They help ensure their community is represented and mobilize them to vote. Learn more about the program and how to join on this [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2024/Election Volunteers|Meta-wiki page]]. Best regards, [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:Pundit|Dariusz Jemielniak]] (Governance Committee Chair, Board Selection Working Group) [1] https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2021/Results#Elected [2] https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Committee:Elections_Committee_Charter [3] https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Minutes:2023-08-15#Governance_Committee [4] https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections_committee/Roles [5] Even though the ideal number is 12 candidates for 4 open seats, the shortlisting process will be triggered if there are more than 15 candidates because the 1-3 candidates that are removed might feel ostracized and it would be a lot of work for affiliates to carry out the shortlisting process to only eliminate 1-3 candidates from the candidate list.<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> [[User:MPossoupe_(WMF)|MPossoupe_(WMF)]]19:57, 12 Maach 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:MPossoupe (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=26349432 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">Your wiki will be in read-only soon</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <section begin="server-switch"/><div class="plainlinks"> [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|Read this message in another language]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}] The [[foundation:|Wikimedia Foundation]] will switch the traffic between its data centers. This will make sure that Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia wikis can stay online even after a disaster. All traffic will switch on '''{{#time:j xg|2024-03-20|en}}'''. The test will start at '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/{{#time:U|2024-03-20T14:00|en}} {{#time:H:i e|2024-03-20T14:00}}]'''. Unfortunately, because of some limitations in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:What is MediaWiki?|MediaWiki]], all editing must stop while the switch is made. We apologize for this disruption, and we are working to minimize it in the future. '''You will be able to read, but not edit, all wikis for a short period of time.''' *You will not be able to edit for up to an hour on {{#time:l j xg Y|2024-03-20|en}}. *If you try to edit or save during these times, you will see an error message. We hope that no edits will be lost during these minutes, but we can't guarantee it. If you see the error message, then please wait until everything is back to normal. Then you should be able to save your edit. But, we recommend that you make a copy of your changes first, just in case. ''Other effects'': *Background jobs will be slower and some may be dropped. Red links might not be updated as quickly as normal. If you create an article that is already linked somewhere else, the link will stay red longer than usual. Some long-running scripts will have to be stopped. * We expect the code deployments to happen as any other week. However, some case-by-case code freezes could punctually happen if the operation require them afterwards. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/GitLab|GitLab]] will be unavailable for about 90 minutes. This project may be postponed if necessary. You can [[wikitech:Switch_Datacenter|read the schedule at wikitech.wikimedia.org]]. Any changes will be announced in the schedule. There will be more notifications about this. A banner will be displayed on all wikis 30 minutes before this operation happens. '''Please share this information with your community.'''</div><section end="server-switch"/> </div> [[user:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]], 00:00, 15 Maach 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&oldid=25636619 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">Vote now to select members of the first U4C</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> :''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024/Announcement – vote opens|You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.]] [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024/Announcement – vote opens}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]'' Dear all, I am writing to you to let you know the voting period for the Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C) is open now through May 9, 2024. Read the information on the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024|voting page on Meta-wiki]] to learn more about voting and voter eligibility. The Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C) is a global group dedicated to providing an equitable and consistent implementation of the UCoC. Community members were invited to submit their applications for the U4C. For more information and the responsibilities of the U4C, please [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Charter|review the U4C Charter]]. Please share this message with members of your community so they can participate as well. On behalf of the UCoC project team,<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> [[m:User:RamzyM (WMF)|RamzyM (WMF)]] 20:20, 25 Aprel 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=26390244 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">Sign up for the language community meeting on May 31st, 16:00 UTC</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <section begin="message"/>Hello all, The next language community meeting is scheduled in a few weeks - May 31st at 16:00 UTC. If you're interested, you can [https://www.mediawiki.org/w/index.php?title=Wikimedia_Language_engineering/Community_meetings#31_May_2024 sign up on this wiki page]. This is a participant-driven meeting, where we share language-specific updates related to various projects, collectively discuss technical issues related to language wikis, and work together to find possible solutions. For example, in the last meeting, the topics included the machine translation service (MinT) and the languages and models it currently supports, localization efforts from the Kiwix team, and technical challenges with numerical sorting in files used on Bengali Wikisource. Do you have any ideas for topics to share technical updates related to your project? Any problems that you would like to bring for discussion during the meeting? Do you need interpretation support from English to another language? Please reach out to me at ssethi(__AT__)wikimedia.org and [[etherpad:p/language-community-meeting-may-2024|add agenda items to the document here]]. We look forward to your participation! <section end="message"/> </div> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 21:22, 14 Mai 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:SSethi (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=26390244 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> Feedback invited on Procedure for Sibling Project Lifecycle</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> :''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Community Affairs Committee/Procedure for Sibling Project Lifecycle/Invitation for feedback (MM)|You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.]] [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Wikimedia Foundation Community Affairs Committee/Procedure for Sibling Project Lifecycle/Invitation for feedback (MM)}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]'' [[File:Sibling Project Lifecycle Conversation 3.png|150px|right|link=:m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Community Affairs Committee/Procedure for Sibling Project Lifecycle]] Dear community members, The [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Community Affairs Committee|Community Affairs Committee]] (CAC) of the [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees|Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees]] invites you to give feedback on a '''[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation Community Affairs Committee/Procedure for Sibling Project Lifecycle|draft Procedure for Sibling Project Lifecycle]]'''. This draft Procedure outlines proposed steps and requirements for opening and closing Wikimedia Sibling Projects, and aims to ensure any newly approved projects are set up for success. This is separate from the procedures for opening or closing language versions of projects, which is handled by the [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Language committee|Language Committee]] or [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Closing_projects_policy|closing projects policy]]. You can find the details on [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Talk:Wikimedia Foundation Community Affairs Committee/Procedure for Sibling Project Lifecycle#Review|this page]], as well as the ways to give your feedback from today until the end of the day on '''June 23, 2024''', anywhere on Earth. You can also share information about this with the interested project communities you work with or support, and you can also help us translate the procedure into more languages, so people can join the discussions in their own language. On behalf of the CAC,<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> [[m:User:RamzyM (WMF)|RamzyM (WMF)]] 02:25, 22 Mai 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=26390244 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">Announcing the first Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> :''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024/Announcement – results|You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.]] [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024/Announcement – results}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]'' Hello, The scrutineers have finished reviewing the vote results. We are following up with the results of the first [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C) election]]. We are pleased to announce the following individuals as regional members of the U4C, who will fulfill a two-year term: * North America (USA and Canada) ** – * Northern and Western Europe ** [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:Ghilt|Ghilt]] * Latin America and Caribbean ** – * Central and East Europe (CEE) ** — * Sub-Saharan Africa ** – * Middle East and North Africa ** [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:Ibrahim.ID|Ibrahim.ID]] * East, South East Asia and Pacific (ESEAP) ** [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:0xDeadbeef|0xDeadbeef]] * South Asia ** – The following individuals are elected to be community-at-large members of the U4C, fulfilling a one-year term: * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:Barkeep49|Barkeep49]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:Superpes15|Superpes15]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:Civvì|Civvì]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/User:Luke081515|Luke081515]] * – * – * – * – Thank you again to everyone who participated in this process and much appreciation to the candidates for your leadership and dedication to the Wikimedia movement and community. Over the next few weeks, the U4C will begin meeting and planning the 2024-25 year in supporting the implementation and review of the UCoC and Enforcement Guidelines. Follow their work on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee|Meta-wiki]]. On behalf of the UCoC project team,<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> [[m:User:RamzyM (WMF)|RamzyM (WMF)]] 08:14, 3 Juun 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=26390244 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">The final text of the Wikimedia Movement Charter is now on Meta</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> :''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Charter/Drafting Committee/Announcement - Final draft available|You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.]] [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Movement Charter/Drafting Committee/Announcement - Final draft available}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]'' Hi everyone, The final text of the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Charter|Wikimedia Movement Charter]] is now up on Meta in more than 20 languages for your reading. '''What is the Wikimedia Movement Charter?''' The Wikimedia Movement Charter is a proposed document to define roles and responsibilities for all the members and entities of the Wikimedia movement, including the creation of a new body – the Global Council – for movement governance. '''Join the Wikimedia Movement Charter “Launch Party”''' Join the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Event:Movement Charter Launch Party|“Launch Party”]] on '''June 20, 2024''' at '''14.00-15.00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1718892000 your local time]). During this call, we will celebrate the release of the final Charter and present the content of the Charter. Join and learn about the Charter before casting your vote. '''Movement Charter ratification vote''' Voting will commence on SecurePoll on '''June 25, 2024''' at '''00:01 UTC''' and will conclude on '''July 9, 2024''' at '''23:59 UTC.''' You can read more about the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Charter/Ratification/Voting|voting process, eligibility criteria, and other details]] on Meta. If you have any questions, please leave a comment on the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Talk:Movement Charter|Meta talk page]] or email the MCDC at [mailto:mcdc@wikimedia.org mcdc@wikimedia.org]. On behalf of the MCDC,<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> [[m:User:RamzyM (WMF)|RamzyM (WMF)]] 08:44, 11 Juun 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=26390244 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">Voting to ratify the Wikimedia Movement Charter is now open – cast your vote</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> :''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Charter/Drafting Committee/Announcement - Ratification vote opens|You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.]] [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Movement Charter/Drafting Committee/Announcement - Ratification vote opens}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]'' Hello everyone, The voting to ratify the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Charter|'''Wikimedia Movement Charter''']] is now open. The Wikimedia Movement Charter is a document to define roles and responsibilities for all the members and entities of the Wikimedia movement, including the creation of a new body – the Global Council – for movement governance. The final version of the Wikimedia Movement Charter is [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Charter|available on Meta in different languages]] and attached [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wikimedia_Movement_Charter_(June_2024).pdf here in PDF format] for your reading. Voting commenced on SecurePoll on '''June 25, 2024''' at '''00:01 UTC''' and will conclude on '''July 9, 2024''' at '''23:59 UTC'''. Please read more on the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Charter/Ratification/Voting|voter information and eligibility details]]. After reading the Charter, please [[Special:SecurePoll/vote/398|'''vote here''']] and share this note further. If you have any questions about the ratification vote, please contact the Charter Electoral Commission at [mailto:cec@wikimedia.org '''cec@wikimedia.org''']. On behalf of the CEC,<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> [[m:User:RamzyM (WMF)|RamzyM (WMF)]] 10:51, 25 Juun 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=26989444 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">Voting to ratify the Wikimedia Movement Charter is ending soon</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> :''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Charter/Drafting Committee/Announcement - Final reminder|You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.]] [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Movement Charter/Drafting Committee/Announcement - Final reminder}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]'' Hello everyone, This is a kind reminder that the voting period to ratify the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Charter|Wikimedia Movement Charter]] will be closed on '''July 9, 2024''', at '''23:59 UTC'''. If you have not voted yet, please vote [[m:Special:SecurePoll/vote/398|on SecurePoll]]. On behalf of the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement_Charter/Ratification/Voting#Electoral_Commission|Charter Electoral Commission]],<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> [[m:User:RamzyM (WMF)|RamzyM (WMF)]] 03:45, 8 Julai 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=26989444 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">U4C Special Election - Call for Candidates</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> :''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024 Special Election/Announcement – call for candidates|You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.]] [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024 Special Election/Announcement – call for candidates}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]'' Hello all, A special election has been called to fill additional vacancies on the U4C. The call for candidates phase is open from now through July 19, 2024. The [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee]] (U4C) is a global group dedicated to providing an equitable and consistent implementation of the [[:foundation:Wikimedia Foundation Universal Code of Conduct|UCoC]]. Community members are invited to submit their applications in the special election for the U4C. For more information and the responsibilities of the U4C, please review the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Charter|U4C Charter]]. In this special election, according to [[Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Charter#2. Elections and Terms|chapter 2 of the U4C charter]], there are 9 seats available on the U4C: '''four''' community-at-large seats and '''five''' regional seats to ensure the U4C represents the diversity of the movement. [[Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Charter#5. Glossary|No more than two members of the U4C can be elected from the same home wiki]]. Therefore, candidates must not have English Wikipedia, German Wikipedia, or Italian Wikipedia as their home wiki. Read more and submit your application on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024 Special Election|Meta-wiki]]. In cooperation with the U4C,<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> -- [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 00:02, 10 Julai 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=26989444 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">Wikimedia Movement Charter ratification voting results</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> :''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Charter/Drafting Committee/Announcement - Results of the ratification vote|You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.]] [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Movement Charter/Drafting Committee/Announcement - Results of the ratification vote}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]'' Hello everyone, After carefully tallying both individual and affiliate votes, the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Charter/Ratification/Voting#Electoral Commission|Charter Electoral Commission]] is pleased to announce the final results of the Wikimedia Movement Charter voting.   As [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Talk:Movement Charter#Thank you for your participation in the Movement Charter ratification vote!|communicated]] by the Charter Electoral Commission, we reached the quorum for both Affiliate and individual votes by the time the vote closed on '''July 9, 23:59 UTC'''. We thank all 2,451 individuals and 129 Affiliate representatives who voted in the ratification process. Your votes and comments are invaluable for the future steps in Movement Strategy. The final results of the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Movement Charter|Wikimedia Movement Charter]] ratification voting held between 25 June and 9 July 2024 are as follows: '''Individual vote:''' Out of 2,451 individuals who voted as of July 9 23:59 (UTC), 2,446 have been accepted as valid votes. Among these, '''1,710''' voted “yes”; '''623''' voted “no”; and '''113''' selected “–” (neutral). Because the neutral votes don’t count towards the total number of votes cast, 73.30% voted to approve the Charter (1710/2333), while 26.70% voted to reject the Charter (623/2333). '''Affiliates vote:''' Out of 129 Affiliates designated voters who voted as of July 9 23:59 (UTC), 129 votes are confirmed as valid votes. Among these, '''93''' voted “yes”; '''18''' voted “no”; and '''18''' selected “–” (neutral). Because the neutral votes don’t count towards the total number of votes cast, 83.78% voted to approve the Charter (93/111), while 16.22% voted to reject the Charter (18/111). '''Board of Trustees of the Wikimedia Foundation:''' The Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees voted '''not to ratify''' the proposed Charter during their special Board meeting on July 8, 2024. The Chair of the Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees, Nataliia Tymkiv, [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_Board_noticeboard/Board_resolution_and_vote_on_the_proposed_Movement_Charter|shared the result of the vote, the resolution, meeting minutes and proposed next steps]].   With this, the Wikimedia Movement Charter in its current revision is '''not ratified'''. We thank you for your participation in this important moment in our movement’s governance. The Charter Electoral Commission, [[m:User:Abhinav619|Abhinav619]], [[m:User:Borschts|Borschts]], [[m:User:Iwuala Lucy|Iwuala Lucy]], [[m:User:Tochiprecious|Tochiprecious]], [[m:User:Der-Wir-Ing|Der-Wir-Ing]]<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> [[sadasya:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[sadasya ke baat:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 17:52, 18 Julai 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=26989444 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">Vote now to fill vacancies of the first U4C</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> :''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024 Special Election/Announcement – voting opens|You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.]] [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024 Special Election/Announcement – voting opens}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]'' Dear all, I am writing to you to let you know the voting period for the Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C) is open now through '''August 10, 2024'''. Read the information on the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024 Special Election|voting page on Meta-wiki]] to learn more about voting and voter eligibility. The Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C) is a global group dedicated to providing an equitable and consistent implementation of the UCoC. Community members were invited to submit their applications for the U4C. For more information and the responsibilities of the U4C, please [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Charter|review the U4C Charter]]. Please share this message with members of your community so they can participate as well. In cooperation with the U4C,<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> [[m:User:RamzyM (WMF)|RamzyM (WMF)]] 02:46, 27 Julai 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=26989444 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">Reminder! Vote closing soon to fill vacancies of the first U4C</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> :''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024 Special Election/Announcement – reminder to vote|You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.]] [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024 Special Election/Announcement – reminder to vote}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]'' Dear all, The voting period for the Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C) is closing soon. It is open through 10 August 2024. Read the information on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2024_Special_Election#Voting|the voting page on Meta-wiki to learn more about voting and voter eligibility]]. If you are eligible to vote and have not voted in this special election, it is important that you vote now. '''Why should you vote?''' The U4C is a global group dedicated to providing an equitable and consistent implementation of the UCoC. Community input into the committee membership is critical to the success of the UCoC. Please share this message with members of your community so they can participate as well. In cooperation with the U4C,<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> -- [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 15:30, 6 August 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=27183190 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Coming soon: A new sub-referencing feature – try it!</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="Sub-referencing"/> [[File:Sub-referencing reuse visual.png|{{#ifeq:{{#dir}}|ltr|right|left}}|400px]] Hello. For many years, community members have requested an easy way to re-use references with different details. Now, a MediaWiki solution is coming: The new sub-referencing feature will work for wikitext and Visual Editor and will enhance the existing reference system. You can continue to use different ways of referencing, but you will probably encounter sub-references in articles written by other users. More information on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing|the project page]]. '''We want your feedback''' to make sure this feature works well for you: * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing#Test|Please try]] the current state of development on beta wiki and [[m:Talk:WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing|let us know what you think]]. * [[m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing/Sign-up|Sign up here]] to get updates and/or invites to participate in user research activities. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Deutschland|Wikimedia Deutschland]]’s [[m:Special:MyLanguage/WMDE Technical Wishes|Technical Wishes]] team is planning to bring this feature to Wikimedia wikis later this year. We will reach out to creators/maintainers of tools and templates related to references beforehand. Please help us spread the message. --[[m:User:Johannes Richter (WMDE)|Johannes Richter (WMDE)]] ([[m:User talk:Johannes Richter (WMDE)|talk]]) 10:36, 19 August 2024 (UTC) <section end="Sub-referencing"/> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Johannes Richter (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Johannes_Richter_(WMDE)/Sub-referencing/massmessage_list&oldid=27309345 --> == Sign up for the language community meeting on August 30th, 15:00 UTC == Hi all, The next language community meeting is scheduled in a few weeks—on August 30th at 15:00 UTC. If you're interested in joining, you can [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Language_and_Product_Localization/Community_meetings#30_August_2024 sign up on this wiki page]. This participant-driven meeting will focus on sharing language-specific updates related to various projects, discussing technical issues related to language wikis, and working together to find possible solutions. For example, in the last meeting, topics included the Language Converter, the state of language research, updates on the Incubator conversations, and technical challenges around external links not working with special characters on Bengali sites. Do you have any ideas for topics to share technical updates or discuss challenges? Please add agenda items to the document [https://etherpad.wikimedia.org/p/language-community-meeting-aug-2024 here] and reach out to ssethi(__AT__)wikimedia.org. We look forward to your participation! [[sadasya:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[sadasya ke baat:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 23:19, 22 August 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:SSethi (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=27183190 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Announcing the Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> :''[https://lists.wikimedia.org/hyperkitty/list/board-elections@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/OKCCN2CANIH2K7DXJOL2GPVDFWL27R7C/ Original message at wikimedia-l]. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024 Special Election/Announcement - results|You can find this message translated into additional languages on Meta-wiki.]] [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024 Special Election/Announcement - results}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]'' Hello all, The scrutineers have finished reviewing the vote and the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Elections Committee|Elections Committee]] have certified the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024 Special Election/Results|results]] for the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2024 Special Election|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C) special election]]. I am pleased to announce the following individual as regional members of the U4C, who will fulfill a term until 15 June 2026: * North America (USA and Canada) ** Ajraddatz The following seats were not filled during this special election: * Latin America and Caribbean * Central and East Europe (CEE) * Sub-Saharan Africa * South Asia * The four remaining Community-At-Large seats Thank you again to everyone who participated in this process and much appreciation to the candidates for your leadership and dedication to the Wikimedia movement and community. Over the next few weeks, the U4C will begin meeting and planning the 2024-25 year in supporting the implementation and review of the UCoC and Enforcement Guidelines. You can follow their work on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee|Meta-Wiki]]. On behalf of the U4C and the Elections Committee,<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> [[m:User:RamzyM (WMF)|RamzyM (WMF)]] 14:05, 2 Saptambar 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=27183190 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Have your say: Vote for the 2024 Board of Trustees!</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> Hello all, The voting period for the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2024|2024 Board of Trustees election]] is now open. There are twelve (12) candidates running for four (4) seats on the Board. Learn more about the candidates by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2024/Candidates|reading their statements]] and their [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2024/Questions_for_candidates|answers to community questions]]. When you are ready, go to the [[Special:SecurePoll/vote/400|SecurePoll]] voting page to vote. '''The vote is open from September 3rd at 00:00 UTC to September 17th at 23:59 UTC'''. To check your voter eligibility, please visit the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2024/Voter_eligibility_guidelines|voter eligibility page]]. Best regards, The Elections Committee and Board Selection Working Group<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> [[sadasya:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[sadasya ke baat:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 12:14, 3 Saptambar 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=27183190 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Your wiki will be in read-only soon</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="server-switch"/><div class="plainlinks"> [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|Read this message in another language]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}] The [[foundation:|Wikimedia Foundation]] will switch the traffic between its data centers. This will make sure that Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia wikis can stay online even after a disaster. All traffic will switch on '''{{#time:j xg|2024-09-25|en}}'''. The switch will start at '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/{{#time:U|2024-09-25T15:00|en}} {{#time:H:i e|2024-09-25T15:00}}]'''. Unfortunately, because of some limitations in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:What is MediaWiki?|MediaWiki]], all editing must stop while the switch is made. We apologize for this disruption, and we are working to minimize it in the future. A banner will be displayed on all wikis 30 minutes before this operation happens. This banner will remain visible until the end of the operation. '''You will be able to read, but not edit, all wikis for a short period of time.''' *You will not be able to edit for up to an hour on {{#time:l j xg Y|2024-09-25|en}}. *If you try to edit or save during these times, you will see an error message. We hope that no edits will be lost during these minutes, but we can't guarantee it. If you see the error message, then please wait until everything is back to normal. Then you should be able to save your edit. But, we recommend that you make a copy of your changes first, just in case. ''Other effects'': *Background jobs will be slower and some may be dropped. Red links might not be updated as quickly as normal. If you create an article that is already linked somewhere else, the link will stay red longer than usual. Some long-running scripts will have to be stopped. * We expect the code deployments to happen as any other week. However, some case-by-case code freezes could punctually happen if the operation require them afterwards. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/GitLab|GitLab]] will be unavailable for about 90 minutes. This project may be postponed if necessary. You can [[wikitech:Switch_Datacenter|read the schedule at wikitech.wikimedia.org]]. Any changes will be announced in the schedule. '''Please share this information with your community.'''</div><section end="server-switch"/> </div> [[User:Trizek_(WMF)|Trizek_(WMF)]], 09:37, 20 Saptambar 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Trizek (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&oldid=27248326 --> == 'Wikidata item' link is moving. Find out where... == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><i>Apologies for cross-posting in English. Please consider translating this message.</i>{{tracked|T66315}} Hello everyone, a small change will soon be coming to the user-interface of your Wikimedia project. The [[d:Q16222597|Wikidata item]] [[w:|sitelink]] currently found under the <span style="color: #54595d;"><u>''General''</u></span> section of the '''Tools''' sidebar menu will move into the <span style="color: #54595d;"><u>''In Other Projects''</u></span> section. We would like the Wiki communities feedback so please let us know or ask questions on the [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Projects/Move_Wikidata_item_link|Discussion page]] before we enable the change which can take place October 4 2024, circa 15:00 UTC+2. More information can be found on [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Projects/Move_Wikidata_item_link|the project page]].<br><br>We welcome your feedback and questions.<br> [[sadasya:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[sadasya ke baat:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 18:57, 27 Saptambar 2024 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_Test_List&oldid=27524260 --> == Invitation to Participate in Wiki Loves Ramadan Community Engagement Survey == Dear all, Apologies for writing in English. Please help to translate in your language. We are excited to announce the upcoming [[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan|Wiki Loves Ramadan]] event, a global initiative aimed at celebrating Ramadan by enriching Wikipedia and its sister projects with content related to this significant time of year. As we plan to organize this event globally, your insights and experiences are crucial in shaping the best possible participation experience for the community. To ensure that Wiki Loves Ramadan is engaging, inclusive, and impactful, we kindly invite you to participate in our community engagement survey. Your feedback will help us understand the needs of the community, set the event's focus, and guide our strategies for organizing this global event. Survey link: https://forms.gle/f66MuzjcPpwzVymu5 Please take a few minutes to share your thoughts. Your input will make a difference! Thank you for being a part of our journey to make Wiki Loves Ramadan a success. Warm regards, User:ZI Jony 03:20, 6 Actobar 2024 (UTC) Wiki Loves Ramadan Organizing Team <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&oldid=27510935 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Preliminary results of the 2024 Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees elections</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> Hello all, Thank you to everyone who participated in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2024|2024 Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees election]]. Close to 6000 community members from more than 180 wiki projects have voted. The following four candidates were the most voted: # [[User:Kritzolina|Christel Steigenberger]] # [[User:Nadzik|Maciej Artur Nadzikiewicz]] # [[User:Victoria|Victoria Doronina]] # [[User:Laurentius|Lorenzo Losa]] While these candidates have been ranked through the vote, they still need to be appointed to the Board of Trustees. They need to pass a successful background check and meet the qualifications outlined in the Bylaws. New trustees will be appointed at the next Board meeting in December 2024. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2024/Results|Learn more about the results on Meta-Wiki.]] Best regards, The Elections Committee and Board Selection Working Group <section end="announcement-content" /> </div> [[User:MPossoupe_(WMF)|MPossoupe_(WMF)]] 08:25, 14 Actobar 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:MPossoupe (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=27183190 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Seeking volunteers to join several of the movement’s committees</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> Each year, typically from October through December, several of the movement’s committees seek new volunteers. Read more about the committees on their Meta-wiki pages: * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Affiliations_Committee|Affiliations Committee (AffCom)]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Ombuds_commission|Ombuds commission (OC)]] * [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation/Legal/Community Resilience and Sustainability/Trust and Safety/Case Review Committee|Case Review Committee (CRC)]] Applications for the committees open on 16 October 2024. Applications for the Affiliations Committee close on 18 November 2024, and applications for the Ombuds commission and the Case Review Committee close on 2 December 2024. Learn how to apply by [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation/Legal/Committee_appointments|visiting the appointment page on Meta-wiki]]. Post to the talk page or email [mailto:cst@wikimedia.org cst@wikimedia.org] with any questions you may have. For the Committee Support team, <section end="announcement-content" /> </div> -- [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 23:07, 16 Actobar 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=27601062 --> == Successful Installation of Gadget - HotCat on hif.wiktionary == [[File:Nuvola_apps_package_toys_svg.svg|right|150px]] I am pleased to announce the successful installation of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:HotCat HotCat Gadget]''' on '''[https://hif.wiktionary.org hif.wiktionary]'''! '''HotCat''' is a tool that simplifies adding, removing, and changing categories on pages. With this gadget, users can easily manage categories with just a few clicks, improving the workflow of organizing pages. You can learn more about HotCat and how to use it by visiting the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:HotCat official HotCat page]. I encourage the community to try out this new feature and make category management easier for everyone! --[[sadasya:Suyash.dwivedi|Suyash Dwivedi]] ([[sadasya ke baat:Suyash.dwivedi|talk]]) 09:30, 21 Actobar 2024 (UTC) == 'Wikidata item' link is moving, finally. == Hello everyone, I previously wrote on the 27th September to advise that the ''Wikidata item'' sitelink will change places in the sidebar menu, moving from the '''General''' section into the '''In Other Projects''' section. The scheduled rollout date of 04.10.2024 was delayed due to a necessary request for Mobile/MinervaNeue skin. I am happy to inform that the global rollout can now proceed and will occur later today, 22.10.2024 at 15:00 UTC-2. [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Projects/Move_Wikidata_item_link|Please let us know]] if you notice any problems or bugs after this change. There should be no need for null-edits or purging cache for the changes to occur. Kind regards, -[[m:User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] 11:29, 22 Actobar 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_Test_List&oldid=27535421 --> == Final Reminder: Join us in Making Wiki Loves Ramadan Success == Dear all, We’re thrilled to announce the Wiki Loves Ramadan event, a global initiative to celebrate Ramadan by enhancing Wikipedia and its sister projects with valuable content related to this special time of year. As we organize this event globally, we need your valuable input to make it a memorable experience for the community. Last Call to Participate in Our Survey: To ensure that Wiki Loves Ramadan is inclusive and impactful, we kindly request you to complete our community engagement survey. Your feedback will shape the event’s focus and guide our organizing strategies to better meet community needs. * Survey Link: [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSffN4prPtR5DRSq9nH-t1z8hG3jZFBbySrv32YoxV8KbTwxig/viewform?usp=sf_link Complete the Survey] * Deadline: November 10, 2024 Please take a few minutes to share your thoughts. Your input will truly make a difference! '''Volunteer Opportunity''': Join the Wiki Loves Ramadan Team! We’re seeking dedicated volunteers for key team roles essential to the success of this initiative. If you’re interested in volunteer roles, we invite you to apply. * Application Link: [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfXiox_eEDH4yJ0gxVBgtL7jPe41TINAWYtpNp1JHSk8zhdgw/viewform?usp=sf_link Apply Here] * Application Deadline: October 31, 2024 Explore Open Positions: For a detailed list of roles and their responsibilities, please refer to the position descriptions here: [https://docs.google.com/document/d/1oy0_tilC6kow5GGf6cEuFvdFpekcubCqJlaxkxh-jT4/ Position Descriptions] Thank you for being part of this journey. We look forward to working together to make Wiki Loves Ramadan a success! Warm regards,<br> The Wiki Loves Ramadan Organizing Team 05:11, 29 Actobar 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&oldid=27568454 --> == Sign up for the language community meeting on November 29th, 16:00 UTC == Hello everyone, The next language community meeting is coming up next week, on November 29th, at 16:00 UTC (Zonestamp! For your timezone <https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1732896000>). If you're interested in joining, you can sign up on this wiki page: <https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Language_and_Product_Localization/Community_meetings#29_November_2024>. This participant-driven meeting will be organized by the Wikimedia Foundation’s Language Product Localization team and the Language Diversity Hub. There will be presentations on topics like developing language keyboards, the creation of the Moore Wikipedia, and the language support track at Wiki Indaba. We will also have members from the Wayuunaiki community joining us to share their experiences with the Incubator and as a new community within our movement. This meeting will have a Spanish interpretation. Looking forward to seeing you at the language community meeting! Cheers, [[User:SSethi (WMF)|Srishti]] 19:54, 21 Navambar 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:SSethi (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=27746256 --> == Invitation to Host Wiki Loves Folklore 2025 in Fiji == [[File:Wiki Loves Folklore Logo.svg|right|frameless]] Dear Team, My name is Joris Darlington Quarshie (user: Joris Darlington Quarshie), and I am the Event Coordinator for the Wiki Loves Folklore 2025 (WLF) International campaign. Wiki Loves Folklore 2025 is a photographic competition aimed at highlighting folk culture worldwide. The annual international photography competition is held on Wikimedia Commons between the 1st of February and the 31st of March. This campaign invites photographers and enthusiasts of folk culture globally to showcase their local traditions, festivals, cultural practices, and other folk events by uploading photographs to Wikimedia Commons. As we celebrate the seventh anniversary of Wiki Loves Folklore, the international team is thrilled to invite Wikimedia affiliates, user groups, and organizations worldwide to host a local edition in their respective countries. This is an opportunity to bring more visibility to the folk culture of your region and contribute valuable content to the internet. * Please find the project page for this year’s edition at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Commons:Wiki_Loves_Folklore_2025 * To sign up and organize the event in your country, visit: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Commons:Wiki_Loves_Folklore_2025/Organize If you wish to organize your local edition in either February or March instead of both months, feel free to let us know. In addition to the photographic competition, there will also be a Wikipedia writing competition called Feminism and Folklore, which focuses on topics related to feminism, women's issues, gender gaps, and folk culture on Wikipedia. We welcome your team to organize both the photo and writing campaigns or either one of them in your local Wiki edition. If you are unable to organize both campaigns, feel free to share this opportunity with other groups or organizations in your region that may be interested. * You can find the Feminism and Folklore project page here: https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Feminism_and_Folklore_2025 * The page to sign up is: https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Feminism_and_Folklore_2025/Project_Page For any questions or to discuss further collaboration, feel free to contact us via the Talk page or email at support@wikilovesfolklore.org. If your team wishes to connect via a meeting to discuss this further, please let us know. We look forward to your participation in Wiki Loves Folklore 2025 and to seeing the incredible folk culture of your region represented on Wikimedia Commons. Sincerely, The Wiki Loves Folklore International Team -- [[sadasya:Suyash.dwivedi|Suyash Dwivedi]] ([[sadasya ke baat:Suyash.dwivedi|talk]]) 10:18, 27 Disambar 2024 (UTC) == Launching! Join Us for Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025! == Dear All, We’re happy to announce the launch of [[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025|Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025]], an annual international campaign dedicated to celebrating and preserving Islamic cultures and history through the power of Wikipedia. As an active contributor to the Local Wikipedia, you are specially invited to participate in the launch. This year’s campaign will be launched for you to join us write, edit, and improve articles that showcase the richness and diversity of Islamic traditions, history, and culture. * Topic: [[m:Event:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 Campaign Launch|Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 Campaign Launch]] * When: Jan 19, 2025 * Time: 16:00 Universal Time UTC and runs throughout Ramadan (starting February 25, 2025). * Join Zoom Meeting: https://us02web.zoom.us/j/88420056597?pwd=NdrpqIhrwAVPeWB8FNb258n7qngqqo.1 * Zoom meeting hosted by [[m:Wikimedia Bangladesh|Wikimedia Bangladesh]] To get started, visit the [[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025|campaign page]] for details, resources, and guidelines: Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025. Add [[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Participant|your community here]], and organized Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 in your local language. Whether you’re a first-time editor or an experienced Wikipedian, your contributions matter. Together, we can ensure Islamic cultures and traditions are well-represented and accessible to all. Feel free to invite your community and friends too. Kindly reach out if you have any questions or need support as you prepare to participate. Let’s make Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025 a success! For the [[m:Wiki Loves Ramadan 2025/Team|International Team]] 12:08, 16 Janwari 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&oldid=27568454 --> == Universal Code of Conduct annual review: provide your comments on the UCoC and Enforcement Guidelines == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> My apologies for writing in English. {{Int:Please-translate}}. I am writing to you to let you know the annual review period for the Universal Code of Conduct and Enforcement Guidelines is open now. You can make suggestions for changes through 3 February 2025. This is the first step of several to be taken for the annual review. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Annual_review|Read more information and find a conversation to join on the UCoC page on Meta]]. The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee]] (U4C) is a global group dedicated to providing an equitable and consistent implementation of the UCoC. This annual review was planned and implemented by the U4C. For more information and the responsibilities of the U4C, [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Charter|you may review the U4C Charter]]. Please share this information with other members in your community wherever else might be appropriate. -- In cooperation with the U4C, [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 01:11, 24 Janwari 2025 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=27746256 --> == Feminism and Folklore 2025 starts soon == <div style="border:8px maroon ridge;padding:6px;> [[File:Feminism and Folklore 2025 logo.svg|centre|550px|frameless]] ::<div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <center>''{{int:please-translate}}''</center> Dear Wiki Community, You are humbly invited to organize the '''[[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2025|Feminism and Folklore 2025]]''' writing competition from February 1, 2025, to March 31, 2025 on your local Wikipedia. This year, Feminism and Folklore will focus on feminism, women's issues, and gender-focused topics for the project, with a [[:c:Commons:Wiki Loves Folklore 2025|Wiki Loves Folklore]] gender gap focus and a folk culture theme on Wikipedia. You can help Wikipedia's coverage of folklore from your area by writing or improving articles about things like folk festivals, folk dances, folk music, women and queer folklore figures, folk game athletes, women in mythology, women warriors in folklore, witches and witch hunting, fairy tales, and more. Users can help create new articles, expand or translate from a generated list of suggested articles. Organisers are requested to work on the following action items to sign up their communities for the project: # Create a page for the contest on the local wiki. # Set up a campaign on '''CampWiz''' tool. # Create the local list and mention the timeline and local and international prizes. # Request local admins for site notice. # Link the local page and the CampWiz link on the [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2025/Project Page|meta project page]]. This year, the Wiki Loves Folklore Tech Team has introduced two new tools to enhance support for the campaign. These tools include the '''Article List Generator by Topic''' and '''CampWiz'''. The Article List Generator by Topic enables users to identify articles on the English Wikipedia that are not present in their native language Wikipedia. Users can customize their selection criteria, and the tool will present a table showcasing the missing articles along with suggested titles. Additionally, users have the option to download the list in both CSV and wikitable formats. Notably, the CampWiz tool will be employed for the project for the first time, empowering users to effectively host the project with a jury. Both tools are now available for use in the campaign. [https://tools.wikilovesfolklore.org/ '''Click here to access these tools'''] Learn more about the contest and prizes on our [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2025|project page]]. Feel free to contact us on our [[:m:Talk:Feminism and Folklore 2025/Project Page|meta talk page]] or by email us if you need any assistance. We look forward to your immense coordination. Thank you and Best wishes, '''[[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2025|Feminism and Folklore 2025 International Team]]''' ::::Stay connected [[File:B&W Facebook icon.png|link=https://www.facebook.com/feminismandfolklore/|30x30px]]&nbsp; [[File:B&W Twitter icon.png|link=https://twitter.com/wikifolklore|30x30px]] </div></div> --[[sadasya:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[sadasya ke baat:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 02:35, 29 Janwari 2025 (UTC) == Wiki Loves Folklore is back! == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> {{int:please-translate}} [[File:Wiki Loves Folklore Logo.svg|right|150px|frameless]] Dear Wiki Community, You are humbly invited to participate in the '''[[:c:Commons:Wiki Loves Folklore 2025|Wiki Loves Folklore 2025]]''' an international media contest organized on Wikimedia Commons to document folklore and intangible cultural heritage from different regions, including, folk creative activities and many more. It is held every year from the '''1st till the 31st''' of March. You can help in enriching the folklore documentation on Commons from your region by taking photos, audios, videos, and [https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:UploadWizard&campaign=wlf_2025 submitting] them in this commons contest. You can also [[:c:Commons:Wiki Loves Folklore 2025/Organize|organize a local contest]] in your country and support us in translating the [[:c:Commons:Wiki Loves Folklore 2025/Translations|project pages]] to help us spread the word in your native language. Feel free to contact us on our [[:c:Commons talk:Wiki Loves Folklore 2025|project Talk page]] if you need any assistance. '''Kind regards,''' '''Wiki loves Folklore International Team''' --[[sadasya:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[sadasya ke baat:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 02:35, 29 Janwari 2025 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery/Wikipedia&oldid=26503019 --> == Reminder: first part of the annual UCoC review closes soon == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> My apologies for writing in English. {{Int:Please-translate}}. This is a reminder that the first phase of the annual review period for the Universal Code of Conduct and Enforcement Guidelines will be closing soon. You can make suggestions for changes through [[d:Q614092|the end of day]], 3 February 2025. This is the first step of several to be taken for the annual review. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Annual_review|Read more information and find a conversation to join on the UCoC page on Meta]]. After review of the feedback, proposals for updated text will be published on Meta in March for another round of community review. Please share this information with other members in your community wherever else might be appropriate. -- In cooperation with the U4C, [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 00:48, 3 Farwari 2025 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=28198931 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr"> Upcoming Language Community Meeting (Feb 28th, 14:00 UTC) and Newsletter</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="message"/> Hello everyone! [[File:WP20Symbols WIKI INCUBATOR.svg|right|frameless|150x150px|alt=An image symbolising multiple languages]] We’re excited to announce that the next '''Language Community Meeting''' is happening soon, '''February 28th at 14:00 UTC'''! If you’d like to join, simply sign up on the '''[[mw:Wikimedia_Language_and_Product_Localization/Community_meetings#28_February_2025|wiki page]]'''. This is a participant-driven meeting where we share updates on language-related projects, discuss technical challenges in language wikis, and collaborate on solutions. In our last meeting, we covered topics like developing language keyboards, creating the Moore Wikipedia, and updates from the language support track at Wiki Indaba. '''Got a topic to share?''' Whether it’s a technical update from your project, a challenge you need help with, or a request for interpretation support, we’d love to hear from you! Feel free to '''reply to this message''' or add agenda items to the document '''[[etherpad:p/language-community-meeting-feb-2025|here]]'''. Also, we wanted to highlight that the sixth edition of the Language & Internationalization newsletter (January 2025) is available here: [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Language and Product Localization/Newsletter/2025/January|Wikimedia Language and Product Localization/Newsletter/2025/January]]. This newsletter provides updates from the October–December 2024 quarter on new feature development, improvements in various language-related technical projects and support efforts, details about community meetings, and ideas for contributing to projects. To stay updated, you can subscribe to the newsletter on its wiki page: [[:mw:Wikimedia Language and Product Localization/Newsletter|Wikimedia Language and Product Localization/Newsletter]]. We look forward to your ideas and participation at the language community meeting, see you there! <section end="message"/> </div> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 08:29, 22 Farwari 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:SSethi (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=28217779 --> == Universal Code of Conduct annual review: proposed changes are available for comment == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> My apologies for writing in English. {{Int:Please-translate}}. I am writing to you to let you know that [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Annual_review/Proposed_Changes|proposed changes]] to the [[foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Enforcement_guidelines|Universal Code of Conduct (UCoC) Enforcement Guidelines]] and [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Charter|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C) Charter]] are open for review. '''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Annual_review/Proposed_Changes|You can provide feedback on suggested changes]]''' through the [[d:Q614092|end of day]] on Tuesday, 18 March 2025. This is the second step in the annual review process, the final step will be community voting on the proposed changes. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Annual_review|Read more information and find relevant links about the process on the UCoC annual review page on Meta]]. The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee]] (U4C) is a global group dedicated to providing an equitable and consistent implementation of the UCoC. This annual review was planned and implemented by the U4C. For more information and the responsibilities of the U4C, [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Charter|you may review the U4C Charter]]. Please share this information with other members in your community wherever else might be appropriate. -- In cooperation with the U4C, [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] 18:51, 7 Maach 2025 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=28307738 --> == An improved dashboard for the Content Translation tool == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> {{Int:hello}} Wikipedians, Apologies as this message is not in your language, {{Int:please-translate}}. The [[mediawikiwiki:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Language_and_Product_Localization|Language and Product Localization team]] has improved the [https://test.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ContentTranslation&filter-type=automatic&filter-id=previous-edits&active-list=suggestions&from=en&to=es Content Translation dashboard] to create a consistent experience for all contributors using mobile and desktop devices. The improved translation dashboard allows all logged-in users of the tool to enjoy a consistent experience regardless of their type of device. With a harmonized experience, logged-in desktop users now have access to the capabilities shown in the image below. [[file:Content_Translation_new-dashboard.png|alt=|center|thumb|576x576px|Notice that in this screenshot, the new dashboard allows: Users to adjust suggestions with the "For you" and "...More" buttons to select general topics or community-created collections (like the example of Climate topic).  Also, users can use translation to create new articles (as before) and expand existing articles section by section. You can see how suggestions are provided in the new dashboard  in two groups ("Create new pages" and "Expand with new sections")-one for each activity.]] [[File:Content_Translation_dashboard_on_desktop.png|alt=|center|thumb|577x577px|In the current dashboard, you will notice that you can't adjust suggestions to select topics or community-created collections. Also, you can't expand on existing articles by translating new sections.]] We will implement [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Content translation#Improved translation experience|this improvement]] on your wiki '''on Monday, March 17th, 2025''' and remove the current dashboard '''by May 2025'''. Please reach out with any questions concerning the dashboard in this thread. Thank you! On behalf of the Language and Product Localization team. </div> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]]</bdi> 02:55, 13 Maach 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:UOzurumba (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:UOzurumba_(WMF)/sandbox_CX_Unified_dashboard_announcement_list_1&oldid=28382282 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Your wiki will be in read-only soon</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="server-switch"/><div class="plainlinks"> [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Tech/Server switch|Read this message in another language]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}] The [[foundation:|Wikimedia Foundation]] will switch the traffic between its data centers. This will make sure that Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia wikis can stay online even after a disaster. All traffic will switch on '''{{#time:j xg|2025-03-19|en}}'''. The switch will start at '''[https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/{{#time:U|2025-03-19T14:00|en}} {{#time:H:i e|2025-03-19T14:00}}]'''. Unfortunately, because of some limitations in [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/Manual:What is MediaWiki?|MediaWiki]], all editing must stop while the switch is made. We apologize for this disruption, and we are working to minimize it in the future. A banner will be displayed on all wikis 30 minutes before this operation happens. This banner will remain visible until the end of the operation. '''You will be able to read, but not edit, all wikis for a short period of time.''' *You will not be able to edit for up to an hour on {{#time:l j xg Y|2025-03-19|en}}. *If you try to edit or save during these times, you will see an error message. We hope that no edits will be lost during these minutes, but we can't guarantee it. If you see the error message, then please wait until everything is back to normal. Then you should be able to save your edit. But, we recommend that you make a copy of your changes first, just in case. ''Other effects'': *Background jobs will be slower and some may be dropped. Red links might not be updated as quickly as normal. If you create an article that is already linked somewhere else, the link will stay red longer than usual. Some long-running scripts will have to be stopped. * We expect the code deployments to happen as any other week. However, some case-by-case code freezes could punctually happen if the operation require them afterwards. * [[mw:Special:MyLanguage/GitLab|GitLab]] will be unavailable for about 90 minutes. This project may be postponed if necessary. You can [[wikitech:Switch_Datacenter|read the schedule at wikitech.wikimedia.org]]. Any changes will be announced in the schedule. '''Please share this information with your community.'''</div><section end="server-switch"/> </div> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]]</bdi> 23:15, 14 Maach 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Quiddity (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Non-Technical_Village_Pumps_distribution_list&oldid=28307742 --> == Final proposed modifications to the Universal Code of Conduct Enforcement Guidelines and U4C Charter now posted == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> The proposed modifications to the [[foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Enforcement_guidelines|Universal Code of Conduct Enforcement Guidelines]] and the U4C Charter [[m:Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Annual_review/2025/Proposed_Changes|are now on Meta-wiki for community notice]] in advance of the voting period. This final draft was developed from the previous two rounds of community review. Community members will be able to vote on these modifications starting on 17 April 2025. The vote will close on 1 May 2025, and results will be announced no later than 12 May 2025. The U4C election period, starting with a call for candidates, will open immediately following the announcement of the review results. More information will be posted on [[m:Special:MyLanguage//Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election|the wiki page for the election]] soon. Please be advised that this process will require more messages to be sent here over the next two months. The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C)]] is a global group dedicated to providing an equitable and consistent implementation of the UCoC. This annual review was planned and implemented by the U4C. For more information and the responsibilities of the U4C, you may [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Charter|review the U4C Charter]]. Please share this message with members of your community so they can participate as well. -- In cooperation with the U4C, [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User_talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 02:04, 4 Aprel 2025 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=28469465 --> == Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy Month 2025: Invitation == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> [[File:UCDM 2025 general.png|180px|right]] {{int:please-translate}} Hello, dear Wikipedians!<br/> [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Ukraine|Wikimedia Ukraine]], in cooperation with the [[:en:Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Ukraine|MFA of Ukraine]] and [[:en:Ukrainian Institute|Ukrainian Institute]], has launched the fifth edition of writing challenge "'''[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy Month 2025|Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy Month]]'''", which lasts from '''14th April''' until '''16th May 2025'''. The campaign is dedicated to famous Ukrainian artists of cinema, music, literature, architecture, design, and cultural phenomena of Ukraine that are now part of world heritage. We accept contributions in every language! The most active contesters will receive prizes. If you are interested in coordinating long-term community engagement for the campaign and becoming a local ambassador, we would love to hear from you! Please let us know your interest. <br/> We invite you to take part and help us improve the coverage of Ukrainian culture on Wikipedia in your language! Also, we plan to set up a [[:m:CentralNotice/Request/Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy Month 2025|banner]] to notify users of the possibility to participate in such a challenge! [[:m:User:OlesiaLukaniuk (WMUA)|OlesiaLukaniuk (WMUA)]] ([[:m:User talk:OlesiaLukaniuk (WMUA)|talk]]) </div> 16:11, 16 Aprel 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Hide on Rosé@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:OlesiaLukaniuk_(WMUA)/list_of_wikis&oldid=28552112 --> == Vote now on the revised UCoC Enforcement Guidelines and U4C Charter == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> The voting period for the revisions to the Universal Code of Conduct Enforcement Guidelines ("UCoC EG") and the UCoC's Coordinating Committee Charter is open now through the end of 1 May (UTC) ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1746162000 find in your time zone]). [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Annual_review/2025/Voter_information|Read the information on how to participate and read over the proposal before voting]] on the UCoC page on Meta-wiki. The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C)]] is a global group dedicated to providing an equitable and consistent implementation of the UCoC. This annual review of the EG and Charter was planned and implemented by the U4C. Further information will be provided in the coming months about the review of the UCoC itself. For more information and the responsibilities of the U4C, you may [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Charter|review the U4C Charter]]. Please share this message with members of your community so they can participate as well. In cooperation with the U4C -- [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User_talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 00:34, 17 Aprel 2025 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=28469465 --> == Sub-referencing: User testing == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> [[File:Sub-referencing reuse visual.png|400px|right]] <small>''Apologies for writing in English, please help us by providing a translation below''</small> Hi I’m Johannes from [[:m:Wikimedia Deutschland|Wikimedia Deutschland]]'s [[:m:WMDE Technical Wishes|Technical Wishes team]]. We are making great strides with the new [[:m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing|sub-referencing feature]] and we’d love to invite you to take part in two activities to help us move this work further: #'''Try it out and share your feedback''' #:[[:m:WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing# Test the prototype|Please try]] the updated ''wikitext'' feature [https://en.wikipedia.beta.wmflabs.org/wiki/Sub-referencing on the beta wiki] and let us know what you think, either [[:m:Talk:WMDE Technical Wishes/Sub-referencing|on our talk page]] or by [https://greatquestion.co/wikimediadeutschland/talktotechwish booking a call] with our UX researcher. #'''Get a sneak peak and help shape the ''Visual Editor'' user designs''' #:Help us test the new design prototypes by participating in user sessions – [https://greatquestion.co/wikimediadeutschland/gxk0taud/apply sign up here to receive an invite]. We're especially hoping to speak with people from underrepresented and diverse groups. If that's you, please consider signing up! No prior or extensive editing experience is required. User sessions will start ''May 14th''. We plan to bring this feature to Wikimedia wikis later this year. We’ll reach out to wikis for piloting in time for deployments. Creators and maintainers of reference-related tools and templates will be contacted beforehand as well. Thank you very much for your support and encouragement so far in helping bring this feature to life! </div> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:Johannes Richter (WMDE)|Johannes Richter (WMDE)]] ([[User talk:Johannes Richter (WMDE)|talk]])</bdi> 15:03, 28 Aprel 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Johannes Richter (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Johannes_Richter_(WMDE)/Sub-referencing/massmessage_list&oldid=28628657 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Vote on proposed modifications to the UCoC Enforcement Guidelines and U4C Charter</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> The voting period for the revisions to the Universal Code of Conduct Enforcement Guidelines and U4C Charter closes on 1 May 2025 at 23:59 UTC ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1746162000 find in your time zone]). [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Annual review/2025/Voter information|Read the information on how to participate and read over the proposal before voting]] on the UCoC page on Meta-wiki. The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C)]] is a global group dedicated to providing an equitable and consistent implementation of the UCoC. This annual review was planned and implemented by the U4C. For more information and the responsibilities of the U4C, you may [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Charter|review the U4C Charter]]. Please share this message with members of your community in your language, as appropriate, so they can participate as well. In cooperation with the U4C -- <section end="announcement-content" /> </div> <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 03:41, 29 Aprel 2025 (UTC)</div> <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=28618011 --> == We will be enabling the new Charts extension on your wiki soon! == ''(Apologies for posting in English)'' Hi all! We have good news to share regarding the ongoing problem with graphs and charts affecting all wikis that use them. As you probably know, the [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Graph|old Graph extension]] was disabled in 2023 [[listarchive:list/wikitech-l@lists.wikimedia.org/thread/EWL4AGBEZEDMNNFTM4FRD4MHOU3CVESO/|due to security reasons]]. We’ve worked in these two years to find a solution that could replace the old extension, and provide a safer and better solution to users who wanted to showcase graphs and charts in their articles. We therefore developed the [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Chart|Charts extension]], which will be replacing the old Graph extension and potentially also the [[:mw:Extension:EasyTimeline|EasyTimeline extension]]. After successfully deploying the extension on Italian, Swedish, and Hebrew Wikipedia, as well as on MediaWiki.org, as part of a pilot phase, we are now happy to announce that we are moving forward with the next phase of deployment, which will also include your wiki. The deployment will happen in batches, and will start from '''May 6'''. Please, consult [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Chart/Project#Deployment Timeline|our page on MediaWiki.org]] to discover when the new Charts extension will be deployed on your wiki. You can also [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension:Chart|consult the documentation]] about the extension on MediaWiki.org. If you have questions, need clarifications, or just want to express your opinion about it, please refer to the [[:mw:Special:MyLanguage/Extension_talk:Chart/Project|project’s talk page on Mediawiki.org]], or ping me directly under this thread. If you encounter issues using Charts once it gets enabled on your wiki, please report it on the [[:mw:Extension_talk:Chart/Project|talk page]] or at [[phab:tag/charts|Phabricator]]. Thank you in advance! -- [[User:Sannita (WMF)|User:Sannita (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Sannita (WMF)|talk]]) 15:08, 6 Mai 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Sannita (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Sannita_(WMF)/Mass_sending_test&oldid=28663781 --> == Proposal to enable the "Contribute" entry point in Fiji Hindi Wikipedia == {{Int:Hello}} Fiji Hindi Wikipedians, Apologies as this message is not in your language. {{Int:please-translate}}. The [[mediawikiwiki:Wikimedia_Language_and_Product_Localization|WMF Language and Product Localization]] team proposes enabling an entry point called "Contribute" to your Wikipedia. The [[:bn:বিশেষ:Contribute|Contribute]] entry point is based on collaborative work with other product teams in the Wikimedia Foundation on [[mediawikiwiki:Edit_Discovery|Edit discovery]], which validated the entry point as a persistent and constant path that contributors took to discover ways to contribute content in Wikipedia. Therefore, enabling this entry point in your Wikipedia will help contributors quickly discover available tools and immediately click to start using them. This entry point is designed to be a central point for discovering contribution tools in Fiji Hindi Wikipedia. '''Who can access it''' Once it is enabled in your Wikipedia, newcomers can access the entry point automatically by just logging into their account, click on the User drop-down menu and choose the "Contribute" icon, which takes you to another menu where you will find a self-guided description of what you can do to contribute content, as shown in the image below. An option to "view contributions" is also available to access the list of your contributions. [[File:Mobile_Contribute_Page.png|Mobile Contribute Page]] [[File:Mobile_contribute_menu_(detailed).png|Mobile contribute menu (detailed)]] For experienced contributors, the Contribute icon is not automatically shown in their User drop-down menu. They will still see the "Contributions" option unless they change it to the "Contribute" manually. We have gotten valuable feedback that helped us improve its discoverability. Now, it is ready to be enabled in other Wikis. One major improvement was to [[phab:T369041|make the entry point optional for experienced contributors]] who still want to have the "Contributions" entry point as default.           We plan to enable it '''on mobile''' for Wikis, where the Section translation tool is enabled. In this way, we will provide a main entry point to the mobile translation dashboard, and the exposure can still be limited by targeting only the mobile platform for now. If there are no objections to having the entry point for mobile users from your community, we will enable it by 26th May 2025. We welcome your feedback and questions in this thread on our proposal to enable it here. Suppose there are no objections, we will deploy the "Contribute" entry point in your Wikipedia. We look forward to your response soon. Thank you! On behalf of the WMF Language and Product Localization team. [[sadasya:UOzurumba (WMF)|UOzurumba (WMF)]] ([[sadasya ke baat:UOzurumba (WMF)|talk]]) 20:25, 12 Mai 2025 (UTC) == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Call for Candidates for the Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C)</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> The results of voting on the Universal Code of Conduct Enforcement Guidelines and Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C) Charter is [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Annual review/2025#Results|available on Meta-wiki]]. You may now [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2025/Candidates|submit your candidacy to serve on the U4C]] through 29 May 2025 at 12:00 UTC. Information about [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2025|eligibility, process, and the timeline are on Meta-wiki]]. Voting on candidates will open on 1 June 2025 and run for two weeks, closing on 15 June 2025 at 12:00 UTC. If you have any questions, you can ask on [[m:Talk:Universal Code of Conduct/Coordinating Committee/Election/2025|the discussion page for the election]]. -- in cooperation with the U4C, </div><section end="announcement-content" /> </div> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User_talk:Keegan (WMF)|Baat]])</bdi> 22:07, 15 Mai 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=28618011 --> == RfC ongoing regarding Abstract Wikipedia (and your project) == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> ''(Apologies for posting in English, if this is not your first language)'' Hello all! We opened a discussion on Meta about a very delicate issue for the development of [[:m:Special:MyLanguage/Abstract Wikipedia|Abstract Wikipedia]]: where to store the abstract content that will be developed through functions from Wikifunctions and data from Wikidata. Since some of the hypothesis involve your project, we wanted to hear your thoughts too. We want to make the decision process clear: we do not yet know which option we want to use, which is why we are consulting here. We will take the arguments from the Wikimedia communities into account, and we want to consult with the different communities and hear arguments that will help us with the decision. The decision will be made and communicated after the consultation period by the Foundation. You can read the various hypothesis and have your say at [[:m:Abstract Wikipedia/Location of Abstract Content|Abstract Wikipedia/Location of Abstract Content]]. Thank you in advance! -- [[User:Sannita (WMF)|Sannita (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Sannita (WMF)|<span class="signature-talk">{{int:Talkpagelinktext}}</span>]]) 15:26, 22 Mai 2025 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Sannita (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Sannita_(WMF)/Mass_sending_test&oldid=28768453 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees 2025 Selection & Call for Questions</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> :''[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2025/Announcement/Selection announcement|{{int:interlanguage-link-mul}}]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Wikimedia Foundation elections/2025/Announcement/Selection announcement}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]'' Dear all, This year, the term of 2 (two) Community- and Affiliate-selected Trustees on the Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees will come to an end [1]. The Board invites the whole movement to participate in this year’s selection process and vote to fill those seats. The Elections Committee will oversee this process with support from Foundation staff [2]. The Governance Committee, composed of trustees who are not candidates in the 2025 community-and-affiliate-selected trustee selection process (Raju Narisetti, Shani Evenstein Sigalov, Lorenzo Losa, Kathy Collins, Victoria Doronina and Esra’a Al Shafei) [3], is tasked with providing Board oversight for the 2025 trustee selection process and for keeping the Board informed. More details on the roles of the Elections Committee, Board, and staff are here [4]. Here are the key planned dates: * May 22 – June 5: Announcement (this communication) and call for questions period [6] * June 17 – July 1, 2025: Call for candidates * July 2025: If needed, affiliates vote to shortlist candidates if more than 10 apply [5] * August 2025: Campaign period * August – September 2025: Two-week community voting period * October – November 2025: Background check of selected candidates * Board’s Meeting in December 2025: New trustees seated Learn more about the 2025 selection process - including the detailed timeline, the candidacy process, the campaign rules, and the voter eligibility criteria - on this Meta-wiki page [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2025|[link]]]. '''Call for Questions''' In each selection process, the community has the opportunity to submit questions for the Board of Trustees candidates to answer. The Election Committee selects questions from the list developed by the community for the candidates to answer. Candidates must answer all the required questions in the application in order to be eligible; otherwise their application will be disqualified. This year, the Election Committee will select 5 questions for the candidates to answer. The selected questions may be a combination of what’s been submitted from the community, if they’re alike or related. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2025/Questions_for_candidates|[link]]] '''Election Volunteers''' Another way to be involved with the 2025 selection process is to be an Election Volunteer. Election Volunteers are a bridge between the Elections Committee and their respective community. They help ensure their community is represented and mobilize them to vote. Learn more about the program and how to join on this Meta-wiki page [[m:Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2025/Election_volunteers|[link].]] Thank you! [1] https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2022/Results [2] https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Committee:Elections_Committee_Charter [3] https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Resolution:Committee_Membership,_December_2024 [4] https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections_committee/Roles [5] https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2025/FAQ [6] https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2025/Questions_for_candidates Best regards, Victoria Doronina Board Liaison to the Elections Committee Governance Committee<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> [[sadasya:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[sadasya ke baat:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 03:07, 28 Mai 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=28618011 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr"> Upcoming Deployment of the CampaignEvents Extension</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="message"/> Hello everyone, ''(Apologies for posting in English if English is not your first language. Please help translate to your language.)'' The Campaigns Product Team is planning a global deployment of the '''[[:mw:Help:Extension:CampaignEvents|CampaignEvents extension]]''' to all Wikipedias, including this wiki, during the '''week of June 23rd'''. This extension is designed to help organizers plan and manage events, WikiProjects, and other on-wiki collaborations - and to make these efforts more discoverable. The three main features of this extension are: * '''[[:m:Event_Center/Registration|Event Registration]]''': A simple way to sign up for events on the wiki. * '''[[:m:CampaignEvents/Collaboration_list|Collaboration List]]''': A global list of events and a local list of WikiProjects, accessible at '''[[:m:Special:AllEvents|Special:AllEvents]]'''. * '''[[:m:Campaigns/Foundation_Product_Team/Invitation_list|Invitation Lists]]''': A tool to help organizers find editors who might want to join, based on their past contributions. '''Note''': The extension comes with a new user right called '''"Event Organizer"''', which will be managed by administrators on this wiki. Organizer tools like Event Registration and Invitation Lists will only work if someone is granted this right. The Collaboration List is available to everyone immediately after deployment. The extension is already live on several wikis, including '''Meta, Wikidata, English Wikipedia''', and more ( [[m:CampaignEvents/Deployment_status#Current_Deployment_Status_for_CampaignEvents_extension| See the full deployment list]]) If you have any questions, concerns, or feedback, please feel free to share them on the [[m:Talk:CampaignEvents| extension talkpage]]. We’d love to hear from you before the rollout. Thank you! <section end="message"/> </div> <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr">[[User:Udehb-WMF|Udehb-WMF]] ([[User talk:Udehb-WMF|Baat]]) 16:47, 29 Mai 2025 (UTC)</bdi> <!-- Message sent by User:Udehb-WMF@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Udehb-WMF/sandbox/deployment_audience&oldid=28803829 --> == Vote now in the 2025 U4C Election == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> Apologies for writing in English. {{Int:Please-translate}} Eligible voters are asked to participate in the 2025 [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee]] election. More information–including an eligibility check, voting process information, candidate information, and a link to the vote–are available on Meta at the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2025|2025 Election information page]]. The vote closes on 17 June 2025 at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1750161600 12:00 UTC]. Please vote if your account is eligible. Results will be available by 1 July 2025. -- In cooperation with the U4C, [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 23:00, 13 Juun 2025 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=28848819 --> == <span lang="en" dir="ltr">Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees 2025 - Call for Candidates</span> == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section begin="announcement-content" /> :''<div class="plainlinks">[[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2025/Announcement/Call for candidates|{{int:interlanguage-link-mul}}]] • [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&group=page-{{urlencode:Wikimedia Foundation elections/2025/Announcement/Call for candidates}}&language=&action=page&filter= {{int:please-translate}}]</div> Hello all, The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2025|call for candidates for the 2025 Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees selection is now open]] from June 17, 2025 – July 2, 2025 at 11:59 UTC [1]. The Board of Trustees oversees the Wikimedia Foundation's work, and each Trustee serves a three-year term [2]. This is a volunteer position. This year, the Wikimedia community will vote in late August through September 2025 to fill two (2) seats on the Foundation Board. Could you – or someone you know – be a good fit to join the Wikimedia Foundation's Board of Trustees? [3] Learn more about what it takes to stand for these leadership positions and how to submit your candidacy on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia Foundation elections/2025/Candidate application|this Meta-wiki page]] or encourage someone else to run in this year's election. Best regards, Abhishek Suryawanshi<br /> Chair of the Elections Committee On behalf of the Elections Committee and Governance Committee [1] https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2025/Call_for_candidates [2] https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Legal:Bylaws#(B)_Term. [3] https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2025/Resources_for_candidates<section end="announcement-content" /> </div> [[sadasya:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[sadasya ke baat:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 17:43, 17 Juun 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:RamzyM (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=28866958 --> kb98pucoqlfomc065c915k15hwnphl4 0 3561 323790 318775 2025-06-18T11:48:30Z Girmitya 41 323790 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox mountain | fetchwikidata = ALL | name = Rocky Mountains | map_image = RockyMountains-Range.svg | map_size = 280 | other_name = The Rockies ([[English language|en]]), {{lang|fr|Les montagnes Rocheuses}} ([[French language|fr]]), {{lang|es|Montañas Rocosas}}, {{lang|es|Rocallosas}} ([[Spanish language|es]]) | country = {{hlist|Canada|United States}} | subdivision2_type = Provinces/States | subdivision2 = {{hlist|[[British Columbia]]|[[Alberta]]|[[Washington (state)|Washington]]|[[Idaho]]|[[Montana]]|[[Wyoming]]|[[Utah]]|[[Colorado]]|[[New Mexico]]}} | parent = [[North American Cordillera]] | geology = {{hlist|[[Igneous rock|Igneous]]|[[Sedimentary rock|sedimentary]]|[[Metamorphic rock|metamorphic]]}} | age = {{hlist|Precambrian|Cretaceous}} | orogeny = | highest = [[Mount Elbert]] | elevation = 14,440 feet (4401.2 m) | elevation_ref = | length_ref = | coordinates = {{coord|39|07|03.9|N|106|26|43.2|W|region:US-CO_type:mountain|name=Mount Elbert|display=inline}} | range_coordinates = {{coord|43.741|N|110.802|W|format=dms|display=it}} <!-- coordinates of Grand Teton (near center of range) --> | length_mi = 3,000 | length_km = 4828 | area_km2 = 777000 | area_mi2 = 300000 | area_ref = <ref name=britkids>{{cite web|url=https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/Rocky-Mountains-or-Rockies/276760|title=Rocky Mountains, or Rockies|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Kids}}</ref> }} '''Rocky Mountains''', [[Canada]] ke British Columbia, [[United States]] aur [[Mexico]] me hai. Ii 4,800 kilometres lambaa hae. [[vibhag:R]] [[Category:Canada ke pahaarr]] [[Category:United States ke pahaarr]] [[Category:Mexico ke pahaarr]] dsuk1a027syg7nj7mg6m0w5f18w3sro 0 6382 323787 238108 2025-06-18T11:45:08Z Girmitya 41 323787 wikitext text/x-wiki [[file:Château Laurier at night, 2005.jpg|250px|thumb|right|The Château Laurier is a fancy hotel close to the Parliament Buildings.]] '''Ottawa''', [[Canada]] ke [[capital]] [[city]] hae. Ii [[Ontario]] province me hae aur [[Ottawa Naddi]] ke south me hae. 2004 me iske population 808,391 rahaa aur metropolitan region ke population 1,146,790 log rahaa. [[vibhag:O]] [[vibhag:Capital cities]] [[vibhag:Canada ke city]] ftmpi25996zp3kyemfx069nijqn26fy 0 7563 323744 323740 2025-06-17T12:22:15Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Rescuing 1 sources and tagging 0 as dead.) #IABot (v2.0.9.5 323744 wikitext text/x-wiki '''1660''' ek leap saal rahaa jon ki budh ke roj suruu bhais rahaa. == Ghatna == [[File:The_Shannon_Portrait_of_the_Hon_Robert_Boyle.jpg|right|80px|thumb|Boyle]] * [[1660]] – [[Robert Boyle]] experiment kar ke [[Boyle's law]] ke paais rahaa, jon gas ke pressure aur volume ke relate kare hae (1662 me publish karaa gais rahaa)<ref>In 1662, he published a second edition of the 1660 book ''New Experiments Physico-Mechanical, Touching the Spring of the Air, and its Effects'' with an addendum ''Whereunto is Added a Defence of the Authors Explication of the Experiments, Against the Obiections of Franciscus Linus and Thomas Hobbes''; see ''J Appl Physiol'' 98: 31–39, 2005. ([http://jap.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/98/1/31 Jap.physiology.org Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101027102701/http://jap.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/98/1/31 |date=2010-10-27 }}.)</ref> == Janam == == Maut == [[file:Diego Velázquez Autorretrato 45 x 38 cm - Colección Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Carlos - Museo de Bellas Artes de Valencia.jpg|right|80px|thumb|Diego Velázquez]] * [[6 August]] – '''[[Diego Velázquez]]''', ek [[Spain|Spanish]] painter rahaa, jiske maut [[Madrid]], [[Spain]] me bhais rahaa. (janam: [[6 June]] [[1599]]) == References == <references/> {{YEARS}} [[vibhag:1660| ]] 9mmaljftxymuh1j3i2whd1n72n6zpn8 0 8785 323761 322582 2025-06-18T09:04:42Z Smcnarayan 362 /* Areas of study in mathematics */ 323761 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Egyptian A'h-mosè or Rhind Papyrus (1065x1330).png|right|200px|thumb|Ii papyrus rhind se puraana Egypt me mathematics ke jaankari mile hae]] '''Mathematics''' (jiske chhota kar ke "maths" nai to "math" bola jaae hae), [[ginti]] (number), [[dhaancha]] (shape) aur [[wikt:namuuna|namuuna]] (pattern) ke adhyan hae. Ii sabd [[Greek bhasa|Greek]] ''μάθημα'' (máthema) se aais hae, jiske matlab [[vigyan]], [[gyaan]], nai to [[sikhnaa]] hae. Mathematics me adhyan karaa jaae hae: * Ginti: jisme chij ke kaise gina jaae, bhi hae. * Dhaancha (structure):chij ke kaise [[wikt:bandobast|bandobast]] (organize) karaa gais hae, lekin ii bhi ki ii kaise rahaa hoi. Iske jaada kar ke [[algebra]] bola jaae hae. * Place: jahaan chij hae, ii kaise arrange karaa gais, jisme iske dhaancha ke arrangement bhi hae. Iske jaada kar ke [[geometry]] bola jaae hae. * Change: kaise chij ke biich me [[wikt:antar|antar]] (difference) hae. Iske jaada kae ke [[Mathematical analysis]] bola jaae hae. [[Applied math]], asli [[dunia]] me problem ke solve kare me [[wikt:kaamil|kaamil]] (useful) hae. Jon log [[business]], [[vigyan]], [[engineering]] aur [[construction]] me kaam kare hae, mathematics ke kaam me laae hae.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.siam.org/Students-Education/Programs-Initiatives/Thinking-of-a-Career-in-Applied-Mathematics|title=Thinking of a Career in Applied Mathematics? {{!}} SIAM|website=www.siam.org|language=en-US|access-date=2018-07-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wigner|first=Eugene|date=February 1960|title=The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences|url=https://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html|journal=Communications in Pure and Applied Mathematics|volume=13|issue=1|pages=1–14|doi=10.1002/cpa.3160130102|bibcode=1960CPAM...13....1W|s2cid=6112252|via=|access-date=2018-08-07|archive-date=2018-08-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810073503/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html|url-status=dead|archivedate=2018-08-10|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810073503/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html}}</ref> ==Mathematics me samasya ke suljhaana (problem solving)== Mathematics, [[logic]] ke kaam me laae ke samasya ke sulghae hae.Ek khaas aujaar jiske mathematician log kaam me laae hae, [[Deductive reasoning|deduction]]. Deduction me puraana sachchaai ke kaam me laae ke nawaa sachchaai ke khoja jaae hae. Deduction ke kaam me laana, uu chij hae jon mathematics ke duusra rakam ke vigyanik soch (scientific thinking) se different hae, kaaheki usme [[experiment]] nai to [[interview]] pe nirbhar rahaa jaae hae.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/mathematics|title=The science checklist applied: Mathematics|website=undsci.berkeley.edu|access-date=2018-08-05}}</ref> [[Mathematician]] log logic aur reasoning ke kaam me laae ke general [[niyam]] (rule) banae hae, jon mathematics ke khaatir jaruri hae. Ii niyam uu [[jaankari]] ke nikaal de hai jon jaruri nai hae, tab ek niyam dher haalaat me kaam me laawa jaae sake hae. General niyam ke paae se, mathematicians dher samasya ke suljhaae sake hae, kaaheki ii niyam duusra samaya me bhi kaam me laawa jaae sake hae.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://blogs.ams.org/mathgradblog/2016/08/21/role-generalization-advanced-mathematical-thinking/|title=The Role of Generalization in the Advanced Mathematical Thinking|date=2016-08-21|work=AMS Grad Blog|access-date=2018-08-07|language=en-US}}</ref> Ii niyam ke [[theorem]] bola jaae hae (agar iske saabit kar dewa gais hae), nai to [[conjecture]] bola jaae hae.<ref>{{Cite book|title=How to Think Like a Mathematician|url=https://archive.org/details/howtothinklikema00hous_005|last=Houston|first=Kevin|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|page=[https://archive.org/details/howtothinklikema00hous_005/page/n112 99]|isbn=978-0-521-71978-0}}</ref> Jaada mathematicians non-logical aur creative reasoning ke kaam me laae ke logical proof ke paae hae.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thurston|first=William|date=April 1994|title=On proof and progress in mathematics|journal=Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society|volume=30|issue=2|pages=161–177|doi=10.1090/S0273-0979-1994-00502-6|arxiv=math/9404236|bibcode=1994math......4236T}}</ref> == Areas of study in mathematics == === Ginti === :Mathematics me ginti aur quantities ke adhyan karaa jaae hae. Ii vigyan ke ek hissa hae jisme logic of shape, quantity, aur arrangement hae. Niche dewa gais areas ke mathematics ke dher field me adhyan karaa jaae hae, jisme [[set theory]] aur [[mathematical logic]] hae. [[Number theory]] ke adhyan jaada kar ke integer ke structure aur behavior ke adhyan kare hae . :{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="20" | <math>1,2,3,\ldots</math> || <math>\ldots,-1,0,1,\ldots</math> || <math>\frac12,\frac23,0.125,\ldots</math> || <math>\pi,\tau,e,\sqrt2,\ldots</math> || <math>1+i,2e^{i\pi/3},\ldots</math> |- | [[Natural number]]s || [[Integer]]s || [[Rational number]]s || [[Real number]]s || [[Complex number]]s |- || <math>0,1,\ldots,\omega,\omega+1,\ldots,2\omega,\ldots</math> || <math>\aleph_0,\aleph_1,\ldots</math> || <math>+,-,\times,/</math> || <math><,\le,=,\ge,></math> || <math>f(x)=\sqrt x</math> |- || [[Ordinal number]]s || [[Cardinal number]]s || [[Arithmetic|Arithmetic operations]] || [[Arithmetic|Arithmetic relations]] || [[Function (mathematics)|Functions]], see also [[special functions]] |} === Structure === : Structural mathematics objects' and constructions' ke shape aur integrity ke adhyan kare hae. Isme [[algebra]] aur [[calculus]] hae. :{| style="border:3px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="30" | [[File:Elliptic curve simple.svg|96px]] || [[File:Free module.png|96px]] || [[File:Eigenvectoren.pdf|96px]] ||[[File:Lattice of the divisibility of 60.svg|96px]] || [[File:6n-graf.svg|128px]] |- | [[Number theory]] || [[Abstract algebra]] || [[Linear algebra]] || [[Order theory]] || [[Graph theory]] |} === Shape === :Mathematics ke kuchh hussa chij ke dhaancha ke adhyan kare hae, Ii sab jaada kar ke [[geometry]] ke adhuan ke hissa hae. :{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="20" | [[File:Torus.jpg|128px]] || [[File:Pythagorean.svg|128px]] || [[File:Sin.svg|160px]] || [[File:Osculating circle.svg|128px]] || [[File:Koch curve.svg|128px]] |- | [[Topology]] || [[Geometry]] || [[Trigonometry]] || [[Differential geometry]] || [[Fractal geometry]] |} === Change === :Some areas of mathematics study the way things change. Most of these areas are part of the study of [[Mathematical analysis|analysis]]. :{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="40" | [[File:Integral as region under curve.svg|128px]] || [[File:Vector field.svg|128px]] || [[File:LimSup.png|128px]] |- | [[Calculus]] || [[Vector calculus]] || [[Mathematical analysis|Analysis]] |- || [[File:Damping 1.svg|128px]] || [[File:Limitcycle.svg|128px]] || [[File:LorenzAttractor.png|128px]] |- || [[Differential equation]]s || [[Dynamical systems theory|Dynamical systems]] || [[Chaos theory]] |} ==Mathematics ke itihaas== ===Puraana itihaas=== ==Babylonian=== ===Egyptian=== ===Greek=== ===Roman=== ===Chinese=== ===Indian=== [[File:Bakhshali numerals 2.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Jon akchhar ke gine ke khaatir [[Bakhshali manuscript]] me kaam me laawa gais rahaa. Ii 2nd century BC aur 2nd century AD ke biich ke hae.]] {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | width = 330 | image1 = 1911 sketch of numerals script history ancient India, mathematical symbols shapes.jpg | alt1 = Numerals evolution in India | caption1 = Indian numerals ke patthar aur [[tamba]] (copper) me ke inscriptions<ref name=britnanaghat>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/numeral#ref797082 Development Of Modern Numerals And Numeral Systems: The Hindu-Arabic system], Encyclopaedia Britannica, Quote: "1, 4, aur 6 ke Ashoka inscriptions me paawa gais hae (3rd century BC); 2, 4, 6, 7, aur 9 ke Nana Ghat inscriptions me paawa gais hae lagbhag ek century baad me; aur 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, aur 9 Nasik gufaa me paawa gais hae, 1st nai to 2nd century AD ke – ii sab dekhe me abhi ke 2 aur 3 ke rakam dekhe me lage hae jon puraana = aur ≡ se aais hae."</ref> | image2 = Indian numerals 100AD.svg | alt2 = Brahmi numerals | caption2 = Puraana Brahmi numerals, India ke ek hissa me }} The earliest civilization on the Indian subcontinent is the [[Indus Valley civilization]] (mature second phase: 2600 to 1900 BC) that flourished in the [[Indus river]] basin. Their cities were laid out with geometric regularity, but no known mathematical documents survive from this civilization.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 206}}</ref> [[vibhag:M]] [[vibhag:Mathematics| ]] am7u707p4ikod8wksy80odudiz00gvx 323762 323761 2025-06-18T09:31:50Z Smcnarayan 362 /* Indian */ 323762 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Egyptian A'h-mosè or Rhind Papyrus (1065x1330).png|right|200px|thumb|Ii papyrus rhind se puraana Egypt me mathematics ke jaankari mile hae]] '''Mathematics''' (jiske chhota kar ke "maths" nai to "math" bola jaae hae), [[ginti]] (number), [[dhaancha]] (shape) aur [[wikt:namuuna|namuuna]] (pattern) ke adhyan hae. Ii sabd [[Greek bhasa|Greek]] ''μάθημα'' (máthema) se aais hae, jiske matlab [[vigyan]], [[gyaan]], nai to [[sikhnaa]] hae. Mathematics me adhyan karaa jaae hae: * Ginti: jisme chij ke kaise gina jaae, bhi hae. * Dhaancha (structure):chij ke kaise [[wikt:bandobast|bandobast]] (organize) karaa gais hae, lekin ii bhi ki ii kaise rahaa hoi. Iske jaada kar ke [[algebra]] bola jaae hae. * Place: jahaan chij hae, ii kaise arrange karaa gais, jisme iske dhaancha ke arrangement bhi hae. Iske jaada kar ke [[geometry]] bola jaae hae. * Change: kaise chij ke biich me [[wikt:antar|antar]] (difference) hae. Iske jaada kae ke [[Mathematical analysis]] bola jaae hae. [[Applied math]], asli [[dunia]] me problem ke solve kare me [[wikt:kaamil|kaamil]] (useful) hae. Jon log [[business]], [[vigyan]], [[engineering]] aur [[construction]] me kaam kare hae, mathematics ke kaam me laae hae.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.siam.org/Students-Education/Programs-Initiatives/Thinking-of-a-Career-in-Applied-Mathematics|title=Thinking of a Career in Applied Mathematics? {{!}} SIAM|website=www.siam.org|language=en-US|access-date=2018-07-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wigner|first=Eugene|date=February 1960|title=The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences|url=https://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html|journal=Communications in Pure and Applied Mathematics|volume=13|issue=1|pages=1–14|doi=10.1002/cpa.3160130102|bibcode=1960CPAM...13....1W|s2cid=6112252|via=|access-date=2018-08-07|archive-date=2018-08-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810073503/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html|url-status=dead|archivedate=2018-08-10|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810073503/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html}}</ref> ==Mathematics me samasya ke suljhaana (problem solving)== Mathematics, [[logic]] ke kaam me laae ke samasya ke sulghae hae.Ek khaas aujaar jiske mathematician log kaam me laae hae, [[Deductive reasoning|deduction]]. Deduction me puraana sachchaai ke kaam me laae ke nawaa sachchaai ke khoja jaae hae. Deduction ke kaam me laana, uu chij hae jon mathematics ke duusra rakam ke vigyanik soch (scientific thinking) se different hae, kaaheki usme [[experiment]] nai to [[interview]] pe nirbhar rahaa jaae hae.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/mathematics|title=The science checklist applied: Mathematics|website=undsci.berkeley.edu|access-date=2018-08-05}}</ref> [[Mathematician]] log logic aur reasoning ke kaam me laae ke general [[niyam]] (rule) banae hae, jon mathematics ke khaatir jaruri hae. Ii niyam uu [[jaankari]] ke nikaal de hai jon jaruri nai hae, tab ek niyam dher haalaat me kaam me laawa jaae sake hae. General niyam ke paae se, mathematicians dher samasya ke suljhaae sake hae, kaaheki ii niyam duusra samaya me bhi kaam me laawa jaae sake hae.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://blogs.ams.org/mathgradblog/2016/08/21/role-generalization-advanced-mathematical-thinking/|title=The Role of Generalization in the Advanced Mathematical Thinking|date=2016-08-21|work=AMS Grad Blog|access-date=2018-08-07|language=en-US}}</ref> Ii niyam ke [[theorem]] bola jaae hae (agar iske saabit kar dewa gais hae), nai to [[conjecture]] bola jaae hae.<ref>{{Cite book|title=How to Think Like a Mathematician|url=https://archive.org/details/howtothinklikema00hous_005|last=Houston|first=Kevin|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|page=[https://archive.org/details/howtothinklikema00hous_005/page/n112 99]|isbn=978-0-521-71978-0}}</ref> Jaada mathematicians non-logical aur creative reasoning ke kaam me laae ke logical proof ke paae hae.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thurston|first=William|date=April 1994|title=On proof and progress in mathematics|journal=Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society|volume=30|issue=2|pages=161–177|doi=10.1090/S0273-0979-1994-00502-6|arxiv=math/9404236|bibcode=1994math......4236T}}</ref> == Areas of study in mathematics == === Ginti === :Mathematics me ginti aur quantities ke adhyan karaa jaae hae. Ii vigyan ke ek hissa hae jisme logic of shape, quantity, aur arrangement hae. Niche dewa gais areas ke mathematics ke dher field me adhyan karaa jaae hae, jisme [[set theory]] aur [[mathematical logic]] hae. [[Number theory]] ke adhyan jaada kar ke integer ke structure aur behavior ke adhyan kare hae . :{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="20" | <math>1,2,3,\ldots</math> || <math>\ldots,-1,0,1,\ldots</math> || <math>\frac12,\frac23,0.125,\ldots</math> || <math>\pi,\tau,e,\sqrt2,\ldots</math> || <math>1+i,2e^{i\pi/3},\ldots</math> |- | [[Natural number]]s || [[Integer]]s || [[Rational number]]s || [[Real number]]s || [[Complex number]]s |- || <math>0,1,\ldots,\omega,\omega+1,\ldots,2\omega,\ldots</math> || <math>\aleph_0,\aleph_1,\ldots</math> || <math>+,-,\times,/</math> || <math><,\le,=,\ge,></math> || <math>f(x)=\sqrt x</math> |- || [[Ordinal number]]s || [[Cardinal number]]s || [[Arithmetic|Arithmetic operations]] || [[Arithmetic|Arithmetic relations]] || [[Function (mathematics)|Functions]], see also [[special functions]] |} === Structure === : Structural mathematics objects' and constructions' ke shape aur integrity ke adhyan kare hae. Isme [[algebra]] aur [[calculus]] hae. :{| style="border:3px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="30" | [[File:Elliptic curve simple.svg|96px]] || [[File:Free module.png|96px]] || [[File:Eigenvectoren.pdf|96px]] ||[[File:Lattice of the divisibility of 60.svg|96px]] || [[File:6n-graf.svg|128px]] |- | [[Number theory]] || [[Abstract algebra]] || [[Linear algebra]] || [[Order theory]] || [[Graph theory]] |} === Shape === :Mathematics ke kuchh hussa chij ke dhaancha ke adhyan kare hae, Ii sab jaada kar ke [[geometry]] ke adhuan ke hissa hae. :{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="20" | [[File:Torus.jpg|128px]] || [[File:Pythagorean.svg|128px]] || [[File:Sin.svg|160px]] || [[File:Osculating circle.svg|128px]] || [[File:Koch curve.svg|128px]] |- | [[Topology]] || [[Geometry]] || [[Trigonometry]] || [[Differential geometry]] || [[Fractal geometry]] |} === Change === :Some areas of mathematics study the way things change. Most of these areas are part of the study of [[Mathematical analysis|analysis]]. :{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="40" | [[File:Integral as region under curve.svg|128px]] || [[File:Vector field.svg|128px]] || [[File:LimSup.png|128px]] |- | [[Calculus]] || [[Vector calculus]] || [[Mathematical analysis|Analysis]] |- || [[File:Damping 1.svg|128px]] || [[File:Limitcycle.svg|128px]] || [[File:LorenzAttractor.png|128px]] |- || [[Differential equation]]s || [[Dynamical systems theory|Dynamical systems]] || [[Chaos theory]] |} ==Mathematics ke itihaas== ===Puraana itihaas=== ==Babylonian=== ===Egyptian=== ===Greek=== ===Roman=== ===Chinese=== ===Indian=== [[File:Bakhshali numerals 2.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Jon akchhar ke gine ke khaatir [[Bakhshali manuscript]] me kaam me laawa gais rahaa. Ii 2nd century BC aur 2nd century AD ke biich ke hae.]] {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | width = 330 | image1 = 1911 sketch of numerals script history ancient India, mathematical symbols shapes.jpg | alt1 = Numerals evolution in India | caption1 = Indian numerals ke patthar aur [[tamba]] (copper) me ke inscriptions<ref name=britnanaghat>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/numeral#ref797082 Development Of Modern Numerals And Numeral Systems: The Hindu-Arabic system], Encyclopaedia Britannica, Quote: "1, 4, aur 6 ke Ashoka inscriptions me paawa gais hae (3rd century BC); 2, 4, 6, 7, aur 9 ke Nana Ghat inscriptions me paawa gais hae lagbhag ek century baad me; aur 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, aur 9 Nasik gufaa me paawa gais hae, 1st nai to 2nd century AD ke – ii sab dekhe me abhi ke 2 aur 3 ke rakam dekhe me lage hae jon puraana = aur ≡ se aais hae."</ref> | image2 = Indian numerals 100AD.svg | alt2 = Brahmi numerals | caption2 = Puraana Brahmi numerals, India ke ek hissa me }} Indian subcontinent ke sab se puraana civilization [[Indus Valley civilization]] hae (mature second phase: 2600 to 1900 BC) jon [[Indus Naddi]] ke basin me rahaa. Iske city geometric shape me banaa rahaa, lekin ii civilization ke koi mathematical document abhi talak nai bachaa hae.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 206}}</ref> India ke sab se puraana mathematical records, jon abhi talak bachaa hae, [[Sulba Sutras]] hae (jiske 8th century BC se 2nd century AD talak ke bataawa jaae hae),<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207">{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 207}}</ref> Ii time, dharmik kitaab me murti ke kaise banaawa jaae sake ke niyam me dher shape, jaise squares, rectangles, parallelograms hae.<ref>{{Cite book |first=T.K. |last=Puttaswamy |chapter=The Accomplishments of Ancient Indian Mathematicians |pages=411–12 |title=Mathematics Across Cultures: The History of Non-western Mathematics |editor1-first=Helaine |editor1-last=Selin |editor1-link=Helaine Selin |editor2-first=Ubiratan |editor2-last=D'Ambrosio |editor2-link=Ubiratan D'Ambrosio |year=2000 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |isbn=978-1-4020-0260-1 }}</ref> Egypt ke rakam, mandir banae me jaada dhyan dena, ii dekhae hae ki mathematics, dharmik ritual se suruu bhais hae.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207"/> Sulba Sutras ii batae hae ki ek circle, jiske area ek square ke baraabar hae, ke kaise banaawa jaae sake hae, jon π ke dher approxinations dekhae hae. <ref>{{cite journal |first=R.P. |last=Kulkarni |url=http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005af9_32.pdf |title=The Value of π known to Śulbasūtras |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206150545/http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005af9_32.pdf |archive-date=2012-02-06 |journal=Indian Journal of History of Science |volume=13 |issue=1 |date=1978 |pages=32–41}}</ref><ref name="Indian_sulbasutras">{{cite web |first1=J.J. |last1=Connor |first2=E.F. |last2=Robertson |title=The Indian Sulbasutras |publisher=Univ. of St. Andrew, Scotland |url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Indian_sulbasutras.html}}</ref> π ke approximate hae 4 x (13/15)² (3.0044...), 25/8 (3.125), 900/289 (3.11418685...), 1156/361 (3.202216...), aur 339/108 (3.1389). Iske alaawa, uu log 2 ke [[square root]] ke decimal places talak work our kare rahin, Pythagorean triples ke suchi banae rahin, aur [[Pythagorean theorem]] ke bhi batae rahin.<ref name="Indian_sulbasutras"/> Ii sab chij Babylonian mathematics me bhi hae, aur ii Mesopotamian influence dekhae hae.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207"/> Ii nai jaana jaae hae ki Sulba Sutra ke ketnaa asar baad ke Indian mathematicians pe rahaa. China ke rakam, Indian mathematics ke development contunuous nai rahaa; kabhi-kabhi sher pragati ke baad dher din talak koi nawaa chij nai bhais rahaa.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207"/> ==References== {{reflist}} [[vibhag:M]] [[vibhag:Mathematics| ]] dtyxatj5l1nbftrjcqxpa9qudqut406 323763 323762 2025-06-18T09:40:24Z Smcnarayan 362 /* Indian */ 323763 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Egyptian A'h-mosè or Rhind Papyrus (1065x1330).png|right|200px|thumb|Ii papyrus rhind se puraana Egypt me mathematics ke jaankari mile hae]] '''Mathematics''' (jiske chhota kar ke "maths" nai to "math" bola jaae hae), [[ginti]] (number), [[dhaancha]] (shape) aur [[wikt:namuuna|namuuna]] (pattern) ke adhyan hae. Ii sabd [[Greek bhasa|Greek]] ''μάθημα'' (máthema) se aais hae, jiske matlab [[vigyan]], [[gyaan]], nai to [[sikhnaa]] hae. Mathematics me adhyan karaa jaae hae: * Ginti: jisme chij ke kaise gina jaae, bhi hae. * Dhaancha (structure):chij ke kaise [[wikt:bandobast|bandobast]] (organize) karaa gais hae, lekin ii bhi ki ii kaise rahaa hoi. Iske jaada kar ke [[algebra]] bola jaae hae. * Place: jahaan chij hae, ii kaise arrange karaa gais, jisme iske dhaancha ke arrangement bhi hae. Iske jaada kar ke [[geometry]] bola jaae hae. * Change: kaise chij ke biich me [[wikt:antar|antar]] (difference) hae. Iske jaada kae ke [[Mathematical analysis]] bola jaae hae. [[Applied math]], asli [[dunia]] me problem ke solve kare me [[wikt:kaamil|kaamil]] (useful) hae. Jon log [[business]], [[vigyan]], [[engineering]] aur [[construction]] me kaam kare hae, mathematics ke kaam me laae hae.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.siam.org/Students-Education/Programs-Initiatives/Thinking-of-a-Career-in-Applied-Mathematics|title=Thinking of a Career in Applied Mathematics? {{!}} SIAM|website=www.siam.org|language=en-US|access-date=2018-07-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wigner|first=Eugene|date=February 1960|title=The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences|url=https://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html|journal=Communications in Pure and Applied Mathematics|volume=13|issue=1|pages=1–14|doi=10.1002/cpa.3160130102|bibcode=1960CPAM...13....1W|s2cid=6112252|via=|access-date=2018-08-07|archive-date=2018-08-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810073503/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html|url-status=dead|archivedate=2018-08-10|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810073503/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html}}</ref> ==Mathematics me samasya ke suljhaana (problem solving)== Mathematics, [[logic]] ke kaam me laae ke samasya ke sulghae hae.Ek khaas aujaar jiske mathematician log kaam me laae hae, [[Deductive reasoning|deduction]]. Deduction me puraana sachchaai ke kaam me laae ke nawaa sachchaai ke khoja jaae hae. Deduction ke kaam me laana, uu chij hae jon mathematics ke duusra rakam ke vigyanik soch (scientific thinking) se different hae, kaaheki usme [[experiment]] nai to [[interview]] pe nirbhar rahaa jaae hae.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/mathematics|title=The science checklist applied: Mathematics|website=undsci.berkeley.edu|access-date=2018-08-05}}</ref> [[Mathematician]] log logic aur reasoning ke kaam me laae ke general [[niyam]] (rule) banae hae, jon mathematics ke khaatir jaruri hae. Ii niyam uu [[jaankari]] ke nikaal de hai jon jaruri nai hae, tab ek niyam dher haalaat me kaam me laawa jaae sake hae. General niyam ke paae se, mathematicians dher samasya ke suljhaae sake hae, kaaheki ii niyam duusra samaya me bhi kaam me laawa jaae sake hae.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://blogs.ams.org/mathgradblog/2016/08/21/role-generalization-advanced-mathematical-thinking/|title=The Role of Generalization in the Advanced Mathematical Thinking|date=2016-08-21|work=AMS Grad Blog|access-date=2018-08-07|language=en-US}}</ref> Ii niyam ke [[theorem]] bola jaae hae (agar iske saabit kar dewa gais hae), nai to [[conjecture]] bola jaae hae.<ref>{{Cite book|title=How to Think Like a Mathematician|url=https://archive.org/details/howtothinklikema00hous_005|last=Houston|first=Kevin|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|page=[https://archive.org/details/howtothinklikema00hous_005/page/n112 99]|isbn=978-0-521-71978-0}}</ref> Jaada mathematicians non-logical aur creative reasoning ke kaam me laae ke logical proof ke paae hae.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thurston|first=William|date=April 1994|title=On proof and progress in mathematics|journal=Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society|volume=30|issue=2|pages=161–177|doi=10.1090/S0273-0979-1994-00502-6|arxiv=math/9404236|bibcode=1994math......4236T}}</ref> == Areas of study in mathematics == === Ginti === :Mathematics me ginti aur quantities ke adhyan karaa jaae hae. Ii vigyan ke ek hissa hae jisme logic of shape, quantity, aur arrangement hae. Niche dewa gais areas ke mathematics ke dher field me adhyan karaa jaae hae, jisme [[set theory]] aur [[mathematical logic]] hae. [[Number theory]] ke adhyan jaada kar ke integer ke structure aur behavior ke adhyan kare hae . :{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="20" | <math>1,2,3,\ldots</math> || <math>\ldots,-1,0,1,\ldots</math> || <math>\frac12,\frac23,0.125,\ldots</math> || <math>\pi,\tau,e,\sqrt2,\ldots</math> || <math>1+i,2e^{i\pi/3},\ldots</math> |- | [[Natural number]]s || [[Integer]]s || [[Rational number]]s || [[Real number]]s || [[Complex number]]s |- || <math>0,1,\ldots,\omega,\omega+1,\ldots,2\omega,\ldots</math> || <math>\aleph_0,\aleph_1,\ldots</math> || <math>+,-,\times,/</math> || <math><,\le,=,\ge,></math> || <math>f(x)=\sqrt x</math> |- || [[Ordinal number]]s || [[Cardinal number]]s || [[Arithmetic|Arithmetic operations]] || [[Arithmetic|Arithmetic relations]] || [[Function (mathematics)|Functions]], see also [[special functions]] |} === Structure === : Structural mathematics objects' and constructions' ke shape aur integrity ke adhyan kare hae. Isme [[algebra]] aur [[calculus]] hae. :{| style="border:3px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="30" | [[File:Elliptic curve simple.svg|96px]] || [[File:Free module.png|96px]] || [[File:Eigenvectoren.pdf|96px]] ||[[File:Lattice of the divisibility of 60.svg|96px]] || [[File:6n-graf.svg|128px]] |- | [[Number theory]] || [[Abstract algebra]] || [[Linear algebra]] || [[Order theory]] || [[Graph theory]] |} === Shape === :Mathematics ke kuchh hussa chij ke dhaancha ke adhyan kare hae, Ii sab jaada kar ke [[geometry]] ke adhuan ke hissa hae. :{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="20" | [[File:Torus.jpg|128px]] || [[File:Pythagorean.svg|128px]] || [[File:Sin.svg|160px]] || [[File:Osculating circle.svg|128px]] || [[File:Koch curve.svg|128px]] |- | [[Topology]] || [[Geometry]] || [[Trigonometry]] || [[Differential geometry]] || [[Fractal geometry]] |} === Change === :Some areas of mathematics study the way things change. Most of these areas are part of the study of [[Mathematical analysis|analysis]]. :{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="40" | [[File:Integral as region under curve.svg|128px]] || [[File:Vector field.svg|128px]] || [[File:LimSup.png|128px]] |- | [[Calculus]] || [[Vector calculus]] || [[Mathematical analysis|Analysis]] |- || [[File:Damping 1.svg|128px]] || [[File:Limitcycle.svg|128px]] || [[File:LorenzAttractor.png|128px]] |- || [[Differential equation]]s || [[Dynamical systems theory|Dynamical systems]] || [[Chaos theory]] |} ==Mathematics ke itihaas== ===Puraana itihaas=== ==Babylonian=== ===Egyptian=== ===Greek=== ===Roman=== ===Chinese=== ===Indian=== [[File:Bakhshali numerals 2.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Jon akchhar ke gine ke khaatir [[Bakhshali manuscript]] me kaam me laawa gais rahaa. Ii 2nd century BC aur 2nd century AD ke biich ke hae.]] {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | width = 330 | image1 = 1911 sketch of numerals script history ancient India, mathematical symbols shapes.jpg | alt1 = Numerals evolution in India | caption1 = Indian numerals ke patthar aur [[tamba]] (copper) me ke inscriptions<ref name=britnanaghat>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/numeral#ref797082 Development Of Modern Numerals And Numeral Systems: The Hindu-Arabic system], Encyclopaedia Britannica, Quote: "1, 4, aur 6 ke Ashoka inscriptions me paawa gais hae (3rd century BC); 2, 4, 6, 7, aur 9 ke Nana Ghat inscriptions me paawa gais hae lagbhag ek century baad me; aur 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, aur 9 Nasik gufaa me paawa gais hae, 1st nai to 2nd century AD ke – ii sab dekhe me abhi ke 2 aur 3 ke rakam dekhe me lage hae jon puraana = aur ≡ se aais hae."</ref> | image2 = Indian numerals 100AD.svg | alt2 = Brahmi numerals | caption2 = Puraana Brahmi numerals, India ke ek hissa me }} Indian subcontinent ke sab se puraana civilization [[Indus Valley civilization]] hae (mature second phase: 2600 to 1900 BC) jon [[Indus Naddi]] ke basin me rahaa. Iske city geometric shape me banaa rahaa, lekin ii civilization ke koi mathematical document abhi talak nai bachaa hae.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 206}}</ref> India ke sab se puraana mathematical records, jon abhi talak bachaa hae, [[Sulba Sutras]] hae (jiske 8th century BC se 2nd century AD talak ke bataawa jaae hae),<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207">{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 207}}</ref> Ii time, dharmik kitaab me murti ke kaise banaawa jaae sake ke niyam me dher shape, jaise squares, rectangles, parallelograms hae.<ref>{{Cite book |first=T.K. |last=Puttaswamy |chapter=The Accomplishments of Ancient Indian Mathematicians |pages=411–12 |title=Mathematics Across Cultures: The History of Non-western Mathematics |editor1-first=Helaine |editor1-last=Selin |editor1-link=Helaine Selin |editor2-first=Ubiratan |editor2-last=D'Ambrosio |editor2-link=Ubiratan D'Ambrosio |year=2000 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |isbn=978-1-4020-0260-1 }}</ref> Egypt ke rakam, mandir banae me jaada dhyan dena, ii dekhae hae ki mathematics, dharmik ritual se suruu bhais hae.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207"/> Sulba Sutras ii batae hae ki ek circle, jiske area ek square ke baraabar hae, ke kaise banaawa jaae sake hae, jon π ke dher approxinations dekhae hae. <ref>{{cite journal |first=R.P. |last=Kulkarni |url=http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005af9_32.pdf |title=The Value of π known to Śulbasūtras |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206150545/http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005af9_32.pdf |archive-date=2012-02-06 |journal=Indian Journal of History of Science |volume=13 |issue=1 |date=1978 |pages=32–41}}</ref><ref name="Indian_sulbasutras">{{cite web |first1=J.J. |last1=Connor |first2=E.F. |last2=Robertson |title=The Indian Sulbasutras |publisher=Univ. of St. Andrew, Scotland |url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Indian_sulbasutras.html}}</ref> π ke approximate hae 4 x (13/15)² (3.0044...), 25/8 (3.125), 900/289 (3.11418685...), 1156/361 (3.202216...), aur 339/108 (3.1389). Iske alaawa, uu log 2 ke [[square root]] ke decimal places talak work our kare rahin, Pythagorean triples ke suchi banae rahin, aur [[Pythagorean theorem]] ke bhi batae rahin.<ref name="Indian_sulbasutras"/> Ii sab chij Babylonian mathematics me bhi hae, aur ii Mesopotamian influence dekhae hae.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207"/> Ii nai jaana jaae hae ki Sulba Sutra ke ketnaa asar baad ke Indian mathematicians pe rahaa. China ke rakam, Indian mathematics ke development contunuous nai rahaa; kabhi-kabhi sher pragati ke baad dher din talak koi nawaa chij nai bhais rahaa.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207"/> [[Pāṇini]] (c. 5th century BC) me [[Sanskrit grammar]] ke niyam banais rahaa.<ref>{{Cite journal | last=Bronkhorst | first=Johannes | author-link= Johannes Bronkhorst | title=Panini and Euclid: Reflections on Indian Geometry | journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy |volume=29 |issue=1–2 | year=2001 | pages=43–80 | doi=10.1023/A:1017506118885 | s2cid=115779583 }}</ref> Uske notation, modern mathematical notation ke rakam rahaa, aur metarules, [[Transformation (geometry)|transformations]], aur [[recursion]] ke kaam me laais rahaa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kadvany|first=John|date=2008-02-08|title=Positional Value and Linguistic Recursion|journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy|language=en|volume=35|issue=5–6|pages=487–520|doi=10.1007/s10781-007-9025-5|issn=0022-1791|citeseerx=10.1.1.565.2083|s2cid=52885600}}</ref> [[Pingala]] (lagbhag 3rd–1st centuries BC) aapan thesis [[Prosody (poetry)|prosody]] me ek aujaar ke kaam me laais rahaa jon [[binary numeral system]] ke rakam rahaa.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sanchez |first1=Julio |last2=Canton |first2=Maria P. |title=Microcontroller programming : the microchip PIC |year=2007 |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, Florida |isbn=978-0-8493-7189-9 |page=37 }}</ref><ref>Anglin, W. S. and J. Lambek (1995). ''The Heritage of Thales'', Springer, {{ISBN|0-387-94544-X}}</ref> Uske [[combinatorics]] of [[Metre (music)|meters]], sangeet me, [[binomial theorem]] ke rakam rahaa. Pingala ke kaam me [[Fibonacci number]] (jiske ''mātrāmeru'' bola gais rahaa) ke basic ideas of hae.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hall | first1 = Rachel W. | year = 2008 | title = Math for poets and drummers | url = http://people.sju.edu/~rhall/mathforpoets.pdf | journal = Math Horizons | volume = 15 | issue = 3| pages = 10–11 | doi = 10.1080/10724117.2008.11974752 | s2cid = 3637061 }}</ref> ==References== {{reflist}} [[vibhag:M]] [[vibhag:Mathematics| ]] iptpwkcxsmhwzg2rw54g7tjhgfouxhj 323764 323763 2025-06-18T09:52:13Z Smcnarayan 362 /* Indian */ 323764 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Egyptian A'h-mosè or Rhind Papyrus (1065x1330).png|right|200px|thumb|Ii papyrus rhind se puraana Egypt me mathematics ke jaankari mile hae]] '''Mathematics''' (jiske chhota kar ke "maths" nai to "math" bola jaae hae), [[ginti]] (number), [[dhaancha]] (shape) aur [[wikt:namuuna|namuuna]] (pattern) ke adhyan hae. Ii sabd [[Greek bhasa|Greek]] ''μάθημα'' (máthema) se aais hae, jiske matlab [[vigyan]], [[gyaan]], nai to [[sikhnaa]] hae. Mathematics me adhyan karaa jaae hae: * Ginti: jisme chij ke kaise gina jaae, bhi hae. * Dhaancha (structure):chij ke kaise [[wikt:bandobast|bandobast]] (organize) karaa gais hae, lekin ii bhi ki ii kaise rahaa hoi. Iske jaada kar ke [[algebra]] bola jaae hae. * Place: jahaan chij hae, ii kaise arrange karaa gais, jisme iske dhaancha ke arrangement bhi hae. Iske jaada kar ke [[geometry]] bola jaae hae. * Change: kaise chij ke biich me [[wikt:antar|antar]] (difference) hae. Iske jaada kae ke [[Mathematical analysis]] bola jaae hae. [[Applied math]], asli [[dunia]] me problem ke solve kare me [[wikt:kaamil|kaamil]] (useful) hae. Jon log [[business]], [[vigyan]], [[engineering]] aur [[construction]] me kaam kare hae, mathematics ke kaam me laae hae.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.siam.org/Students-Education/Programs-Initiatives/Thinking-of-a-Career-in-Applied-Mathematics|title=Thinking of a Career in Applied Mathematics? {{!}} SIAM|website=www.siam.org|language=en-US|access-date=2018-07-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wigner|first=Eugene|date=February 1960|title=The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences|url=https://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html|journal=Communications in Pure and Applied Mathematics|volume=13|issue=1|pages=1–14|doi=10.1002/cpa.3160130102|bibcode=1960CPAM...13....1W|s2cid=6112252|via=|access-date=2018-08-07|archive-date=2018-08-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810073503/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html|url-status=dead|archivedate=2018-08-10|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810073503/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html}}</ref> ==Mathematics me samasya ke suljhaana (problem solving)== Mathematics, [[logic]] ke kaam me laae ke samasya ke sulghae hae.Ek khaas aujaar jiske mathematician log kaam me laae hae, [[Deductive reasoning|deduction]]. Deduction me puraana sachchaai ke kaam me laae ke nawaa sachchaai ke khoja jaae hae. Deduction ke kaam me laana, uu chij hae jon mathematics ke duusra rakam ke vigyanik soch (scientific thinking) se different hae, kaaheki usme [[experiment]] nai to [[interview]] pe nirbhar rahaa jaae hae.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/mathematics|title=The science checklist applied: Mathematics|website=undsci.berkeley.edu|access-date=2018-08-05}}</ref> [[Mathematician]] log logic aur reasoning ke kaam me laae ke general [[niyam]] (rule) banae hae, jon mathematics ke khaatir jaruri hae. Ii niyam uu [[jaankari]] ke nikaal de hai jon jaruri nai hae, tab ek niyam dher haalaat me kaam me laawa jaae sake hae. General niyam ke paae se, mathematicians dher samasya ke suljhaae sake hae, kaaheki ii niyam duusra samaya me bhi kaam me laawa jaae sake hae.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://blogs.ams.org/mathgradblog/2016/08/21/role-generalization-advanced-mathematical-thinking/|title=The Role of Generalization in the Advanced Mathematical Thinking|date=2016-08-21|work=AMS Grad Blog|access-date=2018-08-07|language=en-US}}</ref> Ii niyam ke [[theorem]] bola jaae hae (agar iske saabit kar dewa gais hae), nai to [[conjecture]] bola jaae hae.<ref>{{Cite book|title=How to Think Like a Mathematician|url=https://archive.org/details/howtothinklikema00hous_005|last=Houston|first=Kevin|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|page=[https://archive.org/details/howtothinklikema00hous_005/page/n112 99]|isbn=978-0-521-71978-0}}</ref> Jaada mathematicians non-logical aur creative reasoning ke kaam me laae ke logical proof ke paae hae.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thurston|first=William|date=April 1994|title=On proof and progress in mathematics|journal=Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society|volume=30|issue=2|pages=161–177|doi=10.1090/S0273-0979-1994-00502-6|arxiv=math/9404236|bibcode=1994math......4236T}}</ref> == Areas of study in mathematics == === Ginti === :Mathematics me ginti aur quantities ke adhyan karaa jaae hae. Ii vigyan ke ek hissa hae jisme logic of shape, quantity, aur arrangement hae. Niche dewa gais areas ke mathematics ke dher field me adhyan karaa jaae hae, jisme [[set theory]] aur [[mathematical logic]] hae. [[Number theory]] ke adhyan jaada kar ke integer ke structure aur behavior ke adhyan kare hae . :{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="20" | <math>1,2,3,\ldots</math> || <math>\ldots,-1,0,1,\ldots</math> || <math>\frac12,\frac23,0.125,\ldots</math> || <math>\pi,\tau,e,\sqrt2,\ldots</math> || <math>1+i,2e^{i\pi/3},\ldots</math> |- | [[Natural number]]s || [[Integer]]s || [[Rational number]]s || [[Real number]]s || [[Complex number]]s |- || <math>0,1,\ldots,\omega,\omega+1,\ldots,2\omega,\ldots</math> || <math>\aleph_0,\aleph_1,\ldots</math> || <math>+,-,\times,/</math> || <math><,\le,=,\ge,></math> || <math>f(x)=\sqrt x</math> |- || [[Ordinal number]]s || [[Cardinal number]]s || [[Arithmetic|Arithmetic operations]] || [[Arithmetic|Arithmetic relations]] || [[Function (mathematics)|Functions]], see also [[special functions]] |} === Structure === : Structural mathematics objects' and constructions' ke shape aur integrity ke adhyan kare hae. Isme [[algebra]] aur [[calculus]] hae. :{| style="border:3px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="30" | [[File:Elliptic curve simple.svg|96px]] || [[File:Free module.png|96px]] || [[File:Eigenvectoren.pdf|96px]] ||[[File:Lattice of the divisibility of 60.svg|96px]] || [[File:6n-graf.svg|128px]] |- | [[Number theory]] || [[Abstract algebra]] || [[Linear algebra]] || [[Order theory]] || [[Graph theory]] |} === Shape === :Mathematics ke kuchh hussa chij ke dhaancha ke adhyan kare hae, Ii sab jaada kar ke [[geometry]] ke adhuan ke hissa hae. :{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="20" | [[File:Torus.jpg|128px]] || [[File:Pythagorean.svg|128px]] || [[File:Sin.svg|160px]] || [[File:Osculating circle.svg|128px]] || [[File:Koch curve.svg|128px]] |- | [[Topology]] || [[Geometry]] || [[Trigonometry]] || [[Differential geometry]] || [[Fractal geometry]] |} === Change === :Some areas of mathematics study the way things change. Most of these areas are part of the study of [[Mathematical analysis|analysis]]. :{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="40" | [[File:Integral as region under curve.svg|128px]] || [[File:Vector field.svg|128px]] || [[File:LimSup.png|128px]] |- | [[Calculus]] || [[Vector calculus]] || [[Mathematical analysis|Analysis]] |- || [[File:Damping 1.svg|128px]] || [[File:Limitcycle.svg|128px]] || [[File:LorenzAttractor.png|128px]] |- || [[Differential equation]]s || [[Dynamical systems theory|Dynamical systems]] || [[Chaos theory]] |} ==Mathematics ke itihaas== ===Puraana itihaas=== ==Babylonian=== ===Egyptian=== ===Greek=== ===Roman=== ===Chinese=== ===Indian=== [[File:Bakhshali numerals 2.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Jon akchhar ke gine ke khaatir [[Bakhshali manuscript]] me kaam me laawa gais rahaa. Ii 2nd century BC aur 2nd century AD ke biich ke hae.]] {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | width = 330 | image1 = 1911 sketch of numerals script history ancient India, mathematical symbols shapes.jpg | alt1 = Numerals evolution in India | caption1 = Indian numerals ke patthar aur [[tamba]] (copper) me ke inscriptions<ref name=britnanaghat>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/numeral#ref797082 Development Of Modern Numerals And Numeral Systems: The Hindu-Arabic system], Encyclopaedia Britannica, Quote: "1, 4, aur 6 ke Ashoka inscriptions me paawa gais hae (3rd century BC); 2, 4, 6, 7, aur 9 ke Nana Ghat inscriptions me paawa gais hae lagbhag ek century baad me; aur 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, aur 9 Nasik gufaa me paawa gais hae, 1st nai to 2nd century AD ke – ii sab dekhe me abhi ke 2 aur 3 ke rakam dekhe me lage hae jon puraana = aur ≡ se aais hae."</ref> | image2 = Indian numerals 100AD.svg | alt2 = Brahmi numerals | caption2 = Puraana Brahmi numerals, India ke ek hissa me }} Indian subcontinent ke sab se puraana civilization [[Indus Valley civilization]] hae (mature second phase: 2600 to 1900 BC) jon [[Indus Naddi]] ke basin me rahaa. Iske city geometric shape me banaa rahaa, lekin ii civilization ke koi mathematical document abhi talak nai bachaa hae.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 206}}</ref> India ke sab se puraana mathematical records, jon abhi talak bachaa hae, [[Sulba Sutras]] hae (jiske 8th century BC se 2nd century AD talak ke bataawa jaae hae),<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207">{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 207}}</ref> Ii time, dharmik kitaab me murti ke kaise banaawa jaae sake ke niyam me dher shape, jaise squares, rectangles, parallelograms hae.<ref>{{Cite book |first=T.K. |last=Puttaswamy |chapter=The Accomplishments of Ancient Indian Mathematicians |pages=411–12 |title=Mathematics Across Cultures: The History of Non-western Mathematics |editor1-first=Helaine |editor1-last=Selin |editor1-link=Helaine Selin |editor2-first=Ubiratan |editor2-last=D'Ambrosio |editor2-link=Ubiratan D'Ambrosio |year=2000 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |isbn=978-1-4020-0260-1 }}</ref> Egypt ke rakam, mandir banae me jaada dhyan dena, ii dekhae hae ki mathematics, dharmik ritual se suruu bhais hae.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207"/> Sulba Sutras ii batae hae ki ek circle, jiske area ek square ke baraabar hae, ke kaise banaawa jaae sake hae, jon π ke dher approxinations dekhae hae. <ref>{{cite journal |first=R.P. |last=Kulkarni |url=http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005af9_32.pdf |title=The Value of π known to Śulbasūtras |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206150545/http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005af9_32.pdf |archive-date=2012-02-06 |journal=Indian Journal of History of Science |volume=13 |issue=1 |date=1978 |pages=32–41}}</ref><ref name="Indian_sulbasutras">{{cite web |first1=J.J. |last1=Connor |first2=E.F. |last2=Robertson |title=The Indian Sulbasutras |publisher=Univ. of St. Andrew, Scotland |url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Indian_sulbasutras.html}}</ref> π ke approximate hae 4 x (13/15)² (3.0044...), 25/8 (3.125), 900/289 (3.11418685...), 1156/361 (3.202216...), aur 339/108 (3.1389). Iske alaawa, uu log 2 ke [[square root]] ke decimal places talak work our kare rahin, Pythagorean triples ke suchi banae rahin, aur [[Pythagorean theorem]] ke bhi batae rahin.<ref name="Indian_sulbasutras"/> Ii sab chij Babylonian mathematics me bhi hae, aur ii Mesopotamian influence dekhae hae.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207"/> Ii nai jaana jaae hae ki Sulba Sutra ke ketnaa asar baad ke Indian mathematicians pe rahaa. China ke rakam, Indian mathematics ke development contunuous nai rahaa; kabhi-kabhi sher pragati ke baad dher din talak koi nawaa chij nai bhais rahaa.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207"/> [[Panini]] (c. 5th century BC) me [[Sanskrit grammar]] ke niyam banais rahaa.<ref>{{Cite journal | last=Bronkhorst | first=Johannes | author-link= Johannes Bronkhorst | title=Panini and Euclid: Reflections on Indian Geometry | journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy |volume=29 |issue=1–2 | year=2001 | pages=43–80 | doi=10.1023/A:1017506118885 | s2cid=115779583 }}</ref> Uske notation, modern mathematical notation ke rakam rahaa, aur metarules, [[Transformation (geometry)|transformations]], aur [[recursion]] ke kaam me laais rahaa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kadvany|first=John|date=2008-02-08|title=Positional Value and Linguistic Recursion|journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy|language=en|volume=35|issue=5–6|pages=487–520|doi=10.1007/s10781-007-9025-5|issn=0022-1791|citeseerx=10.1.1.565.2083|s2cid=52885600}}</ref> [[Pingala]] (lagbhag 3rd–1st centuries BC) aapan thesis [[Prosody (poetry)|prosody]] me ek aujaar ke kaam me laais rahaa jon [[binary numeral system]] ke rakam rahaa.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sanchez |first1=Julio |last2=Canton |first2=Maria P. |title=Microcontroller programming : the microchip PIC |year=2007 |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, Florida |isbn=978-0-8493-7189-9 |page=37 }}</ref><ref>Anglin, W. S. and J. Lambek (1995). ''The Heritage of Thales'', Springer, {{ISBN|0-387-94544-X}}</ref> Uske [[combinatorics]] of [[Metre (music)|meters]], sangeet me, [[binomial theorem]] ke rakam rahaa. Pingala ke kaam me [[Fibonacci number]] (jiske ''mātrāmeru'' bola gais rahaa) ke basic ideas of hae.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hall | first1 = Rachel W. | year = 2008 | title = Math for poets and drummers | url = http://people.sju.edu/~rhall/mathforpoets.pdf | journal = Math Horizons | volume = 15 | issue = 3| pages = 10–11 | doi = 10.1080/10724117.2008.11974752 | s2cid = 3637061 }}</ref> India ke aglaa khaas mathematical document ''Sulba Sutras'' hae, jon ''Siddhantas'' hae, jisme astronomical treatises 4th aur 5th centuries AD ([[Gupta period]]) ke hae jon [[Greece]] ke asar dekhae hae.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 208}}</ref> Isme trigonometric relations hae jon half-chord pe based hae, jaise modern trigonometry me, aur full chord nai, jaise Ptolemaic trigonometry me rahaa.<ref name=autogenerated2>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 209}}</ref> Kuchh ranslation me galti ke kaaran, sabd "sine" aur "cosine" [[Sanskrit]] "jiya" aur "kojiya" se aae hae.<ref name=autogenerated2 /> [[Image:Yuktibhasa.svg|upright|left|thumb|Explanation of the [[Law of sines|sine rule]] in ''[[Yuktibhāṣā]]'']] Lagbhag 500 AD me, [[Aryabhata]] ''[[Aryabhatiya]]'' likhis rahaa, ek patraa volume, jon verse me loha gias rahaa, jiske astronomy aur mathematical mensuration ke rules ke samjhae ke khaatir likha gis rahaa.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 210}}</ref> ''Aryabhatiya'' me decimal place-value system ke pahila dafe dekha jaae hae. ==References== {{reflist}} [[vibhag:M]] [[vibhag:Mathematics| ]] 99fuak3crxdnocfnvv1f1qb0cdnco17 323765 323764 2025-06-18T10:20:28Z Smcnarayan 362 323765 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Egyptian A'h-mosè or Rhind Papyrus (1065x1330).png|right|200px|thumb|Ii papyrus rhind se puraana Egypt me mathematics ke jaankari mile hae]] '''Mathematics''' (jiske chhota kar ke "maths" nai to "math" bola jaae hae), [[ginti]] (number), [[dhaancha]] (shape) aur [[wikt:namuuna|namuuna]] (pattern) ke adhyan hae. Ii sabd [[Greek bhasa|Greek]] ''μάθημα'' (máthema) se aais hae, jiske matlab [[vigyan]], [[gyaan]], nai to [[sikhnaa]] hae. Mathematics me adhyan karaa jaae hae: * Ginti: jisme chij ke kaise gina jaae, bhi hae. * Dhaancha (structure):chij ke kaise [[wikt:bandobast|bandobast]] (organize) karaa gais hae, lekin ii bhi ki ii kaise rahaa hoi. Iske jaada kar ke [[algebra]] bola jaae hae. * Place: jahaan chij hae, ii kaise arrange karaa gais, jisme iske dhaancha ke arrangement bhi hae. Iske jaada kar ke [[geometry]] bola jaae hae. * Change: kaise chij ke biich me [[wikt:antar|antar]] (difference) hae. Iske jaada kae ke [[Mathematical analysis]] bola jaae hae. [[Applied math]], asli [[dunia]] me problem ke solve kare me [[wikt:kaamil|kaamil]] (useful) hae. Jon log [[business]], [[vigyan]], [[engineering]] aur [[construction]] me kaam kare hae, mathematics ke kaam me laae hae.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.siam.org/Students-Education/Programs-Initiatives/Thinking-of-a-Career-in-Applied-Mathematics|title=Thinking of a Career in Applied Mathematics? {{!}} SIAM|website=www.siam.org|language=en-US|access-date=2018-07-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wigner|first=Eugene|date=February 1960|title=The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences|url=https://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html|journal=Communications in Pure and Applied Mathematics|volume=13|issue=1|pages=1–14|doi=10.1002/cpa.3160130102|bibcode=1960CPAM...13....1W|s2cid=6112252|via=|access-date=2018-08-07|archive-date=2018-08-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810073503/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html|url-status=dead|archivedate=2018-08-10|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810073503/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html}}</ref> ==Mathematics me samasya ke suljhaana (problem solving)== Mathematics, [[logic]] ke kaam me laae ke samasya ke sulghae hae.Ek khaas aujaar jiske mathematician log kaam me laae hae, [[Deductive reasoning|deduction]]. Deduction me puraana sachchaai ke kaam me laae ke nawaa sachchaai ke khoja jaae hae. Deduction ke kaam me laana, uu chij hae jon mathematics ke duusra rakam ke vigyanik soch (scientific thinking) se different hae, kaaheki usme [[experiment]] nai to [[interview]] pe nirbhar rahaa jaae hae.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/mathematics|title=The science checklist applied: Mathematics|website=undsci.berkeley.edu|access-date=2018-08-05}}</ref> [[Mathematician]] log logic aur reasoning ke kaam me laae ke general [[niyam]] (rule) banae hae, jon mathematics ke khaatir jaruri hae. Ii niyam uu [[jaankari]] ke nikaal de hai jon jaruri nai hae, tab ek niyam dher haalaat me kaam me laawa jaae sake hae. General niyam ke paae se, mathematicians dher samasya ke suljhaae sake hae, kaaheki ii niyam duusra samaya me bhi kaam me laawa jaae sake hae.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://blogs.ams.org/mathgradblog/2016/08/21/role-generalization-advanced-mathematical-thinking/|title=The Role of Generalization in the Advanced Mathematical Thinking|date=2016-08-21|work=AMS Grad Blog|access-date=2018-08-07|language=en-US}}</ref> Ii niyam ke [[theorem]] bola jaae hae (agar iske saabit kar dewa gais hae), nai to [[conjecture]] bola jaae hae.<ref>{{Cite book|title=How to Think Like a Mathematician|url=https://archive.org/details/howtothinklikema00hous_005|last=Houston|first=Kevin|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|page=[https://archive.org/details/howtothinklikema00hous_005/page/n112 99]|isbn=978-0-521-71978-0}}</ref> Jaada mathematicians non-logical aur creative reasoning ke kaam me laae ke logical proof ke paae hae.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thurston|first=William|date=April 1994|title=On proof and progress in mathematics|journal=Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society|volume=30|issue=2|pages=161–177|doi=10.1090/S0273-0979-1994-00502-6|arxiv=math/9404236|bibcode=1994math......4236T}}</ref> == Areas of study in mathematics == === Ginti === :Mathematics me ginti aur quantities ke adhyan karaa jaae hae. Ii vigyan ke ek hissa hae jisme logic of shape, quantity, aur arrangement hae. Niche dewa gais areas ke mathematics ke dher field me adhyan karaa jaae hae, jisme [[set theory]] aur [[mathematical logic]] hae. [[Number theory]] ke adhyan jaada kar ke integer ke structure aur behavior ke adhyan kare hae . :{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="20" | <math>1,2,3,\ldots</math> || <math>\ldots,-1,0,1,\ldots</math> || <math>\frac12,\frac23,0.125,\ldots</math> || <math>\pi,\tau,e,\sqrt2,\ldots</math> || <math>1+i,2e^{i\pi/3},\ldots</math> |- | [[Natural number]]s || [[Integer]]s || [[Rational number]]s || [[Real number]]s || [[Complex number]]s |- || <math>0,1,\ldots,\omega,\omega+1,\ldots,2\omega,\ldots</math> || <math>\aleph_0,\aleph_1,\ldots</math> || <math>+,-,\times,/</math> || <math><,\le,=,\ge,></math> || <math>f(x)=\sqrt x</math> |- || [[Ordinal number]]s || [[Cardinal number]]s || [[Arithmetic|Arithmetic operations]] || [[Arithmetic|Arithmetic relations]] || [[Function (mathematics)|Functions]], see also [[special functions]] |} === Structure === : Structural mathematics objects' and constructions' ke shape aur integrity ke adhyan kare hae. Isme [[algebra]] aur [[calculus]] hae. :{| style="border:3px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="30" | [[File:Elliptic curve simple.svg|96px]] || [[File:Free module.png|96px]] || [[File:Eigenvectoren.pdf|96px]] ||[[File:Lattice of the divisibility of 60.svg|96px]] || [[File:6n-graf.svg|128px]] |- | [[Number theory]] || [[Abstract algebra]] || [[Linear algebra]] || [[Order theory]] || [[Graph theory]] |} === Shape === :Mathematics ke kuchh hussa chij ke dhaancha ke adhyan kare hae, Ii sab jaada kar ke [[geometry]] ke adhuan ke hissa hae. :{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="20" | [[File:Torus.jpg|128px]] || [[File:Pythagorean.svg|128px]] || [[File:Sin.svg|160px]] || [[File:Osculating circle.svg|128px]] || [[File:Koch curve.svg|128px]] |- | [[Topology]] || [[Geometry]] || [[Trigonometry]] || [[Differential geometry]] || [[Fractal geometry]] |} === Change === :Some areas of mathematics study the way things change. Most of these areas are part of the study of [[Mathematical analysis|analysis]]. :{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="40" | [[File:Integral as region under curve.svg|128px]] || [[File:Vector field.svg|128px]] || [[File:LimSup.png|128px]] |- | [[Calculus]] || [[Vector calculus]] || [[Mathematical analysis|Analysis]] |- || [[File:Damping 1.svg|128px]] || [[File:Limitcycle.svg|128px]] || [[File:LorenzAttractor.png|128px]] |- || [[Differential equation]]s || [[Dynamical systems theory|Dynamical systems]] || [[Chaos theory]] |} ==Mathematics ke itihaas== ===Puraana itihaas=== ==Babylonian=== ===Egyptian=== ===Greek=== ===Roman=== ===Chinese=== ===Indian=== [[File:Bakhshali numerals 2.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Jon akchhar ke gine ke khaatir [[Bakhshali manuscript]] me kaam me laawa gais rahaa. Ii 2nd century BC aur 2nd century AD ke biich ke hae.]] {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | width = 330 | image1 = 1911 sketch of numerals script history ancient India, mathematical symbols shapes.jpg | alt1 = Numerals evolution in India | caption1 = Indian numerals ke patthar aur [[tamba]] (copper) me ke inscriptions<ref name=britnanaghat>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/numeral#ref797082 Development Of Modern Numerals And Numeral Systems: The Hindu-Arabic system], Encyclopaedia Britannica, Quote: "1, 4, aur 6 ke Ashoka inscriptions me paawa gais hae (3rd century BC); 2, 4, 6, 7, aur 9 ke Nana Ghat inscriptions me paawa gais hae lagbhag ek century baad me; aur 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, aur 9 Nasik gufaa me paawa gais hae, 1st nai to 2nd century AD ke – ii sab dekhe me abhi ke 2 aur 3 ke rakam dekhe me lage hae jon puraana = aur ≡ se aais hae."</ref> | image2 = Indian numerals 100AD.svg | alt2 = Brahmi numerals | caption2 = Puraana Brahmi numerals, India ke ek hissa me }} Indian subcontinent ke sab se puraana civilization [[Indus Valley civilization]] hae (mature second phase: 2600 to 1900 BC) jon [[Indus Naddi]] ke basin me rahaa. Iske city geometric shape me banaa rahaa, lekin ii civilization ke koi mathematical document abhi talak nai bachaa hae.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 206}}</ref> India ke sab se puraana mathematical records, jon abhi talak bachaa hae, [[Sulba Sutras]] hae (jiske 8th century BC se 2nd century AD talak ke bataawa jaae hae),<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207">{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 207}}</ref> Ii time, dharmik kitaab me murti ke kaise banaawa jaae sake ke niyam me dher shape, jaise squares, rectangles, parallelograms hae.<ref>{{Cite book |first=T.K. |last=Puttaswamy |chapter=The Accomplishments of Ancient Indian Mathematicians |pages=411–12 |title=Mathematics Across Cultures: The History of Non-western Mathematics |editor1-first=Helaine |editor1-last=Selin |editor1-link=Helaine Selin |editor2-first=Ubiratan |editor2-last=D'Ambrosio |editor2-link=Ubiratan D'Ambrosio |year=2000 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |isbn=978-1-4020-0260-1 }}</ref> Egypt ke rakam, mandir banae me jaada dhyan dena, ii dekhae hae ki mathematics, dharmik ritual se suruu bhais hae.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207"/> Sulba Sutras ii batae hae ki ek circle, jiske area ek square ke baraabar hae, ke kaise banaawa jaae sake hae, jon π ke dher approxinations dekhae hae. <ref>{{cite journal |first=R.P. |last=Kulkarni |url=http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005af9_32.pdf |title=The Value of π known to Śulbasūtras |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206150545/http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005af9_32.pdf |archive-date=2012-02-06 |journal=Indian Journal of History of Science |volume=13 |issue=1 |date=1978 |pages=32–41}}</ref><ref name="Indian_sulbasutras">{{cite web |first1=J.J. |last1=Connor |first2=E.F. |last2=Robertson |title=The Indian Sulbasutras |publisher=Univ. of St. Andrew, Scotland |url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Indian_sulbasutras.html}}</ref> π ke approximate hae 4 x (13/15)² (3.0044...), 25/8 (3.125), 900/289 (3.11418685...), 1156/361 (3.202216...), aur 339/108 (3.1389). Iske alaawa, uu log 2 ke [[square root]] ke decimal places talak work our kare rahin, Pythagorean triples ke suchi banae rahin, aur [[Pythagorean theorem]] ke bhi batae rahin.<ref name="Indian_sulbasutras"/> Ii sab chij Babylonian mathematics me bhi hae, aur ii Mesopotamian influence dekhae hae.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207"/> Ii nai jaana jaae hae ki Sulba Sutra ke ketnaa asar baad ke Indian mathematicians pe rahaa. China ke rakam, Indian mathematics ke development contunuous nai rahaa; kabhi-kabhi sher pragati ke baad dher din talak koi nawaa chij nai bhais rahaa.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207"/> [[Panini]] (c. 5th century BC) me [[Sanskrit grammar]] ke niyam banais rahaa.<ref>{{Cite journal | last=Bronkhorst | first=Johannes | author-link= Johannes Bronkhorst | title=Panini and Euclid: Reflections on Indian Geometry | journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy |volume=29 |issue=1–2 | year=2001 | pages=43–80 | doi=10.1023/A:1017506118885 | s2cid=115779583 }}</ref> Uske notation, modern mathematical notation ke rakam rahaa, aur metarules, [[Transformation (geometry)|transformations]], aur [[recursion]] ke kaam me laais rahaa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kadvany|first=John|date=2008-02-08|title=Positional Value and Linguistic Recursion|journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy|language=en|volume=35|issue=5–6|pages=487–520|doi=10.1007/s10781-007-9025-5|issn=0022-1791|citeseerx=10.1.1.565.2083|s2cid=52885600}}</ref> [[Pingala]] (lagbhag 3rd–1st centuries BC) aapan thesis [[Prosody (poetry)|prosody]] me ek aujaar ke kaam me laais rahaa jon [[binary numeral system]] ke rakam rahaa.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sanchez |first1=Julio |last2=Canton |first2=Maria P. |title=Microcontroller programming : the microchip PIC |year=2007 |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, Florida |isbn=978-0-8493-7189-9 |page=37 }}</ref><ref>Anglin, W. S. and J. Lambek (1995). ''The Heritage of Thales'', Springer, {{ISBN|0-387-94544-X}}</ref> Uske [[combinatorics]] of [[Metre (music)|meters]], sangeet me, [[binomial theorem]] ke rakam rahaa. Pingala ke kaam me [[Fibonacci number]] (jiske ''mātrāmeru'' bola gais rahaa) ke basic ideas of hae.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hall | first1 = Rachel W. | year = 2008 | title = Math for poets and drummers | url = http://people.sju.edu/~rhall/mathforpoets.pdf | journal = Math Horizons | volume = 15 | issue = 3| pages = 10–11 | doi = 10.1080/10724117.2008.11974752 | s2cid = 3637061 }}</ref> India ke aglaa khaas mathematical document ''Sulba Sutras'' hae, jon ''Siddhantas'' hae, jisme astronomical treatises 4th aur 5th centuries AD ([[Gupta period]]) ke hae jon [[Greece]] ke asar dekhae hae.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 208}}</ref> Isme trigonometric relations hae jon half-chord pe based hae, jaise modern trigonometry me, aur full chord nai, jaise Ptolemaic trigonometry me rahaa.<ref name=autogenerated2>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 209}}</ref> Kuchh ranslation me galti ke kaaran, sabd "sine" aur "cosine" [[Sanskrit]] "jiya" aur "kojiya" se aae hae.<ref name=autogenerated2 /> [[Image:Yuktibhasa.svg|upright|left|thumb|''[[Yuktibhāṣā]]'' me [[sine rule]] ke niyam]] Lagbhag 500 AD me, [[Aryabhata]] ''[[Aryabhatiya]]'' likhis rahaa, ek patraa volume, jon verse me loha gias rahaa, jiske astronomy aur mathematical mensuration ke rules ke samjhae ke khaatir likha gis rahaa.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 210}}</ref> ''Aryabhatiya'' me decimal place-value system ke pahila dafe dekha jaae hae. 7th century me, [[Brahmagupta]], [[Brahmagupta theorem]] banais, josme uu [[Brahmagupta's identity]] aur [[Brahmagupta's formula]] ke diis, aur pahila dafe ''[[Brahmasphutasiddhanta|Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta]]'' me, uu [[0 (number)|zero]]ke , as both a placeholder aur [[decimal digit]] ke ruup me samjhais, aur [[Hindu–Arabic numeral system]] ke bhi sanjhais.<ref name="Boyer Siddhanta">{{cite book|last=Boyer|ref=none|author-link=Carl Benjamin Boyer|title=History of Mathematics|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye|url-access=registration|year=1991|chapter=The Arabic Hegemony|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye/page/226 226]|publisher=Wiley |isbn=9780471543978|quote=By 766 we learn that an astronomical-mathematical work, known to the Arabs as the ''Sindhind'', was brought to Baghdad from India. It is generally thought that this was the ''Brahmasphuta Siddhanta'', although it may have been the ''Surya Siddhanata''. A few years later, perhaps about 775, this ''Siddhanata'' was translated into Arabic, and it was not long afterwards (ca. 780) that Ptolemy's astrological ''[[Tetrabiblos]]'' was translated into Arabic from the Greek.}}</ref> Ii text ke translation ke (c. 770) se Islamic mathematicians ke numeral system introduce karaa gais rahaa, jon iske [[Arabic numerals]] ke ruup me apnae liin. Islamic scholars, number system ke ii gyan ke Europe me 12th century me pahunchain, aur iske puraana munber system ke jagha kaam me laae jaae lagaa gais. Jab ki ii number system ke dher rakam likha jaae hae, ii sab [[Brahmi numeral]] se aais hae. India ke ek darjan script ke aapan number likhe ke dhang hae. 10th century me, jab [[Halayudha]] , [[Pingala]] ke kaam ke baare me likhis tab isme [[Fibonacci sequence]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Singh |first=Parmanand |date=1985-08-01 |title=The so-called fibonacci numbers in ancient and medieval India |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0315-0860%2885%2990021-7 |journal=Historia Mathematica |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=229–244 |doi=10.1016/0315-0860(85)90021-7 |issn=0315-0860}}</ref> aur [[Pascal's triangle]] bhi rahaa,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ramasubramanian |first=K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AEe9DwAAQBAJ&dq=Selected+Works+of+Radha+Charan+Gupta+on+History+of+Mathematics+pascal&pg=PA289 |title=Gaṇitānanda: Selected Works of Radha Charan Gupta on History of Mathematics |date=2019-11-08 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-981-13-1229-8 |language=en}}</ref> aur ii [[matrix (mathematics)|matrix]] kaise bane hae ke bhi samjhais rahaa. ==References== {{reflist}} [[vibhag:M]] [[vibhag:Mathematics| ]] oxou0c6qsthqs50qmzpfuwghths3fqg 323766 323765 2025-06-18T10:30:28Z Smcnarayan 362 /* Indian */ 323766 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Egyptian A'h-mosè or Rhind Papyrus (1065x1330).png|right|200px|thumb|Ii papyrus rhind se puraana Egypt me mathematics ke jaankari mile hae]] '''Mathematics''' (jiske chhota kar ke "maths" nai to "math" bola jaae hae), [[ginti]] (number), [[dhaancha]] (shape) aur [[wikt:namuuna|namuuna]] (pattern) ke adhyan hae. Ii sabd [[Greek bhasa|Greek]] ''μάθημα'' (máthema) se aais hae, jiske matlab [[vigyan]], [[gyaan]], nai to [[sikhnaa]] hae. Mathematics me adhyan karaa jaae hae: * Ginti: jisme chij ke kaise gina jaae, bhi hae. * Dhaancha (structure):chij ke kaise [[wikt:bandobast|bandobast]] (organize) karaa gais hae, lekin ii bhi ki ii kaise rahaa hoi. Iske jaada kar ke [[algebra]] bola jaae hae. * Place: jahaan chij hae, ii kaise arrange karaa gais, jisme iske dhaancha ke arrangement bhi hae. Iske jaada kar ke [[geometry]] bola jaae hae. * Change: kaise chij ke biich me [[wikt:antar|antar]] (difference) hae. Iske jaada kae ke [[Mathematical analysis]] bola jaae hae. [[Applied math]], asli [[dunia]] me problem ke solve kare me [[wikt:kaamil|kaamil]] (useful) hae. Jon log [[business]], [[vigyan]], [[engineering]] aur [[construction]] me kaam kare hae, mathematics ke kaam me laae hae.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.siam.org/Students-Education/Programs-Initiatives/Thinking-of-a-Career-in-Applied-Mathematics|title=Thinking of a Career in Applied Mathematics? {{!}} SIAM|website=www.siam.org|language=en-US|access-date=2018-07-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wigner|first=Eugene|date=February 1960|title=The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences|url=https://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html|journal=Communications in Pure and Applied Mathematics|volume=13|issue=1|pages=1–14|doi=10.1002/cpa.3160130102|bibcode=1960CPAM...13....1W|s2cid=6112252|via=|access-date=2018-08-07|archive-date=2018-08-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810073503/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html|url-status=dead|archivedate=2018-08-10|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810073503/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html}}</ref> ==Mathematics me samasya ke suljhaana (problem solving)== Mathematics, [[logic]] ke kaam me laae ke samasya ke sulghae hae.Ek khaas aujaar jiske mathematician log kaam me laae hae, [[Deductive reasoning|deduction]]. Deduction me puraana sachchaai ke kaam me laae ke nawaa sachchaai ke khoja jaae hae. Deduction ke kaam me laana, uu chij hae jon mathematics ke duusra rakam ke vigyanik soch (scientific thinking) se different hae, kaaheki usme [[experiment]] nai to [[interview]] pe nirbhar rahaa jaae hae.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/mathematics|title=The science checklist applied: Mathematics|website=undsci.berkeley.edu|access-date=2018-08-05}}</ref> [[Mathematician]] log logic aur reasoning ke kaam me laae ke general [[niyam]] (rule) banae hae, jon mathematics ke khaatir jaruri hae. Ii niyam uu [[jaankari]] ke nikaal de hai jon jaruri nai hae, tab ek niyam dher haalaat me kaam me laawa jaae sake hae. General niyam ke paae se, mathematicians dher samasya ke suljhaae sake hae, kaaheki ii niyam duusra samaya me bhi kaam me laawa jaae sake hae.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://blogs.ams.org/mathgradblog/2016/08/21/role-generalization-advanced-mathematical-thinking/|title=The Role of Generalization in the Advanced Mathematical Thinking|date=2016-08-21|work=AMS Grad Blog|access-date=2018-08-07|language=en-US}}</ref> Ii niyam ke [[theorem]] bola jaae hae (agar iske saabit kar dewa gais hae), nai to [[conjecture]] bola jaae hae.<ref>{{Cite book|title=How to Think Like a Mathematician|url=https://archive.org/details/howtothinklikema00hous_005|last=Houston|first=Kevin|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|page=[https://archive.org/details/howtothinklikema00hous_005/page/n112 99]|isbn=978-0-521-71978-0}}</ref> Jaada mathematicians non-logical aur creative reasoning ke kaam me laae ke logical proof ke paae hae.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thurston|first=William|date=April 1994|title=On proof and progress in mathematics|journal=Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society|volume=30|issue=2|pages=161–177|doi=10.1090/S0273-0979-1994-00502-6|arxiv=math/9404236|bibcode=1994math......4236T}}</ref> == Areas of study in mathematics == === Ginti === :Mathematics me ginti aur quantities ke adhyan karaa jaae hae. Ii vigyan ke ek hissa hae jisme logic of shape, quantity, aur arrangement hae. Niche dewa gais areas ke mathematics ke dher field me adhyan karaa jaae hae, jisme [[set theory]] aur [[mathematical logic]] hae. [[Number theory]] ke adhyan jaada kar ke integer ke structure aur behavior ke adhyan kare hae . :{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="20" | <math>1,2,3,\ldots</math> || <math>\ldots,-1,0,1,\ldots</math> || <math>\frac12,\frac23,0.125,\ldots</math> || <math>\pi,\tau,e,\sqrt2,\ldots</math> || <math>1+i,2e^{i\pi/3},\ldots</math> |- | [[Natural number]]s || [[Integer]]s || [[Rational number]]s || [[Real number]]s || [[Complex number]]s |- || <math>0,1,\ldots,\omega,\omega+1,\ldots,2\omega,\ldots</math> || <math>\aleph_0,\aleph_1,\ldots</math> || <math>+,-,\times,/</math> || <math><,\le,=,\ge,></math> || <math>f(x)=\sqrt x</math> |- || [[Ordinal number]]s || [[Cardinal number]]s || [[Arithmetic|Arithmetic operations]] || [[Arithmetic|Arithmetic relations]] || [[Function (mathematics)|Functions]], see also [[special functions]] |} === Structure === : Structural mathematics objects' and constructions' ke shape aur integrity ke adhyan kare hae. Isme [[algebra]] aur [[calculus]] hae. :{| style="border:3px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="30" | [[File:Elliptic curve simple.svg|96px]] || [[File:Free module.png|96px]] || [[File:Eigenvectoren.pdf|96px]] ||[[File:Lattice of the divisibility of 60.svg|96px]] || [[File:6n-graf.svg|128px]] |- | [[Number theory]] || [[Abstract algebra]] || [[Linear algebra]] || [[Order theory]] || [[Graph theory]] |} === Shape === :Mathematics ke kuchh hussa chij ke dhaancha ke adhyan kare hae, Ii sab jaada kar ke [[geometry]] ke adhuan ke hissa hae. :{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="20" | [[File:Torus.jpg|128px]] || [[File:Pythagorean.svg|128px]] || [[File:Sin.svg|160px]] || [[File:Osculating circle.svg|128px]] || [[File:Koch curve.svg|128px]] |- | [[Topology]] || [[Geometry]] || [[Trigonometry]] || [[Differential geometry]] || [[Fractal geometry]] |} === Change === :Some areas of mathematics study the way things change. Most of these areas are part of the study of [[Mathematical analysis|analysis]]. :{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="40" | [[File:Integral as region under curve.svg|128px]] || [[File:Vector field.svg|128px]] || [[File:LimSup.png|128px]] |- | [[Calculus]] || [[Vector calculus]] || [[Mathematical analysis|Analysis]] |- || [[File:Damping 1.svg|128px]] || [[File:Limitcycle.svg|128px]] || [[File:LorenzAttractor.png|128px]] |- || [[Differential equation]]s || [[Dynamical systems theory|Dynamical systems]] || [[Chaos theory]] |} ==Mathematics ke itihaas== ===Puraana itihaas=== ==Babylonian=== ===Egyptian=== ===Greek=== ===Roman=== ===Chinese=== ===Indian=== [[File:Bakhshali numerals 2.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Jon akchhar ke gine ke khaatir [[Bakhshali manuscript]] me kaam me laawa gais rahaa. Ii 2nd century BC aur 2nd century AD ke biich ke hae.]] {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | width = 330 | image1 = 1911 sketch of numerals script history ancient India, mathematical symbols shapes.jpg | alt1 = Numerals evolution in India | caption1 = Indian numerals ke patthar aur [[tamba]] (copper) me ke inscriptions<ref name=britnanaghat>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/numeral#ref797082 Development Of Modern Numerals And Numeral Systems: The Hindu-Arabic system], Encyclopaedia Britannica, Quote: "1, 4, aur 6 ke Ashoka inscriptions me paawa gais hae (3rd century BC); 2, 4, 6, 7, aur 9 ke Nana Ghat inscriptions me paawa gais hae lagbhag ek century baad me; aur 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, aur 9 Nasik gufaa me paawa gais hae, 1st nai to 2nd century AD ke – ii sab dekhe me abhi ke 2 aur 3 ke rakam dekhe me lage hae jon puraana = aur ≡ se aais hae."</ref> | image2 = Indian numerals 100AD.svg | alt2 = Brahmi numerals | caption2 = Puraana Brahmi numerals, India ke ek hissa me }} Indian subcontinent ke sab se puraana civilization [[Indus Valley civilization]] hae (mature second phase: 2600 to 1900 BC) jon [[Indus Naddi]] ke basin me rahaa. Iske city geometric shape me banaa rahaa, lekin ii civilization ke koi mathematical document abhi talak nai bachaa hae.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 206}}</ref> India ke sab se puraana mathematical records, jon abhi talak bachaa hae, [[Sulba Sutras]] hae (jiske 8th century BC se 2nd century AD talak ke bataawa jaae hae),<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207">{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 207}}</ref> Ii time, dharmik kitaab me murti ke kaise banaawa jaae sake ke niyam me dher shape, jaise squares, rectangles, parallelograms hae.<ref>{{Cite book |first=T.K. |last=Puttaswamy |chapter=The Accomplishments of Ancient Indian Mathematicians |pages=411–12 |title=Mathematics Across Cultures: The History of Non-western Mathematics |editor1-first=Helaine |editor1-last=Selin |editor1-link=Helaine Selin |editor2-first=Ubiratan |editor2-last=D'Ambrosio |editor2-link=Ubiratan D'Ambrosio |year=2000 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |isbn=978-1-4020-0260-1 }}</ref> Egypt ke rakam, mandir banae me jaada dhyan dena, ii dekhae hae ki mathematics, dharmik ritual se suruu bhais hae.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207"/> Sulba Sutras ii batae hae ki ek circle, jiske area ek square ke baraabar hae, ke kaise banaawa jaae sake hae, jon π ke dher approxinations dekhae hae. <ref>{{cite journal |first=R.P. |last=Kulkarni |url=http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005af9_32.pdf |title=The Value of π known to Śulbasūtras |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206150545/http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005af9_32.pdf |archive-date=2012-02-06 |journal=Indian Journal of History of Science |volume=13 |issue=1 |date=1978 |pages=32–41}}</ref><ref name="Indian_sulbasutras">{{cite web |first1=J.J. |last1=Connor |first2=E.F. |last2=Robertson |title=The Indian Sulbasutras |publisher=Univ. of St. Andrew, Scotland |url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Indian_sulbasutras.html}}</ref> π ke approximate hae 4 x (13/15)² (3.0044...), 25/8 (3.125), 900/289 (3.11418685...), 1156/361 (3.202216...), aur 339/108 (3.1389). Iske alaawa, uu log 2 ke [[square root]] ke decimal places talak work our kare rahin, Pythagorean triples ke suchi banae rahin, aur [[Pythagorean theorem]] ke bhi batae rahin.<ref name="Indian_sulbasutras"/> Ii sab chij Babylonian mathematics me bhi hae, aur ii Mesopotamian influence dekhae hae.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207"/> Ii nai jaana jaae hae ki Sulba Sutra ke ketnaa asar baad ke Indian mathematicians pe rahaa. China ke rakam, Indian mathematics ke development contunuous nai rahaa; kabhi-kabhi sher pragati ke baad dher din talak koi nawaa chij nai bhais rahaa.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207"/> [[Panini]] (c. 5th century BC) me [[Sanskrit grammar]] ke niyam banais rahaa.<ref>{{Cite journal | last=Bronkhorst | first=Johannes | author-link= Johannes Bronkhorst | title=Panini and Euclid: Reflections on Indian Geometry | journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy |volume=29 |issue=1–2 | year=2001 | pages=43–80 | doi=10.1023/A:1017506118885 | s2cid=115779583 }}</ref> Uske notation, modern mathematical notation ke rakam rahaa, aur metarules, [[Transformation (geometry)|transformations]], aur [[recursion]] ke kaam me laais rahaa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kadvany|first=John|date=2008-02-08|title=Positional Value and Linguistic Recursion|journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy|language=en|volume=35|issue=5–6|pages=487–520|doi=10.1007/s10781-007-9025-5|issn=0022-1791|citeseerx=10.1.1.565.2083|s2cid=52885600}}</ref> [[Pingala]] (lagbhag 3rd–1st centuries BC) aapan thesis [[Prosody (poetry)|prosody]] me ek aujaar ke kaam me laais rahaa jon [[binary numeral system]] ke rakam rahaa.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sanchez |first1=Julio |last2=Canton |first2=Maria P. |title=Microcontroller programming : the microchip PIC |year=2007 |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, Florida |isbn=978-0-8493-7189-9 |page=37 }}</ref><ref>Anglin, W. S. and J. Lambek (1995). ''The Heritage of Thales'', Springer, {{ISBN|0-387-94544-X}}</ref> Uske [[combinatorics]] of [[Metre (music)|meters]], sangeet me, [[binomial theorem]] ke rakam rahaa. Pingala ke kaam me [[Fibonacci number]] (jiske ''mātrāmeru'' bola gais rahaa) ke basic ideas of hae.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hall | first1 = Rachel W. | year = 2008 | title = Math for poets and drummers | url = http://people.sju.edu/~rhall/mathforpoets.pdf | journal = Math Horizons | volume = 15 | issue = 3| pages = 10–11 | doi = 10.1080/10724117.2008.11974752 | s2cid = 3637061 }}</ref> India ke aglaa khaas mathematical document ''Sulba Sutras'' hae, jon ''Siddhantas'' hae, jisme astronomical treatises 4th aur 5th centuries AD ([[Gupta period]]) ke hae jon [[Greece]] ke asar dekhae hae.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 208}}</ref> Isme trigonometric relations hae jon half-chord pe based hae, jaise modern trigonometry me, aur full chord nai, jaise Ptolemaic trigonometry me rahaa.<ref name=autogenerated2>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 209}}</ref> Kuchh ranslation me galti ke kaaran, sabd "sine" aur "cosine" [[Sanskrit]] "jiya" aur "kojiya" se aae hae.<ref name=autogenerated2 /> [[Image:Yuktibhasa.svg|upright|left|thumb|''[[Yuktibhāṣā]]'' me [[sine rule]] ke niyam]] Lagbhag 500 AD me, [[Aryabhata]] ''[[Aryabhatiya]]'' likhis rahaa, ek patraa volume, jon verse me loha gias rahaa, jiske astronomy aur mathematical mensuration ke rules ke samjhae ke khaatir likha gis rahaa.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 210}}</ref> ''Aryabhatiya'' me decimal place-value system ke pahila dafe dekha jaae hae. 7th century me, [[Brahmagupta]], [[Brahmagupta theorem]] banais, josme uu [[Brahmagupta's identity]] aur [[Brahmagupta's formula]] ke diis, aur pahila dafe ''[[Brahmasphutasiddhanta|Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta]]'' me, uu [[0 (number)|zero]]ke , as both a placeholder aur [[decimal digit]] ke ruup me samjhais, aur [[Hindu–Arabic numeral system]] ke bhi sanjhais.<ref name="Boyer Siddhanta">{{cite book|last=Boyer|ref=none|author-link=Carl Benjamin Boyer|title=History of Mathematics|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye|url-access=registration|year=1991|chapter=The Arabic Hegemony|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye/page/226 226]|publisher=Wiley |isbn=9780471543978|quote=By 766 we learn that an astronomical-mathematical work, known to the Arabs as the ''Sindhind'', was brought to Baghdad from India. It is generally thought that this was the ''Brahmasphuta Siddhanta'', although it may have been the ''Surya Siddhanata''. A few years later, perhaps about 775, this ''Siddhanata'' was translated into Arabic, and it was not long afterwards (ca. 780) that Ptolemy's astrological ''[[Tetrabiblos]]'' was translated into Arabic from the Greek.}}</ref> Ii text ke translation ke (c. 770) se Islamic mathematicians ke numeral system introduce karaa gais rahaa, jon iske [[Arabic numerals]] ke ruup me apnae liin. Islamic scholars, number system ke ii gyan ke Europe me 12th century me pahunchain, aur iske puraana munber system ke jagha kaam me laae jaae lagaa gais. Jab ki ii number system ke dher rakam likha jaae hae, ii sab [[Brahmi numeral]] se aais hae. India ke ek darjan script ke aapan number likhe ke dhang hae. 10th century me, jab [[Halayudha]] , [[Pingala]] ke kaam ke baare me likhis tab isme [[Fibonacci sequence]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Singh |first=Parmanand |date=1985-08-01 |title=The so-called fibonacci numbers in ancient and medieval India |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0315-0860%2885%2990021-7 |journal=Historia Mathematica |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=229–244 |doi=10.1016/0315-0860(85)90021-7 |issn=0315-0860}}</ref> aur [[Pascal's triangle]] bhi rahaa,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ramasubramanian |first=K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AEe9DwAAQBAJ&dq=Selected+Works+of+Radha+Charan+Gupta+on+History+of+Mathematics+pascal&pg=PA289 |title=Gaṇitānanda: Selected Works of Radha Charan Gupta on History of Mathematics |date=2019-11-08 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-981-13-1229-8 |language=en}}</ref> aur ii [[matrix (mathematics)|matrix]] kaise bane hae ke bhi samjhais rahaa. 12th century me, [[Bhāskara II]],<ref>Plofker 2009 182–207</ref> jon south India me rahat raha, jaana jaae waala mathematics ke branches ke baare me dher chij likhis rahaa. Uske kaam me mathematical objects equivalent or approximately equivalent to infinitesimals, [[Mean value theorem|the mean value theorem]] aur sine function ke derivative hae.<ref>{{cite book |first=Roger |last=Cooke |title=The History of Mathematics: A Brief Course |publisher=Wiley-Interscience |year=1997 |chapter=The Mathematics of the Hindus |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema0000cook/page/213 213–215] |isbn=0-471-18082-3 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema0000cook/page/213}}</ref><ref>Plofker 2009 pp. 197–98; George Gheverghese Joseph, ''The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics'', Penguin Books, London, 1991 pp. 298–300; Takao Hayashi, "Indian Mathematics", pp. 118–30 in ''Companion History of the History and Philosophy of the Mathematical Sciences'', ed. I. Grattan. Guinness, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London, 1994, p. 126.</ref> 14th century me, [[Narayana Pandita (mathematician)|Narayana Pandita]] ''[[Ganita Kaumudi]]'' ke likh ke khalaas karis.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Narayana - Biography |url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Narayana/ |access-date=2022-10-03 |website=Maths History |language=en}}</ref> ==References== {{reflist}} [[vibhag:M]] [[vibhag:Mathematics| ]] sc0txcvst7q8rn4n6kv4wwtsbydxoul 323767 323766 2025-06-18T10:50:24Z Smcnarayan 362 /* Indian */ 323767 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Egyptian A'h-mosè or Rhind Papyrus (1065x1330).png|right|200px|thumb|Ii papyrus rhind se puraana Egypt me mathematics ke jaankari mile hae]] '''Mathematics''' (jiske chhota kar ke "maths" nai to "math" bola jaae hae), [[ginti]] (number), [[dhaancha]] (shape) aur [[wikt:namuuna|namuuna]] (pattern) ke adhyan hae. Ii sabd [[Greek bhasa|Greek]] ''μάθημα'' (máthema) se aais hae, jiske matlab [[vigyan]], [[gyaan]], nai to [[sikhnaa]] hae. Mathematics me adhyan karaa jaae hae: * Ginti: jisme chij ke kaise gina jaae, bhi hae. * Dhaancha (structure):chij ke kaise [[wikt:bandobast|bandobast]] (organize) karaa gais hae, lekin ii bhi ki ii kaise rahaa hoi. Iske jaada kar ke [[algebra]] bola jaae hae. * Place: jahaan chij hae, ii kaise arrange karaa gais, jisme iske dhaancha ke arrangement bhi hae. Iske jaada kar ke [[geometry]] bola jaae hae. * Change: kaise chij ke biich me [[wikt:antar|antar]] (difference) hae. Iske jaada kae ke [[Mathematical analysis]] bola jaae hae. [[Applied math]], asli [[dunia]] me problem ke solve kare me [[wikt:kaamil|kaamil]] (useful) hae. Jon log [[business]], [[vigyan]], [[engineering]] aur [[construction]] me kaam kare hae, mathematics ke kaam me laae hae.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.siam.org/Students-Education/Programs-Initiatives/Thinking-of-a-Career-in-Applied-Mathematics|title=Thinking of a Career in Applied Mathematics? {{!}} SIAM|website=www.siam.org|language=en-US|access-date=2018-07-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wigner|first=Eugene|date=February 1960|title=The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences|url=https://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html|journal=Communications in Pure and Applied Mathematics|volume=13|issue=1|pages=1–14|doi=10.1002/cpa.3160130102|bibcode=1960CPAM...13....1W|s2cid=6112252|via=|access-date=2018-08-07|archive-date=2018-08-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810073503/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html|url-status=dead|archivedate=2018-08-10|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810073503/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html}}</ref> ==Mathematics me samasya ke suljhaana (problem solving)== Mathematics, [[logic]] ke kaam me laae ke samasya ke sulghae hae.Ek khaas aujaar jiske mathematician log kaam me laae hae, [[Deductive reasoning|deduction]]. Deduction me puraana sachchaai ke kaam me laae ke nawaa sachchaai ke khoja jaae hae. Deduction ke kaam me laana, uu chij hae jon mathematics ke duusra rakam ke vigyanik soch (scientific thinking) se different hae, kaaheki usme [[experiment]] nai to [[interview]] pe nirbhar rahaa jaae hae.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/mathematics|title=The science checklist applied: Mathematics|website=undsci.berkeley.edu|access-date=2018-08-05}}</ref> [[Mathematician]] log logic aur reasoning ke kaam me laae ke general [[niyam]] (rule) banae hae, jon mathematics ke khaatir jaruri hae. Ii niyam uu [[jaankari]] ke nikaal de hai jon jaruri nai hae, tab ek niyam dher haalaat me kaam me laawa jaae sake hae. General niyam ke paae se, mathematicians dher samasya ke suljhaae sake hae, kaaheki ii niyam duusra samaya me bhi kaam me laawa jaae sake hae.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://blogs.ams.org/mathgradblog/2016/08/21/role-generalization-advanced-mathematical-thinking/|title=The Role of Generalization in the Advanced Mathematical Thinking|date=2016-08-21|work=AMS Grad Blog|access-date=2018-08-07|language=en-US}}</ref> Ii niyam ke [[theorem]] bola jaae hae (agar iske saabit kar dewa gais hae), nai to [[conjecture]] bola jaae hae.<ref>{{Cite book|title=How to Think Like a Mathematician|url=https://archive.org/details/howtothinklikema00hous_005|last=Houston|first=Kevin|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|page=[https://archive.org/details/howtothinklikema00hous_005/page/n112 99]|isbn=978-0-521-71978-0}}</ref> Jaada mathematicians non-logical aur creative reasoning ke kaam me laae ke logical proof ke paae hae.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thurston|first=William|date=April 1994|title=On proof and progress in mathematics|journal=Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society|volume=30|issue=2|pages=161–177|doi=10.1090/S0273-0979-1994-00502-6|arxiv=math/9404236|bibcode=1994math......4236T}}</ref> == Areas of study in mathematics == === Ginti === :Mathematics me ginti aur quantities ke adhyan karaa jaae hae. Ii vigyan ke ek hissa hae jisme logic of shape, quantity, aur arrangement hae. Niche dewa gais areas ke mathematics ke dher field me adhyan karaa jaae hae, jisme [[set theory]] aur [[mathematical logic]] hae. [[Number theory]] ke adhyan jaada kar ke integer ke structure aur behavior ke adhyan kare hae . :{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="20" | <math>1,2,3,\ldots</math> || <math>\ldots,-1,0,1,\ldots</math> || <math>\frac12,\frac23,0.125,\ldots</math> || <math>\pi,\tau,e,\sqrt2,\ldots</math> || <math>1+i,2e^{i\pi/3},\ldots</math> |- | [[Natural number]]s || [[Integer]]s || [[Rational number]]s || [[Real number]]s || [[Complex number]]s |- || <math>0,1,\ldots,\omega,\omega+1,\ldots,2\omega,\ldots</math> || <math>\aleph_0,\aleph_1,\ldots</math> || <math>+,-,\times,/</math> || <math><,\le,=,\ge,></math> || <math>f(x)=\sqrt x</math> |- || [[Ordinal number]]s || [[Cardinal number]]s || [[Arithmetic|Arithmetic operations]] || [[Arithmetic|Arithmetic relations]] || [[Function (mathematics)|Functions]], see also [[special functions]] |} === Structure === : Structural mathematics objects' and constructions' ke shape aur integrity ke adhyan kare hae. Isme [[algebra]] aur [[calculus]] hae. :{| style="border:3px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="30" | [[File:Elliptic curve simple.svg|96px]] || [[File:Free module.png|96px]] || [[File:Eigenvectoren.pdf|96px]] ||[[File:Lattice of the divisibility of 60.svg|96px]] || [[File:6n-graf.svg|128px]] |- | [[Number theory]] || [[Abstract algebra]] || [[Linear algebra]] || [[Order theory]] || [[Graph theory]] |} === Shape === :Mathematics ke kuchh hussa chij ke dhaancha ke adhyan kare hae, Ii sab jaada kar ke [[geometry]] ke adhuan ke hissa hae. :{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="20" | [[File:Torus.jpg|128px]] || [[File:Pythagorean.svg|128px]] || [[File:Sin.svg|160px]] || [[File:Osculating circle.svg|128px]] || [[File:Koch curve.svg|128px]] |- | [[Topology]] || [[Geometry]] || [[Trigonometry]] || [[Differential geometry]] || [[Fractal geometry]] |} === Change === :Some areas of mathematics study the way things change. Most of these areas are part of the study of [[Mathematical analysis|analysis]]. :{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="40" | [[File:Integral as region under curve.svg|128px]] || [[File:Vector field.svg|128px]] || [[File:LimSup.png|128px]] |- | [[Calculus]] || [[Vector calculus]] || [[Mathematical analysis|Analysis]] |- || [[File:Damping 1.svg|128px]] || [[File:Limitcycle.svg|128px]] || [[File:LorenzAttractor.png|128px]] |- || [[Differential equation]]s || [[Dynamical systems theory|Dynamical systems]] || [[Chaos theory]] |} ==Mathematics ke itihaas== ===Puraana itihaas=== ==Babylonian=== ===Egyptian=== ===Greek=== ===Roman=== ===Chinese=== ===Indian=== [[File:Bakhshali numerals 2.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Jon akchhar ke gine ke khaatir [[Bakhshali manuscript]] me kaam me laawa gais rahaa. Ii 2nd century BC aur 2nd century AD ke biich ke hae.]] {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | width = 330 | image1 = 1911 sketch of numerals script history ancient India, mathematical symbols shapes.jpg | alt1 = Numerals evolution in India | caption1 = Indian numerals ke patthar aur [[tamba]] (copper) me ke inscriptions<ref name=britnanaghat>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/numeral#ref797082 Development Of Modern Numerals And Numeral Systems: The Hindu-Arabic system], Encyclopaedia Britannica, Quote: "1, 4, aur 6 ke Ashoka inscriptions me paawa gais hae (3rd century BC); 2, 4, 6, 7, aur 9 ke Nana Ghat inscriptions me paawa gais hae lagbhag ek century baad me; aur 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, aur 9 Nasik gufaa me paawa gais hae, 1st nai to 2nd century AD ke – ii sab dekhe me abhi ke 2 aur 3 ke rakam dekhe me lage hae jon puraana = aur ≡ se aais hae."</ref> | image2 = Indian numerals 100AD.svg | alt2 = Brahmi numerals | caption2 = Puraana Brahmi numerals, India ke ek hissa me }} Indian subcontinent ke sab se puraana civilization [[Indus Valley civilization]] hae (mature second phase: 2600 to 1900 BC) jon [[Indus Naddi]] ke basin me rahaa. Iske city geometric shape me banaa rahaa, lekin ii civilization ke koi mathematical document abhi talak nai bachaa hae.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 206}}</ref> India ke sab se puraana mathematical records, jon abhi talak bachaa hae, [[Sulba Sutras]] hae (jiske 8th century BC se 2nd century AD talak ke bataawa jaae hae),<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207">{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 207}}</ref> Ii time, dharmik kitaab me murti ke kaise banaawa jaae sake ke niyam me dher shape, jaise squares, rectangles, parallelograms hae.<ref>{{Cite book |first=T.K. |last=Puttaswamy |chapter=The Accomplishments of Ancient Indian Mathematicians |pages=411–12 |title=Mathematics Across Cultures: The History of Non-western Mathematics |editor1-first=Helaine |editor1-last=Selin |editor1-link=Helaine Selin |editor2-first=Ubiratan |editor2-last=D'Ambrosio |editor2-link=Ubiratan D'Ambrosio |year=2000 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |isbn=978-1-4020-0260-1 }}</ref> Egypt ke rakam, mandir banae me jaada dhyan dena, ii dekhae hae ki mathematics, dharmik ritual se suruu bhais hae.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207"/> Sulba Sutras ii batae hae ki ek circle, jiske area ek square ke baraabar hae, ke kaise banaawa jaae sake hae, jon π ke dher approxinations dekhae hae. <ref>{{cite journal |first=R.P. |last=Kulkarni |url=http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005af9_32.pdf |title=The Value of π known to Śulbasūtras |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206150545/http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005af9_32.pdf |archive-date=2012-02-06 |journal=Indian Journal of History of Science |volume=13 |issue=1 |date=1978 |pages=32–41}}</ref><ref name="Indian_sulbasutras">{{cite web |first1=J.J. |last1=Connor |first2=E.F. |last2=Robertson |title=The Indian Sulbasutras |publisher=Univ. of St. Andrew, Scotland |url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Indian_sulbasutras.html}}</ref> π ke approximate hae 4 x (13/15)² (3.0044...), 25/8 (3.125), 900/289 (3.11418685...), 1156/361 (3.202216...), aur 339/108 (3.1389). Iske alaawa, uu log 2 ke [[square root]] ke decimal places talak work our kare rahin, Pythagorean triples ke suchi banae rahin, aur [[Pythagorean theorem]] ke bhi batae rahin.<ref name="Indian_sulbasutras"/> Ii sab chij Babylonian mathematics me bhi hae, aur ii Mesopotamian influence dekhae hae.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207"/> Ii nai jaana jaae hae ki Sulba Sutra ke ketnaa asar baad ke Indian mathematicians pe rahaa. China ke rakam, Indian mathematics ke development contunuous nai rahaa; kabhi-kabhi sher pragati ke baad dher din talak koi nawaa chij nai bhais rahaa.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207"/> [[Panini]] (c. 5th century BC) me [[Sanskrit grammar]] ke niyam banais rahaa.<ref>{{Cite journal | last=Bronkhorst | first=Johannes | author-link= Johannes Bronkhorst | title=Panini and Euclid: Reflections on Indian Geometry | journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy |volume=29 |issue=1–2 | year=2001 | pages=43–80 | doi=10.1023/A:1017506118885 | s2cid=115779583 }}</ref> Uske notation, modern mathematical notation ke rakam rahaa, aur metarules, [[Transformation (geometry)|transformations]], aur [[recursion]] ke kaam me laais rahaa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kadvany|first=John|date=2008-02-08|title=Positional Value and Linguistic Recursion|journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy|language=en|volume=35|issue=5–6|pages=487–520|doi=10.1007/s10781-007-9025-5|issn=0022-1791|citeseerx=10.1.1.565.2083|s2cid=52885600}}</ref> [[Pingala]] (lagbhag 3rd–1st centuries BC) aapan thesis [[Prosody (poetry)|prosody]] me ek aujaar ke kaam me laais rahaa jon [[binary numeral system]] ke rakam rahaa.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sanchez |first1=Julio |last2=Canton |first2=Maria P. |title=Microcontroller programming : the microchip PIC |year=2007 |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, Florida |isbn=978-0-8493-7189-9 |page=37 }}</ref><ref>Anglin, W. S. and J. Lambek (1995). ''The Heritage of Thales'', Springer, {{ISBN|0-387-94544-X}}</ref> Uske [[combinatorics]] of [[Metre (music)|meters]], sangeet me, [[binomial theorem]] ke rakam rahaa. Pingala ke kaam me [[Fibonacci number]] (jiske ''mātrāmeru'' bola gais rahaa) ke basic ideas of hae.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hall | first1 = Rachel W. | year = 2008 | title = Math for poets and drummers | url = http://people.sju.edu/~rhall/mathforpoets.pdf | journal = Math Horizons | volume = 15 | issue = 3| pages = 10–11 | doi = 10.1080/10724117.2008.11974752 | s2cid = 3637061 }}</ref> India ke aglaa khaas mathematical document ''Sulba Sutras'' hae, jon ''Siddhantas'' hae, jisme astronomical treatises 4th aur 5th centuries AD ([[Gupta period]]) ke hae jon [[Greece]] ke asar dekhae hae.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 208}}</ref> Isme trigonometric relations hae jon half-chord pe based hae, jaise modern trigonometry me, aur full chord nai, jaise Ptolemaic trigonometry me rahaa.<ref name=autogenerated2>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 209}}</ref> Kuchh ranslation me galti ke kaaran, sabd "sine" aur "cosine" [[Sanskrit]] "jiya" aur "kojiya" se aae hae.<ref name=autogenerated2 /> [[Image:Yuktibhasa.svg|upright|left|thumb|''[[Yuktibhāṣā]]'' me [[sine rule]] ke niyam]] Lagbhag 500 AD me, [[Aryabhata]] ''[[Aryabhatiya]]'' likhis rahaa, ek patraa volume, jon verse me loha gias rahaa, jiske astronomy aur mathematical mensuration ke rules ke samjhae ke khaatir likha gis rahaa.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 210}}</ref> ''Aryabhatiya'' me decimal place-value system ke pahila dafe dekha jaae hae. 7th century me, [[Brahmagupta]], [[Brahmagupta theorem]] banais, josme uu [[Brahmagupta's identity]] aur [[Brahmagupta's formula]] ke diis, aur pahila dafe ''[[Brahmasphutasiddhanta|Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta]]'' me, uu [[0 (number)|zero]]ke , as both a placeholder aur [[decimal digit]] ke ruup me samjhais, aur [[Hindu–Arabic numeral system]] ke bhi sanjhais.<ref name="Boyer Siddhanta">{{cite book|last=Boyer|ref=none|author-link=Carl Benjamin Boyer|title=History of Mathematics|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye|url-access=registration|year=1991|chapter=The Arabic Hegemony|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye/page/226 226]|publisher=Wiley |isbn=9780471543978|quote=By 766 we learn that an astronomical-mathematical work, known to the Arabs as the ''Sindhind'', was brought to Baghdad from India. It is generally thought that this was the ''Brahmasphuta Siddhanta'', although it may have been the ''Surya Siddhanata''. A few years later, perhaps about 775, this ''Siddhanata'' was translated into Arabic, and it was not long afterwards (ca. 780) that Ptolemy's astrological ''[[Tetrabiblos]]'' was translated into Arabic from the Greek.}}</ref> Ii text ke translation ke (c. 770) se Islamic mathematicians ke numeral system introduce karaa gais rahaa, jon iske [[Arabic numerals]] ke ruup me apnae liin. Islamic scholars, number system ke ii gyan ke Europe me 12th century me pahunchain, aur iske puraana munber system ke jagha kaam me laae jaae lagaa gais. Jab ki ii number system ke dher rakam likha jaae hae, ii sab [[Brahmi numeral]] se aais hae. India ke ek darjan script ke aapan number likhe ke dhang hae. 10th century me, jab [[Halayudha]] , [[Pingala]] ke kaam ke baare me likhis tab isme [[Fibonacci sequence]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Singh |first=Parmanand |date=1985-08-01 |title=The so-called fibonacci numbers in ancient and medieval India |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0315-0860%2885%2990021-7 |journal=Historia Mathematica |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=229–244 |doi=10.1016/0315-0860(85)90021-7 |issn=0315-0860}}</ref> aur [[Pascal's triangle]] bhi rahaa,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ramasubramanian |first=K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AEe9DwAAQBAJ&dq=Selected+Works+of+Radha+Charan+Gupta+on+History+of+Mathematics+pascal&pg=PA289 |title=Gaṇitānanda: Selected Works of Radha Charan Gupta on History of Mathematics |date=2019-11-08 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-981-13-1229-8 |language=en}}</ref> aur ii [[matrix (mathematics)|matrix]] kaise bane hae ke bhi samjhais rahaa. 12th century me, [[Bhāskara II]],<ref>Plofker 2009 182–207</ref> jon south India me rahat raha, jaana jaae waala mathematics ke branches ke baare me dher chij likhis rahaa. Uske kaam me mathematical objects equivalent or approximately equivalent to infinitesimals, [[Mean value theorem|the mean value theorem]] aur sine function ke derivative hae.<ref>{{cite book |first=Roger |last=Cooke |title=The History of Mathematics: A Brief Course |publisher=Wiley-Interscience |year=1997 |chapter=The Mathematics of the Hindus |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema0000cook/page/213 213–215] |isbn=0-471-18082-3 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema0000cook/page/213}}</ref><ref>Plofker 2009 pp. 197–98; George Gheverghese Joseph, ''The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics'', Penguin Books, London, 1991 pp. 298–300; Takao Hayashi, "Indian Mathematics", pp. 118–30 in ''Companion History of the History and Philosophy of the Mathematical Sciences'', ed. I. Grattan. Guinness, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London, 1994, p. 126.</ref> 14th century me, [[Narayana Pandita (mathematician)|Narayana Pandita]] ''[[Ganita Kaumudi]]'' ke likh ke khalaas karis.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Narayana - Biography |url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Narayana/ |access-date=2022-10-03 |website=Maths History |language=en}}</ref> 14th century bhi, [[Madhava of Sangamagrama]], jon [[Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics|Kerala School of Mathematics]] ke suruu karis rahaa, [[Leibniz formula for pi|Madhava–Leibniz series]] ke banais jiske uu [[Approximations of π#Middle Ages|transformed series]] se suruu karis rahaa, jiske pahila 21 terms ke kaam me laae ke π ke value 3.14159265359 paawa gais hae. Madhava [[Gregory's series|the Madhava-Gregory series]] ke bhi paais jiske uu kaam me laae ke arctangent ke calculate karis, Madhava-Newton [[power series]] ke kaam me laae ke sine aur cosine aur [[Taylor series|the Taylor approximation]] sine aur cosine functions ke calculate karis.<ref>Plofker 2009 pp. 217–53.</ref> 16th century me, [[Jyesthadeva]] Kerala School ke banaawa gais theorem ke ''Yukti-bhāṣā'' me likhis.<ref name="rajujournal"> {{cite journal| author1=Raju, C. K. | title=Computers, mathematics education, and the alternative epistemology of the calculus in the Yuktibhāṣā |url=http://ckraju.net/papers/Hawaii.pdf | journal=Philosophy East & West | volume=51 | issue=3 | date=2001 | pages=325–362 | doi=10.1353/pew.2001.0045 | s2cid=170341845 | access-date=2020-02-11 }} </ref><ref>Divakaran, P. P. (2007). "The first textbook of calculus: Yukti-bhāṣā", ''Journal of Indian Philosophy'' 35, pp. 417–33.</ref> Ii bhi arue karaa gais hae ki kuchh calculus ke idea, jaise infinite series aur taylor series aur kuchh trigonometry functions, ke Europe talak 16th century me<ref name=":2" /> [[Jesuit]] missionaries aur traders log pahunchaain jon puraana [[Muziris]] port me uu time me rahin aur ii rakam se European me analysis aur calculus ke development me madat karin.<ref name=almeida>{{cite journal |author = Almeida, D. F.; J. K. John and A. Zadorozhnyy |title = Keralese mathematics: its possible transmission to Europe and the consequential educational implications | journal = Journal of Natural Geometry |volume= 20 |year =2001 |pages=77–104 |issue=1 }}</ref> ==References== {{reflist}} [[vibhag:M]] [[vibhag:Mathematics| ]] ra04xua4pev4no62oe4u0gr18bjjyzv 0 10464 323785 305795 2025-06-18T11:42:24Z Girmitya 41 323785 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox language | name = Mi'kmaq | nativename = {{lang|mic|Miꞌkmawiꞌsimk}} | states = [[Mi'kma'ki]],{{indent|3}} [[Wabanaki Confederacy|Wabankia]]<br /> [[Canada]]<br /> [[United States]] | region = [[Nova Scotia]], [[New Brunswick]], [[Prince Edward Island]], [[Gaspé Peninsula]], the [[Newfoundland (island)|island of Newfoundland]], [[Anticosti Island]], northern [[Maine]], [[Boston, Massachusetts]] | ethnicity = 168,420 [[Mi'kmaq]] (2016 census) | speakers = 7,140, 4% of ethnic population | date = | ref = <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/hlt-fst/lang/Table.cfm?Lang=E&T=41&Geo=01|title=Language Highlight Tables, 2016 Census – Aboriginal mother tongue, Aboriginal language spoken most often at home and Other Aboriginal language(s) spoken regularly at home for the population excluding institutional residents of Canada, provinces and territories, 2016 Census – 100% Data|last=Canada|first=Government of Canada, Statistics|website=www12.statcan.gc.ca|date=2 August 2017|language=en|access-date=2017-11-17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2013/demo/2009-2013-lang-tables.html|title=Detailed Languages Spoken at Home and Ability to Speak English|website=www.census.gov|language=en-US|access-date=2017-11-17}}</ref> | familycolor = Algic | fam1 = [[Algic languages|Algic]] | fam2 = [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian]] | fam3 = [[Eastern Algonquian languages|Eastern Algonquian]] | script = {{Unbulleted list|[[Latin script]]|{{Lang|mic|[[Miꞌkmaw hieroglyphic writing|Gomgwejui'gasit]]}} (historically)}} | nation = [[Canada]]<br /><ul><li>[[Nova Scotia]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://novascotia.ca/news/release/?id=20220407003 | title=Legislation Enshrines Mi'kmaw as Nova Scotia's First Language | date=11 May 2018 }}</ref></li></ul> | minority = [[Canada]]<br /><ul><li>[[New Brunswick]]</li><li>[[Prince Edward Island]]</li></ul> | iso2 = mic | iso3 = mic | notice = IPA | glotto = mikm1235 | glottorefname = Mi'kmaq | pronunciation = {{IPA|mic|miːɡmax|}} }} '''Míkmaq bhasa''' ek [[Algic bhasa]] hae jisme [[Canada]] aur [[United States of America]] ke 7,000 log baat kare hae. Ii bhasa ke [[Latin script]] me likha jaawe hae. [[File:Micmac pater noster.jpg|thumb|]] [[vibhag:M]] [[vibhag:Algic bhasa]] [[vibhag:Canada ke bhasa]] [[vibhag:United States ke bhasa]] [[vibhag:Latin script]] {{Lang-stub}} 33n6h5bvfbrj92cpzoab8wrxjmbb1xe 0 10469 323783 306234 2025-06-18T11:31:04Z Girmitya 41 323783 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox language | name = Lakota | nativename = {{lang|lkt|Lakȟótiyapi}} | pronunciation = {{IPA|lkt|laˈkˣɔtɪjapɪ|}} | states = [[United States]], with some speakers in [[Canada]] | region = Primarily [[North Dakota]] and [[South Dakota]], but also northern [[Nebraska]], southern [[Minnesota]], and northern [[Montana]] | ethnicity = [[Lakota people|Teton Sioux]] | speakers = 2,100, 29% of ethnic population | date = | ref = e25 | familycolor = American | fam1 = [[Siouan languages|Siouan]] | fam2 = [[Western Siouan languages|Western Siouan]] | fam3 = Mississippi Valley Siouan | fam4 = Dakotan | fam5 = [[Sioux language|Sioux]] | iso3 = lkt | glotto = lako1247 | glottorefname = Lakota | notice = IPA | map = Lakota map.svg | imagecaption = | mapcaption = Core pre-contact Lakota territory }} '''Lakota bhasa''' ek [[Siouan bhasa]] hae jisme [[America]] aur [[Canada]] ke Sioux tribe ke 2,000 Lakota log baat kare kae. ==External links== <!-- Please keep in alphabetic order. See [[Help:Page_name#Alphabetic_order]] --> {{incubator|lkt}} *[https://lakotalanguagereclamationproject.com/ Lakota Language Reclamation Project] - "Open sourcing the People's language for all Lakota and Dakota people and our allies" * [http://www.lakotalanguageproject.org/resources.html Red Cloud Indian School Lakota Language Project] *[http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bcp/Lakota/index.html Niobrara Wocekiye Wowapi: The Niobrara Prayer Book (1991)] Episcopal Church prayers in Lakota *[https://web.archive.org/web/20131117155348/http://www.sicc.sk.ca/lakota.html Our Languages: Lakota] (Saskatchewan Indian Cultural Centre) *[http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists_for_Siouan_languages Swadesh vocabulary lists for Lakota and other Siouan languages] (from Wiktionary) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KjeFW1kyl0o&t=347s Systemic racism in linguistics] - comparison of different Lakota translations and orthographies [[vibhag:L]] [[vibhag:America ke bhasa]] [[vibhag:Canada ke bhasa]] [[vibhag:Siouan bhasa]] {{Bhasa-stub}} f08kfcjynoxgdh8remu7xob7psm5hm5 323784 323783 2025-06-18T11:35:08Z Girmitya 41 323784 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox language | name = Lakota | nativename = {{lang|lkt|Lakȟótiyapi}} | pronunciation = {{IPA|lkt|laˈkˣɔtɪjapɪ|}} | states = [[United States]], with some speakers in [[Canada]] | region = Primarily [[North Dakota]] and [[South Dakota]], but also northern [[Nebraska]], southern [[Minnesota]], and northern [[Montana]] | ethnicity = [[Lakota people|Teton Sioux]] | speakers = 2,100, 29% of ethnic population | date = | ref = e25 | familycolor = American | fam1 = [[Siouan languages|Siouan]] | fam2 = [[Western Siouan languages|Western Siouan]] | fam3 = Mississippi Valley Siouan | fam4 = Dakotan | fam5 = [[Sioux language|Sioux]] | iso3 = lkt | glotto = lako1247 | glottorefname = Lakota | notice = IPA | map = Lakota map.svg | imagecaption = | mapcaption = Core pre-contact Lakota territory }} '''Lakota bhasa''' ek [[Siouan bhasa]] hae jisme [[America]] aur [[Canada]] ke Sioux tribe ke 2,000 Lakota log baat kare kae. ==External links== <!-- Please keep in alphabetic order. See [[Help:Page_name#Alphabetic_order]] --> {{incubator|lkt}} *[https://lakotalanguagereclamationproject.com/ Lakota Language Reclamation Project] - "Open sourcing the People's language for all Lakota and Dakota people and our allies" * [http://www.lakotalanguageproject.org/resources.html Red Cloud Indian School Lakota Language Project] *[http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bcp/Lakota/index.html Niobrara Wocekiye Wowapi: The Niobrara Prayer Book (1991)] Episcopal Church prayers in Lakota *[https://web.archive.org/web/20131117155348/http://www.sicc.sk.ca/lakota.html Our Languages: Lakota] (Saskatchewan Indian Cultural Centre) *[http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists_for_Siouan_languages Swadesh vocabulary lists for Lakota and other Siouan languages] (from Wiktionary) *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KjeFW1kyl0o&t=347s Systemic racism in linguistics] - comparison of different Lakota translations and orthographies [[vibhag:L]] [[vibhag:United States ke bhasa]] [[vibhag:Canada ke bhasa]] [[vibhag:Siouan bhasa]] {{Bhasa-stub}} lneuh27zslkmvaamijonwecyoapojd2 0 17812 323753 323736 2025-06-17T23:21:06Z Sundaresan 457 /* Thermodynamics ke itihaas */ 323753 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Thermodynamics''', [[Bhautik vigyan]] (Physics) ke ek hissa hae, jisme [[garmi]] kon rakam se ek chij me se duusra chij me jaae hae, [[taapmaan]] (temperature) aur ii kaise [[shakti]] (energy), [[entropy]], aur [[pradaat]] (matter) ke physical property, ke adhyan (study) karaa jaae hae. ii sab chij ke chaal-chalan (behavior) ke thermodynamics ke chaar niyam govern kare hae. ==Thermodynamics ke niyam== * Thermodynamics ke zeroth niyam ::Agar dui chij me baraabar garmi ek duusre me jaae hae, aur ii dui me se ek me tiisra chij se garmi ek duusre me jaae hae, tab tiino chij me baraabar ke garmi ek duusre se bahe hae. * Thermodynamics ke pahila niyam ::Ek chij ke shakti ke jaada hona, chij ke ke shakti ke garmi nai to work ke ruup me de ke baraabar hae. Shakti ke banaaya aur barbaad nai karaa jaae sake hae, lekin ek rakam se duusra rakam ke shakti me badlaa jaae sake hae. Ek chij ke ketnaa shakti hae, bagal ke chij chij se ketnaa shakti lewa gais hae, ke baraabar hae. * Thermodynamics ke duusra niyam ::Agar dui chij, jiske taapmaan ek duusre ke baraabar nai hae, ek duusre ke chhuuwe hae tab garmi, garam chij se thandaa chij mme bahii, tab tak duuno ke taapmaan baraabar nai hoe jaae hae. * Thermodynamics ke tiisra niyam ::Jab ek chij ke taapmaan 0 kelvin hae [[absolute zero]] (sab se kamti taapmaan), tab uske entropy 0 hae. (Ii shakti se koi kaam nai karaa jaae sake hae) ==Thermodynamics ke itihaas== [[File:Galileo_Thermometer_24_degrees.jpg|right|50px|thumb|Ek Galilean thermometer]] * [[1593]] - [[Galileo Galilei]], taapmaan naape ke pahila chij banais rahaa, jiske Galileo thermometer ke naam dewa gais rahaa<ref>{{Cite web |title=Who Gets Credit for Inventing the Thermometer? |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/the-history-of-the-thermometer-1992525 |access-date=2023-11-23 |website=ThoughtCo |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Anselmus-van-Hulle-Hommes-illustres_MG_0539.tif|left|50px|thumb|Guericke]] * [[1650]] – [[Otto von Guericke]] pahila [[vacuum pump]] banais rahaa. * [[1660]] – [[Robert Boyle]] experiment kar ke [[Boyle's law]] ke paais rahaa, jon gas ke pressure aur volume ke relate kare hae (1662 me publish karaa gais rahaa)<ref>In 1662, he published a second edition of the 1660 book ''New Experiments Physico-Mechanical, Touching the Spring of the Air, and its Effects'' with an addendum ''Whereunto is Added a Defence of the Authors Explication of the Experiments, Against the Obiections of Franciscus Linus and Thomas Hobbes''; see ''J Appl Physiol'' 98: 31–39, 2005. ([http://jap.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/98/1/31 Jap.physiology.org Online].)</ref> * 1665 – [[Robert Hooke]], ek book, ''[[Micrographia]]'', ke publish karis rahaa, jisme uu bolis ki: "Garmi aur kuchh nai hae, lekin ek chij ke part jorr se hile lage hae."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hooke |first=Robert |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/15491/15491-h/15491-h.htm |title=Micrographia: Or Some Physiological Descriptions of Minute Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses with Observations and Inquiries Thereupon |publisher=Printed by Jo. Martyn, and Ja. Allestry, Printers to the Royal Society |year=1665 |pages=12 |postscript=. (Machine-readable, no pagination)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hooke |first=Robert |url=https://ttp.royalsociety.org/ttp/ttp.html?id=a9c4863d-db77-42d1-b294-fe66c85958b3&type=book |title=Micrographia: Or Some Physiological Descriptions of Minute Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses with Observations and Inquiries Thereupon |publisher=Printed by Jo. Martyn, and Ja. Allestry, Printers to the Royal Society |year=1665 |pages=12 |postscript=. (Facsimile, with pagination)}}</ref> ==References== {{reflist}} [[vibhag:T]] [[vibhag:Bhautik vigyan]] 2o24bmxt8dxf9auapht887en4312cvl 3 33599 323754 321994 2025-06-17T23:54:13Z MediaWiki message delivery 9512 /* You're invited: Feminism and Folklore Advocacy Session – June 20! */ nawaa vibhag 323754 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Template:Welcome|realName=|name=Suyash.dwivedi}} -- [[sadasya:New user message|New user message]] ([[sadasya ke baat:New user message|talk]]) 10:16, 18 September 2016 (UTC) == AWB से संपादन == नमस्कार सुयश जी, AWB द्वारा भारी संख्या में बॉट तुल्य संपादन मुख्य खाते से करने की बजाय एक बॉट खाता बना लें तो बेहतर होगा। साथ ही अपने सदस्य पृष्ठ पर जो मेटा के सदस्य पृष्ठ की कड़ी दे रखे हैं उसे या तो सुधार लें या पृष्ठ को हटवा दें जिससे मेटा वाला पृष्ठ स्वयमेव दिखने लगे। --[[User:SM7|<span style="color:#00A300">SM7</span>]]^{[[User talk:SM7|<small style="color:#6F00FF">--talk--</small>]]} 21:02, 3 Janwari 2023 (UTC) == EMail == Please make a Checkuser request on Meta. https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Steward_requests/Checkuser [[sadasya:WikiBayer|WikiBayer]] ([[sadasya ke baat:WikiBayer|talk]]) 18:05, 19 Janwari 2023 (UTC) ==Hello== Hi Suyash. I took a bit of a break from Wikipedia, but am back now and intend to update Fiji related pages on Fiji Hindi and English Wikipedias. Thank you for you contribution to Fiji Hindi Wikipedia. [[sadasya:Girmitya|Girmitya]] ([[sadasya ke baat:Girmitya|talk]]) 10:25, 1 Farwari 2023 (UTC) :I am glad to see you back welcome again -- [[sadasya:Suyash.dwivedi|Suyash Dwivedi]] ([[sadasya ke baat:Suyash.dwivedi|talk]]) 10:28, 1 Farwari 2023 (UTC) == IP Block Exemption == @[[sadasya:Suyash.dwivedi|Suyash.dwivedi]] Hi, can you please grant me IP Block Exemption? I am having limit in editing and reverting vandalism edits here. Also, can you try to block some IP addresses such as [[khaas:Contributions/2001:8F8:1A67:FDB:81E3:D8CE:911F:BDB1|this]] that remove contents for a period of 1 week. These are my edits [[khaas:Contributions/Tumbuka Arch|here]]. I mainly fight vandalism and remove spam messages added inside articles. You can use [https://hif.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=khaas%3AUserRights&user=Tumbuka+Arch this] page to add IP Block exemption for me. Thank you.-[[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>^★_★^★</span>''']] 06:22, 18 Julai 2023 (UTC) :Thank you for your contribution and fighting against vandalism I am granting you IP block exemption -- [[sadasya:Suyash.dwivedi|Suyash Dwivedi]] ([[sadasya ke baat:Suyash.dwivedi|talk]]) 20:20, 18 Julai 2023 (UTC) ::@[[sadasya:Suyash.dwivedi|Suyash.dwivedi]] Hello, can you please grant me IP Block Exemption permanently. Last time you granted me on [[https://hif.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=khaas%3AUserRights&user=Tumbuka+Arch 18 July 2023]]. I notice lots of vandalism but I am unable to revert due to edit limit. I get caught between filters and face some revert limitis thereby letting a vandal getting away with it. To edit here I have to use a VPN which is tiresome. Other than fighting vandalism, I also would like to fix templates and modules, and probably add few that are missing. Thanks. [[user:Tumbuka Arch|<span style='color: #FFFFFF;background-color: #191970;'>'''''Tumbuka Arch'''''</span>]][[user talk:Tumbuka Arch|'''<span style='color: #B20000;background-color: #FFFFFF;'>^★_★^★</span>''']] 14:25, 21 Aprel 2024 (UTC) == Gadgets and scripts == Hello Suyash.dwivedi Ji, I hope you're doing well. What gadgets and userscripts are you planning adding to the hifwiki? If you need any help tweaking or setting up gadgets and scripts, just let me know. I'm here and happy to lend a hand whenever you need it! [[sadasya:DreamRimmer|DreamRimmer]] ([[sadasya ke baat:DreamRimmer|talk]]) 12:59, 13 Disambar 2023 (UTC) == Next Steps and Feedback Request for Feminism and Folklore Organizers == [[File:Feminism and Folklore 2024 logo.svg|centre|550px|frameless]] Dear Organizer, I hope this message finds you well. First and foremost, I want to extend my gratitude to you for your efforts in organizing the '''Feminism and Folklore''' campaign on your local Wikipedia. Your contribution has been instrumental in bridging the gender and folk gap on Wikipedia, and we truly appreciate your dedication to this important cause. As the campaign draws to a close, I wanted to inform you about the next steps. It's time to commence the jury process using the CampWiz or Fountain tool where your campaign was hosted. Please ensure that you update the details of the jury, campaign links and the names of organizers accurately on the [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2024/Project Page|sign-up page]]. Once the jury process is completed, kindly update the [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2024/Results|results page]] accordingly. The deadline for jury submission of results is '''April 30, 2024'''. However, if you find that the number of articles is high and you require more time, please don't hesitate to inform us via email or on our Meta Wiki talk page. We are more than willing to approve an extension if needed. Should you encounter any issues with the tools, please feel free to reach out to us on Telegram for assistance. Your feedback and progress updates are crucial for us to improve the campaign and better understand your community's insights. Therefore, I kindly ask you to spare just 10 minutes to share your progress and achievements with us through a Google Form survey. Your input will greatly assist us in making the campaign more meaningful and impactful. Here's the link to the survey: [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSfCkFONXlPVlakMmdh-BWtZp0orYBCSVvViJPbsjf2TIXAWvw/viewform?usp=sf_link Survey Google Form Link] Thank you once again for your hard work and dedication to the Feminism and Folklore campaign. Your efforts are deeply appreciated, and we look forward to hearing from you soon. Warm regards, '''Feminism and Folklore International Team #WeTogether''' [[sadasya:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[sadasya ke baat:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 08:26, 7 Aprel 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tiven2240/fnf2024&oldid=26557949 --> == Thank You for Your Contribution to Feminism and Folklore 2024! == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> [[File:Feminism and Folklore 2024 logo.svg|center|500px]] {{int:please-translate}} Dear Wikimedian, We extend our sincerest gratitude to you for making an extraordinary impact in the '''[[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2024|Feminism and Folklore 2024]]''' writing competition. Your remarkable dedication and efforts have been instrumental in bridging cultural and gender gaps on Wikipedia. We are truly grateful for the time and energy you've invested in this endeavor. As a token of our deep appreciation, we'd love to send you a special postcard. It serves as a small gesture to convey our immense thanks for your involvement in organizing the competition. To ensure you receive this token of appreciation, kindly fill out [https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSeHYAhFA9Q5vUs9UA1N45TOUxUdSNO8igGTmg4oPUL_qXS1EQ/viewform?usp=sf_link this form] by August 15th, 2024. Looking ahead, we are thrilled to announce that we'll be hosting Feminism and Folklore in 2025. We eagerly await your presence in the upcoming year as we continue our journey to empower and foster inclusivity. Once again, thank you for being an essential part of our mission to promote feminism and preserve folklore on Wikipedia. With warm regards, '''Feminism and Folklore International Team'''. --[[sadasya:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[sadasya ke baat:MediaWiki message delivery|talk]]) 12:28, 21 Julai 2024 (UTC) </div>. <!-- Message sent by User:Tiven2240@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tiven2240/fnf2024&oldid=26557949 --> == Feminism and Folklores 2024 Organizers Feedback == Dear Organizer, [[File:Feminism and Folklore 2024 logo.svg | right | frameless]] We extend our heartfelt gratitude for your invaluable contributions to [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Feminism_and_Folklore_2024 Feminism and Folklore 2024]. Your dedication to promoting feminist perspectives on Wikimedia platforms has been instrumental in the campaign's success. To better understand your initiatives and impact, we invite you to participate in a short survey (5-7 minutes). Your feedback will help us document your achievements in our report and showcase your story in our upcoming blog, highlighting the diversity of [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Feminism_and_Folklore Feminism and Folklore] initiatives. Click to participate in the [https://forms.gle/dSeoDP1r7S4KCrVZ6 survey]. By participating in the By participating in the survey, you help us share your efforts in reports and upcoming blogs. This will help showcase and amplify your work, inspiring others to join the movement. The survey covers: #Community engagement and participation #Challenges and successes #Partnership Thank you again for your tireless efforts in promoting [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Feminism_and_Folklore Feminism and Folklore]. Best regards,<br> [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|<span class="signature-talk">{{int:Talkpagelinktext}}</span>]]) 14:23, 26 October 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Joris Darlington Quarshie@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Joris_Darlington_Quarshie/FnF1&oldid=27662256 --> == [Reminder] Apply for Cycle 3 Grants by December 1st! == Dear Feminism and Folklore Organizers, We hope this message finds you well. We are excited to inform you that the application window for Wikimedia Foundation's Cycle 3 of our grants is now open. Please ensure to submit your applications by December 1st. For a comprehensive guide on how to apply, please refer to the Wiki Loves Folklore Grant Toolkit: https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wiki_Loves_Folklore_Grant_Toolkit Additionally, you can find detailed information on the Rapid Grant timeline here: https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Grants:Project/Rapid#Timeline We appreciate your continuous efforts and contributions to our campaigns. Should you have any questions or need further assistance, please do not hesitate to reach out: '''support@wikilovesfolkore.org''' Kind regards, <br> On behalf of the Wiki Loves Folklore International Team. <br> [[User:Joris Darlington Quarshie | Joris Darlington Quarshie]] ([[User talk:Joris Darlington Quarshie|talk]]) 08:39, 9 November 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Joris Darlington Quarshie@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Joris_Darlington_Quarshie/FnF1&oldid=27662256 --> == [Workshop] Identifying Win-Win Relationships with Partners for Wikimedia == Dear Recipient,<br> We are excited to invite you to the third workshop in our Advocacy series, part of the Feminism and Folklore International Campaign. This highly anticipated workshop, titled <b>"Identifying Win-Win Relationships with Partners for Wikimedia,"</b> will be led by the esteemed Alex Stinson, Lead Program Strategist at the Wikimedia Foundation. Don't miss this opportunity to gain valuable insights into forging effective partnerships. ===Workshop Objectives=== * <b>Introduction to Partnerships: </b>Understand the importance of building win-win relationships within the Wikimedia movement. * <b>Strategies for Collaboration: </b>Learn practical strategies for identifying and fostering effective partnerships. * <b>Case Studies:</b> Explore real-world examples of successful partnerships in the Wikimedia community. * <b>Interactive Discussions: </b>Engage in discussions to share experiences and insights on collaboration and advocacy. ===Workshop Details=== 📅 Date: 7th December 2024<br> ⏰ Time: 4:30 PM UTC ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1733589000 Check your local time zone])<br> 📍 Venue: Zoom Meeting ===How to Join:=== Registration Link: https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Event:Identifying_Win-Win_Relationships_with_Partners_for_Wikimedia <br> Meeting ID: 860 4444 3016 <br> Passcode: 834088 We welcome participants to bring their diverse perspectives and stories as we drive into the collaborative opportunities within the Wikimedia movement. Together, we’ll explore how these partnerships can enhance our advocacy and community efforts. Thank you, Wiki Loves Folklore International Team [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|<span class="signature-talk">{{int:Talkpagelinktext}}</span>]]) 07:34, 03 December 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Joris Darlington Quarshie@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Joris_Darlington_Quarshie/FnF1&oldid=27662256 --> == Invitation to Host Wiki Loves Folklore 2025 in Your Country == [[File:Wiki Loves Folklore Logo.svg|right|frameless]] Dear Team, My name is Joris Darlington Quarshie (user: Joris Darlington Quarshie), and I am the Event Coordinator for the Wiki Loves Folklore 2025 (WLF) International campaign. Wiki Loves Folklore 2025 is a photographic competition aimed at highlighting folk culture worldwide. The annual international photography competition is held on Wikimedia Commons between the 1st of February and the 31st of March. This campaign invites photographers and enthusiasts of folk culture globally to showcase their local traditions, festivals, cultural practices, and other folk events by uploading photographs to Wikimedia Commons. As we celebrate the seventh anniversary of Wiki Loves Folklore, the international team is thrilled to invite Wikimedia affiliates, user groups, and organizations worldwide to host a local edition in their respective countries. This is an opportunity to bring more visibility to the folk culture of your region and contribute valuable content to the internet. * Please find the project page for this year’s edition at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Commons:Wiki_Loves_Folklore_2025 * To sign up and organize the event in your country, visit: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Commons:Wiki_Loves_Folklore_2025/Organize If you wish to organize your local edition in either February or March instead of both months, feel free to let us know. In addition to the photographic competition, there will also be a Wikipedia writing competition called Feminism and Folklore, which focuses on topics related to feminism, women's issues, gender gaps, and folk culture on Wikipedia. We welcome your team to organize both the photo and writing campaigns or either one of them in your local Wiki edition. If you are unable to organize both campaigns, feel free to share this opportunity with other groups or organizations in your region that may be interested. * You can find the Feminism and Folklore project page here: https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Feminism_and_Folklore_2025 * The page to sign up is: https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Feminism_and_Folklore_2025/Project_Page For any questions or to discuss further collaboration, feel free to contact us via the Talk page or email at support@wikilovesfolklore.org. If your team wishes to connect via a meeting to discuss this further, please let us know. We look forward to your participation in Wiki Loves Folklore 2025 and to seeing the incredible folk culture of your region represented on Wikimedia Commons. Sincerely, The Wiki Loves Folklore International Team [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|<span class="signature-talk">{{int:Talkpagelinktext}}</span>]]) 08:50, 27 December 2024 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Joris Darlington Quarshie@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Joris_Darlington_Quarshie/FnF1&oldid=27662256 --> == Invitation to Organise Feminism and Folklore 2025 == == Invitation to Organise Feminism and Folklore 2025 == <div style="border:8px maroon ridge;padding:6px;"> [[File:Feminism and Folklore 2025 logo.svg|center|550px|frameless]] <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> <div style="text-align: center;"><em>{{int:please-translate}}</em></div> Dear {{PAGENAME}}, My name is [[User:SAgbley|Stella Agbley]], and I am the Event Coordinator for the Feminism and Folklore 2025 (FnF) International campaign. We're thrilled to announce the Feminism and Folklore 2025 writing competition, held in conjunction with Wiki Loves Folklore 2025! This initiative focuses on enriching Wikipedia with content related to feminism, women's issues, gender gaps, and folk culture. === Why Host the Competition? === * Empower voices: Provide a platform for discussions on feminism and its intersection with folk culture. * Enrich Wikipedia: Contribute valuable content to Wikipedia on underrepresented topics. * Raise awareness: Increase global understanding of these important issues. === Exciting Prizes Await! === We're delighted to acknowledge outstanding contributions with a range of prizes: **International Recognition:** * 1st Prize: $300 USD * 2nd Prize: $200 USD * 3rd Prize: $100 USD * Consolation Prizes (Top 10): $50 USD each **Local Recognition (Details Coming Soon!):** Each participating Wikipedia edition (out of 40+) will offer local prizes. Stay tuned for announcements! All prizes will be distributed in a convenient and accessible manner. Winners will receive major brand gift cards or vouchers equivalent to the prize value in their local currency. === Ready to Get Involved? === Learn more about Feminism and Folklore 2025: [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Feminism_and_Folklore_2025 Feminism and Folklore 2025] Sign Up to Organize a Campaign: [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Feminism_and_Folklore_2025/Project_Page Campaign Sign-Up Page] === Collaboration is Key! === Whether you choose to organize both photo and writing competitions (Wiki Loves Folklore and Feminism and Folklore) or just one, we encourage your participation. If hosting isn't feasible, please share this opportunity with interested groups in your region. === Let's Collaborate! === For questions or to discuss further collaboration, please contact us via the Talk page or email at support@wikilovesfolklore.org. We're happy to schedule a meeting to discuss details further. Together, let's celebrate women's voices and enrich Wikipedia with valuable content! Thank you, **Wiki Loves Folklore International Team** </div> </div> [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|{{int:Talkpagelinktext}}]]) 23:02, 05 January 2025 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Joris Darlington Quarshie@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Joris_Darlington_Quarshie/FnF1&oldid=27662256 --> <!-- Message sent by User:Joris Darlington Quarshie@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Joris_Darlington_Quarshie/FnF1&oldid=27662256 --> == Join Us Today: Amplify Women’s Stories on Wikipedia! == <div style="border:8px maroon ridge;padding:6px;"> [[File:Feminism and Folklore 2025 logo.svg|center|550px|frameless]] <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> {{center|''{{int:please-translate}}''}} Dear {{PAGENAME}}, {{quote|Join us this International Women’s Month to uncover hidden stories and reshape cultural narratives! Dive into an interactive workshop where we’ll illuminate gaps in folklore and women’s history on Wikipedia—and take action to ensure their legacies are written into history.}} Facilitated by '''Rosie Stephenson-Goodknight''', this workshop will explore how to identify and curate missing stories about women’s contributions to culture and heritage. Let’s work together to amplify voices that have been overlooked for far too long! == Event Details == * '''📅 Date''': Today (15 March 2025) * '''⏰ Time''': 4:00 PM UTC ([https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/converter.html Convert to your time zone]) * '''📍 Platform''': [https://us06web.zoom.us/j/87522074523?pwd=0EEz1jfr4i9d9Nvdm3ioTaFdRGZojJ.1 Zoom Link] * '''🔗 Session''': [[meta:Event:Feminism and Folklore International Campaign: Finding and Curating the Missing Gaps on Gender Disparities|Feminism and Folklore International Campaign: Finding and Curating the Missing Gaps on Gender Disparities]] * '''🆔 Meeting ID''': 860 8747 3266 * '''🔑 Passcode''': FNF@2025 == Participation == Whether you’re a seasoned editor or new to Wikipedia, this is your chance to contribute to a more inclusive historical record. ''Bring your curiosity and passion—we’ll provide the tools and guidance!'' '''Let’s make history ''her'' story too.''' See you there! Best regards,<br> '''Joris Quarshie'''<br> [[:m:Feminism and Folklore 2025|Feminism and Folklore 2025 International Team]] <div style="margin-top:1em; text-align:center;"> Stay connected [[File:B&W Facebook icon.png|link=https://www.facebook.com/feminismandfolklore/|30x30px]] [[File:B&W Twitter icon.png|link=https://twitter.com/wikifolklore|30x30px]] </div> --[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|msg]]) 07:15, 24 March 2025 (UTC) </div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Joris Darlington Quarshie@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Joris_Darlington_Quarshie/FnF1&oldid=27662256 --> == Invitation: Gendering the Archive - Building Inclusive Folklore Repositories (April 30th) == <div lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div style="border:8px maroon ridge;padding:6px;"> [[File:Feminism and Folklore 2025 logo.svg|center|550px|frameless]] <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> {{center|''{{int:please-translate}}''}} Dear {{PAGENAME}}, You are invited to a hands-on session focused on [[meta:Gendering the Archive: Building Inclusive Repositories for Folklore Documentation|Gendering the Archive: Building Inclusive Repositories for Folklore Documentation]]. This online workshop will guide participants on how to create, edit, and expand gender-inclusive folklore articles and multimedia archives on Wikipedia and Wikidata. The session will be led by Rebecca Jeannette Nyinawumuntu. === Objectives === * '''Design Inclusive Repositories:''' Learn best practices for structuring folklore archives that foreground gender perspectives. * '''Hands-On Editing:''' Practice creating and improving articles and items on Wikipedia and Wikidata with a gender-inclusive lens. * '''Collaborative Mapping:''' Work in small groups to plan new entries and multimedia uploads that document underrepresented voices. * '''Advocacy & Outreach:''' Discuss strategies to promote and sustain these repositories within your local and online communities. === Details === * '''Date:''' 30th April 2025 * '''Day:''' Wednesday * '''Time:''' 16:00 UTC ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1746028800 Check your local time zone]) * '''Venue:''' Online (Zoom) * '''Speaker:''' Rebecca Jeannette Nyinawumuntu (Co-founder, Wikimedia Rwanda & Community Engagement Director) === How to Join === * '''Zoom Link:''' [https://us06web.zoom.us/j/89158738825?pwd=ezEgXbAqwq9KEr499DvJxSzZyXSVQX Join here] * '''Meeting ID:''' 891 5873 8825 * '''Passcode:''' FNF@2025 * '''Add to Calendar:''' [https://zoom.us/meeting/tZ0scuGvrTMiGNH4I3T7EEQmhuFJkuCHL7Ci/ics?meetingMasterEventId=Xv247OBKRMWeJJ9LSbX2hA Add to your calendar] '''' === Agenda === # Welcome & Introductions: Opening remarks and participant roll-call. # Presentation: Overview of gender-inclusive principles and examples of folklore archives. # Hands-On Workshop: Step-by-step editing on Wikipedia and Wikidata—create or expand entries. # Group Brainstorm: Plan future repository items in breakout groups. # Q&A & Discussion: Share challenges, solutions, and next steps. # Closing Remarks: Summarise key takeaways and outline follow-up actions. We look forward to seeing you there! Best regards,<br> Stella<br> Feminism and Folklore Organiser -[[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|<span class="signature-talk">{{int:Talkpagelinktext}}</span>]]) 10:28, 24 April 2025 (UTC) </div> </div> </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Joris Darlington Quarshie@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Joris_Darlington_Quarshie/FnF1&oldid=28399508 --> == You're invited: Feminism and Folklore Advocacy Session – June 20! == <div style="border:8px maroon ridge;padding:6px;> Hello {{PAGENAME}} [[File:Feminism and Folklore logo.svg | right | frameless]] We are pleased to invite you to an inspiring session in the Feminism and Folklore International Campaign Advocacy Series titled: 🎙️ Documenting Indigenous Women’s Wisdom: The Role of Grandmothers and Elders<br> 🗓 Friday, June 20, 2025<br> ⏰ 4:00 PM UTC<br> 🌍 Online – [https://us06web.zoom.us/j/86470824823?pwd=s7ruwuxrradtJNcZLVT9EyClb8g7ho.1 Zoom link]<br> 👤 Facilitator: Obiageli Ezeilo (Wiki for Senior Citizens Network)<br> Join us as we explore how the oral teachings of grandmothers and elders preserve cultural heritage and influence today’s feminist movements. Learn how to document these narratives using Wikimedia platforms! 🔗 Event Page & Details: https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Event:Documenting_Indigenous_Women%E2%80%99s_Wisdom:_The_Role_of_Grandmothers_and_Elders This session includes:<br> ✔️ A keynote presentation<br> ✔️ Story-sharing interactive segment<br> ✔️ Q&A + tools for documenting women’s wisdom on Wikimedia<br> We hope to see you there! Warm regards,<br> Stella<br> On behalf of Feminism and Folklore Team<br> [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|<span class="signature-talk">{{int:Talkpagelinktext}}</span>]]) 23:49, 17 June 2025 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Joris Darlington Quarshie@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Joris_Darlington_Quarshie/FnF1&oldid=28399508 --> s46x20g1w0zg7oso6gp42r4ksjvpger 0 54520 323748 321839 2025-06-17T20:06:35Z 2001:8F8:1A65:101F:FC5A:CE6B:80C2:289B 323748 wikitext text/x-wiki [[file:Russia Ukraine Locator.svg|thumb|Ukraine-Russia Map.]] [[file:Russian invasion of Ukraine 2022 new.svg|thumb|Invasion ke map <ref name=":0">Source 2 October 2023</ref>]] '''Russia Ke Ukraine''' ke invasion 2022 me shuru ki gais hae aur 27 February 2022, ke 910 (2.5 saal) din hue hae invasion ke. Invasion kafi khatarnak tha aur kai ghare jale Ukraine mein. Yeh invasion sabse Khatrnak 2022 conflicts mein se hae. Isme shamil hae dusre desho ke journalists aur government organization jaise [[United Nations]] aur duniya ke military(USA, CHINA, INDIA, etc). Li ke sambandh 2014 Russian Ukraine ke war se shuru I gais hae. Li [[United Nations]] ne iss ke samay kafi madat kiya hae [[United States of America|USA]], [[China]], [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]] bhi madat karne mein shamil the. [[Pakistan]] aur [[India]] par is taluk par controversy the. Causalities kam hue hae. Dusre saare list of wars bhi band kiye gaye hai. Adha land vapas diya gaya hai Ukraine ko Russia se. <ref name=":0" /> '''Leaders''': ''Valdimir Putin'' ([[Russia]]), ''Volodymyr Zelensky'' ([[Ukraine]])<gallery> file:Vladimir Putin - 2012.jpg|alt=|[[Vladimir Putin|V. Putin]] file:Volodymyr Zelensky Official portrait (cropped).jpg|[[Volodymyr Zelenskyy|V. Zelensky]] file:Flag of Russia.svg|alt= file:Flag of Ukraine.svg|alt=|li jo hissa russia ke ukraine ne invade kiya tha li uninvade kiya gya hai aur abhi ukraine ko bachane me kar sakte hai. Battles abhi tak hai russia aur ukraine mein thode jagah par. Baki hissa ukraine ko wapas karne mein hai. </gallery> === Close also russian war on ukraine === === See Also === Gunviolencearchive == References == credits - hif.wikipedia.org, bharatiya janata party aur united nations disarmamemt, pakistan tehreek e insaaf, noble peace prize, everybodywiki.com, the new school <references /> == Bhaari Jhor == Ukraine ke Russian Invasion ko EUR 1.5 Billion fundraising mila tha san 2024 mein. Aur UK ne abhi GBP 2.26 Billion approve kiya hai. US ke gun ke sichi ke mauth 150 se 25 tak gire hai din ke san 2024 mein. Li suchi ke baad invasion piche kara gya hai covid, mauth ke suchi aur dusre aatank band karna me shamil the duniya bhar. odmp, adult content aur duniya bhar ke new adult content ke band karna zaroori hai. '''immediately''' '''close as required'''. 4v15642pjfvrc1uwqxaw6uzckkm9oqi 0 54787 323749 322833 2025-06-17T20:31:49Z Kwamikagami 3479 323749 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|System of phonetic notation}} {{For|the international (civil) aviation organization (ICAO) spelling alphabet|NATO phonetic alphabet}} {{Self reference|For an introductory guide on IPA symbols with audio, see [[:Help:IPA]]. For the usage of the IPA on Wikipedia, see [[:Help:IPA/Introduction]] and [[:Help:IPA/English]].}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}} {{Infobox writing system |name = International Phonetic Alphabet |type = Alphabet |typedesc = – partially [[Featural alphabet|featural]] |languages = Used for [[Phonetics|phonetic]] and [[Phoneme|phonemic]] transcription of any language |time = 1888 to present |fam1 = [[Palaeotype alphabet]], [[English Phonotypic Alphabet]] |fam2 = [[Romic alphabet]] |sample = IPA in IPA.svg |imagesize = 200px |note = none |unicode = |iso15924 = |caption = "IPA" in IPA ({{IPA|[aɪ pʰiː eɪ]}}) }} {{SpecialChars | special = [[phonetics|phonetic]] [[symbol]]s | fix = Help:Special characters | characters = phonetic symbols }} [[File:IPA chart 2020.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|The official chart of the IPA, revised in 2020]] The '''International Phonetic Alphabet''' ('''IPA''') is an [[alphabet]]ic system of [[phonetic transcription|phonetic notation]] based primarily on the [[Latin script]]. It was devised by the [[International Phonetic Association]] in the late 19th century as a standardized representation of [[speech sound]]s in written form.<ref name="IPA 1999">International Phonetic Association (IPA), ''Handbook''.</ref> The IPA is used by [[lexicography|lexicographers]], [[foreign language]] students and teachers, [[linguistics|linguists]], [[speech–language pathology|speech–language pathologists]], singers, actors, [[constructed language]] creators, and translators.<ref name="world">{{Cite book|last=MacMahon|first=Michael K. C.|chapter=Phonetic Notation|editor=P. T. Daniels|editor2=W. Bright|title=The World's Writing Systems|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/821 821–846]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=1996|location=New York|isbn=0-19-507993-0|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/821}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|first=Joan |last=Wall |title=International Phonetic Alphabet for Singers: A Manual for English and Foreign Language Diction |publisher=Pst |year=1989 |isbn=1-877761-50-8 }}</ref> The IPA is designed to represent those qualities of speech that are part of [[wiktionary:lexical|lexical]] (and, to a limited extent, [[prosodic]]) sounds in [[oral language]]: [[phone (phonetics)|phones]], [[phoneme]]s, [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]], and the separation of [[word]]s and [[syllable]]s.<ref name="IPA 1999" /> To represent additional qualities of speech—such as tooth [[wiktionary:gnash|gnashing]], [[lisp]]ing, and sounds made with a [[cleft lip and cleft palate]]—an [[extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet|extended set of symbols]] may be used.<ref name="world" /> Segments are transcribed by one or more IPA symbols of two basic types: [[letter (alphabet)|letters]] and [[diacritic]]s. For example, the sound of the [[English language|English]] letter {{angbr|t}} may be transcribed in IPA with a single letter: {{IPA|[t]}}, or with a letter plus diacritics: {{IPA|[t̺ʰ]}}, depending on how precise one wishes to be. Slashes are used to signal [[phonemic transcription]]; therefore, {{IPA|/t/}} is more abstract than either {{IPA|[t̺ʰ]}} or {{IPA|[t]}} and might refer to either, depending on the context and language.<ref group=note>The inverted bridge under the {{angbr|t̺ʰ}} specifies it as [[apical consonant|apical]] (pronounced with the tip of the tongue), and the superscript ''h'' shows that it is [[aspirated consonant|aspirated]] (breathy). Both these qualities cause the English {{IPA|/t/}} to sound different from the French or Spanish {{IPA|/t/}}, which is a [[laminal consonant|laminal]] (pronounced with the blade of the tongue) and unaspirated {{IPA|[t̻]}}. {{IPA|[t̺ʰ]}} and {{IPA|[t̻]}} are thus two different, though similar, sounds.</ref> Occasionally, letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/ipachart.html |title=IPA: Alphabet |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010121927/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/ipachart.html |archive-date=10 October 2012 }}</ref> there are 107 segmental letters, an indefinitely large number of suprasegmental letters, 44 diacritics (not counting composites), and four extra-lexical [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosodic]] marks in the IPA. Most<!--the majority of tone letters are not shown; not all the components are even found in the IPA Handbook--> of these are shown in the current [[International Phonetic Alphabet chart|IPA chart]], posted below in this article and at the website of the IPA.<ref>{{cite web|title=Full IPA Chart|url=https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/full-ipa-chart|website=International Phonetic Association|access-date=24 April 2017}}</ref> ==History== {{Main|History of the International Phonetic Alphabet}} In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist [[Paul Passy]], formed what would be known from 1897 onwards as the [[International Phonetic Association]] (in French, {{lang|fr|l'Association phonétique internationale}}).<ref name="IPA194-196">International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp.&nbsp;194–196</ref> Their original alphabet was based on a [[spelling reform]] for English known as the [[Romic alphabet]], but to make it usable for other languages the values of the symbols were allowed to vary from language to language.<ref group=note>"Originally, the aim was to make available a set of phonetic symbols which would be given ''different'' articulatory values, if necessary, in different languages." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp.&nbsp;195–196)</ref> For example, the sound {{IPAblink|ʃ}} (the ''sh'' in ''shoe'') was originally represented with the letter {{angbr|c}} in English, but with the digraph {{angbr|{{lang|fr|ch}}}} in French.<ref name="IPA194-196"/> In 1888, the alphabet was revised to be uniform across languages, thus providing the base for all future revisions.<ref name="IPA194-196"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Passy |first=Paul |year=1888 |title=Our revised alphabet |journal=[[The Phonetic Teacher]] |pages=57–60}}</ref> The idea of making the IPA was first suggested by [[Otto Jespersen]] in a letter to Passy. It was developed by [[Alexander John Ellis]], [[Henry Sweet]], [[Daniel Jones (phonetician)|Daniel Jones]], and Passy.<ref>IPA in the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]</ref> Since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After revisions and expansions from the 1890s to the 1940s, the IPA remained primarily unchanged until the [[Kiel Convention]] in 1989. A minor revision took place in 1993 with the addition of four letters for [[mid central vowel]]s<ref name="world" /> and the removal of letters for [[implosive consonant#Voiceless implosives|voiceless implosives]].<ref name="Pullum">Pullum and Ladusaw, ''[[Phonetic Symbol Guide]]'', pp.&nbsp;152, 209</ref> The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a [[labiodental flap]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Nicolaidis |first=Katerina |title=Approval of New IPA Sound: The Labiodental Flap |url=http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/flap.htm |date=September 2005 |publisher=International Phonetic Association |access-date=17 September 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060902212308/http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/ipa/flap.htm |archive-date=2 September 2006}}</ref> Apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely of renaming symbols and categories and in modifying [[Typeface|typefaces]].<ref name="world" /> [[Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet]] for [[speech pathology]] (extIPA) were created in 1990 and were officially adopted by the [[International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association]] in 1994.<ref>International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;186</ref> ==Description== The general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound ([[segment (linguistics)|speech segment]]).<ref group=note>"From its earliest days [...] the International Phonetic Association has aimed to provide 'a separate sign for each distinctive sound; that is, for each sound which, being used instead of another, in the same language, can change the meaning of a word'." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;27)</ref> This means that: * It does not normally use [[multigraph (orthography)|combinations of letters]] to represent single sounds, the way English does with {{angbr|sh}}, {{angbr|th}} and {{angbr|ng}}, or single letters to represent multiple sounds, the way {{angbr|x}} represents {{IPA|/ks/}} or {{IPA|/ɡz/}} in English. * There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values, the way [[hard and soft C|{{angbr|c}}]] and [[hard and soft G|{{angbr|g}}]] in several European languages have a "hard" or "soft" pronunciation. * The IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, a property known as "selectiveness".<ref name="world"/><ref group=note> For instance, [[flap consonant|flaps and taps]] are two different kinds of [[Manner of articulation|articulation]], but since no language has (yet) been found to make a distinction between, say, an [[alveolar tap|alveolar flap]] and an alveolar tap, the IPA does not provide such sounds with dedicated letters. Instead, it provides a single letter (in this case,&nbsp;{{IPA|[ɾ]}}) for both. Strictly speaking, this makes the IPA a partially [[phonemic|phon''em''ic]] alphabet, not a purely [[phonetic|phon''et''ic]] one.</ref> However, if a large number of phonemically distinct letters can be derived with a diacritic, that may be used instead.<ref group=note>This exception to the rules was made primarily to explain why the IPA does not make a dental–alveolar distinction, despite one being phonemic in hundreds of languages, including most of the continent of Australia. [[Americanist Phonetic Notation]] makes (or at least made) a distinction between apical {{angbr|t d s z n l}} and laminal {{angbr|τ δ ς ζ ν λ}}, which is easily applicable to alveolar vs dental (when a language distinguishes apical alveolar from laminal dental, as in Australia), but despite several proposals to the Council, the IPA never voted to accept such a distinction.</ref> The alphabet is designed for transcribing sounds (phones), not [[phoneme]]s, though it is used for phonemic transcription as well. A few letters that did not indicate specific sounds have been retired ({{angbr IPA|ˇ}}, once used for the "compound" tone of Swedish and Norwegian, and {{angbr IPA|ƞ}}, once used for the [[moraic]] nasal of Japanese), though one remains: {{angbr IPA|ɧ}}, used for the [[sj-sound]] of Swedish. When the IPA is used for phonemic transcription, the letter–sound correspondence can be rather loose. For example, {{angbr IPA|c}} and {{angbr IPA|ɟ}} are used in the IPA ''Handbook'' for {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} and {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}}. Among the symbols of the IPA, 107 letters represent [[consonant]]s and [[vowel]]s, 31 [[diacritic]]s are used to modify these, and 17 additional signs indicate [[Segment (linguistics)|suprasegmental]] qualities such as [[length (phonetics)|length]], [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]], [[Stress (linguistics)|stress]], and [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]].<ref group=note> There are three<!--dbl acute and grave are compounds--> basic tone diacritics and five basic tone letters, both sets of which may be compounded. </ref> These are organized into a chart; the chart displayed here is the official chart as posted at the website of the IPA. ===Letter forms=== [[File:LowercaseG.svg|right|thumb|Loop-tail {{angbr IPA|g}} and open-tail {{angbr IPA|ɡ}} are graphic variants. Open-tail {{angbr IPA|ɡ}} was the original IPA symbol, but both are now considered correct. See [[history of the IPA]] for details.]] The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the [[Latin alphabet]].<ref group=note> "The non-roman letters of the International Phonetic Alphabet have been designed as far as possible to harmonize well with the roman letters. The Association does not recognize makeshift letters; It recognizes only letters which have been carefully cut so as to be in harmony with the other letters." (IPA 1949) </ref> For this reason, most letters are either [[Latin script|Latin]] or [[Greek alphabet|Greek]], or modifications thereof. Some letters are neither: for example, the letter denoting the [[glottal stop]], {{angbr IPA|ʔ}}, originally had the form of a dotless [[question mark]], and derives from an [[apostrophe]]. A few letters, such as that of the voiced [[pharyngeal consonant|pharyngeal fricative]], {{angbr IPA|ʕ}}, were inspired by other writing systems (in this case, the [[Arabic script|Arabic]] letter ⟨{{lang|ar|[[Ayin|ﻉ]]}}⟩, ''{{transliteration|ar|ʿayn}}'', via the reversed apostrophe).<ref name=Pullum/> <!--clearly, ʔ and ʕ are not of independent origin and reflect the transliteration of alif vs. ayin in Semitic philology. Source needed--> Some letter forms derive from existing letters: * The right-swinging tail, as in {{angbr IPA|ʈ ɖ ɳ ɽ ʂ ʐ ɻ ɭ&thinsp;}}, indicates [[retroflex consonant|retroflex]] articulation. It originates from the hook of an ''r''. * The top hook, as in {{angbr IPA|ɠ ɗ ɓ}}, indicates [[glottalic ingressive|implosion]]. * Several [[Nasal consonant|nasal consonants]] are based on the form {{angbr IPA|n}}: {{angbr IPA|n ɲ ɳ ŋ}}. {{angbr IPA|ɲ}} and {{angbr IPA|ŋ}} derive from [[Typographic ligature|ligatures]] of ''gn'' and ''ng,'' and {{angbr IPA|ɱ}} is an ''ad hoc'' imitation of {{angbr IPA|ŋ}}. * Letters turned 180 degrees for suggestive shapes, such as {{angbr IPA|ɐ ɔ ə ɟ ɓ ɥ ɾ ɯ ɹ ʇ ʊ ʌ ʍ ʎ}} from {{angbr IPA|a c e f ɡ h ᴊ<!--per Ellis, Pullum, etc.--> m r t <small>Ω</small> v w y}}.<ref group=note>Originally, {{IPA|[ʊ]}} was written as a small capital U. However, this was not easy to read, and so it was replaced with a turned small capital omega. In modern typefaces, it often has its own design, called a 'horseshoe'.</ref> Either the original letter may be reminiscent of the target sound (e.g., {{angbr IPA|ɐ ə ɹ ʇ ʍ}}) or the turned one (e.g., {{angbr IPA|ɔ ɟ ɓ ɥ ɾ ɯ ʌ ʎ<!--like both y and lambda-->}}). Rotation was popular in the era of [[Hot metal typesetting|mechanical typesetting]], as it had the advantage of not requiring the casting of special type for IPA symbols, much as the sorts had traditionally often pulled double duty for {{angbr|b}} and {{angbr|q}}, {{angbr|d}} and {{angbr|p}}, {{angbr|n}} and {{angbr|u}}, {{angbr|6}} and {{angbr|9}} to reduce cost. *:[[File:Turned small cap omega as a vowel.svg|thumb|An example of a font that uses turned small-capital omega, {{angbr|ꭥ}}, for the vowel {{angbr|ʊ}}. The symbol had originally been a small-capital {{angbr|ᴜ}}.]] * Among consonant letters, the [[Small caps|small capital]] letters {{angbr IPA|ɢ ʜ ʟ ɴ ʀ ʁ}}, and also {{angbr IPA|ꞯ}} in [[extIPA]], indicate more [[guttural]] sounds than their base letters. ({{angbr IPA|ʙ}}<!--for the bilabial trill--> is a late exception.) Among vowel letters, small capitals indicate [[lax vowel|"lax"]] vowels. Most of the original small-cap vowel letters have been modified into more distinctive shapes (e.g. {{angbr IPA|ʊ ɤ ɛ ʌ}} from {{sc|U Ɐ E A}}), with only {{angbr IPA|ɪ ʏ}} remaining as small capitals. ===Typography and iconicity=== The International Phonetic Alphabet is based on the [[Latin script]], and uses as few non-Latin letters as possible.<ref name = IPA194-196 /> The Association created the IPA so that the sound values of most letters would correspond to "international usage" (approximately [[Classical Latin]]).<ref name=IPA194-196/> Hence, the consonant letters {{angbr IPA|b}}, {{angbr IPA|d}}, {{angbr IPA|f}}, ([[hard G|hard]]) {{angbr IPA|ɡ}}, (non-silent) {{angbr IPA|h}}, (unaspirated) {{angbr IPA|k}}, {{angbr IPA|l}}, {{angbr IPA|m}}, {{angbr IPA|n}}, (unaspirated) {{angbr IPA|p}}, (voiceless) {{angbr IPA|s}}, (unaspirated) {{angbr IPA|t}}, {{angbr IPA|v}}, {{angbr IPA|w}}, and {{angbr IPA|z}} have more or less the values found in English; and the vowel letters {{angbr IPA|a}}, {{angbr IPA|e}}, {{angbr IPA|i}}, {{angbr IPA|o}}, {{angbr IPA|u}} correspond to the (long) sound values of Latin: {{IPA|[i]}} is like the vowel in ''mach{{strong|i}}ne'', {{IPA|[u]}} is as in ''r{{strong|u}}le'', etc. Other Latin letters, particularly {{angbr IPA|j}}, {{angbr IPA|r}} and {{angbr IPA|y}}, differ from English, but have their IPA values in Latin or other European languages. This basic Latin inventory was extended by adding small-capital and cursive forms, diacritics and rotation. The sound values of these letters are related to those of the original letters, and their derivation may be iconic.<ref>{{Citation | quote = The new letters should be suggestive of the sounds they represent, by their resemblance to the old ones. | publisher = International Phonetic Association | title = Handbook | page = 196}}.</ref> For example, letters with a rightward-facing hook at the bottom represent [[retroflex consonant|retroflex]] equivalents of the source letters, and small capital letters usually represent [[uvular consonant|uvular]] equivalents of their source letters. There are also several letters from the Greek alphabet, though their sound values may differ from Greek. The most extreme difference is {{angbr IPA|ʋ}}, which is a vowel in Greek but a consonant in the IPA. For most Greek letters, subtly different [[glyph]] shapes have been devised for the IPA, specifically {{angbr IPA|ɑ}}, {{angbr IPA|ꞵ}}, {{angbr IPA|ɣ}}, {{angbr IPA|ɛ}}, {{angbr IPA|ɸ}}, {{angbr IPA|ꭓ}} and {{angbr IPA|ʋ}}, which are encoded in [[Unicode]] separately from their parent Greek letters. One, however – {{angbr IPA|θ}} – has only its Greek form, while for {{angbr IPA|ꞵ ~ β}} and {{angbr IPA|ꭓ ~ χ}}, both Greek and Latin forms are in common use.<ref>Cf. the notes at the [[Unicode]] [http://unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0250.pdf#3 IPA EXTENSIONS code chart] as well as blogs by [http://evertype.com/blog/blog/category/unicode/ Michael Everson] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010200655/http://evertype.com/blog/blog/category/unicode/|date=10 October 2017}} and John Wells [http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2010/07/disunification-1.html here] and [http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2010/07/disunification-2.html here].</ref> The [[tone letter#IPA|tone letters]] are not derived from an alphabet, but from a [[pitch trace]] on a [[Scale (music)|musical scale]]. Beyond the letters themselves, there are a variety of secondary symbols which aid in transcription. [[Diacritic]] marks can be combined with IPA letters to add phonetic detail such as tone and [[secondary articulation]]s. There are also special symbols for prosodic features such as stress and intonation. ===Brackets and transcription delimiters=== There are two principal types of [[bracket]]s used to set off (delimit) IPA transcriptions: {| class="wikitable" ! | Symbol !! Use |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|[&nbsp;...&nbsp;]}} || [[Square brackets]] are used with [[phonetic]] notation, whether broad or narrow<ref name=IPA175>IPA ''Handbook'' p. 175</ref> – that is, for actual pronunciation, possibly including details of the pronunciation that may not be used for distinguishing words in the language being transcribed, which the author nonetheless wishes to document. Such phonetic notation is the primary function of the IPA. |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|/&nbsp;...&nbsp;/}} || [[Slash (punctuation)|Slashes]]<ref group="note">[[Merriam-Webster]] dictionaries use [[backslash]]es {{IPA|\&nbsp;...&nbsp;\}} to demarcate their in-house transcription system. This distinguishes their IPA-influenced system<!--the IPA influence is rather minimal, limited to the IPA stress marks and schwa, but the pronunciation data collected for MW's Third New International was in IPA and the IPA was seriously considered for its published transcription system.--> from true IPA, which is used between forward slashes in the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''.</ref> are used for abstract [[phonemic]] notation,<ref name=IPA175/> which note only features that are distinctive in the language, without any extraneous detail. For example, while the 'p' sounds of English ''pin'' and ''spin'' are pronounced differently (and this difference would be meaningful in some languages), the difference is not meaningful in English. Thus, ''phonemically'' the words are usually<!--could also be analyzed /pin/ and /sbin/--> analyzed as {{IPA|/ˈpɪn/}} and {{IPA|/ˈspɪn/}}, with the same phoneme {{IPA|/p/}}. To capture the difference between them (the [[allophone]]s of {{IPA|/p/}}), they can be transcribed phonetically as {{IPA|[pʰɪn]}} and {{IPA|[spɪn]}}. Phonemic notation commonly uses IPA symbols that are rather close to the default pronunciation of a phoneme, but for legibility or other reasons can use symbols that diverge from their designated values, such as {{IPA|/c, ɟ/}} for affricates typically pronounced {{IPA|[t͜ʃ, d͜ʒ]}}, as found in the ''Handbook'', or {{IPA|/r/}}, which in phonetic notation is a trill, for English ''r'' even when pronounced {{IPA|[ɹʷ]}}. |} Other conventions are less commonly seen: {| class="wikitable" ! | Symbol !! Use |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|&#x007B;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&#x007D;}} || [[Bracket#Curly brackets|Braces]] ("curly brackets") are used for [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosodic]] notation.<ref name=IPA176>IPA ''Handbook'' p. 176</ref> See [[Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet]] for examples in this system. |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|(&nbsp;...&nbsp;)}} || [[Parentheses]] are used for indistinguishable<ref name=IPA175/> or unidentified utterances. They are also seen for silent articulation (mouthing),<ref name=IPA191>IPA ''Handbook'' p. 191</ref> where the expected phonetic transcription is derived from lip-reading, and with periods to indicate silent pauses, for example {{IPA|(…)}} or {{IPA|(2 sec)}}. The latter usage is made official in the [[extIPA]], with unidentified segments circled.<ref>IPA (1999) ''Handbook'', p 188, 192</ref> |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|⸨&nbsp;...&nbsp;⸩}} || [[Parenthesis|Double parentheses]] indicate either a transcription of obscured speech or a description of the obscuring noise. The IPA specifies that they mark the obscured sound,<ref name=IPA176/> as in {{IPA|⸨2σ⸩}}, two audible syllables obscured by another sound. The current extIPA specifications prescribe double parentheses for the extraneous noise, such as ⸨cough⸩ or ⸨knock⸩ for a knock on a door, but the IPA ''Handbook'' identifies IPA and extIPA usage as equivalent.<ref>IPA (1999) ''Handbook'', p 176, 192</ref> Early publications of the extIPA explain double parentheses as marking "uncertainty because of noise which obscures the recording," and that within them "may be indicated as much detail as the transcriber can detect."<ref>Duckworth et al. (1990) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232077905_Extensions_to_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet_for_the_transcription_of_atypical_speech Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for the transcription of atypical speech.] ''[[Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics]]'' 4: 4: 278.</ref> |} All three of the above are provided by the IPA ''Handbook''. The following are not, but may be seen in IPA transcription or in associated material (especially angle brackets): {| class="wikitable" ! | Symbol !! Use |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|⟦&nbsp;...&nbsp;⟧}} || [[Square bracket|Double square brackets]] are used for extra-precise (especially narrow) transcription. This is consistent with the IPA convention of doubling a symbol to indicate greater degree. Double brackets may indicate that a letter has its cardinal IPA value. For example, {{IPA|⟦a⟧}} is an open front vowel, rather than the perhaps slightly different value (such as open central) that "{{IPA|[a]}}" may be used to transcribe in a particular language. Thus, two vowels transcribed for easy legibility as {{angbr IPA|[e]}} and {{angbr IPA|[ɛ]}} may be clarified as actually being {{IPA|⟦e̝⟧}} and {{IPA|⟦e⟧}}; {{angbr IPA|[ð]}} may be more precisely {{IPA|⟦ð̠̞ˠ⟧}}.<ref>Basbøll (2005) ''The Phonology of Danish'' pp. 45, 59</ref> Double brackets may also be used for a specific token or speaker; for example, the pronunciation of a child as opposed to the adult phonetic pronunciation that is their target.<ref>Karlsson & Sullivan (2005) ''/sP/ consonant clusters in Swedish: Acoustic measurements of phonological development''</ref> |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|⫽&nbsp;...&nbsp;⫽<br>&#x007C;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&#x007C;<br>‖&nbsp;...&nbsp;‖<br>&#x007B;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&#x007D;}} || [[Slash (punctuation)|Double slashes]] are used for [[morphophonemic]] transcription. This is also consistent with the IPA convention of doubling a symbol to indicate greater degree (in this case, more abstract than phonemic transcription). Other symbols sometimes seen for morphophonemic transcription are [[vertical bar|pipes]] and double pipes, from [[Americanist phonetic notation]]; and ''braces'' from [[set theory]], especially when enclosing the set of phonemes that constitute the morphophoneme, e.g. {{IPA|&#x007B;t d&#x007D;}} or {{IPA|&#x007B;t&#x007C;d&#x007D;}} or {{IPA|&#x007B;/t/, /d/&#x007D;}}. Only double slashes are unambiguous: both pipes and braces conflict with IPA prosodic transcription.<ref group=note>For example, the single and double pipe symbols are used for minor and major prosodic breaks. Although the ''Handbook'' specifies the prosodic symbols as "thick" vertical lines, which would be distinct from simple ASCII pipes (and similar to [[Dania transcription|Dania]] transcription), this is optional and was intended to keep them distinct from the pipes used as [[click letter]]s (''JIPA'' 19.2, p. 75). The ''Handbook'' (p. 174) assigns them the Unicode encodings U+007C, which is the simple ASCII pipe symbol, and U+2016.</ref> See [[morphophonology]] for examples. |- | style="text-align: center; | {{angbr IPA|&nbsp;...&nbsp;}}<br>{{IPA|⟪&nbsp;...&nbsp;⟫}} || [[Angle bracket]]s<ref group="note">The proper angle brackets in Unicode are the mathematical symbols (U+27E8 and U+27E9). Chevrons ‹...› (U+2039, U+203A) are sometimes substituted, as in Americanist phonetic notation, as are the less-than and greater-than signs <...> (U+003C, U+003E) found on ASCII keyboards.</ref> are used to mark both original Latin orthography and [[transliteration]] from another script<!--including e.g. Arabic and Chinese characters used to transcribe Latin script-->; they are also used to identify individual [[grapheme]]s of any script.<ref>Richard Sproat (2000) ''A Computational Theory of Writing Systems''. Cambridge University Press. Page 26.</ref><ref>Barry Heselwood (2013) ''Phonetic Transcription in Theory and Practice''. Edinburgh University Press. Page 8 ff, 29 ff.</ref> Within the IPA, they are used to indicate the IPA letters themselves rather than the sound values that they carry. Double angle brackets may occasionally be useful to distinguish original orthography from transliteration, or the idiosyncratic spelling of a manuscript from the normalized orthography of the language. For example, {{angbr IPA|cot}} would be used for the orthography of the English word ''cot'', as opposed to its pronunciation {{IPA|/ˈkɒt/}}. Italics are usual when words are written as themselves (as with ''cot'' in the previous sentence) rather than to specifically note their orthography. However, italic markup is not evident to sight-impaired readers who rely on [[screen reader]] technology. |} Some examples of contrasting brackets in the literature: {{block quote|In some English accents, the phoneme {{IPA|/l/}}, which is usually spelled as {{angbr|l}} or {{angbr|ll}}, is articulated as two distinct allophones: the clear {{IPA|[l]}} occurs before vowels and the consonant {{IPA|/j/}}, whereas the dark {{IPA|[ɫ]}}/{{IPA|[lˠ]}} occurs before consonants, except {{IPA|/j/}}, and at the end of words.<ref>Paul Tench (2011) ''Transcribing the Sound of English''. Cambridge University Press. Page 61.</ref>}} {{block quote|the alternations {{IPA|/f/}} &ndash; {{IPA|/v/}} in plural formation in one class of nouns, as in ''knife'' {{IPA|/naɪf/}} &ndash; ''knives'' {{IPA|/naɪvz/}}, which can be represented morphophonemically as {{IPA|{naɪV}}} &ndash; {{IPA|{naɪV+z}}}. The morphophoneme {{IPA|{V}}} stands for the phoneme set {{IPA|{/f/, /v/}}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Gibbon |first1= Dafydd |last2= Moore |first2= Roger |last3= Winski |first3= Richard |title= Handbook of Standards and Resources for Spoken Language Systems: Spoken language characterisation |date= 1998 |publisher= Walter de Gruyter |location= Berlin; New York |isbn= 9783110157345 |pages=61 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=8cxtWcsAk5MC&pg=PA61 |language= en}}</ref>}} {{block quote|{{IPA|[ˈf\faɪnəlz ˈhɛld ɪn (.) ⸨knock on door⸩ bɑɹsə{_𝑝ˈloʊnə and ˈmədɹɪd_𝑝}]}} &mdash; ''f-finals held in Barcelona and Madrid.''<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ball |first1=Martin J. |last2=Lowry |first2=Orla M. |author1-link=Martin J. Ball |title=Methods in Clinical Phonetics |date=2001 |publisher=Whurr |location=London |isbn=9781861561848 |pages=80 |chapter=Transcribing Disordered Speech |doi=10.1002/9780470777879.ch3|s2cid=58518097 }}</ref>}} ===Other representations=== {{main|Cursive forms of the International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA Braille}} IPA letters have [[cursive]] forms designed for use in manuscripts and when taking field notes, but the 1999 ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association'' recommended against their use, as cursive IPA is "harder for most people to decipher."{{sfn|International Phonetic Association|1999|p=31}} A [[braille]] representation of the IPA for blind or visually impaired professionals and students has also been developed.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Englebretson |first=Robert |date=2009 |title=An overview of IPA Braille: an updated tactile representation of the International Phonetic Alphabet |url=http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~reng/englebretson2009.pdf |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=39 |issue=1 |page=67 |access-date=5 April 2014 |doi=10.1017/s0025100308003691|citeseerx=10.1.1.501.366 |s2cid=36426880 }}</ref> =={{anchor|chart}}Modifying the IPA chart== [[File:Extended IPA chart 2005.png|thumb|right|300px|The authors of textbooks or similar publications often create revised versions of the IPA chart to express their own preferences or needs. The image displays one such version. All pulmonic consonants are moved to the consonant chart. Only the black symbols are on the official IPA chart; additional symbols are in grey. The grey fricatives are part of the [[extIPA]], and the grey retroflex letters are mentioned or implicit<!--'implicit' is the description used in the Unicode request for support for the missing retroflex letters--> in the ''Handbook''. The grey click is a retired IPA letter that is still in use.]] The International Phonetic Alphabet is occasionally modified by the Association. After each modification, the Association provides an updated simplified presentation of the alphabet in the form of a chart. (See [[History of the International Phonetic Alphabet|History of the IPA]].) Not all aspects of the alphabet can be accommodated in a chart of the size published by the IPA. The [[alveolo-palatal consonant|alveolo-palatal]] and [[epiglottal consonant|epiglottal]] consonants, for example, are not included in the consonant chart for reasons of space rather than of theory (two additional columns would be required, one between the retroflex and palatal columns and the other between the pharyngeal and glottal columns), and the [[lateral flap]] would require an additional row for that single consonant, so they are listed instead under the catchall block of "other symbols".<ref>{{cite book|last=Esling|first=John H.|author-link=John Esling|year=2010|chapter=Phonetic Notation|editor1-last=Hardcastle|editor1-first=William J.|editor2-last=Laver|editor2-first=John|editor3-last=Gibbon|editor3-first=Fiona E.|title=The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences|edition=2nd|pages=678–702|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|doi=10.1002/9781444317251.ch18|isbn=978-1-4051-4590-9}} pp.&nbsp;688, 693.</ref> The indefinitely large number of [[Chao tone letter|tone letters]] would make a full accounting impractical even on a larger page, and only a few examples are shown, and even the tone diacritics are not complete; the reversed tone letters are not illustrated at all. The procedure for modifying the alphabet or the chart is to propose the change in the ''[[Journal of the International Phonetic Association|Journal of the IPA]].'' (See, for example, August 2008 on an [[open central unrounded vowel]] and August 2011 on central approximants.)<ref name="cambridge1">{{cite journal|author1=Martin J. Ball |author2=Joan Rahilly |title=The symbolization of central approximants in the IPA |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=231–237 |publisher=Cambridge Journals Online |date=August 2011 |doi=10.1017/s0025100311000107|s2cid=144408497 }}<!-- Author, title, pages are unknown because the url is simply a link to the issue TOC. The same inadequate citation applies to the next reference. --></ref> Reactions to the proposal may be published in the same or subsequent issues of the Journal (as in August 2009 on the open central vowel).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayIssue?decade=2000&jid=IPA&volumeId=39&issueId=02&iid=5907924 |title=Cambridge Journals Online – Journal of the International Phonetic Association Vol. 39 Iss. 02 |publisher=Journals.cambridge.org |date=23 October 2012 |access-date=20 November 2012}}</ref> A formal proposal is then put to the Council of the IPA<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/about.html |title=IPA: About us |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010121905/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/about.html |archive-date=10 October 2012}}</ref> – which is elected by the membership<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/statutes.html |title=IPA: Statutes |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010121941/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/statutes.html |archive-date=10 October 2012}}</ref> – for further discussion and a formal vote.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/news/news200509.html |title=IPA: News |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111181340/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/news/news200509.html |archive-date=11 November 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/news/news201112.html |title=IPA: News |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111181349/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/news/news201112.html |archive-date=11 November 2012}}</ref> Nonetheless, many users of the alphabet, including the leadership of the Association itself, deviate from this norm.<ref group=note>See "Illustrations of the IPA" in the ''IPA Handbook'' (1999) for individual languages which for example may use {{angbr|/c/}} as a phonemic symbol for what is phonetically realized as {{IPA|[tʃ]}}, or superscript variants of IPA letters that are not officially defined.</ref> The ''Journal of the IPA'' finds it acceptable to mix IPA and [[extIPA]] symbols in consonant charts in their articles. (For instance, including the extIPA letter [[voiceless palatal lateral fricative|{{angbr IPA|𝼆}}]], rather than {{angbr IPA|ʎ̝̊}}, in an illustration of the IPA.)<ref name=pulmonic/> ==Usage== {{further|Phonetic transcription}} Of more than 160 IPA symbols, relatively few will be used to transcribe speech in any one language, with various levels of precision. A precise phonetic transcription, in which sounds are specified in detail, is known as a ''narrow transcription''. A coarser transcription with less detail is called a ''broad transcription.'' Both are relative terms, and both are generally enclosed in square brackets.<ref name="IPA 1999"/> Broad phonetic transcriptions may restrict themselves to easily heard details, or only to details that are relevant to the discussion at hand, and may differ little if at all from phonemic transcriptions, but they make no theoretical claim that all the distinctions transcribed are necessarily meaningful in the language. [[File:RPGA international.svg|200px|thumb|Phonetic transcriptions of the word ''international'' in two English dialects]] For example, the English word ''little'' may be transcribed broadly as {{IPA|[ˈlɪtəl]}}, approximately describing many pronunciations. A narrower transcription may focus on individual or dialectical details: {{IPA|[ˈɫɪɾɫ]}} in [[General American]], {{IPA|[ˈlɪʔo]}} in [[Cockney]], or {{IPA|[ˈɫɪːɫ]}} in [[Southern American English|Southern US English]]. Phonemic transcriptions, which express the conceptual counterparts of spoken sounds, are usually enclosed in slashes (/ /) and tend to use simpler letters with few diacritics. The choice of IPA letters may reflect theoretical claims of how speakers conceptualize sounds as phonemes or they may be merely a convenience for typesetting. Phonemic approximations between slashes do not have absolute sound values. For instance, in English, either the vowel of ''pick'' or the vowel of ''peak'' may be transcribed as {{IPA|/i/}}, so that ''pick'', ''peak'' would be transcribed as {{IPA|/ˈpik, ˈpiːk/}} or as {{IPA|/ˈpɪk, ˈpik/}}; and neither is identical to the vowel of the French ''{{lang|fr|pique}}'' which would also be transcribed {{IPA|/pik/}}. By contrast, a narrow phonetic transcription of ''pick'', ''peak'', ''pique'' could be: {{IPA|[pʰɪk]}}, {{IPA|[pʰiːk]}}, {{IPA|[pikʲ]}}. ===Linguists=== IPA is popular for transcription by linguists. Some American linguists, however, use a mix of IPA with [[Americanist phonetic notation]] or use some [[Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet|nonstandard symbols]] for various reasons.<ref name="thomason">{{cite web|url=http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/005287.html |title=Why I Don't Love the International Phonetic Alphabet |author=Sally Thomason |date=2 January 2008 |work=Language Log }}</ref> Authors who employ such nonstandard use are encouraged to include a chart or other explanation of their choices, which is good practice in general, as linguists differ in their understanding of the exact meaning of IPA symbols and common conventions change over time. ===Dictionaries=== ====English==== Many British dictionaries, including the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] and some [[Monolingual learner's dictionary|learner's dictionaries]] such as the ''[[Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary]]'' and the ''[[Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary]]'', now use [[Pronunciation respelling for English#International Phonetic Alphabet|the International Phonetic Alphabet]] to represent the pronunciation of words.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dictionary.cambridge.org/help/phonetics.htm |title=Phonetics |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge Dictionaries Online |access-date=11 March 2007 |archive-date=17 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110817233308/http://dictionary.cambridge.org/help/phonetics.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, most American (and some British) volumes use one of a variety of [[Pronunciation respelling for English|pronunciation respelling]] systems, intended to be more comfortable for readers of English and to be more acceptable across dialects, without the implication of a preferred pronunciation that the IPA might convey. For example, the respelling systems in many American dictionaries (such as ''[[Merriam-Webster Dictionary|Merriam-Webster]]'') use {{angbr|y}} for IPA {{IPA|[&thinsp;j]}} and {{angbr|sh}} for IPA {{IPA|[&thinsp;ʃ&thinsp;]}}, reflecting the usual spelling of those sounds in English.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/help/pronunciation-key |title=Merriam-Webster Online Pronunciation Symbols |access-date=4 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070601152219/http://mw1.merriam-webster.com/pronsymbols.html |archive-date=1 June 2007 |url-status=dead}}<br />{{Cite book|first=Michael|last=Agnes|title=Webster's New World College Dictionary|year=1999|publisher=Macmillan|location=New York|isbn=0-02-863119-6|page=xxiii|no-pp=true|url=https://archive.org/details/webstersnewworld00agne_0|url-access=registration}}<br />''[[Pronunciation respelling for English]]'' has detailed comparisons.</ref> (In IPA, {{IPA|[y]}} represents the sound of the French {{angbr|u}}, as in ''{{lang|fr|tu}}'', and {{IPA|[sh]}} represents the sequence of consonants in ''gra{{strong|ssh}}opper''.) ====Other languages==== The IPA is also not universal among dictionaries in languages other than English. Monolingual dictionaries of languages with [[phonemic orthography|phonemic orthographies]] generally do not bother with indicating the pronunciation of most words, and tend to use respelling systems for words with unexpected pronunciations. Dictionaries produced in Israel use the IPA rarely and sometimes use the [[Hebrew alphabet]] for transcription of foreign words.<ref group=note>Monolingual Hebrew dictionaries use pronunciation respelling for words with unusual spelling; for example, the ''[[Even-Shoshan Dictionary]]'' respells {{Script/Hebrew|תָּכְנִית}} as {{angbr|{{Script/Hebrew|תּוֹכְנִית}}}} because the word uses the ''[[kamatz]] katan''.</ref> Bilingual dictionaries that translate from foreign languages into Russian usually employ the IPA, but monolingual Russian dictionaries occasionally use pronunciation respelling for foreign words.<ref group=note>For example, [[Sergey Ozhegov]]'s dictionary adds [нэ́] in brackets to the French loan-word ''пенсне'' (''{{lang|fr|[[pince-nez]]}}'') to indicate that the final {{angbr|[[е]]}} does not [[Iotation|iotate]] the preceding {{angbr|[[н]]}}. </ref> The IPA is more common in bilingual dictionaries, but there are exceptions here too. Mass-market bilingual Czech dictionaries, for instance, tend to use the IPA only for sounds not found in [[Czech language|Czech]].<ref>{{in lang|cs}} {{Cite book|last=Fronek|first=J.|title=Velký anglicko-český slovník|year=2006|publisher=Leda|location=Praha|language=cs|isbn=80-7335-022-X|quote=In accordance with long-established Czech lexicographical tradition, a modified version of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is adopted in which letters of the Czech alphabet are employed.}}</ref> ===Standard orthographies and case variants=== {{main|Case variants of IPA letters}} IPA letters have been incorporated into the alphabets of various languages, notably via the [[Africa Alphabet]] in many sub-Saharan languages such as [[Hausa language|Hausa]], [[Fula language|Fula]], [[Akan language|Akan]], [[Gbe languages]], [[Manding languages]], [[Lingala language|Lingala]], etc. Capital case variants have been created for use in these languages. For example, [[Kabiyé language|Kabiyè]] of northern [[Togo]] has [[African D|Ɖ ɖ]], [[Eng (letter)|Ŋ ŋ]], [[Latin gamma|Ɣ ɣ]], [[Open O|Ɔ ɔ]], [[Latin epsilon|Ɛ ɛ]], [[Ʋ|Ʋ ʋ]]. These, and others, are supported by [[Unicode]], but appear in Latin ranges other than the [[IPA Extensions (Unicode block)|IPA extensions]]. In the IPA itself, however, only lower-case letters are used. The 1949 edition of the IPA handbook indicated that an asterisk {{angbr|*}} might be prefixed to indicate that a word was a proper name,<ref>''Principles of the International Phonetic Association,'' 1949:17.</ref> but this convention was not included in the 1999 ''Handbook'', which notes the contrary use of the asterisk as a placeholder for a sound or feature that does not have a symbol. ===Classical singing=== The IPA has widespread use among classical singers during preparation as they are frequently required to sing in a variety of foreign languages. They are also taught by vocal coaches to perfect diction and improve tone quality and tuning.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Severens|first=Sara E.|year=2017|title=The Effects of the International Phonetic Alphabet in Singing|journal=Student Scholar Showcase|url=https://digitalshowcase.lynchburg.edu/studentshowcase/2017/presentations/53/|language=en}}</ref> Opera [[libretto]]s are authoritatively transcribed in IPA, such as [[Nico Castel]]'s volumes<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.castelopera.com/libretti.htm | title=Nico Castel's Complete Libretti Series | publisher=Castel Opera Arts | access-date=29 September 2008 | archive-date=24 July 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724211024/http://www.castelopera.com/libretti.htm | url-status=dead }}</ref> and Timothy Cheek's book ''Singing in Czech''.<ref>{{Cite book | url=http://scarecrowpress.com/Catalog/SingleBook.shtml?command=Search&db=%5EDB/CATALOG.db&eqSKUdata=0810840030 | last=Cheek | first=Timothy | title=Singing in Czech | year=2001 | page=392 | isbn=978-0-8108-4003-4 | publisher=The Scarecrow Press | access-date=25 January 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007052429/http://scarecrowpress.com/Catalog/SingleBook.shtml?command=Search&db=%5EDB%2FCATALOG.db&eqSKUdata=0810840030 | archive-date=7 October 2011 | url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007052429/http://scarecrowpress.com/Catalog/SingleBook.shtml?command=Search&db=%5EDB%2FCATALOG.db&eqSKUdata=0810840030 |date=7 October 2011 }}</ref> Opera singers' ability to read IPA was used by the site ''Visual Thesaurus'', which employed several opera singers "to make recordings for the 150,000 words and phrases in VT's lexical database&nbsp;... for their vocal stamina, attention to the details of enunciation, and most of all, knowledge of IPA".<ref>{{cite web| url=http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=155 | title=Operatic IPA and the Visual Thesaurus | last=Zimmer | first=Benjamin | author-link=Benjamin Zimmer | work=[[Language Log]] | publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania]] | access-date=29 September 2009 | date=14 May 2008}}</ref> ==Letters== {{See also|International Phonetic Alphabet chart}} The International Phonetic Association organizes the letters of the IPA into three categories: [[pulmonic sounds|pulmonic]] consonants, non-pulmonic consonants, and vowels.<ref>"Segments can usefully be divided into two major categories, consonants and vowels." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;3)</ref><ref>International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;6.</ref> Pulmonic consonant letters are arranged singly or in pairs of voiceless ([[tenuis consonant|tenuis]]) and voiced sounds, with these then grouped in columns from front (labial) sounds on the left to back (glottal) sounds on the right. In official publications by the IPA, two columns are omitted to save space, with the letters listed among 'other symbols' even though theoretically they belong in the main chart,<ref group=note>They were moved "for presentational convenience [...] because of [their] rarity and the small number of types of sounds which are found there." (IPA ''Handbook'', p 18)</ref> and with the remaining consonants arranged in rows from full closure (occlusives: stops and nasals), to brief closure (vibrants: trills and taps), to partial closure (fricatives) and minimal closure (approximants), again with a row left out to save space. In the table below, a slightly different arrangement is made: All pulmonic consonants are included in the pulmonic-consonant table, and the vibrants and laterals are separated out so that the rows reflect the common [[lenition]] pathway of ''stop → fricative → approximant,'' as well as the fact that several letters pull double duty as both fricative and approximant; [[affricate]]s may be created by joining stops and fricatives from adjacent cells. Shaded cells represent articulations that are judged to be impossible. Vowel letters are also grouped in pairs—of unrounded and rounded vowel sounds—with these pairs also arranged from front on the left to back on the right, and from maximal closure at top to minimal closure at bottom. No vowel letters are omitted from the chart, though in the past some of the mid central vowels were listed among the 'other symbols'. ===Consonants=== ====Pulmonic consonants==== {{see also|IPA pulmonic consonant chart with audio}} A [[Egressive|pulmonic]] consonant is a consonant made by obstructing the [[glottis]] (the space between the vocal cords) or [[Human mouth|oral cavity]] (the mouth) and either simultaneously or subsequently letting out air from the lungs. Pulmonic consonants make up the majority of consonants in the IPA, as well as in human language. All consonants in English fall into this category.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fromkin|first=Victoria|author-link=Victoria Fromkin|author2=Rodman, Robert|title=An Introduction to Language|orig-year=1974|year=1998|publisher=Harcourt Brace College Publishers|location=Fort Worth, TX|edition=6th|isbn=0-03-018682-X|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00from_1}}</ref> The pulmonic consonant table, which includes most consonants, is arranged in rows that designate [[manner of articulation]], meaning how the consonant is produced, and columns that designate [[place of articulation]], meaning where in the vocal tract the consonant is produced. The main chart includes only consonants with a single place of articulation. {{IPA pulmonic consonants|caption=|affricates=no|notes=no}} '''Notes''' * In rows where some letters appear in pairs (the ''[[obstruent]]s''), the letter to the right represents a [[voice (phonetics)|voiced consonant]] (except [[breathy voice|breathy-voiced]] {{IPA|[ɦ]}}).<ref>Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1996, ''Sounds of the World's Languages,'' §2.1.</ref> In the other rows (the ''[[sonorant]]s''), the single letter represents a voiced consonant. * While IPA provides a single letter for the coronal places of articulation (for all consonants but fricatives), these do not always have to be used exactly. When dealing with a particular language, the letters may be treated as specifically dental, alveolar, or post-alveolar, as appropriate for that language, without diacritics. * Shaded areas indicate articulations judged to be impossible. * The letters {{IPA|[β, ð, ʁ, ʕ, ʢ]}} are canonically voiced fricatives but may be used for approximants.<ref>"A symbol such as {{IPA|[β]}}, shown on the chart in the position for a voiced bilabial fricative, can also be used to represent a voiced bilabial approximant if needed." (''Handbook'', p.9)</ref> * In many languages, such as English, {{IPA|[h]}} and {{IPA|[ɦ]}} are not actually glottal, fricatives, or approximants. Rather, they are bare [[phonation]].<ref>Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1996, ''Sounds of the World's Languages,'' §9.3.</ref> * It is primarily the shape of the tongue rather than its position that distinguishes the fricatives {{IPA|[ʃ ʒ]}}, {{IPA|[ɕ ʑ]}}, and {{IPA|[ʂ ʐ]}}. * {{IPA|[ʜ, ʢ]}} are defined as epiglottal fricatives under the "Other symbols" section in the official IPA chart, but they may be treated as trills at the same place of articulation as {{IPA|[ħ, ʕ]}} because trilling of the [[aryepiglottic fold]]s typically co-occurs.{{sfnp|Esling|2010|pp=688–9}} * Some listed phones are not known to exist as [[phoneme]]s in any language. ====Non-pulmonic consonants==== Non-pulmonic consonants are sounds whose airflow is not dependent on the lungs. These include [[click consonant|clicks]] (found in the [[Khoisan languages]] and some neighboring [[Bantu languages]] of Africa), [[Implosive consonant|implosives]] (found in languages such as [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Hausa language|Hausa]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]] and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]), and [[ejective consonant|ejectives]] (found in many [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Amerindian]] and [[Languages of the Caucasus|Caucasian languages]]). {{IPA non-pulmonic consonants|caption=|nonipa=no|affricates=no|notes=no}} '''Notes''' * Clicks have traditionally been described as consisting of a forward place of articulation, commonly called the click 'type' or historically the 'influx', and a rear place of articulation, which when combined with the voicing, aspiration, nasalization, affrication, ejection, [[contour click|timing]] etc. of the click is commonly called the click 'accompaniment' or historically the 'efflux'. The IPA click letters indicate only the click type (forward articulation and release). Therefore, all clicks require two letters for proper notation: {{angbr IPA|k͡ǂ, ɡ͡ǂ, ŋ͡ǂ, q͡ǂ, ɢ͡ǂ, ɴ͡ǂ}} ''etc.'', or with the order reversed if both the forward and rear releases are audible. The letter for the rear articulation is frequently omitted, in which case a {{angbr IPA|k}} may usually be assumed. However, some researchers dispute the idea that clicks should be analyzed as doubly articulated, as the traditional transcription implies, and analyze the rear occlusion as solely a part of the airstream mechanism.<ref>Amanda L. Miller ''et al.'', [https://web.archive.org/web/20070609200226/http://ling.cornell.edu/plab/amanda/amiller_jipa.pdf "Differences in airstream and posterior place of articulation among Nǀuu lingual stops"]. Submitted to the ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association''. Retrieved 27 May 2007.</ref> In transcriptions of such approaches, the click letter represents both places of articulation, with the different letters representing the different click types, and diacritics are used for the elements of the accompaniment: {{angbr IPA|ǂ, ǂ̬, ǂ̃}} ''etc.'' * Letters for the [[voiceless]] implosives {{angbr IPA|ƥ, ƭ, ƈ, ƙ, ʠ}} are no longer supported by the IPA, though they remain in Unicode. Instead, the IPA typically uses the voiced equivalent with a voiceless diacritic: {{angbr IPA|ɓ̥, ʛ̥}}, ''etc.''. * The letter for the [[Voiced retroflex implosive|retroflex implosive]], <span title="U+1D91">{{angbr IPA|ᶑ }}</span>, is not "explicitly IPA approved" (''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;166), but has the expected form if such a symbol were to be approved. * The ejective diacritic is placed at the right-hand margin of the consonant, rather than immediately after the letter for the stop: {{angbr IPA|t͜ʃʼ}}, {{angbr IPA|kʷʼ}}. In imprecise transcription, it often stands in for a superscript glottal stop in [[Glottalic consonant|glottalized]] but pulmonic [[sonorant]]s, such as {{IPA|[mˀ]}}, {{IPA|[lˀ]}}, {{IPA|[wˀ]}}, {{IPA|[aˀ]}} (also transcribable as creaky {{IPA|[m̰]}}, {{IPA|[l̰]}}, {{IPA|[w̰]}}, {{IPA|[a̰]}}). ====Affricates==== [[Affricate consonant|Affricates]] and [[Doubly articulated consonant|co-articulated]] stops are represented by two letters joined by a tie bar, either above or below the letters with no difference in meaning.<ref group=note>It is traditional to place the tie bar above the letters. It may be placed below to avoid overlap with ascenders or diacritic marks, or simply because it is more legible that way, as in {{cite web|author=Niesler, Louw, & Roux | date = 2005| title=Phonetic analysis of Afrikaans, English, Xhosa and Zulu using South African speech databases|url= http://www.ajol.info/index.php/salas/article/viewFile/6562/13287|publisher=Ajol.info|access-date=20 November 2012}}</ref> Affricates are optionally represented by [[Typographic ligature|ligatures]] (e.g. {{angbr IPA|ʦ, ʣ, ʧ, ʤ, ʨ, ʥ, ꭧ, ꭦ&thinsp;}}), though this is no longer official IPA usage<ref name="IPA 1999"/> because a great number of ligatures would be required to represent all affricates this way. Alternatively, a superscript notation for a consonant release is sometimes used to transcribe affricates, for example {{angbr IPA|tˢ}} for {{IPA|[t͜s]}}, paralleling {{IPA|[kˣ]}} ~ {{IPA|[k͜x]}}. The letters for the palatal plosives {{angbr IPA|c}} and {{angbr IPA|ɟ}} are often used as a convenience for {{IPA|[t͜ʃ]}} and {{IPA|[d͜ʒ]}} or similar affricates, even in official IPA publications, so they must be interpreted with care. {{IPA affricates|caption=|notes=no}} ====Co-articulated consonants==== [[Co-articulated consonant]]s are sounds that involve two simultaneous [[Place of articulation|places of articulation]] (are pronounced using two parts of the [[vocal tract]]). In English, the {{IPA|[w]}} in "went" is a coarticulated consonant, being pronounced by rounding the lips and raising the back of the tongue. Similar sounds are {{IPA|[ʍ]}} and {{IPA|[ɥ]}}. In some languages, plosives can be double-articulated, for example in the name of [[Laurent Gbagbo]]. {{IPA co-articulated consonants|caption=|notes=no}} '''Notes''' * {{IPA|[ɧ]}}, the [[sj-sound|Swedish ''sj''-sound]], is described by the IPA as a "simultaneous {{IPA|[ʃ]}} and {{IPA|[x]}}", but it is unlikely such a simultaneous fricative actually exists in any language.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ladefoged |first=Peter |author2=Ian Maddieson |year=1996 |title=The sounds of the world's languages |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell|pages=329–330|isbn=0-631-19815-6|author2-link=Ian Maddieson }}</ref> * Multiple tie bars can be used: {{angbr IPA|a͡b͡c}} or {{angbr IPA|a͜b͜c}}. For instance, if a prenasalized stop is transcribed {{angbr IPA|m͡b}}, and a doubly articulated stop {{angbr IPA|ɡ͡b}}, then a prenasalized doubly articulated stop would be {{angbr IPA|ŋ͡m͡ɡ͡b}} * If a diacritic needs to be placed on or under a tie bar, the [[combining grapheme joiner]] (U+034F) needs to be used, as in {{IPA|[b͜͏̰də̀bdɷ̀]}} 'chewed' ([[Margi language|Margi]]). Font support is spotty, however. ===Vowels=== {{Main|Vowel}} {{see also|IPA vowel chart with audio}} [[File:Cardinal vowel tongue position-front.svg|thumb|200px|Tongue positions of [[Cardinal vowel|cardinal]] front vowels, with highest point indicated. The position of the highest point is used to determine vowel height and backness.]] [[File:Cardinal vowels-Jones x-ray.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Radiography|X-ray photos]] show the sounds {{IPA|[i, u, a, ɑ]}}.]] The IPA defines a vowel as a sound which occurs at a syllable center.<ref>International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;10.</ref> Below is a chart depicting the vowels of the IPA. The IPA maps the vowels according to the position of the tongue. {{IPA vowels|caption=|notes=no}} The vertical axis of the chart is mapped by [[vowel height]]. Vowels pronounced with the tongue lowered are at the bottom, and vowels pronounced with the tongue raised are at the top. For example, {{IPA|[ɑ]}} (the first vowel in ''father'') is at the bottom because the tongue is lowered in this position. {{IPA|[i]}} (the vowel in "meet") is at the top because the sound is said with the tongue raised to the roof of the mouth. In a similar fashion, the horizontal axis of the chart is determined by [[vowel backness]]. Vowels with the tongue moved towards the front of the mouth (such as {{IPA|[ɛ]}}, the vowel in "met") are to the left in the chart, while those in which it is moved to the back (such as {{IPA|[ʌ]}}, the vowel in "but") are placed to the right in the chart. In places where vowels are paired, the right represents a [[Roundedness|rounded vowel]] (in which the lips are rounded) while the left is its unrounded counterpart. ====Diphthongs==== [[Diphthong]]s are typically specified with a non-syllabic diacritic, as in {{angbr IPA|uɪ̯}} or {{angbr IPA|u̯ɪ}}, or with a superscript for the on- or off-glide, as in {{angbr IPA|uᶦ}} or {{angbr IPA|ᵘɪ}}. Sometimes a tie bar is used: {{angbr IPA|u͡ɪ}}, especially if it is difficult to tell if the diphthong is characterized by an on-glide, an off-glide or is variable. '''Notes''' * {{angbr IPA|a}} officially represents a front vowel, but there is little if any distinction between front and central open vowels (see {{section link|Vowel#Acoustics}}), and {{angbr IPA|a}} is frequently used for an open central vowel.<ref name="thomason" /> If disambiguation is required, the [[Retraction (phonetics)|retraction diacritic]] or the [[Relative articulation#Centralized vowels|centralized diacritic]] may be added to indicate an open central vowel, as in {{angbr IPA|a̠}} or {{angbr IPA|ä}}. ==Diacritics and prosodic notation {{anchor|Diacritics}}== [[Diacritic]]s are used for phonetic detail. They are added to IPA letters to indicate a modification or specification of that letter's normal pronunciation.<ref name=IPA15>International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp.&nbsp;14–15.</ref> By being made superscript, any IPA letter may function as a diacritic, conferring elements of its articulation to the base letter. Those superscript letters listed below are specifically provided for by the IPA ''Handbook''; other uses can be illustrated with {{angbr IPA|tˢ}} ({{IPA|[t]}} with fricative release), {{angbr IPA|ᵗs}} ({{IPA|[s]}} with affricate onset), {{angbr IPA|ⁿd}} (prenasalized {{IPA|[d]}}), {{angbr IPA|bʱ}} ({{IPA|[b]}} with breathy voice), {{angbr IPA|mˀ}} (glottalized {{IPA|[m]}}), {{angbr IPA|sᶴ}} ({{IPA|[s]}} with a flavor of {{IPA|[ʃ]}}, i.e. a [[voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant]]), {{angbr IPA|oᶷ}} ({{IPA|[o]}} with [[Vowel breaking|diphthongization]]), {{angbr IPA|ɯᵝ}} ([[compressed vowel|compressed]] {{IPA|[ɯ]}}). Superscript diacritics placed after a letter are ambiguous between simultaneous modification of the sound and phonetic detail at the end of the sound. For example, labialized {{angbr IPA|kʷ}} may mean either simultaneous {{IPA|[k]}} and {{IPA|[w]}} or else {{IPA|[k]}} with a labialized release. Superscript diacritics placed before a letter, on the other hand, normally indicate a modification of the onset of the sound ({{angbr IPA|mˀ}} glottalized {{IPA|[m]}}, {{angbr IPA|ˀm}} {{IPA|[m]}} with a glottal onset). (See {{section link|#Superscript IPA}}.) {|class="wikitable" ! colspan=6|Syllabicity diacritics |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̩}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɹ̩ n̩}} |rowspan=2|[[Syllabic consonant|Syllabic]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̯}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɪ̯ ʊ̯}} |rowspan=2|[[Semivowel|Non-syllabic]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̍}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɻ̍ ŋ̍}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̑}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y̑}} |- ! colspan=6|Consonant-release diacritics |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;" |{{IPA|◌ʰ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tʰ}} |[[Aspiration (phonetics)|Aspirated]]{{ref label|Aspirated|a|}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̚}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|p̚}} |[[No audible release]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;" |{{IPA|◌ⁿ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|dⁿ}} |[[Nasal release]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ˡ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|dˡ}} |[[Lateral release (phonetics)|Lateral release]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;" |{{IPA|◌ᶿ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tᶿ}} |Voiceless dental fricative release |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ˣ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tˣ}} |Voiceless velar fricative release |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;" |{{IPA|◌ᵊ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|dᵊ}} |Mid central vowel release |colspan=3| |- ! colspan=6|Phonation diacritics |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̥}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" |{{IPA|n̥ d̥}} |rowspan=2|[[Voiceless]] |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̬}} |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|s̬ t̬}} |rowspan=2|[[Voice (phonetics)|Voiced]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̊}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" |{{IPA|ɻ̊ ŋ̊}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̤}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" |{{IPA|b̤ a̤}} |[[Breathy voice]]d{{ref label|Aspirated|a|}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̰}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|b̰ a̰}} |[[Creaky voice]]d |- ! colspan=6|Articulation diacritics |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̪}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" |{{IPA|t̪ d̪}} |rowspan=2|[[Dental consonant|Dental]] |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̼}} |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|t̼ d̼}} |rowspan=2|[[Linguolabial consonant|Linguolabial]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌͆}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" |{{IPA|ɮ͆}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̺}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|t̺ d̺}} |[[Apical consonant|Apical]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̻}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|t̻ d̻}} |[[Laminal consonant|Laminal]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̟}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|u̟ t̟}} |rowspan=2|[[Relative articulation#Advanced and retracted|Advanced (fronted)]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̠}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|i̠ t̠}} |rowspan=2|[[Relative articulation#Advanced and retracted|Retracted (backed)]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌᫈}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɡ᫈}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̄}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|q̄}}{{ref label|retracted|b|}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̈}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ë ä}} |[[Relative articulation#Centralized vowels|Centralized]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̽}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|e̽ ɯ̽}} |[[Mid-centralized]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̝}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|e̝ r̝}} |rowspan=2|[[Relative articulation#Raised and lowered|Raised]] <br>({{IPA|[r̝], [ɭ˔]}} are fricatives) |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̞}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|e̞ β̞}} |rowspan=2|[[Relative articulation#Raised and lowered|Lowered]] <br>({{IPA|[β̞], [ɣ˕]}} are approximants) |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌˔}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɭ˔}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌˕}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y˕ ɣ˕}} |- ! colspan=6|Co-articulation diacritics |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̹}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɔ̹ x̹}} |rowspan=2| More [[Roundedness|rounded]]<br>(over-rounding) |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̜}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɔ̜ xʷ̜}} |rowspan=2| Less rounded<br>(under-rounding){{ref label|less rounded labialization|c|}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌͗}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y͗ χ͗}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌͑}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y͑ χ͑ʷ}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ʷ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tʷ dʷ}} |[[Labialization|Labialized]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ʲ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tʲ dʲ}} |[[Palatalization (phonetics)|Palatalized]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ˠ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tˠ dˠ}} |[[Velarization|Velarized]] |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̴}} |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA link|ɫ}} {{IPA|ᵶ}} |rowspan=2|Velarized or pharyngealized |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ˤ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tˤ aˤ}} |[[Pharyngealization|Pharyngealized]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̘}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|e̘ o̘}} |rowspan=2|[[Advanced and retracted tongue root|Advanced tongue root]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̙}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|e̙ o̙}} |rowspan=2|[[Advanced and retracted tongue root|Retracted tongue root]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌&#xAB6A;}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y&#xAB6A;}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌&#xAB6B;}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y&#xAB6B;}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̃}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ẽ z̃}} |[[Nasalization|Nasalized]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌˞}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɚ ɝ}} |[[R-colored vowel|Rhoticity]] |} '''Notes''' : {{note|Aspirated|a}} With aspirated voiced consonants, the aspiration is usually also voiced (voiced aspirated – but see [[aspirated voiced|voiced consonants with voiceless aspiration]]). Many linguists prefer one of the diacritics dedicated to breathy voice over simple aspiration, such as {{angbr IPA|b̤}}. Some linguists restrict that diacritic to [[sonorant]]s, such as breathy-voice {{angbr IPA|m̤}}, and transcribe voiced-aspirated obstruents as e.g. {{angbr IPA|bʱ}}. : {{note|retracted|b}} Care must be taken that a superscript retraction sign is not mistaken for mid tone. : {{note|less rounded labialization|c}} These are relative to the cardinal value of the letter. They can also apply to unrounded vowels: {{IPA|[ɛ̜]}} is more spread (less rounded) than cardinal {{IPA|[ɛ]}}, and {{IPA|[ɯ̹]}} is less spread than cardinal {{IPA|[ɯ]}}.<ref>'Further report on the 1989 Kiel Convention', ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'' 20:2 (December 1990), p. 23.</ref><br>Since {{angbr IPA|xʷ}} can mean that the {{IPA|[x]}} is labialized (rounded) throughout its articulation, and {{angbr IPA|x̜}} makes no sense ({{IPA|[x]}} is already completely unrounded), {{angbr IPA|x̜ʷ}} can only mean a less-labialized/rounded {{IPA|[xʷ]}}. However, readers might mistake {{angbr IPA|x̜ʷ}} for "{{IPA|[x̜]}}" with a labialized off-glide, or might wonder if the two diacritics cancel each other out. Placing the 'less rounded' diacritic under the labialization diacritic, {{angbr IPA|xʷ̜}}, makes it clear that it is the labialization that is 'less rounded' than its cardinal IPA value. Subdiacritics (diacritics normally placed below a letter) may be moved above a letter to avoid conflict with a [[descender]], as in voiceless {{angbr IPA|ŋ̊}}.<ref name=IPA15 /> The raising and lowering diacritics have optional spacing forms {{angbr IPA|˔}}, {{angbr IPA|˕}} that avoid descenders. The state of the [[glottis]] can be finely transcribed with diacritics. A series of alveolar plosives ranging from open-glottis to closed-glottis [[phonation]] is: {|class="wikitable" |+Phonation scale |- ! Open glottis |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" |{{IPA|[t]}} |[[voiceless]] |- | |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[d̤]}} |[[breathy voice]], also called ''murmured'' |- | |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[d̥]}} |[[slack voice]] |- ![[Sweet spot (phonetics)|Sweet spot]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[d]}} |[[modal voice]] |- | |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[d̬]}} |[[stiff voice]] |- | |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[d̰]}} |[[creaky voice]] |- !Closed glottis |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[ʔ͡t]}} |glottal closure |} Additional diacritics are provided by the [[Extensions to the IPA]] for speech pathology. ===Suprasegmentals=== These symbols describe the features of a language above the [[Phonological hierarchy|level]] of individual consonants and vowels, that is, at the level of syllable, word or [[phrase]]. These include [[prosody (linguistics)|prosody]], pitch, [[length (phonetics)|length]], [[stress (linguistics)|stress]], intensity, [[tone (linguistics)|tone]] and gemination of the sounds of a language, as well as the [[rhythm]] and [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] of speech.<ref name="Handbook13">International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;13.</ref> Various ligatures of pitch/tone letters and diacritics are provided for by the [[Kiel Convention]] and used in the IPA ''Handbook'' despite not being found in the summary of the IPA alphabet found on the one-page chart. Under [[#Capital letters|capital letters]] below we will see how a carrier letter may be used to indicate suprasegmental features such as labialization or nasalization. Some authors omit the carrier letter, for e.g. suffixed {{IPA|[kʰuˣt̪s̟]ʷ}} or prefixed {{IPA|[ʷkʰuˣt̪s̟]}},<ref>Cf. the {{IPA|/ʷ.../}} and {{IPA|/ʲ.../}} transcriptions in Eszter Ernst-Kurdi (2017) ''The Phonology of Mada'', SIL Yaoundé.</ref> or place a spacing variant of a diacritic such as {{angbr IPA|˔}}<!--a spacing ATR or RTR diacritic would be a better example, when those have broader font support--> or {{angbr IPA|˜}} at the beginning or end of a word to indicate that it applies to the entire word.<ref>E.g. Aaron Dolgopolsky (2013) ''Indo-European Dictionary with Nostratic Etymologies''.</ref> {| class="wikitable" ! colspan=4|Length, stress, and rhythm |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ˈke}} | Primary [[stress (linguistics)|stress]] (appears<br /> before stressed syllable) | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ˌke}} | [[Secondary stress]] (appears<br /> before stressed syllable) |- | rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|eː kː}} | rowspan=2 | [[Length (phonetics)|Long]] ([[Vowel length|long vowel]] or<br />[[gemination|geminate consonant]]) | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|eˑ}} | Half-long |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ə̆ ɢ̆}} | [[Extra-short]] |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ek.ste}}<br>{{IPA|eks.te}} | [[Syllable]] break <br>(internal boundary) | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|es‿e}} | [[Connected speech|Linking]] (lack of a boundary; <br>a [[phonological word]])<ref group=note>The IPA ''Handbook'' variously defines the "linking" symbol as marking the "lack of a boundary" (p. 23) or "absence of a break" (p. 174), and gives [[French liaison]] and English [[linking r]] as examples. The illustration for Croatian uses it to tie atonic [[clitic]]s to tonic words, with no resulting change in implied syllable structure. It is also sometimes used simply to indicate that the consonant ending one word forms a syllable with the vowel beginning the following word.</ref> |- ! colspan=4|Intonation |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|{{!}}}} | [[Prosodic unit|Minor or foot break]] | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|‖}} | [[Prosodic unit|Major or intonation break]] |- | style="text-align:center;font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|↗&#xFE0E;}} | [[Intonation (linguistics)|Global rise]]<ref group=note name="global">The global rise and fall arrows come before the affected syllable or prosodic unit, like stress and upstep/downstep. This contrasts with the Chao tone letters (listed below), which most commonly come after. One will occasionally see a horizontal arrow {{angbr IPA|→}} for global level pitch (only dropping due to [[downdrift]]), e.g. in Julie Barbour (2012) ''A Grammar of Neverver''. Additionally, some fonts display the arrows as [[emoji]] by default, if &amp;#xFE0E; is not appended.</ref> | style="text-align:center;font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|↘&#xFE0E;}} | [[Intonation (linguistics)|Global fall]]<ref group=note name="global"/> |- ! colspan=4|Up- and down-step |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ꜛke}} | [[Upstep (phonetics)|Upstep]] | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ꜜke}} | [[Downstep (phonetics)|Downstep]] |} {| class="wikitable" ! colspan=13|Pitch diacritics<ref group=note name=pitch>There is not a one-to-one correspondence between tone diacritics and tone letters. When pitch is transcribed with diacritics, the three pitches {{angbr IPA|é ē è}} are taken as the basic levels and are called 'high', 'mid' and 'low'. Contour tones combine only these three and are called {{angbr IPA|e᷇}} 'high-mid' etc. The more extreme pitches, which do not form contours, are {{angbr IPA|e̋}} 'extra-high' and {{angbr IPA|ȅ}} 'extra-low', using [[#Comparative degree|doubled diacritics]]. When transcribed with tone letters, however, combinations of all five levels are possible. Thus, {{angbr IPA|e˥ e˧ e˩}} may be called 'high', 'mid' and 'low', with {{angbr IPA|e˦ e˨}} being 'near-high' and 'near-low', analogous to descriptions of vowel height. In a three-level transcription, {{angbr IPA|é ē è}} are identified with {{angbr IPA|e˥ e˧ e˩}}, but in a five-level transcription, {{angbr IPA|e̋ ȅ}} are identified with {{angbr IPA|e˥ e˩}} (''JIPA'' 19.2: 76).</ref> |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|ŋ̋ e̋}} | Extra high | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ̌ ě}} | Rising | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷄ e᷄}} | Mid-rising |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ́ é}} | High | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ̂ ê}} | Falling | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷅ e᷅}} | Low-rising |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ̄ ē}} | Mid | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷈ e᷈}} | Peaking (rising&ndash;falling) | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷇ e᷇}} | High-falling |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ̀ è}} | Low | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷉ e᷉}} | Dipping (falling&ndash;rising) | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷆ e᷆}} | Mid-falling |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{nowrap|{{IPA|ŋ̏ ȅ}}}} | Extra low | style="text-align:center;" colspan=4| (''etc.'')<ref group=note>Although any combination of tone diacritics is theoretically possible, such as {{angbr IPA|e᪰}} for a falling&ndash;rising&ndash;falling tone, any other than those illustrated are vanishingly rare.</ref> |} {| class="wikitable" ! colspan=5|[[Chao tone letter]]s<ref group=note name=pitch/> |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|˥e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|꜒e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|e˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|e꜒}} | High |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˦e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜓e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˦}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜓}} | Half-high |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˧e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜔e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜔}} | Mid |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˨e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜕e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˨}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜕}} | Half-low |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˩e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜖e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜖}} | Low |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˩˥e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜖꜒e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜖꜒}} | Rising (low to high or generic) |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˥˩e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜒꜖e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜒꜖}} | Falling (high to low or generic) |- | style="text-align:center;" colspan=5| (''etc.'') |} The old staveless tone letters, which are effectively obsolete, include high {{angbr IPA|ˉe}}, mid {{angbr IPA|˗e}}, low {{angbr IPA|ˍe}}, rising {{angbr IPA|ˊe}} and falling {{angbr IPA|ˋe}}. ====Stress==== Officially, the [[Stress (linguistics)|stress marks]] {{angbr IPA|ˈ ˌ}} appear before the stressed syllable, and thus mark the syllable boundary as well as stress (though the syllable boundary may still be explicitly marked with a period).<ref name=report/> Occasionally the stress mark is placed immediately before the nucleus of the syllable, after any consonantal onset.{{sfnp|Esling|2010|p=691}} In such transcriptions, the stress mark does not mark a syllable boundary. The primary stress mark may be [[#Comparative degree|doubled]] {{angbr IPA|ˈˈ}} for extra stress (such as prosodic stress). The secondary stress mark is sometimes seen doubled {{angbr IPA|ˌˌ}} for extra-weak stress, but this convention has not been adopted by the IPA.<ref name=report/> Some dictionaries place both stress marks before a syllable, {{angbr IPA|¦}}, to indicate that pronunciations with either primary or secondary stress are heard, though this is not IPA usage.<ref>For example, {{MW|Balearic}}.</ref> ====Boundary markers==== There are three boundary markers: {{angbr IPA|.}} for a syllable break, {{angbr IPA|<nowiki>|</nowiki>}} for a minor prosodic break and {{angbr IPA|‖}} for a major prosodic break. The tags 'minor' and 'major' are intentionally ambiguous. Depending on need, 'minor' may vary from a [[foot (prosody)|foot]] break to a break in list-intonation to a continuing–prosodic unit boundary (equivalent to a comma), and while 'major' is often any intonation break, it may be restricted to a final–prosodic unit boundary (equivalent to a period). The 'major' symbol may also be doubled, {{angbr IPA|‖‖}}, for a stronger break.{{#tag:ref|Russian sources commonly use a wavy line like {{unichar|2E3E|WIGGLY VERTICAL LINE}} (approx. ⌇) for a less-than-minor break, such as the slight break in list intonation (e.g. the very slight break between digits in a telephone number).<ref>Ž.V. Ganiev (2012) ''Sovremennyj ruskij jazyk.'' Flinta/Nauka.</ref> A dotted line like {{unichar|2E3D|VERTICAL SIX DOTS}} or {{unichar|2999|DOTTED FENCE}} is sometimes seen instead.|group="note"}} Although not part of the IPA, the following additional boundary markers are often used in conjunction with the IPA: {{angbr IPA|μ}} for a [[mora (linguistics)|mora]] or mora boundary, {{angbr IPA|σ}} for a syllable or syllable boundary, {{angbr IPA|+}} for a morpheme boundary, {{angbr IPA|#}} for a word boundary (may be doubled, {{angbr IPA|##}}, for e.g. a breath-group boundary),<ref>Nicholas Evans (1995) ''A Grammar of Kayardild''. Mouton de Gruyter.</ref> {{angbr IPA|$}} for a phrase or intermediate boundary and {{angbr IPA|%}} for a prosodic boundary. For example, C# is a word-final consonant, %V a post-[[pausa]] vowel, and T% an IU-final tone (edge tone). ====Pitch and tone==== {{see also|tone letter}} {{angbr IPA|ꜛ ꜜ}} are defined in the ''Handbook'' as "upstep" and "downstep", concepts from tonal languages. However, the upstep symbol can also be used for [[pitch reset]], and the IPA ''Handbook'' uses it for prosody in the illustration for Portuguese, a non-tonal language. Phonetic pitch and phonemic tone may be indicated by either diacritics placed over the nucleus of the syllable (e.g., high-pitch {{angbr IPA|é}}) or by [[Chao tone letter]]s placed either before or after the word or syllable. There are three graphic variants of the tone letters: with or without a stave, and facing left or facing right from the stave. The stave was introduced with the 1989 Kiel Convention, as was the option of placing a staved letter after the word or syllable, while retaining the older conventions. There are therefore six<!--One of our sources says 'seven', but the staveless tone letters were only allowed before the word/syllable pre-Kiel, and that was not changed in the Kiel Convention.--> ways to transcribe pitch/tone in the IPA: i.e., {{angbr IPA|é}}, {{angbr IPA|˦e}}, {{angbr IPA|e˦}}, {{angbr IPA|꜓e}}, {{angbr IPA|e꜓}} and {{angbr IPA|ˉe}} for a high pitch/tone.<ref name=report/><ref>Ian Maddieson (December 1990) The transcription of tone in the IPA, JIPA 20.2, p. 31.</ref><ref>Barry Heselwood (2013) ''Phonetic Transcription in Theory and Practice''. Edinburgh University Press. Page 7.</ref> Of the tone letters, only left-facing staved letters and a few representative combinations are shown in the summary on the ''Chart'', and in practice it is currently more common for tone letters to occur after the syllable/word than before, as in the Chao tradition. Placement before the word is a carry-over from the pre-Kiel IPA convention, as is still the case for the stress and upstep/downstep marks. The IPA endorses the Chao tradition of using the left-facing tone letters, {{angbr IPA|˥ ˦ ˧ ˨ ˩}}, for underlying tone, and the right-facing letters, {{angbr IPA|꜒ ꜓ ꜔ ꜕ ꜖}}, for surface tone, as occurs in [[tone sandhi]], and for the intonation of non-tonal languages.<ref group=note>Maddieson and others have noted that a phonemic/phonetic distinction should be handled by /slash/ or [bracket] delimiters. However, the reversed tone letters remain in use for tone sandhi.</ref> In the Portuguese illustration in the 1999 ''Handbook'', tone letters are placed before a word or syllable to indicate prosodic pitch (equivalent to {{IPA|[↗︎]}} global rise and {{IPA|[↘︎]}} global fall, but allowing more precision), and in the Cantonese illustration they are placed after a word/syllable to indicate lexical tone. Theoretically therefore prosodic pitch and lexical tone could be simultaneously transcribed in a single text, though this is not a formalized distinction. Rising and falling pitch, as in [[contour tone]]s, are indicated by combining the pitch diacritics and letters in the table, such as grave plus acute for rising {{IPA|[ě]}} and acute plus grave for falling {{IPA|[ê]}}. Only six combinations of two diacritics are supported, and only across three levels (high, mid, low), despite the diacritics supporting five levels of pitch in isolation. The four other explicitly approved rising and falling diacritic combinations are high/mid rising {{IPA|[e᷄]}}, low rising {{IPA|[e᷅]}}, high falling {{IPA|[e᷇]}}, and low/mid falling {{IPA|[e᷆]}}.<ref group=note>A work-around sometimes seen when a language has more than one rising or falling tone, and the author wishes to avoid the poorly legible diacritics {{angbr IPA|e᷄, e᷅, e᷇, e᷆}} but does not wish to employ tone letters, is to restrict the generic rising {{angbr IPA|ě}} and falling {{angbr IPA|ê}} diacritics to the higher-pitched of the rising and falling tones, say {{IPA|/e˥˧/}} and {{IPA|/e˧˥/}}, and to resurrect the retired (pre-Kiel) IPA subscript diacritics {{angbr IPA|e̗}} and {{angbr IPA|e̖}} for the lower-pitched rising and falling tones, say {{IPA|/e˩˧/}} and {{IPA|/e˧˩/}}. When a language has either four or six level tones, the two middle tones are sometimes transcribed as high-mid {{angbr IPA|e̍}} (non-standard) and low-mid {{angbr IPA|ē}}. Non-standard {{angbr IPA|e̍}} is occasionally seen combined with acute and grave diacritcs or with the macron to distinguish contour tones that involve the higher of the two mid tone levels.</ref> The Chao tone letters, on the other hand, may be combined in any pattern, and are therefore used for more complex contours and finer distinctions than the diacritics allow, such as mid-rising {{IPA|[e˨˦]}}, extra-high falling {{IPA|[e˥˦]}}, etc. There are 20 such possibilities. However, in Chao's original proposal, which was adopted by the IPA in 1989, he stipulated that the half-high and half-low letters {{angbr IPA|˦ ˨}} may be combined with each other, but not with the other three tone letters, so as not to create spuriously precise distinctions. With this restriction, there are 8 possibilities.<ref name=Chao>{{Citation | last = Chao | first = Yuen-Ren | year = 1930 | title = {{IPA|ə sistim əv}} "{{IPA|toun}}-{{IPA|letəz}}" | trans-title = A system of "tone-letters" | journal = Le Maître Phonétique | volume = 30 | pages = 24–27 | jstor = 44704341 }}</ref> The old staveless tone letters tend to be more restricted than the staved letters, though not as restricted as the diacritics. Officially, they support as many distinctions as the staved letters,<ref>See for example Pe Maung Tin [-phe -maʊ̃ -tɪ̃ː] (1924) bɜˑmiːz. ''Le Maître Phonétique'', vol. 2 (39), no. 5, pp. 4&ndash;5, where five pitch levels are distinguished</ref> but typically only three pitch levels are distinguished. Unicode supports default or high-pitch {{angbr IPA|ˉ ˊ ˋ ˆ ˇ ˜ ˙}} and low-pitch {{angbr IPA|ˍ ˏ ˎ ꞈ ˬ ˷}}. Only a few mid-pitch tones are supported (such as {{angbr IPA|˗ ˴}}), and then only accidentally. Although tone diacritics and tone letters are presented as equivalent on the chart, "this was done only to simplify the layout of the chart. The two sets of symbols are not comparable in this way."<ref>''Handbook'', p. 14.</ref> Using diacritics, a high tone is {{angbr IPA|é}} and a low tone is {{angbr IPA|è}}; in tone letters, these are {{angbr IPA|e˥}} and {{angbr IPA|e˩}}. One can double the diacritics for extra-high {{angbr IPA|e̋}} and extra-low {{angbr IPA|ȅ}}; there is no parallel to this using tone letters. Instead, tone letters have mid-high {{angbr IPA|e˦}} and mid-low {{angbr IPA|e˨}}; again, there is no equivalent among the diacritics. The correspondence breaks down even further once they start combining. For more complex tones, one may combine three or four tone diacritics in any permutation,<ref name=report>P.J. Roach, Report on the 1989 Kiel Convention, ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'', Vol. 19, No. 2 (December 1989), p. 75–76</ref> though in practice only generic peaking (rising-falling) {{IPA|e᷈}} and dipping (falling-rising) {{IPA|e᷉}} combinations are used. Chao tone letters are required for finer detail ({{IPA|e˧˥˧, e˩˨˩, e˦˩˧, e˨˩˦}}, etc.). Although only 10 peaking and dipping tones were proposed in Chao's original, limited set of tone letters, phoneticians often make finer distinctions, and indeed an example is found on the IPA Chart.<ref group=note>The example has changed over the years. In the chart included in the 1999 IPA ''Handbook'', it was {{IPA|[˦˥˦]}}, and since the 2018 revision of the chart it has been {{IPA|[˧˦˨]}}.</ref> The system allows the transcription of 112<!--125 less 5 triple letters and 8 other combos that form a straight line (e.g. 2-3-4)--> peaking and dipping pitch contours, including tones that are level for part of their length. {| class="wikitable" |+ Original (restricted) set of Chao tone letters<ref group=note>Chao did not include tone shapes such as {{IPA|[˨˦˦], [˧˩˩]}}, which rise or fall and then level off (or vice versa). Such tone shapes are, however, frequently encountered in the modern literature.</ref> ! Register ! Level<br><ref group=note>In Chao's Sinological convention, a single tone letter {{angbr IPA|˥}} is used for a high tone on a [[checked syllable]], and a double tone letter {{angbr IPA|˥˥}} for a high tone on an open syllable. Such redundant doubling is not used in the ''Handbook'', where the tones of Cantonese {{IPA|[si˥]}} 'silk' and {{IPA|[sɪk˥]}} 'color' are transcribed the same way. If the author wishes to indicate a difference in phonetic or phonemic length, the IPA accomplishes that with the length marks {{angbr IPA|◌̆ ◌ˑ ◌ː}} rather than through the tone letters.</ref> ! Rising ! Falling ! Peaking ! Dipping |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˧˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˩˧}} |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˨}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˨˨}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˨˦}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˦˨}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˨˦˨}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˦˨˦}} |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˥˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˧˥}} |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˦}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˦˦}} | | | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˥˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˩˥}} |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˥˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˩˧}} |} More complex contours are possible. Chao gave an example of {{IPA|[꜔꜒꜖꜔]}} (mid-high-low-mid) from English prosody.<ref name=Chao/> Chao tone letters generally appear after each syllable, for a language with syllable tone ({{angbr IPA|a˧vɔ˥˩}}), or after the phonological word, for a language with [[word tone]] ({{angbr IPA|avɔ˧˥˩}}). The IPA gives the option of placing the tone letters before the word or syllable ({{angbr IPA|˧a˥˩vɔ}}, {{angbr IPA|˧˥˩avɔ}}), but this is rare for lexical tone. (And indeed reversed tone letters may be used to clarify that they apply to the following rather than to the preceding syllable: {{angbr IPA|꜔a꜒꜖vɔ}}, {{angbr IPA|꜔꜒꜖avɔ}}.) The staveless letters are not directly supported by Unicode, but some fonts allow the stave in Chao tone letters to be suppressed. ===Comparative degree=== IPA diacritics may be doubled to indicate an extra degree of the feature indicated.<ref name=K&L>Kelly & Local (1989) ''Doing Phonology'', [[Manchester University Press]].</ref> This is a productive process, but apart from extra-high and extra-low tones {{angbr IPA|ə̋, ə̏}} being marked by doubled high- and low-tone diacritics, and the major [[prosodic unit|prosodic break]] {{angbr IPA|‖}} being marked as a double minor break {{angbr IPA|{{!}}}}, it is not specifically regulated by the IPA. (Note that transcription marks are similar: double slashes indicate extra (morpho)-phonemic, double square brackets especially precise, and double parentheses especially unintelligible.) For example, the stress mark may be doubled to indicate an extra degree of stress, such as prosodic stress in English.<ref>Bloomfield (1933) ''Language'' p. 91</ref> An example in French, with a single stress mark for normal prosodic stress at the end of each [[prosodic unit]] (marked as a minor prosodic break), and a double stress mark for contrastive/emphatic stress: {{IPA|[ˈˈɑ̃ːˈtre {{!}} məˈsjø ‖ ˈˈvwala maˈdam ‖]}} ''{{lang|fr|Entrez monsieur, voilà madame}}.''<ref>Passy, 1958, ''Conversations françaises en transcription phonétique.'' 2nd ed.</ref> Similarly, a doubled secondary stress mark {{angbr IPA|ˌˌ}} is commonly used for tertiary (extra-light) stress.<ref>Yuen Ren Chao (1968) ''Language and Symbolic Systems'', p. xxiii</ref> In a similar vein, the effectively obsolete (though never retired) staveless tone letters were once doubled for an emphatic rising intonation {{angbr IPA|˶}} and an emphatic falling intonation {{angbr IPA|˵}}.<ref>Geoffrey Barker (2005) ''Intonation Patterns in Tyrolean German'', p. 11.</ref> [[Length (phonetics)|Length]] is commonly extended by repeating the length mark, as in English ''shhh!'' {{IPA|[ʃːːː]}}, or for "overlong" segments in [[Estonian phonology|Estonian]]: * ''vere'' {{IPA|/vere/}} 'blood [gen.sg.]', ''veere'' {{IPA|/veːre/}} 'edge [gen.sg.]', ''veere'' {{IPA|/veːːre/}} 'roll [imp. 2nd sg.]' * ''lina'' {{IPA|/linɑ/}} 'sheet', ''linna'' {{IPA|/linːɑ/}} 'town [gen. sg.]', ''linna'' {{IPA|/linːːɑ/}} 'town [ine. sg.]' (Normally additional degrees of length are handled by the extra-short or half-long diacritic, but the first two words in each of the Estonian examples are analyzed as simply short and long, requiring a different remedy for the final words.) Occasionally other diacritics are doubled: * [[R-colored vowel|Rhoticity]] in [[Badaga language|Badaga]] {{IPA|/be/}} "mouth", {{IPA|/be˞/}} "bangle", and {{IPA|/be˞˞/}} "crop".<ref>{{SOWL|314}}</ref> * Mild and strong [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspiration]]s, {{IPA|[kʰ]}}, {{IPA|[kʰʰ]}}.<ref group=note>Sometimes the obsolete transcription {{angbr IPA|k{{okina}}}} (with a turned apostrophe) for weak aspiration vs. {{angbr IPA|kʰ}} for strong aspiration is still seen.</ref><!-- Korean does not (primarily) contrast for degrees of aspiration, as the distinction is made mainly with a low tone following the weak stop and a high tone following the aspirated stop, for dialects (including Seoul) that aspirate prosodically initial stops. --> * [[Nasal vowel|Nasalization]], as in [[Palantla Chinantec]] lightly nasalized {{IPA|/ẽ/}} vs heavily nasalized {{IPA|/e͌/}},<ref>Peter Ladefoged (1971) ''Preliminaries of Linguistic Phonetics'', p. 35.</ref> though in [[extIPA]] the latter indicates [[velopharyngeal frication]]. * Weak vs strong [[ejective]]s, {{IPA|[kʼ]}}, {{IPA|[kˮ]}}.<ref>Fallon (2013) ''The Synchronic and Diachronic Phonology of Ejectives'', p. 267</ref> * Especially lowered, e.g. {{IPA|[t̞̞]}} (or {{IPA|[t̞˕]}}, if the former symbol does not display properly) for {{IPA|/t/}} as a weak fricative in some pronunciations of ''register''.<ref>Heselwood (2013) ''Phonetic Transcription in Theory and Practice'', p. 233.</ref> * Especially retracted, e.g. {{IPA|[ø̠̠]}} or {{IPA|[s̠̠]}},<ref>E.g. in Laver (1994) ''Principles of Phonetics'', pp. 559–560</ref><ref name=K&L/><ref>Hein van der Voort (2005) 'Kwaza in a Comparative Perspective', ''IJAL'' 71:4.</ref> though some care might be needed to distinguish this from indications of alveolar or alveolarized articulation in [[extIPA]], e.g. {{IPA|[s͇]}}. * The transcription of [[strident vowel|strident]] and [[harsh voice]] as extra-creaky {{IPA|/a᷽/}} may be motivated by the similarities of these phonations. ==Ambiguous letters== A number of IPA letters are not consistently used for their official values. A distinction between voiced fricatives and approximants is only partially implemented by the IPA, for example. Even with the relatively recent addition of the palatal fricative {{angbr IPA|ʝ}} and the velar approximant {{angbr IPA|ɰ}} to the alphabet, other letters, though defined as fricatives, are often ambiguous between fricative and approximant. For forward places, {{angbr IPA|β}} and {{angbr IPA|ð}} can generally be assumed to be fricatives unless they carry a lowering diacritic. Rearward, however, {{angbr IPA|ʁ}} and {{angbr IPA|ʕ}} are perhaps more commonly intended to be approximants even without a lowering diacritic. {{angbr IPA|h}} and {{angbr IPA|ɦ}} are similarly either fricatives or approximants, depending on the language, or even glottal "transitions", without that often being specified in the transcription. Another common ambiguity is among the letters for palatal consonants. {{angbr IPA|c}} and {{angbr IPA|ɟ}} are not uncommonly used as a typographic convenience for affricates, typically {{IPA|[t͜ʃ]}} and {{IPA|[d͜ʒ]}}, while {{angbr IPA|ɲ}} and {{angbr IPA|ʎ}} are commonly used for palatalized alveolar {{IPA|[n̠ʲ]}} and {{IPA|[l̠ʲ]}}. To some extent this may be an effect of analysis, but it is common to match up single IPA letters to the phonemes of a language, without overly worrying about phonetic precision. It has been argued that the lower-pharyngeal (epiglottal) fricatives {{angbr IPA|ʜ}} and {{angbr IPA|ʢ}} are better characterized as trills, rather than as fricatives that have incidental trilling.<ref>John Esling (2010) "Phonetic Notation", in Hardcastle, Laver & Gibbon (eds) ''The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences'', 2nd ed., p 695.</ref> This has the advantage of merging the upper-pharyngeal fricatives {{IPA|[ħ, ʕ]}} together with the epiglottal plosive {{IPA|[ʡ]}} and trills {{IPA|[ʜ ʢ]}} into a single pharyngeal column in the consonant chart. However, in [[Shilha language|Shilha Berber]] the epiglottal fricatives are not trilled.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ridouane |first1=Rachid |title=Tashlhiyt Berber |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |date=August 2014 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=207–221 |doi=10.1017/S0025100313000388 |s2cid=232344118 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Alderete |first1=John |last2=Jebbour |first2=Abdelkrim |last3=Kachoub |first3=Bouchra |last4=Wilbee |first4=Holly |title=Tashlhiyt Berber grammar synopsis |url=https://www.sfu.ca/~alderete/datasets/aldereteEtal2015_tashlhiytGrammarSynopsis.pdf |publisher=Simon Fraser University |access-date=20 November 2021}}</ref> Although they might be transcribed {{angbr IPA|ħ̠ ʢ̠}} to indicate this, the far more common transcription is {{angbr IPA|ʜ ʢ}}, which is therefore ambiguous between languages. Among vowels, {{angbr IPA|a}} is officially a front vowel, but is more commonly treated as a central vowel. The difference, to the extent it is even possible, is not phonemic in any language. For all phonetic notation, it is good practice for an author to specify exactly what they mean by the symbols that they use. ==Redundant letters== Three letters are not needed and would be hard to justify today by the standards of the modern IPA, but are retained due to inertia. {{angbr IPA|ʍ}} appears because it is found in English; officially it is a fricative, with terminology dating to the days before 'fricative' and 'approximant' were distinguished. Based on how all other fricatives and approximants are transcribed, one would expect either {{angbr IPA|xʷ}} for a fricative (not how it is actually used) or {{angbr IPA|w̥}} for an approximant. Indeed, outside of English transcription, that is what is more commonly found in the literature. {{angbr IPA|ɱ}} is another historic remnant. It is a nearly universal allophone of {{IPA|[m]}} before {{IPA|[f]}} and {{IPA|[v]}}, but it is only phonemically distinct in a single language (Kukuya), a fact that was discovered long after it was standardized in the IPA. (A number of consonants do not have dedicated IPA letters despite being phonemic in many more languages.) {{angbr IPA|ɱ}} is retained because of its historical use for European languages, where it could easily be normalized to {{angbr IPA|m̪}}. There have been several votes to retire {{angbr IPA|ɱ}} from the IPA, but so far they have failed. Finally, {{angbr IPA|ɧ}} is officially a simultaneous postalveolar and velar fricative, a realization that does not appear to exist in any language. It is retained because it is convenient for the transcription of Swedish, where it is used for a consonant that has various realizations in different dialects. That is, it is not actually a phonetic character at all, but a phonemic one, which is officially beyond the purview of the IPA alphabet; indeed, another phonemic IPA letter, {{angbr IPA|[[ƞ]]}} for the homorganic nasal of Japanese, was retired because it had no defined phonetic value. ==Superscript letters== {{anchor|Superscript IPA}}{{further|Unicode subscripts and superscripts#Superscript IPA|Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet#Superscript variants}} Superscript IPA letters may be used to indicate [[secondary articulation]]; onsets, releases and other transitions; shades of sound; light epenthetic sounds and incompletely articulated sounds. In 2020, the IPA and [[International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association|ICPLA]] endorsed the Unicode encoding of superscript variants of all contemporary IPA letters apart from the [[Chao tone letter]]s, including the extended retroflex letters {{angbr IPA|ꞎ 𝼅 𝼈 ᶑ 𝼊&thinsp;}}, which were thus confirmed as being implicit in the IPA alphabet.<ref name=pulmonic>Kirk Miller & Michael Ashby, [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20252r-mod-ipa-a.pdf L2/20-252R] Unicode request for IPA modifier-letters (a), pulmonic</ref><ref name=non-pulmonic>Kirk Miller & Michael Ashby, [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20253r-mod-ipa-b.pdf L2/20-253R] Unicode request for IPA modifier letters (b), non-pulmonic.</ref><ref>Kirk Miller & Martin Ball, [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20116r-ext-ipa-voqs-expansion.pdf L2/20-116R] Expansion of the extIPA and VoQS.</ref> Superscript letters can be meaningfully modified by [[combining character|combining diacritics]], just as baseline letters can. For example, a superscript dental nasal is {{angbr IPA|ⁿ̪d̪}}, a superscript voiceless velar nasal is {{angbr IPA|ᵑ̊ǂ}}, and labial-velar prenasalization is {{angbr IPA|ᵑ͡ᵐɡ͡b}}. Although the diacritic may seem a bit oversized compared to the superscript letter it modifies, e.g. {{angbr IPA|ᵓ̃}}, this can be an aid to legibility, just as it is with the composite superscript c-cedilla {{angbr IPA|ᶜ̧}} and rhotic vowels {{angbr IPA|ᵊ˞ ᶟ˞}}. Superscript length marks can be used to indicate the length of aspiration of a consonant, e.g. {{IPA|[pʰ tʰ&#x10782; kʰ&#x10781;]}}. Another option is to double the diacritic: {{angbr IPA|kʰʰ}}.<ref name=pulmonic/> ==Obsolete and nonstandard symbols== {{Main|Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet|Click letter|Sinological extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet}} A number of IPA letters and diacritics have been retired or replaced over the years. This number includes duplicate symbols, symbols that were replaced due to user preference, and unitary symbols that were rendered with diacritics or digraphs to reduce the inventory of the IPA. The rejected symbols are now considered obsolete, though some are still seen in the literature. The IPA once had several pairs of duplicate symbols from alternative proposals, but eventually settled on one or the other. An example is the vowel letter {{angbr IPA|ɷ}}, rejected in favor of {{angbr IPA|ʊ}}. Affricates were once transcribed with ligatures, such as {{angbr IPA|ʦ ʣ, ʧ ʤ, ʨ ʥ, ꭧ ꭦ&thinsp;}} (and others not found in Unicode). These have been officially retired but are still used. Letters for specific combinations of primary and secondary articulation have also been mostly retired, with the idea that such features should be indicated with tie bars or diacritics: {{angbr IPA|ƍ}} for {{IPA|[zʷ]}} is one. In addition, the rare voiceless implosives, {{angbr IPA|ƥ ƭ ƈ ƙ ʠ&thinsp;}}, were dropped soon after their introduction and are now usually written {{angbr IPA|ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ʄ̊ ɠ̊ ʛ̥&thinsp;}}. The original set of click letters, {{angbr IPA|ʇ, ʗ, ʖ, ʞ}}, was retired but is still sometimes seen, as the current pipe letters {{angbr IPA|ǀ, ǃ, ǁ, ǂ}} can cause problems with legibility, especially when used with brackets ([ ] or / /), the letter {{angbr IPA|l}}, or the [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosodic]] marks {{angbr IPA|<nowiki>|</nowiki>, ‖}}. (For this reason, some publications which use the current IPA pipe letters disallow IPA brackets.<!--The Routledge Khoisan Handbook, for example-->)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2009/09/click-symbols.html |title=John Wells's phonetic blog |publisher=Phonetic-blog.blogspot.com |date=9 September 2009 |access-date=18 October 2010}}</ref> Individual non-IPA letters may find their way into publications that otherwise use the standard IPA. This is especially common with: * Affricates, such as the Americanist [[barred lambda]] {{angbr IPA|ƛ}} for {{IPA|[t͜ɬ]}} or {{angbr IPA|č}} for {{IPA|[t͜ʃ&thinsp;]}}.<ref group=note>The motivation for this may vary. Some authors find the tie bars displeasing but the lack of tie bars confusing (i.e. {{angbr IPA|č}} for {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} as distinct from {{IPA|/tʃ/}}), while others simply prefer to have one letter for each segmental phoneme in a language.{{citation needed|date=September 2020}}</ref> * The [[Karlgren]] letters for Chinese vowels, {{angbr IPA|ɿ, ʅ&thinsp;, ʮ, ʯ&thinsp;}} * Digits for tonal phonemes that have conventional numbers in a local tradition, such as the [[Standard Chinese phonology#Tones|four tones of Standard Chinese]]. This may be more convenient for comparison between related languages and dialects than a phonetic transcription would be, because tones vary more unpredictably than segmental phonemes do. * Digits for tone levels, which are simpler to typeset, though the lack of standardization can cause confusion (e.g. {{angbr IPA|1}} is high tone in some languages but low tone in others; {{angbr IPA|3}} may be high, medium or low tone, depending on the local convention). * Iconic extensions of standard IPA letters that can be readily understood, such as retroflex [[voiced retroflex implosive|{{angbr|ᶑ&thinsp;}}]] and [[voiceless retroflex lateral fricative|{{angbr|ꞎ}}]]. These are referred to in the ''Handbook'' and have been included in IPA requests for Unicode support.<!--e.g. an official request for adding superscript retroflex letters to Unicode 14--> In addition, it is common to see ''ad hoc'' typewriter substitutions, generally capital letters, for when IPA support is not available, e.g. A for {{angbr IPA|ɑ}}, B for {{angbr IPA|β}} or {{angbr IPA|ɓ}}, D for {{angbr IPA|ð}}, {{angbr IPA|ɗ&thinsp;}} or {{angbr IPA|ɖ&thinsp;}}, E for {{angbr IPA|ɛ}}, F or P for {{angbr IPA|ɸ}}, G {{angbr IPA|ɣ}}, I {{angbr IPA|ɪ}}, L {{angbr IPA|ɬ}}, N {{angbr IPA|ŋ}}, O {{angbr IPA|ɔ}}, S {{angbr IPA|&thinsp;ʃ&thinsp;}}, T {{angbr IPA|θ}} or {{angbr IPA|ʈ&thinsp;}}, U {{angbr IPA|ʊ}}, V {{angbr IPA|ʋ}}, X {{angbr IPA|χ}}, Z {{angbr IPA|ʒ}}, as well as @ for {{angbr IPA|ə}} and 7 or ? for {{angbr IPA|ʔ}}. (See also [[SAMPA]] and [[X-SAMPA]] substitute notation.) ==Extensions== [[File:ExtIPA chart (2015).pdf|thumb|Chart of the Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet (extIPA), as of 2015]]{{Main|Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet}} The [[Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for Disordered Speech]], commonly abbreviated "extIPA" and sometimes called "Extended IPA", are symbols whose original purpose was to accurately transcribe [[Speech disorder|disordered speech]]. At the [[Kiel Convention]] in 1989, a group of linguists drew up the initial extensions,<ref>"At the 1989 Kiel Convention of the IPA, a sub-group was established to draw up recommendations for the transcription of disordered speech." ("Extensions to the IPA: An ExtIPA Chart" ''in'' International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;186.)</ref> which were based on the previous work of the PRDS (Phonetic Representation of Disordered Speech) Group in the early 1980s.<ref>{{cite book|last=PRDS Group|title=The Phonetic Representation of Disordered Speech|year=1983|publisher=London: The King's Fund}}</ref> The extensions were first published in 1990, then modified, and published again in 1994 in the ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'', when they were officially adopted by the [[International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association|ICPLA]].<ref>"Extensions to the IPA: An ExtIPA Chart" ''in'' International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp.&nbsp;186–187.</ref> While the original purpose was to transcribe disordered speech, linguists have used the extensions to designate a number of sounds within standard communication, such as hushing, gnashing teeth, and smacking lips,<ref name="world" /> as well as regular lexical sounds such as [[lateral fricative]]s that do not have standard IPA symbols. In addition to the Extensions to the IPA for disordered speech, there are the conventions of the [[Voice Quality Symbols]], which include a number of symbols for additional airstream mechanisms and secondary articulations in what they call "voice quality". ==Associated notation== Capital letters and various characters on the number row of the keyboard are commonly used to extend the alphabet in various ways. ===Associated symbols=== There are various punctuation-like conventions for linguistic transcription that are commonly used together with IPA. Some of the more common are: ;{{angbr|*}} :(a) A [[Comparative linguistics|reconstructed form]]. :(b) An [[Grammaticality|ungrammatical form]] (including an unphonemic form). ;{{angbr|**}} :(a) A reconstructed form, deeper (more ancient) than a single {{angbr|*}}, used when reconstructing even further back from already-starred forms. :(b) An ungrammatical form. A less common convention than {{angbr|*}} (b), this is sometimes used when reconstructed and ungrammatical forms occur in the same text.<ref>e.g. Alan Kaye (2007) ''Morphologies of Asia and Africa''. Eisenbrauns.</ref> ;{{angbr|×}}: An ungrammatical form. A less common convention than {{angbr|*}} (b), this is sometimes used when reconstructed and ungrammatical forms occur in the same text.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Lyle |title=Historical linguistics: an introduction |date=2013 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |location=Edinburgh |isbn=9780262518499 |pages=xix |edition=3.}}</ref> ;{{angbr|?}}: A doubtfully grammatical form. ;{{angbr|%}}: A generalized form, such as a typical shape of a [[wanderwort]] that has not actually been reconstructed.<ref>Haynie, Bowern, Epps, Hill & McConvell (2014) Wanderwörter in languages of the Americas and Australia. ''Ampersand'' 1:1–18.</ref> ;{{angbr|#}}: A word boundary &ndash; e.g. {{angbr|#V}} for a word-initial vowel. ;{{angbr|$}}: A [[phonological word]] boundary; e.g. {{angbr|H$}} for a high tone that occurs in such a position. ;{{angbr|_}}: The location of a segment &ndash; e.g. {{angbr|V_V}} for an intervocalic position === Capital letters === Full capital letters are not used as IPA symbols, except as typewriter substitutes (e.g. N for {{angbr IPA|ŋ}}, S for {{angbr IPA|&thinsp;ʃ&thinsp;}}, O for {{angbr IPA|ɔ}} &ndash; see [[SAMPA chart for English|SAMPA]]). They are, however, often used in conjunction with the IPA in two cases: # for [[archiphoneme|(archi)phonemes]] and for [[natural class]]es of sounds (that is, as wildcards). The [[extIPA]] chart, for example, uses capital letters as wildcards in its illustrations. # as carrying letters for the [[Voice Quality Symbols]]. Wildcards are commonly used in phonology to summarize syllable or word shapes, or to show the evolution of classes of sounds. For example, the possible syllable shapes of Mandarin can be abstracted as ranging from {{IPA|/V/}} (an atonic vowel) to {{IPA|/CGVNᵀ/}} (a consonant-glide-vowel-nasal syllable with tone), and [[word-final devoicing]] may be schematized as {{IPA|C}} → {{IPA|C̥}}/_#. In speech pathology, capital letters represent indeterminate sounds, and may be superscripted to indicate they are weakly articulated: e.g. {{IPA|[ᴰ]}} is a weak indeterminate alveolar, {{IPA|[ᴷ]}} a weak indeterminate velar.<ref>Perry (2000) ''Phonological/phonetic assessment of an English-speaking adult with [[dysarthria]]''</ref> There is a degree of variation between authors as to the capital letters used, but {{angbr IPA|C}} for {consonant}, {{angbr IPA|V}} for {vowel} and {{angbr IPA|N}} for {nasal} are ubiquitous in English-language material. Other common conventions are {{angbr IPA|T}} for {tone/accent} (tonicity)<!--e.g. Nathan White, 'Word in Hmong', in Phonological Word and Grammatical Word-->, {{angbr IPA|P}} for {plosive}<!--e.g. Karlsson & Sullivan (2005) /sP/ consonant clusters in Swedish, Vanderweide (2005) The acquisition of manner in pre-vocalic sequences, also Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics (HCHIEL)-->, {{angbr IPA|F}} for {fricative}<!--e.g. 2015 extIPA chart, or Pellegrino et al. "2010, a speech oddity: Phonetic transcription of reversed speech", Vanderweide (2005), also HCHIEL -->, {{angbr IPA|S}} for {sibilant}<!--e.g. Waterson (1987) Prosodic Phonology; Dolgopolsky, Indo-European Dict Nostratic Etymologies, also HCHIEL-->,<ref group=note>As in [[Afrasianist phonetic notation]]. {{angbr IPA|S}} is particularly ambiguous. It has been used for 'stop', 'fricative', 'sibilant', 'sonorant' and 'semivowel'. On the other hand, plosive/stop is frequently abbreviated {{angbr IPA|P}}, {{angbr IPA|T}} or {{angbr IPA|S}}. The illustrations given here use, as much as possible, letters that are capital versions of members of the sets they stand for: IPA {{IPA|[n]}} is a nasal and {{angbr IPA|N}} is any nasal; {{IPA|[p]}} is a plosive, {{IPA|[f]}} a fricative, {{IPA|[s]}} a sibilant, {{IPA|[l]}} both a lateral and a liquid, {{IPA|[r]}} both a rhotic and a resonant, and [ʞ] a click. {{angbr IPA|¢}} is an obstruent in Americanist notation, where it stands for {{IPA|[ts]}}. An alternative wildcard for 'glide', {{angbr IPA|J}}<!--e.g. International Journal of Slavic Linguistics and Poetics XXIII-->, fits this pattern, but is much less common than {{angbr IPA|G}} in English-language sources.</ref> {{angbr IPA|G}} for {glide/semivowel}<!--e.g. Vanderweide (2005), HCHIEL-->, {{angbr IPA|L}} for {lateral}<!--e.g. Smith 2000 Dependency Theory Meets OT, or in Australian languages that have a large set of laterals--> or {liquid}<!--e.g. Walker 1984 Pronunciation of Canadian French, or Pellegrino et al., or Vanderweide (2005), HCHIEL-->, {{angbr IPA|R}} for {rhotic}<!--e.g. Smith 2000 Dependency Theory Meets OT, or Pellegrino et al.--> or {resonant/sonorant<!--e.g. "R" for "sonorant" in Larry Hyman 'Coda constraints on tone', also HCHIEL-->},<ref group=note>At least in the notation of {{angbr|CRV-}} syllables, the {{angbr|R}} is understood to include liquids and glides but to exclude nasals, as in Bennett (2020: 115) 'Click Phonology', in Sands (ed.), ''Click Consonants'', Brill</ref><!--do a GBooks search for 'CLV' or 'CRV' + 'liquid'/'resonant' + 'phonology' for instances of L and R--> {{angbr IPA|₵}} for {obstruent},<!--e.g. International Journal of Slavic Linguistics and Poetics XXIII--> {{angbr IPA|Ʞ}} for {click}<!--see Bonny Sands 2020 'Introduction', ''Click Consonants'', Brill-->, {{angbr IPA|A<!--e.g. Dolgopolsky-->, E<!--e.g. Dolgopolsky-->, O, Ɨ, U<!--e.g. Dolgopolsky-->}} for {open, front, back, close, rounded vowel}<ref group=note>{Close vowel} may instead be {{angbr IPA|U}}, and {{angbr IPA|O}} may stand for {obstruent}.</ref> and {{angbr IPA|B, D, Ɉ, K, Q, Φ, H}} for {labial<!--HCHIEL-->, alveolar<!--Perry (2000)-->, post-alveolar/palatal, velar<!--HCHIEL, Perry (2000), or more generically as 'dorsal' in van de Vijver, Höhle & Ott, On the distribution of dorsals in complex and simple onsets in child German, Dutch and English-->, uvular, pharyngeal, glottal<ref group=note>Or glottal~pharyngeal {{angbr IPA|H}}, as in Afrasianist phonetic notation</ref> consonant}, respectively, and {{angbr IPA|X}} for {any sound}<!--e.g. Walker 1984 Pronunciation of Canadian French-->. The letters can be modified with IPA diacritics, for example {{angbr IPA|Cʼ}} for {ejective}, {{angbr IPA|Ƈ&thinsp;}} for {implosive}, {{angbr IPA|N͡C}} or {{angbr IPA|ᴺC}} for {prenasalized consonant}, {{angbr IPA|Ṽ}} for {[[nasal vowel]]}<!--e.g. Pellegrino et al.-->, {{angbr IPA|CʰV́}} for {aspirated CV syllable with high tone}, {{angbr IPA|S̬}} for {voiced sibilant}, {{angbr IPA|N̥}} for {voiceless nasal}<!--e.g. Huffman & Hinnebusch, 'The phonetic nature of "voiceless" nasals in Pokomo'-->, {{angbr IPA|P͡F}} or {{angbr IPA|Pꟳ}} for {affricate}, {{angbr IPA|Cʲ}} for {palatalized consonant}<!--e.g. Alexei Kochetov, Phonetic variation and gestural specification: Production of Russian consonants--> and {{angbr IPA|D̪}} for {dental consonant}. {{angbr IPA|H}}, {{angbr IPA|M}}, {{angbr IPA|L}} are also commonly used for high, mid and low tone, with {{angbr IPA|LH}} for rising tone and {{angbr IPA|HL}} for falling tone, rather than transcribing them overly precisely with IPA tone letters or with ambiguous digits.<ref group=note>Somewhat more precisely, {{angbr IPA|LM}} and {{angbr IPA|MH}} are sometimes used for low and high rising tones, and {{angbr IPA|HM}}, {{angbr IPA|ML}} for high and low falling tones; occasionally {{angbr IPA|R}} for 'rising' or {{angbr IPA|F}} for 'falling' is also seen.</ref> Typical examples of archiphonemic use of capital letters are {{angbr IPA|I}} for the Turkish harmonic vowel set {{IPA|{i y ɯ u}}};<ref group=note>For other Turkic languages, {{angbr IPA|I}} may be restricted to {{IPA|{ɯ i}}} (that is, to ''ı i''), {{angbr IPA|U}} to ''u ü'', {{angbr IPA|A}} to ''a e/ä'', etc.</ref> {{angbr IPA|D}} for the conflated flapped middle consonant of American English ''writer'' and ''rider''; {{angbr IPA|N}} for the [[homorganic]] syllable-coda nasal of languages such as Spanish and Japanese (essentially equivalent to the wild-card usage of the letter); and {{angbr IPA|R}} in cases where a phonemic trill {{IPA|/r/}} and flap {{IPA|/ɾ/}} are indeterminate, as in Spanish ''enrejar'' {{IPA|/eNreˈxaR/}} (the ''n'' is homorganic and the first ''r'' is a trill but the second is variable).<ref>[[Antonio Quilis]] (1997) ''Principios de fonología y fonética españolas'', p. 65.</ref> Similar usage is found for ''phonemic'' analysis, where a language does not distinguish sounds that have separate letters in the IPA. For instance, Castillian Spanish has been analyzed as having phonemes {{IPA|/Θ/}} and {{IPA|/S/}}, which surface as {{IPA|[θ]}} and {{IPA|[s]}} in voiceless environments and as {{IPA|[ð]}} and {{IPA|[z]}} in voiced environments (e.g. ''hazte'' {{IPA|/ˈaΘte/}}, → {{IPA|[ˈaθte]}}, vs ''hazme'' {{IPA|/ˈaΘme/}}, → {{IPA|[ˈaðme]}}; or ''las manos'' {{IPA|/laS ˈmanoS/}}, → {{IPA|[lazˈmanos]}}).<ref>Xavier Frías Conde (2001) ''Introducción a la fonología y fonética del español'', p. 11&ndash;12. Ianua. Revista Philologica Romanica.</ref> {{angbr IPA|V}}, {{angbr IPA|F}} and {{angbr IPA|C}} have completely different meanings as [[Voice Quality Symbols]], where they stand for "voice" (generally meaning [[secondary articulation]], as in {{angbr IPA|Ṽ}} "nasal voice", not phonetic voicing), "falsetto" and "creak". They may also take diacritics that indicate what kind of voice quality an utterance has, and may be used to extract a suprasegmental feature that occurs on all susceptible segments in a stretch of IPA. For instance, the transcription of [[Scottish Gaelic]] {{IPA|[kʷʰuˣʷt̪ʷs̟ʷ]}} 'cat' and {{IPA|[kʷʰʉˣʷt͜ʃʷ]}} 'cats' ([[Islay]] dialect) can be made more economical by extracting the suprasegmental labialization of the words: {{IPA|Vʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]}} and {{IPA|Vʷ[kʰʉˣt͜ʃ]}}.<ref>Laver (1994) ''Principles of Phonetics'', p. 374.</ref> The usual wildcard X or C might be used instead of V so that the reader does not misinterpret {{angbr IPA|Vʷ}} as meaning that only vowels are labialized (i.e. {{IPA|Xʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]}} for all segments labialized, {{IPA|Cʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]}} for all consonants labialized), or the carrier letter may be omitted altogether (e.g. {{IPA|ʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]}}, {{IPA|[ʷkʰuˣt̪s̟]}} or {{IPA|[kʰuˣt̪s̟]ʷ}}). (See {{section link|#Suprasegmentals}} for other transcription conventions.) ==Segments without letters== The blank cells on the IPA chart can be filled without much difficulty if the need arises. The expected retroflex letter forms have appeared in the literature for the [[retroflex implosive]] {{angbr IPA|ᶑ&thinsp;}}, the [[retroflex lateral flap]] {{angbr IPA|𝼈&thinsp;}} and the [[retroflex click]]s {{angbr IPA|𝼊&thinsp;}}; the first is mentioned in the IPA ''Handbook'' and the IPA requested Unicode support for superscript variants of all three. The missing voiceless lateral fricatives are provided for by the [[extIPA]]. The epiglottal trill is arguably covered by the generally trilled epiglottal "fricatives" {{angbr IPA|ʜ ʢ}}. Labiodental plosives {{angbr IPA|ȹ ȸ}} appear in some old Bantuist texts. ''Ad hoc'' near-close central vowels {{angbr IPA|ᵻ ᵿ}} are used in some descriptions of English. Diacritics can duplicate some of these; {{angbr IPA|p̪ b̪}} are now universal for labiodental plosives, {{angbr IPA|ɪ̈ ʊ̈}} are common for the central vowels and {{angbr IPA|ɭ̆&thinsp;}} is occasionally seen for the lateral flap. Diacritics are able to fill in most of the remainder of the charts.<ref>"Diacritics may also be employed to create symbols for phonemes, thus reducing the need to create new letter shapes." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p.&nbsp;27)</ref> If a sound cannot be transcribed, an asterisk {{angbr|*}} may be used, either as a letter or as a diacritic (as in {{angbr|k*}} sometimes seen for the [[Korean phonology|Korean]] "fortis" velar). ===Consonants=== Representations of consonant sounds outside of the core set are created by adding diacritics to letters with similar sound values. The Spanish bilabial and dental approximants are commonly written as lowered fricatives, {{IPA|[β̞]}} and {{IPA|[ð̞]}} respectively.<ref group=note>Dedicated letters have been proposed, such as rotated <span style="{{mirrorH}}"><span style="{{mirrorV}}">{{angbr IPA|β}}</span></span> and <span style="{{mirrorH}}"><span style="{{mirrorV}}">{{angbr IPA|ð}}</span></span>, reversed <span style="{{mirrorH}}">{{angbr IPA|β}}</span> and <span style="{{mirrorH}}">{{angbr IPA|ð}}</span>, or small-capital {{angbr IPA|{{sm|б}}}} and {{angbr IPA|ᴆ}}. Ball, Rahilly & Lowry (2017) ''Phonetics for speech pathology'', 3rd edition, Equinox, Sheffield.</ref> Similarly, voiced lateral fricatives would be written as raised lateral approximants, {{IPA|[ɭ˔ ʎ̝ ʟ̝]}}; extIPA provides {{angbr IPA|𝼅}} for the first of these. A few languages such as [[Banda languages|Banda]] have a bilabial flap as the preferred allophone of what is elsewhere a labiodental flap. It has been suggested that this be written with the labiodental flap letter and the advanced diacritic, {{IPA|[ⱱ̟]}}.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Olson | first1 = Kenneth S. | last2 = Hajek | first2 = John | year = 1999 | title = The phonetic status of the labial flap | journal = Journal of the International Phonetic Association | volume = 29 | issue = 2| pages = 101–114 | doi = 10.1017/s0025100300006484 | s2cid = 14438770 }}</ref> Similarly, a labiodental trill would be written {{IPA|[ʙ̪]}} (bilabial trill and the dental sign), and labiodental stops {{IPA|[p̪ b̪]}} rather than with the ''ad hoc'' letters sometimes found in the literature. Other taps can be written as extra-short plosives or laterals, e.g. {{IPA|[&thinsp;ɟ̆ ɢ̆ ʟ̆]}}, though in some cases the diacritic would need to be written below the letter. A [[retroflex trill]] can be written as a retracted {{IPA|[r̠]}}, just as non-subapical retroflex fricatives sometimes are. The remaining consonants &ndash; the uvular laterals ({{IPA|[ʟ̠]}} ''etc.'') and the palatal trill &ndash; while not strictly impossible, are very difficult to pronounce and are unlikely to occur even as allophones in the world's languages. ===Vowels=== The vowels are similarly manageable by using diacritics for raising, lowering, fronting, backing, centering, and mid-centering.<ref>"The diacritics...can be used to modify the lip or tongue position implied by a vowel symbol." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p.&nbsp;16)</ref> For example, the unrounded equivalent of {{IPA|[ʊ]}} can be transcribed as mid-centered {{IPA|[ɯ̽]}}, and the rounded equivalent of {{IPA|[æ]}} as raised {{IPA|[ɶ̝]}} or lowered {{IPA|[œ̞]}} (though for those who conceive of vowel space as a triangle, simple {{IPA|[ɶ]}} already is the rounded equivalent of {{IPA|[æ]}}). True mid vowels are lowered {{IPA|[e̞ ø̞ ɘ̞ ɵ̞ ɤ̞ o̞]}} or raised {{IPA|[ɛ̝ œ̝ ɜ̝ ɞ̝ ʌ̝ ɔ̝]}}, while centered {{IPA|[ɪ̈ ʊ̈]}} and {{IPA|[ä]}} (or, less commonly, {{IPA|[ɑ̈]}}) are near-close and open central vowels, respectively. The only known vowels that cannot be represented in this scheme are vowels with unexpected [[roundedness]], which would require a dedicated diacritic, such as protruded {{angbr IPA|ʏʷ}} and compressed {{angbr IPA|uᵝ}} (or protruded {{angbr IPA|ɪʷ}} and compressed {{angbr IPA|ɯᶹ}}). ==Symbol names== {{Main|Naming conventions of the International Phonetic Alphabet}} An IPA symbol is often distinguished from the sound it is intended to represent, since there is not necessarily a one-to-one correspondence between letter and sound in broad transcription, making articulatory descriptions such as "mid front rounded vowel" or "voiced velar stop" unreliable. While the ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association'' states that no official names exist for its symbols, it admits the presence of one or two common names for each.<ref>"...the International Phonetic Association has never officially approved a set of names..." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;31)</ref> The symbols also have [[Nonce word|nonce names]] in the [[Unicode]] standard. In many cases, the names in Unicode and the IPA ''Handbook'' differ. For example, the ''Handbook'' calls {{angbr IPA|ɛ}} "epsilon", while Unicode calls it "small letter open e". The traditional names of the Latin and Greek letters are usually used for unmodified letters.<ref group=note> For example, the IPA ''Handbook'' lists {{angbr IPA|p}} as "lower-case P" and {{angbr IPA|χ}} as "chi." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;171) </ref> Letters which are not directly derived from these alphabets, such as {{angbr IPA|ʕ}}, may have a variety of names, sometimes based on the appearance of the symbol or on the sound that it represents. In Unicode, some of the letters of Greek origin have Latin forms for use in IPA; the others use the characters from the Greek block. For diacritics, there are two methods of naming. For traditional diacritics, the IPA notes the name in a well known language; for example, {{angbr IPA|é}} is "e-[[Acute accent|acute]]", based on the name of the diacritic in English and French. Non-traditional diacritics are often named after objects they resemble, so {{angbr IPA|d̪}} is called "d-bridge". [[Geoffrey Pullum]] and [[William Ladusaw]] list a variety of names in use for IPA symbols, both current and retired, in their ''[[Phonetic Symbol Guide]]''; many of these found their way into Unicode.<ref name=Pullum/> ==Computer support== ===Unicode=== {{main|Phonetic symbols in Unicode#IPA}} [[Unicode]] supports nearly all of the IPA alphabet. Apart from basic Latin and Greek and general punctuation, the primary blocks are [[IPA Extensions]], [[Spacing Modifier Letters]] and [[Combining Diacritical Marks]], with lesser support from [[Phonetic Extensions]], [[Phonetic Extensions Supplement]], [[Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement]], and scattered characters elsewhere. The [[extended IPA]] is supported primarily by those blocks and [[Latin Extended-G]]. === IPA numbers === {{main|IPA number}} After the [[Kiel Convention]] in 1989, most IPA symbols were assigned an identifying number to prevent confusion between similar characters during the printing of manuscripts. The codes were never much used and have been superseded by Unicode.<ref>A chart of the numbers for the most common IPA symbols can be found on the IPA website.[https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/sites/default/files/IPA_Number_chart_(C)2005.pdf IPA number chart]</ref> ===Typefaces=== [[File:IPA font sample (SIL, Brill, Noto, Calibri).png|thumb|The sequence {{IPA|⟨˨˦˧꜒꜔꜓k͜𝼄a͎̽᷅ꟸ⟩}} in the fonts Gentium Book Plus, Andika, Brill, Noto Serif and Calibri. All of these fonts align diacritics well. Asterisks are characters not supported by that font. In Noto, the red tone letters do not link properly. This is a test sequence: Noto and Calibri support most IPA adequately.]] Many typefaces have support for IPA characters, but good diacritic rendering remains rare.<ref name="Es gilt das gesprochene Wort: Schriftarten für IPA-Transkriptionen">{{cite web |title=Es gilt das gesprochene Wort: Schriftarten für IPA-Transkriptionen |date=16 March 2014 |url=https://www.isoglosse.de/2014/03/schriftarten-ipa-transkriptionen/ | access-date=2022-08-18 |language=de}}</ref> [[Web browser]]s generally do not need any configuration to display IPA characters, provided that a typeface capable of doing so is available to the operating system. ====System fonts==== The ubiquitous [[Arial]] and [[Times New Roman]] fonts include IPA characters, but they are neither complete (especially Arial) nor render diacritics properly. The basic Latin [[Noto fonts]] are better, only failing with the more obscure characters. The proprietary [[Calibri]] font,<!--good diacritic placement of Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement, but incomplete tone support--> which is the default font of [[Microsoft Office]], has nearly complete IPA support with good diacritic rendering. {| class=wikitable !Font !!Sample !!Comments |- |[[Times New Roman]] || <span style="font-family:Times New Roman;">⟨˨˦˧꜒꜔꜓k͜𝼄a͎̽᷅ꟸ⟩</span> || The tone letters join properly, but the tie-bar and diacritics are displaced, and the diacritics overstrike each other rather than stacking |} ====Other commercial fonts==== [[Brill Publishers#Brill Typeface|Brill]]<!--comparable support to Calibri--> has good IPA support. It is a commercial font but freely available for non-commercial use.<ref name="Brill Typeface">{{cite web |title=Brill Typeface |url=https://brill.com/page/1228?language=en%20Brill%20Typeface |access-date=2022-08-18 |language=en |archive-date=18 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818094822/https://brill.com/page/1228?language=en%20Brill%20Typeface |url-status=dead }}</ref> ====Free fonts==== Typefaces that provide nearly full IPA support<!--e.g. Modifier Tone Letters such as tone-sandhi U+A712--> and properly render diacritics<!--e.g. Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement characters such as U+1DC5--> include [[Gentium|Gentium Plus]], [[Charis SIL]], [[Doulos SIL]], and [[Andika (font)|Andika]]. <!--SIL fonts seem to be the only ones with complete IPA support. --> In addition to the support found in other fonts, these fonts support the full range of old-style (pre-Kiel) staveless tone letters, which do not have dedicated Unicode support, through an option to suppress the stave of the Chao tone letters. ===ASCII and keyboard transliterations=== {{further|Comparison of ASCII encodings of the International Phonetic Alphabet}} Several systems have been developed that map the IPA symbols to [[ASCII]] characters. Notable systems include [[SAMPA]] and [[X-SAMPA]]. The usage of mapping systems in on-line text has to some extent been adopted in the context input methods, allowing convenient keying of IPA characters that would be otherwise unavailable on standard keyboard layouts. ===IETF language tags=== [[IETF language tag]]s have registered {{mono|fonipa}} as a variant subtag identifying text as written in IPA.<ref name="IANA">{{cite web |title=Language Subtag Registry |url=https://www.iana.org/assignments/language-subtag-registry/language-subtag-registry |publisher=IANA |access-date=30 April 2021 |language=en |date=2021-03-05}}</ref> Thus, an IPA transcription of English could be tagged as {{mono|en-fonipa}}. For the use of IPA without attribution to a concrete language, {{mono|und-fonipa}} is available. ===Computer input using on-screen keyboard=== Online IPA keyboard utilities are available, though none<!--before claiming something provides full support, verify that it supports the tone diacritics that do not appear on the IPA chart--> of them cover the complete range of IPA symbols and diacritics.<ref group=note>Online IPA keyboard utilities include the [https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/IPAcharts/inter_chart_2018/IPA_2018.html IPA 2018 i-charts] hosted by the IPA, [https://r12a.github.io/pickers/ipa/ IPA character picker 27] at GitHub, [http://ipa.typeit.org/full/ Type IPA phonetic symbols] at TypeIt.org, and an [https://westonruter.github.io/ipa-chart/keyboard/ IPA Chart keyboard] at GitHub.</ref> In April 2019, Google's [[Gboard]] for [[Android (operating system)|Android]] added an IPA keyboard to its platform.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/04/18/gboard-updated-with-63-new-languages-including-ipa-not-the-beer/|title=Gboard updated with 63 new languages, including IPA (not the beer)|date=18 April 2019|website=Android Police|language=en-US|access-date=28 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://support.google.com/gboard/answer/6380730?co=GENIE.Platform=Android|title=Set up Gboard – Android – Gboard Help|website=support.google.com|access-date=28 April 2019}}</ref> For iOS there are multiple free keyboard layouts available, e.g. "IPA Phonetic Keyboard".<ref>{{Cite web|title=IPA Phonetic Keyboard|url=https://apps.apple.com/lu/app/ipa-phonetic-keyboard/id1440241497|access-date=8 December 2020|website=App Store|language=en-gb}}</ref> ==See also== {{Div col}} * {{annotated link|Afroasiatic phonetic notation}} * {{annotated link|Americanist phonetic notation}} * {{annotated link|Arabic International Phonetic Alphabet}} * {{annotated link|Articulatory phonetics}} * {{annotated link|Case variants of IPA letters}} * {{annotated link|Cursive forms of the International Phonetic Alphabet}} * {{annotated link|Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet}} * [[Index of phonetics articles]] * {{annotated link|International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration}} * {{annotated link|International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects}} * [[List of international common standards]] * {{annotated link|Luciano Canepari}} * {{annotated link|Phonetic symbols in Unicode}} * {{annotated link|RFE Phonetic Alphabet}} * {{annotated link|SAMPA}} * {{annotated link|Semyon Novgorodov}} – inventor of IPA-based [[Yakut scripts]] * {{annotated link|TIPA (software)|TIPA}} provides IPA support for [[LaTeX]] * {{annotated link|UAI phonetic alphabet}} * {{annotated link|Uralic Phonetic Alphabet}} * {{annotated link|Voice Quality Symbols}} * {{annotated link|X-SAMPA}} {{Div col end}} ==Notes== {{Reflist|group=note|30em}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Further reading== {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{Cite journal|last=Ball|first=Martin J.|author2=John H. Esling|author3=B. Craig Dickson|year=1995|title=The VoQS system for the transcription of voice quality|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|volume=25|issue=2|pages=71–80|doi=10.1017/S0025100300005181|s2cid=145791575 }} * {{Cite journal|last=Duckworth|first=M.|author2=G. Allen|author3=M.J. Ball|date=December 1990|title=Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for the transcription of atypical speech|journal=Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics|volume=4|issue=4|pages=273–280|doi=10.3109/02699209008985489}} * {{Cite journal|last1=Hill|first1=Kenneth C.|date=March 1988|last2=Pullum|first2=Geoffrey K.|last3=Ladusaw|first3=William|title=Review of ''Phonetic Symbol Guide'' by G. K. Pullum & W. Ladusaw|journal=Language|volume=64|issue=1|pages=143–144|doi=10.2307/414792|jstor=414792}} * {{Cite journal|author=International Phonetic Association|year=1989|title=Report on the 1989 Kiel convention|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|volume=19|issue=2|pages=67–80|doi=10.1017/s0025100300003868|s2cid=249412330 }} * {{Cite book|author=International Phonetic Association|year=1999|title=Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet|location=Cambridge|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=0-521-65236-7}} (hb); {{ISBN|0-521-63751-1}} (pb). * {{Cite book|last=Jones|first=Daniel|author-link=Daniel Jones (phonetician)|title=English pronouncing dictionary|year=1988|edition=revised 14th|publisher=Dent|location=London|oclc=18415701|isbn=0-521-86230-2|url=https://archive.org/details/englishpronounci00dani}} * {{Cite journal|last=Ladefoged|first=Peter|author-link=Peter Ladefoged|date=September 1990|title=The revised International Phonetic Alphabet|journal=Language|volume=66|issue=3|pages=550–552|doi=10.2307/414611|jstor=414611}} * {{Cite journal|last=Ladefoged|first=Peter|author2=Morris Halle|date=September 1988|title=Some major features of the International Phonetic Alphabet|journal=Language|volume=64|issue=3|pages=577–582|doi=10.2307/414533|jstor=414533}} * {{Cite book|last=Laver|first=John|title=Principles of Phonetics|year=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|isbn=0-521-45031-4}} (hb); {{ISBN|0-521-45655-X}} (pb). * {{Cite book|last=Pullum|first=Geoffrey K.|author-link=Geoffrey Pullum|author2=William A. Ladusaw|title=Phonetic Symbol Guide|year=1986|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|location=Chicago|isbn=0-226-68532-2|title-link=Phonetic Symbol Guide}} * {{Cite book|last=Skinner|first=Edith|author2=Timothy Monich|author3=Lilene Mansell|title=Speak with Distinction|location=New York|publisher=Applause Theatre Book Publishers|year=1990|isbn=1-55783-047-9|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/speakwithdistinc0000skin}} * {{cite book|last1=Fromkin|first1=Victoria|last2=Rodman|first2=Robert|last3=Hyams|first3=Nina|title=An Introduction to Language|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00from_616|url-access=limited|date=2011|publisher=Wadsworth, Cengage Learning|location=Boston|pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00from_616/page/n252 233]–234|edition=9th|isbn=978-1-4282-6392-5}} {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Commons category|International Phonetic Alphabet}} * {{Official website|http://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org}} * [https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/IPAcharts/inter_chart_2018/IPA_2018.html Interactive IPA chart] <!-- Do not add links to unofficial pages per [[WP:LINKFARM]] - some might belong to [[Help:IPA]] --> {{IPA navigation}} {{Language phonologies}} {{List of writing systems}} {{Latin script}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:International Phonetic Alphabet| ]] [[Category:Phonetic guides]] [[Category:Unicode]] 76xv8lh75h2f5k3ee7nqrehn9szawuz 323750 323749 2025-06-17T20:32:15Z Kwamikagami 3479 /* {{anchor|chart}}Modifying the IPA chart */ 323750 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|System of phonetic notation}} {{For|the international (civil) aviation organization (ICAO) spelling alphabet|NATO phonetic alphabet}} {{Self reference|For an introductory guide on IPA symbols with audio, see [[:Help:IPA]]. For the usage of the IPA on Wikipedia, see [[:Help:IPA/Introduction]] and [[:Help:IPA/English]].}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}} {{Infobox writing system |name = International Phonetic Alphabet |type = Alphabet |typedesc = – partially [[Featural alphabet|featural]] |languages = Used for [[Phonetics|phonetic]] and [[Phoneme|phonemic]] transcription of any language |time = 1888 to present |fam1 = [[Palaeotype alphabet]], [[English Phonotypic Alphabet]] |fam2 = [[Romic alphabet]] |sample = IPA in IPA.svg |imagesize = 200px |note = none |unicode = |iso15924 = |caption = "IPA" in IPA ({{IPA|[aɪ pʰiː eɪ]}}) }} {{SpecialChars | special = [[phonetics|phonetic]] [[symbol]]s | fix = Help:Special characters | characters = phonetic symbols }} [[File:IPA chart 2020.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|The official chart of the IPA, revised in 2020]] The '''International Phonetic Alphabet''' ('''IPA''') is an [[alphabet]]ic system of [[phonetic transcription|phonetic notation]] based primarily on the [[Latin script]]. It was devised by the [[International Phonetic Association]] in the late 19th century as a standardized representation of [[speech sound]]s in written form.<ref name="IPA 1999">International Phonetic Association (IPA), ''Handbook''.</ref> The IPA is used by [[lexicography|lexicographers]], [[foreign language]] students and teachers, [[linguistics|linguists]], [[speech–language pathology|speech–language pathologists]], singers, actors, [[constructed language]] creators, and translators.<ref name="world">{{Cite book|last=MacMahon|first=Michael K. C.|chapter=Phonetic Notation|editor=P. T. Daniels|editor2=W. Bright|title=The World's Writing Systems|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/821 821–846]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=1996|location=New York|isbn=0-19-507993-0|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/821}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|first=Joan |last=Wall |title=International Phonetic Alphabet for Singers: A Manual for English and Foreign Language Diction |publisher=Pst |year=1989 |isbn=1-877761-50-8 }}</ref> The IPA is designed to represent those qualities of speech that are part of [[wiktionary:lexical|lexical]] (and, to a limited extent, [[prosodic]]) sounds in [[oral language]]: [[phone (phonetics)|phones]], [[phoneme]]s, [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]], and the separation of [[word]]s and [[syllable]]s.<ref name="IPA 1999" /> To represent additional qualities of speech—such as tooth [[wiktionary:gnash|gnashing]], [[lisp]]ing, and sounds made with a [[cleft lip and cleft palate]]—an [[extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet|extended set of symbols]] may be used.<ref name="world" /> Segments are transcribed by one or more IPA symbols of two basic types: [[letter (alphabet)|letters]] and [[diacritic]]s. For example, the sound of the [[English language|English]] letter {{angbr|t}} may be transcribed in IPA with a single letter: {{IPA|[t]}}, or with a letter plus diacritics: {{IPA|[t̺ʰ]}}, depending on how precise one wishes to be. Slashes are used to signal [[phonemic transcription]]; therefore, {{IPA|/t/}} is more abstract than either {{IPA|[t̺ʰ]}} or {{IPA|[t]}} and might refer to either, depending on the context and language.<ref group=note>The inverted bridge under the {{angbr|t̺ʰ}} specifies it as [[apical consonant|apical]] (pronounced with the tip of the tongue), and the superscript ''h'' shows that it is [[aspirated consonant|aspirated]] (breathy). Both these qualities cause the English {{IPA|/t/}} to sound different from the French or Spanish {{IPA|/t/}}, which is a [[laminal consonant|laminal]] (pronounced with the blade of the tongue) and unaspirated {{IPA|[t̻]}}. {{IPA|[t̺ʰ]}} and {{IPA|[t̻]}} are thus two different, though similar, sounds.</ref> Occasionally, letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/ipachart.html |title=IPA: Alphabet |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010121927/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/ipachart.html |archive-date=10 October 2012 }}</ref> there are 107 segmental letters, an indefinitely large number of suprasegmental letters, 44 diacritics (not counting composites), and four extra-lexical [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosodic]] marks in the IPA. Most<!--the majority of tone letters are not shown; not all the components are even found in the IPA Handbook--> of these are shown in the current [[International Phonetic Alphabet chart|IPA chart]], posted below in this article and at the website of the IPA.<ref>{{cite web|title=Full IPA Chart|url=https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/full-ipa-chart|website=International Phonetic Association|access-date=24 April 2017}}</ref> ==History== {{Main|History of the International Phonetic Alphabet}} In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist [[Paul Passy]], formed what would be known from 1897 onwards as the [[International Phonetic Association]] (in French, {{lang|fr|l'Association phonétique internationale}}).<ref name="IPA194-196">International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp.&nbsp;194–196</ref> Their original alphabet was based on a [[spelling reform]] for English known as the [[Romic alphabet]], but to make it usable for other languages the values of the symbols were allowed to vary from language to language.<ref group=note>"Originally, the aim was to make available a set of phonetic symbols which would be given ''different'' articulatory values, if necessary, in different languages." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp.&nbsp;195–196)</ref> For example, the sound {{IPAblink|ʃ}} (the ''sh'' in ''shoe'') was originally represented with the letter {{angbr|c}} in English, but with the digraph {{angbr|{{lang|fr|ch}}}} in French.<ref name="IPA194-196"/> In 1888, the alphabet was revised to be uniform across languages, thus providing the base for all future revisions.<ref name="IPA194-196"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Passy |first=Paul |year=1888 |title=Our revised alphabet |journal=[[The Phonetic Teacher]] |pages=57–60}}</ref> The idea of making the IPA was first suggested by [[Otto Jespersen]] in a letter to Passy. It was developed by [[Alexander John Ellis]], [[Henry Sweet]], [[Daniel Jones (phonetician)|Daniel Jones]], and Passy.<ref>IPA in the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]</ref> Since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After revisions and expansions from the 1890s to the 1940s, the IPA remained primarily unchanged until the [[Kiel Convention]] in 1989. A minor revision took place in 1993 with the addition of four letters for [[mid central vowel]]s<ref name="world" /> and the removal of letters for [[implosive consonant#Voiceless implosives|voiceless implosives]].<ref name="Pullum">Pullum and Ladusaw, ''[[Phonetic Symbol Guide]]'', pp.&nbsp;152, 209</ref> The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a [[labiodental flap]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Nicolaidis |first=Katerina |title=Approval of New IPA Sound: The Labiodental Flap |url=http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/flap.htm |date=September 2005 |publisher=International Phonetic Association |access-date=17 September 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060902212308/http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/ipa/flap.htm |archive-date=2 September 2006}}</ref> Apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely of renaming symbols and categories and in modifying [[Typeface|typefaces]].<ref name="world" /> [[Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet]] for [[speech pathology]] (extIPA) were created in 1990 and were officially adopted by the [[International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association]] in 1994.<ref>International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;186</ref> ==Description== The general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound ([[segment (linguistics)|speech segment]]).<ref group=note>"From its earliest days [...] the International Phonetic Association has aimed to provide 'a separate sign for each distinctive sound; that is, for each sound which, being used instead of another, in the same language, can change the meaning of a word'." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;27)</ref> This means that: * It does not normally use [[multigraph (orthography)|combinations of letters]] to represent single sounds, the way English does with {{angbr|sh}}, {{angbr|th}} and {{angbr|ng}}, or single letters to represent multiple sounds, the way {{angbr|x}} represents {{IPA|/ks/}} or {{IPA|/ɡz/}} in English. * There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values, the way [[hard and soft C|{{angbr|c}}]] and [[hard and soft G|{{angbr|g}}]] in several European languages have a "hard" or "soft" pronunciation. * The IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, a property known as "selectiveness".<ref name="world"/><ref group=note> For instance, [[flap consonant|flaps and taps]] are two different kinds of [[Manner of articulation|articulation]], but since no language has (yet) been found to make a distinction between, say, an [[alveolar tap|alveolar flap]] and an alveolar tap, the IPA does not provide such sounds with dedicated letters. Instead, it provides a single letter (in this case,&nbsp;{{IPA|[ɾ]}}) for both. Strictly speaking, this makes the IPA a partially [[phonemic|phon''em''ic]] alphabet, not a purely [[phonetic|phon''et''ic]] one.</ref> However, if a large number of phonemically distinct letters can be derived with a diacritic, that may be used instead.<ref group=note>This exception to the rules was made primarily to explain why the IPA does not make a dental–alveolar distinction, despite one being phonemic in hundreds of languages, including most of the continent of Australia. [[Americanist Phonetic Notation]] makes (or at least made) a distinction between apical {{angbr|t d s z n l}} and laminal {{angbr|τ δ ς ζ ν λ}}, which is easily applicable to alveolar vs dental (when a language distinguishes apical alveolar from laminal dental, as in Australia), but despite several proposals to the Council, the IPA never voted to accept such a distinction.</ref> The alphabet is designed for transcribing sounds (phones), not [[phoneme]]s, though it is used for phonemic transcription as well. A few letters that did not indicate specific sounds have been retired ({{angbr IPA|ˇ}}, once used for the "compound" tone of Swedish and Norwegian, and {{angbr IPA|ƞ}}, once used for the [[moraic]] nasal of Japanese), though one remains: {{angbr IPA|ɧ}}, used for the [[sj-sound]] of Swedish. When the IPA is used for phonemic transcription, the letter–sound correspondence can be rather loose. For example, {{angbr IPA|c}} and {{angbr IPA|ɟ}} are used in the IPA ''Handbook'' for {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} and {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}}. Among the symbols of the IPA, 107 letters represent [[consonant]]s and [[vowel]]s, 31 [[diacritic]]s are used to modify these, and 17 additional signs indicate [[Segment (linguistics)|suprasegmental]] qualities such as [[length (phonetics)|length]], [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]], [[Stress (linguistics)|stress]], and [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]].<ref group=note> There are three<!--dbl acute and grave are compounds--> basic tone diacritics and five basic tone letters, both sets of which may be compounded. </ref> These are organized into a chart; the chart displayed here is the official chart as posted at the website of the IPA. ===Letter forms=== [[File:LowercaseG.svg|right|thumb|Loop-tail {{angbr IPA|g}} and open-tail {{angbr IPA|ɡ}} are graphic variants. Open-tail {{angbr IPA|ɡ}} was the original IPA symbol, but both are now considered correct. See [[history of the IPA]] for details.]] The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the [[Latin alphabet]].<ref group=note> "The non-roman letters of the International Phonetic Alphabet have been designed as far as possible to harmonize well with the roman letters. The Association does not recognize makeshift letters; It recognizes only letters which have been carefully cut so as to be in harmony with the other letters." (IPA 1949) </ref> For this reason, most letters are either [[Latin script|Latin]] or [[Greek alphabet|Greek]], or modifications thereof. Some letters are neither: for example, the letter denoting the [[glottal stop]], {{angbr IPA|ʔ}}, originally had the form of a dotless [[question mark]], and derives from an [[apostrophe]]. A few letters, such as that of the voiced [[pharyngeal consonant|pharyngeal fricative]], {{angbr IPA|ʕ}}, were inspired by other writing systems (in this case, the [[Arabic script|Arabic]] letter ⟨{{lang|ar|[[Ayin|ﻉ]]}}⟩, ''{{transliteration|ar|ʿayn}}'', via the reversed apostrophe).<ref name=Pullum/> <!--clearly, ʔ and ʕ are not of independent origin and reflect the transliteration of alif vs. ayin in Semitic philology. Source needed--> Some letter forms derive from existing letters: * The right-swinging tail, as in {{angbr IPA|ʈ ɖ ɳ ɽ ʂ ʐ ɻ ɭ&thinsp;}}, indicates [[retroflex consonant|retroflex]] articulation. It originates from the hook of an ''r''. * The top hook, as in {{angbr IPA|ɠ ɗ ɓ}}, indicates [[glottalic ingressive|implosion]]. * Several [[Nasal consonant|nasal consonants]] are based on the form {{angbr IPA|n}}: {{angbr IPA|n ɲ ɳ ŋ}}. {{angbr IPA|ɲ}} and {{angbr IPA|ŋ}} derive from [[Typographic ligature|ligatures]] of ''gn'' and ''ng,'' and {{angbr IPA|ɱ}} is an ''ad hoc'' imitation of {{angbr IPA|ŋ}}. * Letters turned 180 degrees for suggestive shapes, such as {{angbr IPA|ɐ ɔ ə ɟ ɓ ɥ ɾ ɯ ɹ ʇ ʊ ʌ ʍ ʎ}} from {{angbr IPA|a c e f ɡ h ᴊ<!--per Ellis, Pullum, etc.--> m r t <small>Ω</small> v w y}}.<ref group=note>Originally, {{IPA|[ʊ]}} was written as a small capital U. However, this was not easy to read, and so it was replaced with a turned small capital omega. In modern typefaces, it often has its own design, called a 'horseshoe'.</ref> Either the original letter may be reminiscent of the target sound (e.g., {{angbr IPA|ɐ ə ɹ ʇ ʍ}}) or the turned one (e.g., {{angbr IPA|ɔ ɟ ɓ ɥ ɾ ɯ ʌ ʎ<!--like both y and lambda-->}}). Rotation was popular in the era of [[Hot metal typesetting|mechanical typesetting]], as it had the advantage of not requiring the casting of special type for IPA symbols, much as the sorts had traditionally often pulled double duty for {{angbr|b}} and {{angbr|q}}, {{angbr|d}} and {{angbr|p}}, {{angbr|n}} and {{angbr|u}}, {{angbr|6}} and {{angbr|9}} to reduce cost. *:[[File:Turned small cap omega as a vowel.svg|thumb|An example of a font that uses turned small-capital omega, {{angbr|ꭥ}}, for the vowel {{angbr|ʊ}}. The symbol had originally been a small-capital {{angbr|ᴜ}}.]] * Among consonant letters, the [[Small caps|small capital]] letters {{angbr IPA|ɢ ʜ ʟ ɴ ʀ ʁ}}, and also {{angbr IPA|ꞯ}} in [[extIPA]], indicate more [[guttural]] sounds than their base letters. ({{angbr IPA|ʙ}}<!--for the bilabial trill--> is a late exception.) Among vowel letters, small capitals indicate [[lax vowel|"lax"]] vowels. Most of the original small-cap vowel letters have been modified into more distinctive shapes (e.g. {{angbr IPA|ʊ ɤ ɛ ʌ}} from {{sc|U Ɐ E A}}), with only {{angbr IPA|ɪ ʏ}} remaining as small capitals. ===Typography and iconicity=== The International Phonetic Alphabet is based on the [[Latin script]], and uses as few non-Latin letters as possible.<ref name = IPA194-196 /> The Association created the IPA so that the sound values of most letters would correspond to "international usage" (approximately [[Classical Latin]]).<ref name=IPA194-196/> Hence, the consonant letters {{angbr IPA|b}}, {{angbr IPA|d}}, {{angbr IPA|f}}, ([[hard G|hard]]) {{angbr IPA|ɡ}}, (non-silent) {{angbr IPA|h}}, (unaspirated) {{angbr IPA|k}}, {{angbr IPA|l}}, {{angbr IPA|m}}, {{angbr IPA|n}}, (unaspirated) {{angbr IPA|p}}, (voiceless) {{angbr IPA|s}}, (unaspirated) {{angbr IPA|t}}, {{angbr IPA|v}}, {{angbr IPA|w}}, and {{angbr IPA|z}} have more or less the values found in English; and the vowel letters {{angbr IPA|a}}, {{angbr IPA|e}}, {{angbr IPA|i}}, {{angbr IPA|o}}, {{angbr IPA|u}} correspond to the (long) sound values of Latin: {{IPA|[i]}} is like the vowel in ''mach{{strong|i}}ne'', {{IPA|[u]}} is as in ''r{{strong|u}}le'', etc. Other Latin letters, particularly {{angbr IPA|j}}, {{angbr IPA|r}} and {{angbr IPA|y}}, differ from English, but have their IPA values in Latin or other European languages. This basic Latin inventory was extended by adding small-capital and cursive forms, diacritics and rotation. The sound values of these letters are related to those of the original letters, and their derivation may be iconic.<ref>{{Citation | quote = The new letters should be suggestive of the sounds they represent, by their resemblance to the old ones. | publisher = International Phonetic Association | title = Handbook | page = 196}}.</ref> For example, letters with a rightward-facing hook at the bottom represent [[retroflex consonant|retroflex]] equivalents of the source letters, and small capital letters usually represent [[uvular consonant|uvular]] equivalents of their source letters. There are also several letters from the Greek alphabet, though their sound values may differ from Greek. The most extreme difference is {{angbr IPA|ʋ}}, which is a vowel in Greek but a consonant in the IPA. For most Greek letters, subtly different [[glyph]] shapes have been devised for the IPA, specifically {{angbr IPA|ɑ}}, {{angbr IPA|ꞵ}}, {{angbr IPA|ɣ}}, {{angbr IPA|ɛ}}, {{angbr IPA|ɸ}}, {{angbr IPA|ꭓ}} and {{angbr IPA|ʋ}}, which are encoded in [[Unicode]] separately from their parent Greek letters. One, however – {{angbr IPA|θ}} – has only its Greek form, while for {{angbr IPA|ꞵ ~ β}} and {{angbr IPA|ꭓ ~ χ}}, both Greek and Latin forms are in common use.<ref>Cf. the notes at the [[Unicode]] [http://unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0250.pdf#3 IPA EXTENSIONS code chart] as well as blogs by [http://evertype.com/blog/blog/category/unicode/ Michael Everson] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010200655/http://evertype.com/blog/blog/category/unicode/|date=10 October 2017}} and John Wells [http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2010/07/disunification-1.html here] and [http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2010/07/disunification-2.html here].</ref> The [[tone letter#IPA|tone letters]] are not derived from an alphabet, but from a [[pitch trace]] on a [[Scale (music)|musical scale]]. Beyond the letters themselves, there are a variety of secondary symbols which aid in transcription. [[Diacritic]] marks can be combined with IPA letters to add phonetic detail such as tone and [[secondary articulation]]s. There are also special symbols for prosodic features such as stress and intonation. ===Brackets and transcription delimiters=== There are two principal types of [[bracket]]s used to set off (delimit) IPA transcriptions: {| class="wikitable" ! | Symbol !! Use |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|[&nbsp;...&nbsp;]}} || [[Square brackets]] are used with [[phonetic]] notation, whether broad or narrow<ref name=IPA175>IPA ''Handbook'' p. 175</ref> – that is, for actual pronunciation, possibly including details of the pronunciation that may not be used for distinguishing words in the language being transcribed, which the author nonetheless wishes to document. Such phonetic notation is the primary function of the IPA. |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|/&nbsp;...&nbsp;/}} || [[Slash (punctuation)|Slashes]]<ref group="note">[[Merriam-Webster]] dictionaries use [[backslash]]es {{IPA|\&nbsp;...&nbsp;\}} to demarcate their in-house transcription system. This distinguishes their IPA-influenced system<!--the IPA influence is rather minimal, limited to the IPA stress marks and schwa, but the pronunciation data collected for MW's Third New International was in IPA and the IPA was seriously considered for its published transcription system.--> from true IPA, which is used between forward slashes in the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''.</ref> are used for abstract [[phonemic]] notation,<ref name=IPA175/> which note only features that are distinctive in the language, without any extraneous detail. For example, while the 'p' sounds of English ''pin'' and ''spin'' are pronounced differently (and this difference would be meaningful in some languages), the difference is not meaningful in English. Thus, ''phonemically'' the words are usually<!--could also be analyzed /pin/ and /sbin/--> analyzed as {{IPA|/ˈpɪn/}} and {{IPA|/ˈspɪn/}}, with the same phoneme {{IPA|/p/}}. To capture the difference between them (the [[allophone]]s of {{IPA|/p/}}), they can be transcribed phonetically as {{IPA|[pʰɪn]}} and {{IPA|[spɪn]}}. Phonemic notation commonly uses IPA symbols that are rather close to the default pronunciation of a phoneme, but for legibility or other reasons can use symbols that diverge from their designated values, such as {{IPA|/c, ɟ/}} for affricates typically pronounced {{IPA|[t͜ʃ, d͜ʒ]}}, as found in the ''Handbook'', or {{IPA|/r/}}, which in phonetic notation is a trill, for English ''r'' even when pronounced {{IPA|[ɹʷ]}}. |} Other conventions are less commonly seen: {| class="wikitable" ! | Symbol !! Use |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|&#x007B;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&#x007D;}} || [[Bracket#Curly brackets|Braces]] ("curly brackets") are used for [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosodic]] notation.<ref name=IPA176>IPA ''Handbook'' p. 176</ref> See [[Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet]] for examples in this system. |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|(&nbsp;...&nbsp;)}} || [[Parentheses]] are used for indistinguishable<ref name=IPA175/> or unidentified utterances. They are also seen for silent articulation (mouthing),<ref name=IPA191>IPA ''Handbook'' p. 191</ref> where the expected phonetic transcription is derived from lip-reading, and with periods to indicate silent pauses, for example {{IPA|(…)}} or {{IPA|(2 sec)}}. The latter usage is made official in the [[extIPA]], with unidentified segments circled.<ref>IPA (1999) ''Handbook'', p 188, 192</ref> |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|⸨&nbsp;...&nbsp;⸩}} || [[Parenthesis|Double parentheses]] indicate either a transcription of obscured speech or a description of the obscuring noise. The IPA specifies that they mark the obscured sound,<ref name=IPA176/> as in {{IPA|⸨2σ⸩}}, two audible syllables obscured by another sound. The current extIPA specifications prescribe double parentheses for the extraneous noise, such as ⸨cough⸩ or ⸨knock⸩ for a knock on a door, but the IPA ''Handbook'' identifies IPA and extIPA usage as equivalent.<ref>IPA (1999) ''Handbook'', p 176, 192</ref> Early publications of the extIPA explain double parentheses as marking "uncertainty because of noise which obscures the recording," and that within them "may be indicated as much detail as the transcriber can detect."<ref>Duckworth et al. (1990) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232077905_Extensions_to_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet_for_the_transcription_of_atypical_speech Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for the transcription of atypical speech.] ''[[Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics]]'' 4: 4: 278.</ref> |} All three of the above are provided by the IPA ''Handbook''. The following are not, but may be seen in IPA transcription or in associated material (especially angle brackets): {| class="wikitable" ! | Symbol !! Use |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|⟦&nbsp;...&nbsp;⟧}} || [[Square bracket|Double square brackets]] are used for extra-precise (especially narrow) transcription. This is consistent with the IPA convention of doubling a symbol to indicate greater degree. Double brackets may indicate that a letter has its cardinal IPA value. For example, {{IPA|⟦a⟧}} is an open front vowel, rather than the perhaps slightly different value (such as open central) that "{{IPA|[a]}}" may be used to transcribe in a particular language. Thus, two vowels transcribed for easy legibility as {{angbr IPA|[e]}} and {{angbr IPA|[ɛ]}} may be clarified as actually being {{IPA|⟦e̝⟧}} and {{IPA|⟦e⟧}}; {{angbr IPA|[ð]}} may be more precisely {{IPA|⟦ð̠̞ˠ⟧}}.<ref>Basbøll (2005) ''The Phonology of Danish'' pp. 45, 59</ref> Double brackets may also be used for a specific token or speaker; for example, the pronunciation of a child as opposed to the adult phonetic pronunciation that is their target.<ref>Karlsson & Sullivan (2005) ''/sP/ consonant clusters in Swedish: Acoustic measurements of phonological development''</ref> |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|⫽&nbsp;...&nbsp;⫽<br>&#x007C;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&#x007C;<br>‖&nbsp;...&nbsp;‖<br>&#x007B;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&#x007D;}} || [[Slash (punctuation)|Double slashes]] are used for [[morphophonemic]] transcription. This is also consistent with the IPA convention of doubling a symbol to indicate greater degree (in this case, more abstract than phonemic transcription). Other symbols sometimes seen for morphophonemic transcription are [[vertical bar|pipes]] and double pipes, from [[Americanist phonetic notation]]; and ''braces'' from [[set theory]], especially when enclosing the set of phonemes that constitute the morphophoneme, e.g. {{IPA|&#x007B;t d&#x007D;}} or {{IPA|&#x007B;t&#x007C;d&#x007D;}} or {{IPA|&#x007B;/t/, /d/&#x007D;}}. Only double slashes are unambiguous: both pipes and braces conflict with IPA prosodic transcription.<ref group=note>For example, the single and double pipe symbols are used for minor and major prosodic breaks. Although the ''Handbook'' specifies the prosodic symbols as "thick" vertical lines, which would be distinct from simple ASCII pipes (and similar to [[Dania transcription|Dania]] transcription), this is optional and was intended to keep them distinct from the pipes used as [[click letter]]s (''JIPA'' 19.2, p. 75). The ''Handbook'' (p. 174) assigns them the Unicode encodings U+007C, which is the simple ASCII pipe symbol, and U+2016.</ref> See [[morphophonology]] for examples. |- | style="text-align: center; | {{angbr IPA|&nbsp;...&nbsp;}}<br>{{IPA|⟪&nbsp;...&nbsp;⟫}} || [[Angle bracket]]s<ref group="note">The proper angle brackets in Unicode are the mathematical symbols (U+27E8 and U+27E9). Chevrons ‹...› (U+2039, U+203A) are sometimes substituted, as in Americanist phonetic notation, as are the less-than and greater-than signs <...> (U+003C, U+003E) found on ASCII keyboards.</ref> are used to mark both original Latin orthography and [[transliteration]] from another script<!--including e.g. Arabic and Chinese characters used to transcribe Latin script-->; they are also used to identify individual [[grapheme]]s of any script.<ref>Richard Sproat (2000) ''A Computational Theory of Writing Systems''. Cambridge University Press. Page 26.</ref><ref>Barry Heselwood (2013) ''Phonetic Transcription in Theory and Practice''. Edinburgh University Press. Page 8 ff, 29 ff.</ref> Within the IPA, they are used to indicate the IPA letters themselves rather than the sound values that they carry. Double angle brackets may occasionally be useful to distinguish original orthography from transliteration, or the idiosyncratic spelling of a manuscript from the normalized orthography of the language. For example, {{angbr IPA|cot}} would be used for the orthography of the English word ''cot'', as opposed to its pronunciation {{IPA|/ˈkɒt/}}. Italics are usual when words are written as themselves (as with ''cot'' in the previous sentence) rather than to specifically note their orthography. However, italic markup is not evident to sight-impaired readers who rely on [[screen reader]] technology. |} Some examples of contrasting brackets in the literature: {{block quote|In some English accents, the phoneme {{IPA|/l/}}, which is usually spelled as {{angbr|l}} or {{angbr|ll}}, is articulated as two distinct allophones: the clear {{IPA|[l]}} occurs before vowels and the consonant {{IPA|/j/}}, whereas the dark {{IPA|[ɫ]}}/{{IPA|[lˠ]}} occurs before consonants, except {{IPA|/j/}}, and at the end of words.<ref>Paul Tench (2011) ''Transcribing the Sound of English''. Cambridge University Press. Page 61.</ref>}} {{block quote|the alternations {{IPA|/f/}} &ndash; {{IPA|/v/}} in plural formation in one class of nouns, as in ''knife'' {{IPA|/naɪf/}} &ndash; ''knives'' {{IPA|/naɪvz/}}, which can be represented morphophonemically as {{IPA|{naɪV}}} &ndash; {{IPA|{naɪV+z}}}. The morphophoneme {{IPA|{V}}} stands for the phoneme set {{IPA|{/f/, /v/}}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Gibbon |first1= Dafydd |last2= Moore |first2= Roger |last3= Winski |first3= Richard |title= Handbook of Standards and Resources for Spoken Language Systems: Spoken language characterisation |date= 1998 |publisher= Walter de Gruyter |location= Berlin; New York |isbn= 9783110157345 |pages=61 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=8cxtWcsAk5MC&pg=PA61 |language= en}}</ref>}} {{block quote|{{IPA|[ˈf\faɪnəlz ˈhɛld ɪn (.) ⸨knock on door⸩ bɑɹsə{_𝑝ˈloʊnə and ˈmədɹɪd_𝑝}]}} &mdash; ''f-finals held in Barcelona and Madrid.''<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ball |first1=Martin J. |last2=Lowry |first2=Orla M. |author1-link=Martin J. Ball |title=Methods in Clinical Phonetics |date=2001 |publisher=Whurr |location=London |isbn=9781861561848 |pages=80 |chapter=Transcribing Disordered Speech |doi=10.1002/9780470777879.ch3|s2cid=58518097 }}</ref>}} ===Other representations=== {{main|Cursive forms of the International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA Braille}} IPA letters have [[cursive]] forms designed for use in manuscripts and when taking field notes, but the 1999 ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association'' recommended against their use, as cursive IPA is "harder for most people to decipher."{{sfn|International Phonetic Association|1999|p=31}} A [[braille]] representation of the IPA for blind or visually impaired professionals and students has also been developed.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Englebretson |first=Robert |date=2009 |title=An overview of IPA Braille: an updated tactile representation of the International Phonetic Alphabet |url=http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~reng/englebretson2009.pdf |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=39 |issue=1 |page=67 |access-date=5 April 2014 |doi=10.1017/s0025100308003691|citeseerx=10.1.1.501.366 |s2cid=36426880 }}</ref> =={{anchor|chart}}Modifying the IPA chart== [[File:Extended IPA chart 2005.png|thumb|upright=1.25|The authors of textbooks or similar publications often create revised versions of the IPA chart to express their own preferences or needs. The image displays one such version. All pulmonic consonants are moved to the consonant chart. Only the black symbols are on the official IPA chart; additional symbols are in grey. The grey fricatives are part of the [[extIPA]], and the grey retroflex letters are mentioned or implicit<!--'implicit' is the description used in the Unicode request for support for the missing retroflex letters--> in the ''Handbook''. The grey click is a retired IPA letter that is still in use.]] The International Phonetic Alphabet is occasionally modified by the Association. After each modification, the Association provides an updated simplified presentation of the alphabet in the form of a chart. (See [[History of the International Phonetic Alphabet|History of the IPA]].) Not all aspects of the alphabet can be accommodated in a chart of the size published by the IPA. The [[alveolo-palatal consonant|alveolo-palatal]] and [[epiglottal consonant|epiglottal]] consonants, for example, are not included in the consonant chart for reasons of space rather than of theory (two additional columns would be required, one between the retroflex and palatal columns and the other between the pharyngeal and glottal columns), and the [[lateral flap]] would require an additional row for that single consonant, so they are listed instead under the catchall block of "other symbols".<ref>{{cite book|last=Esling|first=John H.|author-link=John Esling|year=2010|chapter=Phonetic Notation|editor1-last=Hardcastle|editor1-first=William J.|editor2-last=Laver|editor2-first=John|editor3-last=Gibbon|editor3-first=Fiona E.|title=The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences|edition=2nd|pages=678–702|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|doi=10.1002/9781444317251.ch18|isbn=978-1-4051-4590-9}} pp.&nbsp;688, 693.</ref> The indefinitely large number of [[Chao tone letter|tone letters]] would make a full accounting impractical even on a larger page, and only a few examples are shown, and even the tone diacritics are not complete; the reversed tone letters are not illustrated at all. The procedure for modifying the alphabet or the chart is to propose the change in the ''[[Journal of the International Phonetic Association|Journal of the IPA]].'' (See, for example, August 2008 on an [[open central unrounded vowel]] and August 2011 on central approximants.)<ref name="cambridge1">{{cite journal|author1=Martin J. Ball |author2=Joan Rahilly |title=The symbolization of central approximants in the IPA |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=231–237 |publisher=Cambridge Journals Online |date=August 2011 |doi=10.1017/s0025100311000107|s2cid=144408497 }}<!-- Author, title, pages are unknown because the url is simply a link to the issue TOC. The same inadequate citation applies to the next reference. --></ref> Reactions to the proposal may be published in the same or subsequent issues of the Journal (as in August 2009 on the open central vowel).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayIssue?decade=2000&jid=IPA&volumeId=39&issueId=02&iid=5907924 |title=Cambridge Journals Online – Journal of the International Phonetic Association Vol. 39 Iss. 02 |publisher=Journals.cambridge.org |date=23 October 2012 |access-date=20 November 2012}}</ref> A formal proposal is then put to the Council of the IPA<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/about.html |title=IPA: About us |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010121905/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/about.html |archive-date=10 October 2012}}</ref> – which is elected by the membership<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/statutes.html |title=IPA: Statutes |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010121941/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/statutes.html |archive-date=10 October 2012}}</ref> – for further discussion and a formal vote.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/news/news200509.html |title=IPA: News |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111181340/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/news/news200509.html |archive-date=11 November 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/news/news201112.html |title=IPA: News |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111181349/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/news/news201112.html |archive-date=11 November 2012}}</ref> Nonetheless, many users of the alphabet, including the leadership of the Association itself, deviate from this norm.<ref group=note>See "Illustrations of the IPA" in the ''IPA Handbook'' (1999) for individual languages which for example may use {{angbr|/c/}} as a phonemic symbol for what is phonetically realized as {{IPA|[tʃ]}}, or superscript variants of IPA letters that are not officially defined.</ref> The ''Journal of the IPA'' finds it acceptable to mix IPA and [[extIPA]] symbols in consonant charts in their articles. (For instance, including the extIPA letter [[voiceless palatal lateral fricative|{{angbr IPA|𝼆}}]], rather than {{angbr IPA|ʎ̝̊}}, in an illustration of the IPA.)<ref name=pulmonic/> ==Usage== {{further|Phonetic transcription}} Of more than 160 IPA symbols, relatively few will be used to transcribe speech in any one language, with various levels of precision. A precise phonetic transcription, in which sounds are specified in detail, is known as a ''narrow transcription''. A coarser transcription with less detail is called a ''broad transcription.'' Both are relative terms, and both are generally enclosed in square brackets.<ref name="IPA 1999"/> Broad phonetic transcriptions may restrict themselves to easily heard details, or only to details that are relevant to the discussion at hand, and may differ little if at all from phonemic transcriptions, but they make no theoretical claim that all the distinctions transcribed are necessarily meaningful in the language. [[File:RPGA international.svg|200px|thumb|Phonetic transcriptions of the word ''international'' in two English dialects]] For example, the English word ''little'' may be transcribed broadly as {{IPA|[ˈlɪtəl]}}, approximately describing many pronunciations. A narrower transcription may focus on individual or dialectical details: {{IPA|[ˈɫɪɾɫ]}} in [[General American]], {{IPA|[ˈlɪʔo]}} in [[Cockney]], or {{IPA|[ˈɫɪːɫ]}} in [[Southern American English|Southern US English]]. Phonemic transcriptions, which express the conceptual counterparts of spoken sounds, are usually enclosed in slashes (/ /) and tend to use simpler letters with few diacritics. The choice of IPA letters may reflect theoretical claims of how speakers conceptualize sounds as phonemes or they may be merely a convenience for typesetting. Phonemic approximations between slashes do not have absolute sound values. For instance, in English, either the vowel of ''pick'' or the vowel of ''peak'' may be transcribed as {{IPA|/i/}}, so that ''pick'', ''peak'' would be transcribed as {{IPA|/ˈpik, ˈpiːk/}} or as {{IPA|/ˈpɪk, ˈpik/}}; and neither is identical to the vowel of the French ''{{lang|fr|pique}}'' which would also be transcribed {{IPA|/pik/}}. By contrast, a narrow phonetic transcription of ''pick'', ''peak'', ''pique'' could be: {{IPA|[pʰɪk]}}, {{IPA|[pʰiːk]}}, {{IPA|[pikʲ]}}. ===Linguists=== IPA is popular for transcription by linguists. Some American linguists, however, use a mix of IPA with [[Americanist phonetic notation]] or use some [[Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet|nonstandard symbols]] for various reasons.<ref name="thomason">{{cite web|url=http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/005287.html |title=Why I Don't Love the International Phonetic Alphabet |author=Sally Thomason |date=2 January 2008 |work=Language Log }}</ref> Authors who employ such nonstandard use are encouraged to include a chart or other explanation of their choices, which is good practice in general, as linguists differ in their understanding of the exact meaning of IPA symbols and common conventions change over time. ===Dictionaries=== ====English==== Many British dictionaries, including the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] and some [[Monolingual learner's dictionary|learner's dictionaries]] such as the ''[[Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary]]'' and the ''[[Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary]]'', now use [[Pronunciation respelling for English#International Phonetic Alphabet|the International Phonetic Alphabet]] to represent the pronunciation of words.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dictionary.cambridge.org/help/phonetics.htm |title=Phonetics |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge Dictionaries Online |access-date=11 March 2007 |archive-date=17 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110817233308/http://dictionary.cambridge.org/help/phonetics.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, most American (and some British) volumes use one of a variety of [[Pronunciation respelling for English|pronunciation respelling]] systems, intended to be more comfortable for readers of English and to be more acceptable across dialects, without the implication of a preferred pronunciation that the IPA might convey. For example, the respelling systems in many American dictionaries (such as ''[[Merriam-Webster Dictionary|Merriam-Webster]]'') use {{angbr|y}} for IPA {{IPA|[&thinsp;j]}} and {{angbr|sh}} for IPA {{IPA|[&thinsp;ʃ&thinsp;]}}, reflecting the usual spelling of those sounds in English.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/help/pronunciation-key |title=Merriam-Webster Online Pronunciation Symbols |access-date=4 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070601152219/http://mw1.merriam-webster.com/pronsymbols.html |archive-date=1 June 2007 |url-status=dead}}<br />{{Cite book|first=Michael|last=Agnes|title=Webster's New World College Dictionary|year=1999|publisher=Macmillan|location=New York|isbn=0-02-863119-6|page=xxiii|no-pp=true|url=https://archive.org/details/webstersnewworld00agne_0|url-access=registration}}<br />''[[Pronunciation respelling for English]]'' has detailed comparisons.</ref> (In IPA, {{IPA|[y]}} represents the sound of the French {{angbr|u}}, as in ''{{lang|fr|tu}}'', and {{IPA|[sh]}} represents the sequence of consonants in ''gra{{strong|ssh}}opper''.) ====Other languages==== The IPA is also not universal among dictionaries in languages other than English. Monolingual dictionaries of languages with [[phonemic orthography|phonemic orthographies]] generally do not bother with indicating the pronunciation of most words, and tend to use respelling systems for words with unexpected pronunciations. Dictionaries produced in Israel use the IPA rarely and sometimes use the [[Hebrew alphabet]] for transcription of foreign words.<ref group=note>Monolingual Hebrew dictionaries use pronunciation respelling for words with unusual spelling; for example, the ''[[Even-Shoshan Dictionary]]'' respells {{Script/Hebrew|תָּכְנִית}} as {{angbr|{{Script/Hebrew|תּוֹכְנִית}}}} because the word uses the ''[[kamatz]] katan''.</ref> Bilingual dictionaries that translate from foreign languages into Russian usually employ the IPA, but monolingual Russian dictionaries occasionally use pronunciation respelling for foreign words.<ref group=note>For example, [[Sergey Ozhegov]]'s dictionary adds [нэ́] in brackets to the French loan-word ''пенсне'' (''{{lang|fr|[[pince-nez]]}}'') to indicate that the final {{angbr|[[е]]}} does not [[Iotation|iotate]] the preceding {{angbr|[[н]]}}. </ref> The IPA is more common in bilingual dictionaries, but there are exceptions here too. Mass-market bilingual Czech dictionaries, for instance, tend to use the IPA only for sounds not found in [[Czech language|Czech]].<ref>{{in lang|cs}} {{Cite book|last=Fronek|first=J.|title=Velký anglicko-český slovník|year=2006|publisher=Leda|location=Praha|language=cs|isbn=80-7335-022-X|quote=In accordance with long-established Czech lexicographical tradition, a modified version of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is adopted in which letters of the Czech alphabet are employed.}}</ref> ===Standard orthographies and case variants=== {{main|Case variants of IPA letters}} IPA letters have been incorporated into the alphabets of various languages, notably via the [[Africa Alphabet]] in many sub-Saharan languages such as [[Hausa language|Hausa]], [[Fula language|Fula]], [[Akan language|Akan]], [[Gbe languages]], [[Manding languages]], [[Lingala language|Lingala]], etc. Capital case variants have been created for use in these languages. For example, [[Kabiyé language|Kabiyè]] of northern [[Togo]] has [[African D|Ɖ ɖ]], [[Eng (letter)|Ŋ ŋ]], [[Latin gamma|Ɣ ɣ]], [[Open O|Ɔ ɔ]], [[Latin epsilon|Ɛ ɛ]], [[Ʋ|Ʋ ʋ]]. These, and others, are supported by [[Unicode]], but appear in Latin ranges other than the [[IPA Extensions (Unicode block)|IPA extensions]]. In the IPA itself, however, only lower-case letters are used. The 1949 edition of the IPA handbook indicated that an asterisk {{angbr|*}} might be prefixed to indicate that a word was a proper name,<ref>''Principles of the International Phonetic Association,'' 1949:17.</ref> but this convention was not included in the 1999 ''Handbook'', which notes the contrary use of the asterisk as a placeholder for a sound or feature that does not have a symbol. ===Classical singing=== The IPA has widespread use among classical singers during preparation as they are frequently required to sing in a variety of foreign languages. They are also taught by vocal coaches to perfect diction and improve tone quality and tuning.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Severens|first=Sara E.|year=2017|title=The Effects of the International Phonetic Alphabet in Singing|journal=Student Scholar Showcase|url=https://digitalshowcase.lynchburg.edu/studentshowcase/2017/presentations/53/|language=en}}</ref> Opera [[libretto]]s are authoritatively transcribed in IPA, such as [[Nico Castel]]'s volumes<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.castelopera.com/libretti.htm | title=Nico Castel's Complete Libretti Series | publisher=Castel Opera Arts | access-date=29 September 2008 | archive-date=24 July 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724211024/http://www.castelopera.com/libretti.htm | url-status=dead }}</ref> and Timothy Cheek's book ''Singing in Czech''.<ref>{{Cite book | url=http://scarecrowpress.com/Catalog/SingleBook.shtml?command=Search&db=%5EDB/CATALOG.db&eqSKUdata=0810840030 | last=Cheek | first=Timothy | title=Singing in Czech | year=2001 | page=392 | isbn=978-0-8108-4003-4 | publisher=The Scarecrow Press | access-date=25 January 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007052429/http://scarecrowpress.com/Catalog/SingleBook.shtml?command=Search&db=%5EDB%2FCATALOG.db&eqSKUdata=0810840030 | archive-date=7 October 2011 | url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007052429/http://scarecrowpress.com/Catalog/SingleBook.shtml?command=Search&db=%5EDB%2FCATALOG.db&eqSKUdata=0810840030 |date=7 October 2011 }}</ref> Opera singers' ability to read IPA was used by the site ''Visual Thesaurus'', which employed several opera singers "to make recordings for the 150,000 words and phrases in VT's lexical database&nbsp;... for their vocal stamina, attention to the details of enunciation, and most of all, knowledge of IPA".<ref>{{cite web| url=http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=155 | title=Operatic IPA and the Visual Thesaurus | last=Zimmer | first=Benjamin | author-link=Benjamin Zimmer | work=[[Language Log]] | publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania]] | access-date=29 September 2009 | date=14 May 2008}}</ref> ==Letters== {{See also|International Phonetic Alphabet chart}} The International Phonetic Association organizes the letters of the IPA into three categories: [[pulmonic sounds|pulmonic]] consonants, non-pulmonic consonants, and vowels.<ref>"Segments can usefully be divided into two major categories, consonants and vowels." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;3)</ref><ref>International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;6.</ref> Pulmonic consonant letters are arranged singly or in pairs of voiceless ([[tenuis consonant|tenuis]]) and voiced sounds, with these then grouped in columns from front (labial) sounds on the left to back (glottal) sounds on the right. In official publications by the IPA, two columns are omitted to save space, with the letters listed among 'other symbols' even though theoretically they belong in the main chart,<ref group=note>They were moved "for presentational convenience [...] because of [their] rarity and the small number of types of sounds which are found there." (IPA ''Handbook'', p 18)</ref> and with the remaining consonants arranged in rows from full closure (occlusives: stops and nasals), to brief closure (vibrants: trills and taps), to partial closure (fricatives) and minimal closure (approximants), again with a row left out to save space. In the table below, a slightly different arrangement is made: All pulmonic consonants are included in the pulmonic-consonant table, and the vibrants and laterals are separated out so that the rows reflect the common [[lenition]] pathway of ''stop → fricative → approximant,'' as well as the fact that several letters pull double duty as both fricative and approximant; [[affricate]]s may be created by joining stops and fricatives from adjacent cells. Shaded cells represent articulations that are judged to be impossible. Vowel letters are also grouped in pairs—of unrounded and rounded vowel sounds—with these pairs also arranged from front on the left to back on the right, and from maximal closure at top to minimal closure at bottom. No vowel letters are omitted from the chart, though in the past some of the mid central vowels were listed among the 'other symbols'. ===Consonants=== ====Pulmonic consonants==== {{see also|IPA pulmonic consonant chart with audio}} A [[Egressive|pulmonic]] consonant is a consonant made by obstructing the [[glottis]] (the space between the vocal cords) or [[Human mouth|oral cavity]] (the mouth) and either simultaneously or subsequently letting out air from the lungs. Pulmonic consonants make up the majority of consonants in the IPA, as well as in human language. All consonants in English fall into this category.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fromkin|first=Victoria|author-link=Victoria Fromkin|author2=Rodman, Robert|title=An Introduction to Language|orig-year=1974|year=1998|publisher=Harcourt Brace College Publishers|location=Fort Worth, TX|edition=6th|isbn=0-03-018682-X|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00from_1}}</ref> The pulmonic consonant table, which includes most consonants, is arranged in rows that designate [[manner of articulation]], meaning how the consonant is produced, and columns that designate [[place of articulation]], meaning where in the vocal tract the consonant is produced. The main chart includes only consonants with a single place of articulation. {{IPA pulmonic consonants|caption=|affricates=no|notes=no}} '''Notes''' * In rows where some letters appear in pairs (the ''[[obstruent]]s''), the letter to the right represents a [[voice (phonetics)|voiced consonant]] (except [[breathy voice|breathy-voiced]] {{IPA|[ɦ]}}).<ref>Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1996, ''Sounds of the World's Languages,'' §2.1.</ref> In the other rows (the ''[[sonorant]]s''), the single letter represents a voiced consonant. * While IPA provides a single letter for the coronal places of articulation (for all consonants but fricatives), these do not always have to be used exactly. When dealing with a particular language, the letters may be treated as specifically dental, alveolar, or post-alveolar, as appropriate for that language, without diacritics. * Shaded areas indicate articulations judged to be impossible. * The letters {{IPA|[β, ð, ʁ, ʕ, ʢ]}} are canonically voiced fricatives but may be used for approximants.<ref>"A symbol such as {{IPA|[β]}}, shown on the chart in the position for a voiced bilabial fricative, can also be used to represent a voiced bilabial approximant if needed." (''Handbook'', p.9)</ref> * In many languages, such as English, {{IPA|[h]}} and {{IPA|[ɦ]}} are not actually glottal, fricatives, or approximants. Rather, they are bare [[phonation]].<ref>Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1996, ''Sounds of the World's Languages,'' §9.3.</ref> * It is primarily the shape of the tongue rather than its position that distinguishes the fricatives {{IPA|[ʃ ʒ]}}, {{IPA|[ɕ ʑ]}}, and {{IPA|[ʂ ʐ]}}. * {{IPA|[ʜ, ʢ]}} are defined as epiglottal fricatives under the "Other symbols" section in the official IPA chart, but they may be treated as trills at the same place of articulation as {{IPA|[ħ, ʕ]}} because trilling of the [[aryepiglottic fold]]s typically co-occurs.{{sfnp|Esling|2010|pp=688–9}} * Some listed phones are not known to exist as [[phoneme]]s in any language. ====Non-pulmonic consonants==== Non-pulmonic consonants are sounds whose airflow is not dependent on the lungs. These include [[click consonant|clicks]] (found in the [[Khoisan languages]] and some neighboring [[Bantu languages]] of Africa), [[Implosive consonant|implosives]] (found in languages such as [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Hausa language|Hausa]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]] and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]), and [[ejective consonant|ejectives]] (found in many [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Amerindian]] and [[Languages of the Caucasus|Caucasian languages]]). {{IPA non-pulmonic consonants|caption=|nonipa=no|affricates=no|notes=no}} '''Notes''' * Clicks have traditionally been described as consisting of a forward place of articulation, commonly called the click 'type' or historically the 'influx', and a rear place of articulation, which when combined with the voicing, aspiration, nasalization, affrication, ejection, [[contour click|timing]] etc. of the click is commonly called the click 'accompaniment' or historically the 'efflux'. The IPA click letters indicate only the click type (forward articulation and release). Therefore, all clicks require two letters for proper notation: {{angbr IPA|k͡ǂ, ɡ͡ǂ, ŋ͡ǂ, q͡ǂ, ɢ͡ǂ, ɴ͡ǂ}} ''etc.'', or with the order reversed if both the forward and rear releases are audible. The letter for the rear articulation is frequently omitted, in which case a {{angbr IPA|k}} may usually be assumed. However, some researchers dispute the idea that clicks should be analyzed as doubly articulated, as the traditional transcription implies, and analyze the rear occlusion as solely a part of the airstream mechanism.<ref>Amanda L. Miller ''et al.'', [https://web.archive.org/web/20070609200226/http://ling.cornell.edu/plab/amanda/amiller_jipa.pdf "Differences in airstream and posterior place of articulation among Nǀuu lingual stops"]. Submitted to the ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association''. Retrieved 27 May 2007.</ref> In transcriptions of such approaches, the click letter represents both places of articulation, with the different letters representing the different click types, and diacritics are used for the elements of the accompaniment: {{angbr IPA|ǂ, ǂ̬, ǂ̃}} ''etc.'' * Letters for the [[voiceless]] implosives {{angbr IPA|ƥ, ƭ, ƈ, ƙ, ʠ}} are no longer supported by the IPA, though they remain in Unicode. Instead, the IPA typically uses the voiced equivalent with a voiceless diacritic: {{angbr IPA|ɓ̥, ʛ̥}}, ''etc.''. * The letter for the [[Voiced retroflex implosive|retroflex implosive]], <span title="U+1D91">{{angbr IPA|ᶑ }}</span>, is not "explicitly IPA approved" (''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;166), but has the expected form if such a symbol were to be approved. * The ejective diacritic is placed at the right-hand margin of the consonant, rather than immediately after the letter for the stop: {{angbr IPA|t͜ʃʼ}}, {{angbr IPA|kʷʼ}}. In imprecise transcription, it often stands in for a superscript glottal stop in [[Glottalic consonant|glottalized]] but pulmonic [[sonorant]]s, such as {{IPA|[mˀ]}}, {{IPA|[lˀ]}}, {{IPA|[wˀ]}}, {{IPA|[aˀ]}} (also transcribable as creaky {{IPA|[m̰]}}, {{IPA|[l̰]}}, {{IPA|[w̰]}}, {{IPA|[a̰]}}). ====Affricates==== [[Affricate consonant|Affricates]] and [[Doubly articulated consonant|co-articulated]] stops are represented by two letters joined by a tie bar, either above or below the letters with no difference in meaning.<ref group=note>It is traditional to place the tie bar above the letters. It may be placed below to avoid overlap with ascenders or diacritic marks, or simply because it is more legible that way, as in {{cite web|author=Niesler, Louw, & Roux | date = 2005| title=Phonetic analysis of Afrikaans, English, Xhosa and Zulu using South African speech databases|url= http://www.ajol.info/index.php/salas/article/viewFile/6562/13287|publisher=Ajol.info|access-date=20 November 2012}}</ref> Affricates are optionally represented by [[Typographic ligature|ligatures]] (e.g. {{angbr IPA|ʦ, ʣ, ʧ, ʤ, ʨ, ʥ, ꭧ, ꭦ&thinsp;}}), though this is no longer official IPA usage<ref name="IPA 1999"/> because a great number of ligatures would be required to represent all affricates this way. Alternatively, a superscript notation for a consonant release is sometimes used to transcribe affricates, for example {{angbr IPA|tˢ}} for {{IPA|[t͜s]}}, paralleling {{IPA|[kˣ]}} ~ {{IPA|[k͜x]}}. The letters for the palatal plosives {{angbr IPA|c}} and {{angbr IPA|ɟ}} are often used as a convenience for {{IPA|[t͜ʃ]}} and {{IPA|[d͜ʒ]}} or similar affricates, even in official IPA publications, so they must be interpreted with care. {{IPA affricates|caption=|notes=no}} ====Co-articulated consonants==== [[Co-articulated consonant]]s are sounds that involve two simultaneous [[Place of articulation|places of articulation]] (are pronounced using two parts of the [[vocal tract]]). In English, the {{IPA|[w]}} in "went" is a coarticulated consonant, being pronounced by rounding the lips and raising the back of the tongue. Similar sounds are {{IPA|[ʍ]}} and {{IPA|[ɥ]}}. In some languages, plosives can be double-articulated, for example in the name of [[Laurent Gbagbo]]. {{IPA co-articulated consonants|caption=|notes=no}} '''Notes''' * {{IPA|[ɧ]}}, the [[sj-sound|Swedish ''sj''-sound]], is described by the IPA as a "simultaneous {{IPA|[ʃ]}} and {{IPA|[x]}}", but it is unlikely such a simultaneous fricative actually exists in any language.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ladefoged |first=Peter |author2=Ian Maddieson |year=1996 |title=The sounds of the world's languages |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell|pages=329–330|isbn=0-631-19815-6|author2-link=Ian Maddieson }}</ref> * Multiple tie bars can be used: {{angbr IPA|a͡b͡c}} or {{angbr IPA|a͜b͜c}}. For instance, if a prenasalized stop is transcribed {{angbr IPA|m͡b}}, and a doubly articulated stop {{angbr IPA|ɡ͡b}}, then a prenasalized doubly articulated stop would be {{angbr IPA|ŋ͡m͡ɡ͡b}} * If a diacritic needs to be placed on or under a tie bar, the [[combining grapheme joiner]] (U+034F) needs to be used, as in {{IPA|[b͜͏̰də̀bdɷ̀]}} 'chewed' ([[Margi language|Margi]]). Font support is spotty, however. ===Vowels=== {{Main|Vowel}} {{see also|IPA vowel chart with audio}} [[File:Cardinal vowel tongue position-front.svg|thumb|200px|Tongue positions of [[Cardinal vowel|cardinal]] front vowels, with highest point indicated. The position of the highest point is used to determine vowel height and backness.]] [[File:Cardinal vowels-Jones x-ray.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Radiography|X-ray photos]] show the sounds {{IPA|[i, u, a, ɑ]}}.]] The IPA defines a vowel as a sound which occurs at a syllable center.<ref>International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;10.</ref> Below is a chart depicting the vowels of the IPA. The IPA maps the vowels according to the position of the tongue. {{IPA vowels|caption=|notes=no}} The vertical axis of the chart is mapped by [[vowel height]]. Vowels pronounced with the tongue lowered are at the bottom, and vowels pronounced with the tongue raised are at the top. For example, {{IPA|[ɑ]}} (the first vowel in ''father'') is at the bottom because the tongue is lowered in this position. {{IPA|[i]}} (the vowel in "meet") is at the top because the sound is said with the tongue raised to the roof of the mouth. In a similar fashion, the horizontal axis of the chart is determined by [[vowel backness]]. Vowels with the tongue moved towards the front of the mouth (such as {{IPA|[ɛ]}}, the vowel in "met") are to the left in the chart, while those in which it is moved to the back (such as {{IPA|[ʌ]}}, the vowel in "but") are placed to the right in the chart. In places where vowels are paired, the right represents a [[Roundedness|rounded vowel]] (in which the lips are rounded) while the left is its unrounded counterpart. ====Diphthongs==== [[Diphthong]]s are typically specified with a non-syllabic diacritic, as in {{angbr IPA|uɪ̯}} or {{angbr IPA|u̯ɪ}}, or with a superscript for the on- or off-glide, as in {{angbr IPA|uᶦ}} or {{angbr IPA|ᵘɪ}}. Sometimes a tie bar is used: {{angbr IPA|u͡ɪ}}, especially if it is difficult to tell if the diphthong is characterized by an on-glide, an off-glide or is variable. '''Notes''' * {{angbr IPA|a}} officially represents a front vowel, but there is little if any distinction between front and central open vowels (see {{section link|Vowel#Acoustics}}), and {{angbr IPA|a}} is frequently used for an open central vowel.<ref name="thomason" /> If disambiguation is required, the [[Retraction (phonetics)|retraction diacritic]] or the [[Relative articulation#Centralized vowels|centralized diacritic]] may be added to indicate an open central vowel, as in {{angbr IPA|a̠}} or {{angbr IPA|ä}}. ==Diacritics and prosodic notation {{anchor|Diacritics}}== [[Diacritic]]s are used for phonetic detail. They are added to IPA letters to indicate a modification or specification of that letter's normal pronunciation.<ref name=IPA15>International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp.&nbsp;14–15.</ref> By being made superscript, any IPA letter may function as a diacritic, conferring elements of its articulation to the base letter. Those superscript letters listed below are specifically provided for by the IPA ''Handbook''; other uses can be illustrated with {{angbr IPA|tˢ}} ({{IPA|[t]}} with fricative release), {{angbr IPA|ᵗs}} ({{IPA|[s]}} with affricate onset), {{angbr IPA|ⁿd}} (prenasalized {{IPA|[d]}}), {{angbr IPA|bʱ}} ({{IPA|[b]}} with breathy voice), {{angbr IPA|mˀ}} (glottalized {{IPA|[m]}}), {{angbr IPA|sᶴ}} ({{IPA|[s]}} with a flavor of {{IPA|[ʃ]}}, i.e. a [[voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant]]), {{angbr IPA|oᶷ}} ({{IPA|[o]}} with [[Vowel breaking|diphthongization]]), {{angbr IPA|ɯᵝ}} ([[compressed vowel|compressed]] {{IPA|[ɯ]}}). Superscript diacritics placed after a letter are ambiguous between simultaneous modification of the sound and phonetic detail at the end of the sound. For example, labialized {{angbr IPA|kʷ}} may mean either simultaneous {{IPA|[k]}} and {{IPA|[w]}} or else {{IPA|[k]}} with a labialized release. Superscript diacritics placed before a letter, on the other hand, normally indicate a modification of the onset of the sound ({{angbr IPA|mˀ}} glottalized {{IPA|[m]}}, {{angbr IPA|ˀm}} {{IPA|[m]}} with a glottal onset). (See {{section link|#Superscript IPA}}.) {|class="wikitable" ! colspan=6|Syllabicity diacritics |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̩}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɹ̩ n̩}} |rowspan=2|[[Syllabic consonant|Syllabic]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̯}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɪ̯ ʊ̯}} |rowspan=2|[[Semivowel|Non-syllabic]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̍}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɻ̍ ŋ̍}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̑}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y̑}} |- ! colspan=6|Consonant-release diacritics |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;" |{{IPA|◌ʰ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tʰ}} |[[Aspiration (phonetics)|Aspirated]]{{ref label|Aspirated|a|}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̚}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|p̚}} |[[No audible release]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;" |{{IPA|◌ⁿ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|dⁿ}} |[[Nasal release]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ˡ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|dˡ}} |[[Lateral release (phonetics)|Lateral release]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;" |{{IPA|◌ᶿ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tᶿ}} |Voiceless dental fricative release |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ˣ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tˣ}} |Voiceless velar fricative release |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;" |{{IPA|◌ᵊ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|dᵊ}} |Mid central vowel release |colspan=3| |- ! colspan=6|Phonation diacritics |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̥}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" |{{IPA|n̥ d̥}} |rowspan=2|[[Voiceless]] |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̬}} |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|s̬ t̬}} |rowspan=2|[[Voice (phonetics)|Voiced]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̊}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" |{{IPA|ɻ̊ ŋ̊}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̤}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" |{{IPA|b̤ a̤}} |[[Breathy voice]]d{{ref label|Aspirated|a|}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̰}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|b̰ a̰}} |[[Creaky voice]]d |- ! colspan=6|Articulation diacritics |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̪}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" |{{IPA|t̪ d̪}} |rowspan=2|[[Dental consonant|Dental]] |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̼}} |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|t̼ d̼}} |rowspan=2|[[Linguolabial consonant|Linguolabial]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌͆}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" |{{IPA|ɮ͆}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̺}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|t̺ d̺}} |[[Apical consonant|Apical]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̻}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|t̻ d̻}} |[[Laminal consonant|Laminal]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̟}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|u̟ t̟}} |rowspan=2|[[Relative articulation#Advanced and retracted|Advanced (fronted)]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̠}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|i̠ t̠}} |rowspan=2|[[Relative articulation#Advanced and retracted|Retracted (backed)]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌᫈}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɡ᫈}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̄}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|q̄}}{{ref label|retracted|b|}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̈}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ë ä}} |[[Relative articulation#Centralized vowels|Centralized]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̽}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|e̽ ɯ̽}} |[[Mid-centralized]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̝}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|e̝ r̝}} |rowspan=2|[[Relative articulation#Raised and lowered|Raised]] <br>({{IPA|[r̝], [ɭ˔]}} are fricatives) |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̞}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|e̞ β̞}} |rowspan=2|[[Relative articulation#Raised and lowered|Lowered]] <br>({{IPA|[β̞], [ɣ˕]}} are approximants) |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌˔}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɭ˔}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌˕}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y˕ ɣ˕}} |- ! colspan=6|Co-articulation diacritics |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̹}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɔ̹ x̹}} |rowspan=2| More [[Roundedness|rounded]]<br>(over-rounding) |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̜}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɔ̜ xʷ̜}} |rowspan=2| Less rounded<br>(under-rounding){{ref label|less rounded labialization|c|}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌͗}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y͗ χ͗}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌͑}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y͑ χ͑ʷ}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ʷ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tʷ dʷ}} |[[Labialization|Labialized]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ʲ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tʲ dʲ}} |[[Palatalization (phonetics)|Palatalized]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ˠ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tˠ dˠ}} |[[Velarization|Velarized]] |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̴}} |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA link|ɫ}} {{IPA|ᵶ}} |rowspan=2|Velarized or pharyngealized |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ˤ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tˤ aˤ}} |[[Pharyngealization|Pharyngealized]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̘}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|e̘ o̘}} |rowspan=2|[[Advanced and retracted tongue root|Advanced tongue root]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̙}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|e̙ o̙}} |rowspan=2|[[Advanced and retracted tongue root|Retracted tongue root]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌&#xAB6A;}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y&#xAB6A;}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌&#xAB6B;}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y&#xAB6B;}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̃}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ẽ z̃}} |[[Nasalization|Nasalized]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌˞}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɚ ɝ}} |[[R-colored vowel|Rhoticity]] |} '''Notes''' : {{note|Aspirated|a}} With aspirated voiced consonants, the aspiration is usually also voiced (voiced aspirated – but see [[aspirated voiced|voiced consonants with voiceless aspiration]]). Many linguists prefer one of the diacritics dedicated to breathy voice over simple aspiration, such as {{angbr IPA|b̤}}. Some linguists restrict that diacritic to [[sonorant]]s, such as breathy-voice {{angbr IPA|m̤}}, and transcribe voiced-aspirated obstruents as e.g. {{angbr IPA|bʱ}}. : {{note|retracted|b}} Care must be taken that a superscript retraction sign is not mistaken for mid tone. : {{note|less rounded labialization|c}} These are relative to the cardinal value of the letter. They can also apply to unrounded vowels: {{IPA|[ɛ̜]}} is more spread (less rounded) than cardinal {{IPA|[ɛ]}}, and {{IPA|[ɯ̹]}} is less spread than cardinal {{IPA|[ɯ]}}.<ref>'Further report on the 1989 Kiel Convention', ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'' 20:2 (December 1990), p. 23.</ref><br>Since {{angbr IPA|xʷ}} can mean that the {{IPA|[x]}} is labialized (rounded) throughout its articulation, and {{angbr IPA|x̜}} makes no sense ({{IPA|[x]}} is already completely unrounded), {{angbr IPA|x̜ʷ}} can only mean a less-labialized/rounded {{IPA|[xʷ]}}. However, readers might mistake {{angbr IPA|x̜ʷ}} for "{{IPA|[x̜]}}" with a labialized off-glide, or might wonder if the two diacritics cancel each other out. Placing the 'less rounded' diacritic under the labialization diacritic, {{angbr IPA|xʷ̜}}, makes it clear that it is the labialization that is 'less rounded' than its cardinal IPA value. Subdiacritics (diacritics normally placed below a letter) may be moved above a letter to avoid conflict with a [[descender]], as in voiceless {{angbr IPA|ŋ̊}}.<ref name=IPA15 /> The raising and lowering diacritics have optional spacing forms {{angbr IPA|˔}}, {{angbr IPA|˕}} that avoid descenders. The state of the [[glottis]] can be finely transcribed with diacritics. A series of alveolar plosives ranging from open-glottis to closed-glottis [[phonation]] is: {|class="wikitable" |+Phonation scale |- ! Open glottis |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" |{{IPA|[t]}} |[[voiceless]] |- | |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[d̤]}} |[[breathy voice]], also called ''murmured'' |- | |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[d̥]}} |[[slack voice]] |- ![[Sweet spot (phonetics)|Sweet spot]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[d]}} |[[modal voice]] |- | |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[d̬]}} |[[stiff voice]] |- | |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[d̰]}} |[[creaky voice]] |- !Closed glottis |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[ʔ͡t]}} |glottal closure |} Additional diacritics are provided by the [[Extensions to the IPA]] for speech pathology. ===Suprasegmentals=== These symbols describe the features of a language above the [[Phonological hierarchy|level]] of individual consonants and vowels, that is, at the level of syllable, word or [[phrase]]. These include [[prosody (linguistics)|prosody]], pitch, [[length (phonetics)|length]], [[stress (linguistics)|stress]], intensity, [[tone (linguistics)|tone]] and gemination of the sounds of a language, as well as the [[rhythm]] and [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] of speech.<ref name="Handbook13">International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;13.</ref> Various ligatures of pitch/tone letters and diacritics are provided for by the [[Kiel Convention]] and used in the IPA ''Handbook'' despite not being found in the summary of the IPA alphabet found on the one-page chart. Under [[#Capital letters|capital letters]] below we will see how a carrier letter may be used to indicate suprasegmental features such as labialization or nasalization. Some authors omit the carrier letter, for e.g. suffixed {{IPA|[kʰuˣt̪s̟]ʷ}} or prefixed {{IPA|[ʷkʰuˣt̪s̟]}},<ref>Cf. the {{IPA|/ʷ.../}} and {{IPA|/ʲ.../}} transcriptions in Eszter Ernst-Kurdi (2017) ''The Phonology of Mada'', SIL Yaoundé.</ref> or place a spacing variant of a diacritic such as {{angbr IPA|˔}}<!--a spacing ATR or RTR diacritic would be a better example, when those have broader font support--> or {{angbr IPA|˜}} at the beginning or end of a word to indicate that it applies to the entire word.<ref>E.g. Aaron Dolgopolsky (2013) ''Indo-European Dictionary with Nostratic Etymologies''.</ref> {| class="wikitable" ! colspan=4|Length, stress, and rhythm |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ˈke}} | Primary [[stress (linguistics)|stress]] (appears<br /> before stressed syllable) | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ˌke}} | [[Secondary stress]] (appears<br /> before stressed syllable) |- | rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|eː kː}} | rowspan=2 | [[Length (phonetics)|Long]] ([[Vowel length|long vowel]] or<br />[[gemination|geminate consonant]]) | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|eˑ}} | Half-long |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ə̆ ɢ̆}} | [[Extra-short]] |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ek.ste}}<br>{{IPA|eks.te}} | [[Syllable]] break <br>(internal boundary) | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|es‿e}} | [[Connected speech|Linking]] (lack of a boundary; <br>a [[phonological word]])<ref group=note>The IPA ''Handbook'' variously defines the "linking" symbol as marking the "lack of a boundary" (p. 23) or "absence of a break" (p. 174), and gives [[French liaison]] and English [[linking r]] as examples. The illustration for Croatian uses it to tie atonic [[clitic]]s to tonic words, with no resulting change in implied syllable structure. It is also sometimes used simply to indicate that the consonant ending one word forms a syllable with the vowel beginning the following word.</ref> |- ! colspan=4|Intonation |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|{{!}}}} | [[Prosodic unit|Minor or foot break]] | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|‖}} | [[Prosodic unit|Major or intonation break]] |- | style="text-align:center;font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|↗&#xFE0E;}} | [[Intonation (linguistics)|Global rise]]<ref group=note name="global">The global rise and fall arrows come before the affected syllable or prosodic unit, like stress and upstep/downstep. This contrasts with the Chao tone letters (listed below), which most commonly come after. One will occasionally see a horizontal arrow {{angbr IPA|→}} for global level pitch (only dropping due to [[downdrift]]), e.g. in Julie Barbour (2012) ''A Grammar of Neverver''. Additionally, some fonts display the arrows as [[emoji]] by default, if &amp;#xFE0E; is not appended.</ref> | style="text-align:center;font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|↘&#xFE0E;}} | [[Intonation (linguistics)|Global fall]]<ref group=note name="global"/> |- ! colspan=4|Up- and down-step |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ꜛke}} | [[Upstep (phonetics)|Upstep]] | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ꜜke}} | [[Downstep (phonetics)|Downstep]] |} {| class="wikitable" ! colspan=13|Pitch diacritics<ref group=note name=pitch>There is not a one-to-one correspondence between tone diacritics and tone letters. When pitch is transcribed with diacritics, the three pitches {{angbr IPA|é ē è}} are taken as the basic levels and are called 'high', 'mid' and 'low'. Contour tones combine only these three and are called {{angbr IPA|e᷇}} 'high-mid' etc. The more extreme pitches, which do not form contours, are {{angbr IPA|e̋}} 'extra-high' and {{angbr IPA|ȅ}} 'extra-low', using [[#Comparative degree|doubled diacritics]]. When transcribed with tone letters, however, combinations of all five levels are possible. Thus, {{angbr IPA|e˥ e˧ e˩}} may be called 'high', 'mid' and 'low', with {{angbr IPA|e˦ e˨}} being 'near-high' and 'near-low', analogous to descriptions of vowel height. In a three-level transcription, {{angbr IPA|é ē è}} are identified with {{angbr IPA|e˥ e˧ e˩}}, but in a five-level transcription, {{angbr IPA|e̋ ȅ}} are identified with {{angbr IPA|e˥ e˩}} (''JIPA'' 19.2: 76).</ref> |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|ŋ̋ e̋}} | Extra high | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ̌ ě}} | Rising | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷄ e᷄}} | Mid-rising |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ́ é}} | High | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ̂ ê}} | Falling | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷅ e᷅}} | Low-rising |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ̄ ē}} | Mid | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷈ e᷈}} | Peaking (rising&ndash;falling) | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷇ e᷇}} | High-falling |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ̀ è}} | Low | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷉ e᷉}} | Dipping (falling&ndash;rising) | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷆ e᷆}} | Mid-falling |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{nowrap|{{IPA|ŋ̏ ȅ}}}} | Extra low | style="text-align:center;" colspan=4| (''etc.'')<ref group=note>Although any combination of tone diacritics is theoretically possible, such as {{angbr IPA|e᪰}} for a falling&ndash;rising&ndash;falling tone, any other than those illustrated are vanishingly rare.</ref> |} {| class="wikitable" ! colspan=5|[[Chao tone letter]]s<ref group=note name=pitch/> |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|˥e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|꜒e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|e˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|e꜒}} | High |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˦e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜓e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˦}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜓}} | Half-high |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˧e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜔e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜔}} | Mid |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˨e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜕e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˨}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜕}} | Half-low |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˩e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜖e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜖}} | Low |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˩˥e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜖꜒e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜖꜒}} | Rising (low to high or generic) |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˥˩e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜒꜖e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜒꜖}} | Falling (high to low or generic) |- | style="text-align:center;" colspan=5| (''etc.'') |} The old staveless tone letters, which are effectively obsolete, include high {{angbr IPA|ˉe}}, mid {{angbr IPA|˗e}}, low {{angbr IPA|ˍe}}, rising {{angbr IPA|ˊe}} and falling {{angbr IPA|ˋe}}. ====Stress==== Officially, the [[Stress (linguistics)|stress marks]] {{angbr IPA|ˈ ˌ}} appear before the stressed syllable, and thus mark the syllable boundary as well as stress (though the syllable boundary may still be explicitly marked with a period).<ref name=report/> Occasionally the stress mark is placed immediately before the nucleus of the syllable, after any consonantal onset.{{sfnp|Esling|2010|p=691}} In such transcriptions, the stress mark does not mark a syllable boundary. The primary stress mark may be [[#Comparative degree|doubled]] {{angbr IPA|ˈˈ}} for extra stress (such as prosodic stress). The secondary stress mark is sometimes seen doubled {{angbr IPA|ˌˌ}} for extra-weak stress, but this convention has not been adopted by the IPA.<ref name=report/> Some dictionaries place both stress marks before a syllable, {{angbr IPA|¦}}, to indicate that pronunciations with either primary or secondary stress are heard, though this is not IPA usage.<ref>For example, {{MW|Balearic}}.</ref> ====Boundary markers==== There are three boundary markers: {{angbr IPA|.}} for a syllable break, {{angbr IPA|<nowiki>|</nowiki>}} for a minor prosodic break and {{angbr IPA|‖}} for a major prosodic break. The tags 'minor' and 'major' are intentionally ambiguous. Depending on need, 'minor' may vary from a [[foot (prosody)|foot]] break to a break in list-intonation to a continuing–prosodic unit boundary (equivalent to a comma), and while 'major' is often any intonation break, it may be restricted to a final–prosodic unit boundary (equivalent to a period). The 'major' symbol may also be doubled, {{angbr IPA|‖‖}}, for a stronger break.{{#tag:ref|Russian sources commonly use a wavy line like {{unichar|2E3E|WIGGLY VERTICAL LINE}} (approx. ⌇) for a less-than-minor break, such as the slight break in list intonation (e.g. the very slight break between digits in a telephone number).<ref>Ž.V. Ganiev (2012) ''Sovremennyj ruskij jazyk.'' Flinta/Nauka.</ref> A dotted line like {{unichar|2E3D|VERTICAL SIX DOTS}} or {{unichar|2999|DOTTED FENCE}} is sometimes seen instead.|group="note"}} Although not part of the IPA, the following additional boundary markers are often used in conjunction with the IPA: {{angbr IPA|μ}} for a [[mora (linguistics)|mora]] or mora boundary, {{angbr IPA|σ}} for a syllable or syllable boundary, {{angbr IPA|+}} for a morpheme boundary, {{angbr IPA|#}} for a word boundary (may be doubled, {{angbr IPA|##}}, for e.g. a breath-group boundary),<ref>Nicholas Evans (1995) ''A Grammar of Kayardild''. Mouton de Gruyter.</ref> {{angbr IPA|$}} for a phrase or intermediate boundary and {{angbr IPA|%}} for a prosodic boundary. For example, C# is a word-final consonant, %V a post-[[pausa]] vowel, and T% an IU-final tone (edge tone). ====Pitch and tone==== {{see also|tone letter}} {{angbr IPA|ꜛ ꜜ}} are defined in the ''Handbook'' as "upstep" and "downstep", concepts from tonal languages. However, the upstep symbol can also be used for [[pitch reset]], and the IPA ''Handbook'' uses it for prosody in the illustration for Portuguese, a non-tonal language. Phonetic pitch and phonemic tone may be indicated by either diacritics placed over the nucleus of the syllable (e.g., high-pitch {{angbr IPA|é}}) or by [[Chao tone letter]]s placed either before or after the word or syllable. There are three graphic variants of the tone letters: with or without a stave, and facing left or facing right from the stave. The stave was introduced with the 1989 Kiel Convention, as was the option of placing a staved letter after the word or syllable, while retaining the older conventions. There are therefore six<!--One of our sources says 'seven', but the staveless tone letters were only allowed before the word/syllable pre-Kiel, and that was not changed in the Kiel Convention.--> ways to transcribe pitch/tone in the IPA: i.e., {{angbr IPA|é}}, {{angbr IPA|˦e}}, {{angbr IPA|e˦}}, {{angbr IPA|꜓e}}, {{angbr IPA|e꜓}} and {{angbr IPA|ˉe}} for a high pitch/tone.<ref name=report/><ref>Ian Maddieson (December 1990) The transcription of tone in the IPA, JIPA 20.2, p. 31.</ref><ref>Barry Heselwood (2013) ''Phonetic Transcription in Theory and Practice''. Edinburgh University Press. Page 7.</ref> Of the tone letters, only left-facing staved letters and a few representative combinations are shown in the summary on the ''Chart'', and in practice it is currently more common for tone letters to occur after the syllable/word than before, as in the Chao tradition. Placement before the word is a carry-over from the pre-Kiel IPA convention, as is still the case for the stress and upstep/downstep marks. The IPA endorses the Chao tradition of using the left-facing tone letters, {{angbr IPA|˥ ˦ ˧ ˨ ˩}}, for underlying tone, and the right-facing letters, {{angbr IPA|꜒ ꜓ ꜔ ꜕ ꜖}}, for surface tone, as occurs in [[tone sandhi]], and for the intonation of non-tonal languages.<ref group=note>Maddieson and others have noted that a phonemic/phonetic distinction should be handled by /slash/ or [bracket] delimiters. However, the reversed tone letters remain in use for tone sandhi.</ref> In the Portuguese illustration in the 1999 ''Handbook'', tone letters are placed before a word or syllable to indicate prosodic pitch (equivalent to {{IPA|[↗︎]}} global rise and {{IPA|[↘︎]}} global fall, but allowing more precision), and in the Cantonese illustration they are placed after a word/syllable to indicate lexical tone. Theoretically therefore prosodic pitch and lexical tone could be simultaneously transcribed in a single text, though this is not a formalized distinction. Rising and falling pitch, as in [[contour tone]]s, are indicated by combining the pitch diacritics and letters in the table, such as grave plus acute for rising {{IPA|[ě]}} and acute plus grave for falling {{IPA|[ê]}}. Only six combinations of two diacritics are supported, and only across three levels (high, mid, low), despite the diacritics supporting five levels of pitch in isolation. The four other explicitly approved rising and falling diacritic combinations are high/mid rising {{IPA|[e᷄]}}, low rising {{IPA|[e᷅]}}, high falling {{IPA|[e᷇]}}, and low/mid falling {{IPA|[e᷆]}}.<ref group=note>A work-around sometimes seen when a language has more than one rising or falling tone, and the author wishes to avoid the poorly legible diacritics {{angbr IPA|e᷄, e᷅, e᷇, e᷆}} but does not wish to employ tone letters, is to restrict the generic rising {{angbr IPA|ě}} and falling {{angbr IPA|ê}} diacritics to the higher-pitched of the rising and falling tones, say {{IPA|/e˥˧/}} and {{IPA|/e˧˥/}}, and to resurrect the retired (pre-Kiel) IPA subscript diacritics {{angbr IPA|e̗}} and {{angbr IPA|e̖}} for the lower-pitched rising and falling tones, say {{IPA|/e˩˧/}} and {{IPA|/e˧˩/}}. When a language has either four or six level tones, the two middle tones are sometimes transcribed as high-mid {{angbr IPA|e̍}} (non-standard) and low-mid {{angbr IPA|ē}}. Non-standard {{angbr IPA|e̍}} is occasionally seen combined with acute and grave diacritcs or with the macron to distinguish contour tones that involve the higher of the two mid tone levels.</ref> The Chao tone letters, on the other hand, may be combined in any pattern, and are therefore used for more complex contours and finer distinctions than the diacritics allow, such as mid-rising {{IPA|[e˨˦]}}, extra-high falling {{IPA|[e˥˦]}}, etc. There are 20 such possibilities. However, in Chao's original proposal, which was adopted by the IPA in 1989, he stipulated that the half-high and half-low letters {{angbr IPA|˦ ˨}} may be combined with each other, but not with the other three tone letters, so as not to create spuriously precise distinctions. With this restriction, there are 8 possibilities.<ref name=Chao>{{Citation | last = Chao | first = Yuen-Ren | year = 1930 | title = {{IPA|ə sistim əv}} "{{IPA|toun}}-{{IPA|letəz}}" | trans-title = A system of "tone-letters" | journal = Le Maître Phonétique | volume = 30 | pages = 24–27 | jstor = 44704341 }}</ref> The old staveless tone letters tend to be more restricted than the staved letters, though not as restricted as the diacritics. Officially, they support as many distinctions as the staved letters,<ref>See for example Pe Maung Tin [-phe -maʊ̃ -tɪ̃ː] (1924) bɜˑmiːz. ''Le Maître Phonétique'', vol. 2 (39), no. 5, pp. 4&ndash;5, where five pitch levels are distinguished</ref> but typically only three pitch levels are distinguished. Unicode supports default or high-pitch {{angbr IPA|ˉ ˊ ˋ ˆ ˇ ˜ ˙}} and low-pitch {{angbr IPA|ˍ ˏ ˎ ꞈ ˬ ˷}}. Only a few mid-pitch tones are supported (such as {{angbr IPA|˗ ˴}}), and then only accidentally. Although tone diacritics and tone letters are presented as equivalent on the chart, "this was done only to simplify the layout of the chart. The two sets of symbols are not comparable in this way."<ref>''Handbook'', p. 14.</ref> Using diacritics, a high tone is {{angbr IPA|é}} and a low tone is {{angbr IPA|è}}; in tone letters, these are {{angbr IPA|e˥}} and {{angbr IPA|e˩}}. One can double the diacritics for extra-high {{angbr IPA|e̋}} and extra-low {{angbr IPA|ȅ}}; there is no parallel to this using tone letters. Instead, tone letters have mid-high {{angbr IPA|e˦}} and mid-low {{angbr IPA|e˨}}; again, there is no equivalent among the diacritics. The correspondence breaks down even further once they start combining. For more complex tones, one may combine three or four tone diacritics in any permutation,<ref name=report>P.J. Roach, Report on the 1989 Kiel Convention, ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'', Vol. 19, No. 2 (December 1989), p. 75–76</ref> though in practice only generic peaking (rising-falling) {{IPA|e᷈}} and dipping (falling-rising) {{IPA|e᷉}} combinations are used. Chao tone letters are required for finer detail ({{IPA|e˧˥˧, e˩˨˩, e˦˩˧, e˨˩˦}}, etc.). Although only 10 peaking and dipping tones were proposed in Chao's original, limited set of tone letters, phoneticians often make finer distinctions, and indeed an example is found on the IPA Chart.<ref group=note>The example has changed over the years. In the chart included in the 1999 IPA ''Handbook'', it was {{IPA|[˦˥˦]}}, and since the 2018 revision of the chart it has been {{IPA|[˧˦˨]}}.</ref> The system allows the transcription of 112<!--125 less 5 triple letters and 8 other combos that form a straight line (e.g. 2-3-4)--> peaking and dipping pitch contours, including tones that are level for part of their length. {| class="wikitable" |+ Original (restricted) set of Chao tone letters<ref group=note>Chao did not include tone shapes such as {{IPA|[˨˦˦], [˧˩˩]}}, which rise or fall and then level off (or vice versa). Such tone shapes are, however, frequently encountered in the modern literature.</ref> ! Register ! Level<br><ref group=note>In Chao's Sinological convention, a single tone letter {{angbr IPA|˥}} is used for a high tone on a [[checked syllable]], and a double tone letter {{angbr IPA|˥˥}} for a high tone on an open syllable. Such redundant doubling is not used in the ''Handbook'', where the tones of Cantonese {{IPA|[si˥]}} 'silk' and {{IPA|[sɪk˥]}} 'color' are transcribed the same way. If the author wishes to indicate a difference in phonetic or phonemic length, the IPA accomplishes that with the length marks {{angbr IPA|◌̆ ◌ˑ ◌ː}} rather than through the tone letters.</ref> ! Rising ! Falling ! Peaking ! Dipping |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˧˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˩˧}} |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˨}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˨˨}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˨˦}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˦˨}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˨˦˨}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˦˨˦}} |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˥˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˧˥}} |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˦}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˦˦}} | | | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˥˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˩˥}} |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˥˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˩˧}} |} More complex contours are possible. Chao gave an example of {{IPA|[꜔꜒꜖꜔]}} (mid-high-low-mid) from English prosody.<ref name=Chao/> Chao tone letters generally appear after each syllable, for a language with syllable tone ({{angbr IPA|a˧vɔ˥˩}}), or after the phonological word, for a language with [[word tone]] ({{angbr IPA|avɔ˧˥˩}}). The IPA gives the option of placing the tone letters before the word or syllable ({{angbr IPA|˧a˥˩vɔ}}, {{angbr IPA|˧˥˩avɔ}}), but this is rare for lexical tone. (And indeed reversed tone letters may be used to clarify that they apply to the following rather than to the preceding syllable: {{angbr IPA|꜔a꜒꜖vɔ}}, {{angbr IPA|꜔꜒꜖avɔ}}.) The staveless letters are not directly supported by Unicode, but some fonts allow the stave in Chao tone letters to be suppressed. ===Comparative degree=== IPA diacritics may be doubled to indicate an extra degree of the feature indicated.<ref name=K&L>Kelly & Local (1989) ''Doing Phonology'', [[Manchester University Press]].</ref> This is a productive process, but apart from extra-high and extra-low tones {{angbr IPA|ə̋, ə̏}} being marked by doubled high- and low-tone diacritics, and the major [[prosodic unit|prosodic break]] {{angbr IPA|‖}} being marked as a double minor break {{angbr IPA|{{!}}}}, it is not specifically regulated by the IPA. (Note that transcription marks are similar: double slashes indicate extra (morpho)-phonemic, double square brackets especially precise, and double parentheses especially unintelligible.) For example, the stress mark may be doubled to indicate an extra degree of stress, such as prosodic stress in English.<ref>Bloomfield (1933) ''Language'' p. 91</ref> An example in French, with a single stress mark for normal prosodic stress at the end of each [[prosodic unit]] (marked as a minor prosodic break), and a double stress mark for contrastive/emphatic stress: {{IPA|[ˈˈɑ̃ːˈtre {{!}} məˈsjø ‖ ˈˈvwala maˈdam ‖]}} ''{{lang|fr|Entrez monsieur, voilà madame}}.''<ref>Passy, 1958, ''Conversations françaises en transcription phonétique.'' 2nd ed.</ref> Similarly, a doubled secondary stress mark {{angbr IPA|ˌˌ}} is commonly used for tertiary (extra-light) stress.<ref>Yuen Ren Chao (1968) ''Language and Symbolic Systems'', p. xxiii</ref> In a similar vein, the effectively obsolete (though never retired) staveless tone letters were once doubled for an emphatic rising intonation {{angbr IPA|˶}} and an emphatic falling intonation {{angbr IPA|˵}}.<ref>Geoffrey Barker (2005) ''Intonation Patterns in Tyrolean German'', p. 11.</ref> [[Length (phonetics)|Length]] is commonly extended by repeating the length mark, as in English ''shhh!'' {{IPA|[ʃːːː]}}, or for "overlong" segments in [[Estonian phonology|Estonian]]: * ''vere'' {{IPA|/vere/}} 'blood [gen.sg.]', ''veere'' {{IPA|/veːre/}} 'edge [gen.sg.]', ''veere'' {{IPA|/veːːre/}} 'roll [imp. 2nd sg.]' * ''lina'' {{IPA|/linɑ/}} 'sheet', ''linna'' {{IPA|/linːɑ/}} 'town [gen. sg.]', ''linna'' {{IPA|/linːːɑ/}} 'town [ine. sg.]' (Normally additional degrees of length are handled by the extra-short or half-long diacritic, but the first two words in each of the Estonian examples are analyzed as simply short and long, requiring a different remedy for the final words.) Occasionally other diacritics are doubled: * [[R-colored vowel|Rhoticity]] in [[Badaga language|Badaga]] {{IPA|/be/}} "mouth", {{IPA|/be˞/}} "bangle", and {{IPA|/be˞˞/}} "crop".<ref>{{SOWL|314}}</ref> * Mild and strong [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspiration]]s, {{IPA|[kʰ]}}, {{IPA|[kʰʰ]}}.<ref group=note>Sometimes the obsolete transcription {{angbr IPA|k{{okina}}}} (with a turned apostrophe) for weak aspiration vs. {{angbr IPA|kʰ}} for strong aspiration is still seen.</ref><!-- Korean does not (primarily) contrast for degrees of aspiration, as the distinction is made mainly with a low tone following the weak stop and a high tone following the aspirated stop, for dialects (including Seoul) that aspirate prosodically initial stops. --> * [[Nasal vowel|Nasalization]], as in [[Palantla Chinantec]] lightly nasalized {{IPA|/ẽ/}} vs heavily nasalized {{IPA|/e͌/}},<ref>Peter Ladefoged (1971) ''Preliminaries of Linguistic Phonetics'', p. 35.</ref> though in [[extIPA]] the latter indicates [[velopharyngeal frication]]. * Weak vs strong [[ejective]]s, {{IPA|[kʼ]}}, {{IPA|[kˮ]}}.<ref>Fallon (2013) ''The Synchronic and Diachronic Phonology of Ejectives'', p. 267</ref> * Especially lowered, e.g. {{IPA|[t̞̞]}} (or {{IPA|[t̞˕]}}, if the former symbol does not display properly) for {{IPA|/t/}} as a weak fricative in some pronunciations of ''register''.<ref>Heselwood (2013) ''Phonetic Transcription in Theory and Practice'', p. 233.</ref> * Especially retracted, e.g. {{IPA|[ø̠̠]}} or {{IPA|[s̠̠]}},<ref>E.g. in Laver (1994) ''Principles of Phonetics'', pp. 559–560</ref><ref name=K&L/><ref>Hein van der Voort (2005) 'Kwaza in a Comparative Perspective', ''IJAL'' 71:4.</ref> though some care might be needed to distinguish this from indications of alveolar or alveolarized articulation in [[extIPA]], e.g. {{IPA|[s͇]}}. * The transcription of [[strident vowel|strident]] and [[harsh voice]] as extra-creaky {{IPA|/a᷽/}} may be motivated by the similarities of these phonations. ==Ambiguous letters== A number of IPA letters are not consistently used for their official values. A distinction between voiced fricatives and approximants is only partially implemented by the IPA, for example. Even with the relatively recent addition of the palatal fricative {{angbr IPA|ʝ}} and the velar approximant {{angbr IPA|ɰ}} to the alphabet, other letters, though defined as fricatives, are often ambiguous between fricative and approximant. For forward places, {{angbr IPA|β}} and {{angbr IPA|ð}} can generally be assumed to be fricatives unless they carry a lowering diacritic. Rearward, however, {{angbr IPA|ʁ}} and {{angbr IPA|ʕ}} are perhaps more commonly intended to be approximants even without a lowering diacritic. {{angbr IPA|h}} and {{angbr IPA|ɦ}} are similarly either fricatives or approximants, depending on the language, or even glottal "transitions", without that often being specified in the transcription. Another common ambiguity is among the letters for palatal consonants. {{angbr IPA|c}} and {{angbr IPA|ɟ}} are not uncommonly used as a typographic convenience for affricates, typically {{IPA|[t͜ʃ]}} and {{IPA|[d͜ʒ]}}, while {{angbr IPA|ɲ}} and {{angbr IPA|ʎ}} are commonly used for palatalized alveolar {{IPA|[n̠ʲ]}} and {{IPA|[l̠ʲ]}}. To some extent this may be an effect of analysis, but it is common to match up single IPA letters to the phonemes of a language, without overly worrying about phonetic precision. It has been argued that the lower-pharyngeal (epiglottal) fricatives {{angbr IPA|ʜ}} and {{angbr IPA|ʢ}} are better characterized as trills, rather than as fricatives that have incidental trilling.<ref>John Esling (2010) "Phonetic Notation", in Hardcastle, Laver & Gibbon (eds) ''The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences'', 2nd ed., p 695.</ref> This has the advantage of merging the upper-pharyngeal fricatives {{IPA|[ħ, ʕ]}} together with the epiglottal plosive {{IPA|[ʡ]}} and trills {{IPA|[ʜ ʢ]}} into a single pharyngeal column in the consonant chart. However, in [[Shilha language|Shilha Berber]] the epiglottal fricatives are not trilled.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ridouane |first1=Rachid |title=Tashlhiyt Berber |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |date=August 2014 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=207–221 |doi=10.1017/S0025100313000388 |s2cid=232344118 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Alderete |first1=John |last2=Jebbour |first2=Abdelkrim |last3=Kachoub |first3=Bouchra |last4=Wilbee |first4=Holly |title=Tashlhiyt Berber grammar synopsis |url=https://www.sfu.ca/~alderete/datasets/aldereteEtal2015_tashlhiytGrammarSynopsis.pdf |publisher=Simon Fraser University |access-date=20 November 2021}}</ref> Although they might be transcribed {{angbr IPA|ħ̠ ʢ̠}} to indicate this, the far more common transcription is {{angbr IPA|ʜ ʢ}}, which is therefore ambiguous between languages. Among vowels, {{angbr IPA|a}} is officially a front vowel, but is more commonly treated as a central vowel. The difference, to the extent it is even possible, is not phonemic in any language. For all phonetic notation, it is good practice for an author to specify exactly what they mean by the symbols that they use. ==Redundant letters== Three letters are not needed and would be hard to justify today by the standards of the modern IPA, but are retained due to inertia. {{angbr IPA|ʍ}} appears because it is found in English; officially it is a fricative, with terminology dating to the days before 'fricative' and 'approximant' were distinguished. Based on how all other fricatives and approximants are transcribed, one would expect either {{angbr IPA|xʷ}} for a fricative (not how it is actually used) or {{angbr IPA|w̥}} for an approximant. Indeed, outside of English transcription, that is what is more commonly found in the literature. {{angbr IPA|ɱ}} is another historic remnant. It is a nearly universal allophone of {{IPA|[m]}} before {{IPA|[f]}} and {{IPA|[v]}}, but it is only phonemically distinct in a single language (Kukuya), a fact that was discovered long after it was standardized in the IPA. (A number of consonants do not have dedicated IPA letters despite being phonemic in many more languages.) {{angbr IPA|ɱ}} is retained because of its historical use for European languages, where it could easily be normalized to {{angbr IPA|m̪}}. There have been several votes to retire {{angbr IPA|ɱ}} from the IPA, but so far they have failed. Finally, {{angbr IPA|ɧ}} is officially a simultaneous postalveolar and velar fricative, a realization that does not appear to exist in any language. It is retained because it is convenient for the transcription of Swedish, where it is used for a consonant that has various realizations in different dialects. That is, it is not actually a phonetic character at all, but a phonemic one, which is officially beyond the purview of the IPA alphabet; indeed, another phonemic IPA letter, {{angbr IPA|[[ƞ]]}} for the homorganic nasal of Japanese, was retired because it had no defined phonetic value. ==Superscript letters== {{anchor|Superscript IPA}}{{further|Unicode subscripts and superscripts#Superscript IPA|Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet#Superscript variants}} Superscript IPA letters may be used to indicate [[secondary articulation]]; onsets, releases and other transitions; shades of sound; light epenthetic sounds and incompletely articulated sounds. In 2020, the IPA and [[International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association|ICPLA]] endorsed the Unicode encoding of superscript variants of all contemporary IPA letters apart from the [[Chao tone letter]]s, including the extended retroflex letters {{angbr IPA|ꞎ 𝼅 𝼈 ᶑ 𝼊&thinsp;}}, which were thus confirmed as being implicit in the IPA alphabet.<ref name=pulmonic>Kirk Miller & Michael Ashby, [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20252r-mod-ipa-a.pdf L2/20-252R] Unicode request for IPA modifier-letters (a), pulmonic</ref><ref name=non-pulmonic>Kirk Miller & Michael Ashby, [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20253r-mod-ipa-b.pdf L2/20-253R] Unicode request for IPA modifier letters (b), non-pulmonic.</ref><ref>Kirk Miller & Martin Ball, [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20116r-ext-ipa-voqs-expansion.pdf L2/20-116R] Expansion of the extIPA and VoQS.</ref> Superscript letters can be meaningfully modified by [[combining character|combining diacritics]], just as baseline letters can. For example, a superscript dental nasal is {{angbr IPA|ⁿ̪d̪}}, a superscript voiceless velar nasal is {{angbr IPA|ᵑ̊ǂ}}, and labial-velar prenasalization is {{angbr IPA|ᵑ͡ᵐɡ͡b}}. Although the diacritic may seem a bit oversized compared to the superscript letter it modifies, e.g. {{angbr IPA|ᵓ̃}}, this can be an aid to legibility, just as it is with the composite superscript c-cedilla {{angbr IPA|ᶜ̧}} and rhotic vowels {{angbr IPA|ᵊ˞ ᶟ˞}}. Superscript length marks can be used to indicate the length of aspiration of a consonant, e.g. {{IPA|[pʰ tʰ&#x10782; kʰ&#x10781;]}}. Another option is to double the diacritic: {{angbr IPA|kʰʰ}}.<ref name=pulmonic/> ==Obsolete and nonstandard symbols== {{Main|Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet|Click letter|Sinological extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet}} A number of IPA letters and diacritics have been retired or replaced over the years. This number includes duplicate symbols, symbols that were replaced due to user preference, and unitary symbols that were rendered with diacritics or digraphs to reduce the inventory of the IPA. The rejected symbols are now considered obsolete, though some are still seen in the literature. The IPA once had several pairs of duplicate symbols from alternative proposals, but eventually settled on one or the other. An example is the vowel letter {{angbr IPA|ɷ}}, rejected in favor of {{angbr IPA|ʊ}}. Affricates were once transcribed with ligatures, such as {{angbr IPA|ʦ ʣ, ʧ ʤ, ʨ ʥ, ꭧ ꭦ&thinsp;}} (and others not found in Unicode). These have been officially retired but are still used. Letters for specific combinations of primary and secondary articulation have also been mostly retired, with the idea that such features should be indicated with tie bars or diacritics: {{angbr IPA|ƍ}} for {{IPA|[zʷ]}} is one. In addition, the rare voiceless implosives, {{angbr IPA|ƥ ƭ ƈ ƙ ʠ&thinsp;}}, were dropped soon after their introduction and are now usually written {{angbr IPA|ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ʄ̊ ɠ̊ ʛ̥&thinsp;}}. The original set of click letters, {{angbr IPA|ʇ, ʗ, ʖ, ʞ}}, was retired but is still sometimes seen, as the current pipe letters {{angbr IPA|ǀ, ǃ, ǁ, ǂ}} can cause problems with legibility, especially when used with brackets ([ ] or / /), the letter {{angbr IPA|l}}, or the [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosodic]] marks {{angbr IPA|<nowiki>|</nowiki>, ‖}}. (For this reason, some publications which use the current IPA pipe letters disallow IPA brackets.<!--The Routledge Khoisan Handbook, for example-->)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2009/09/click-symbols.html |title=John Wells's phonetic blog |publisher=Phonetic-blog.blogspot.com |date=9 September 2009 |access-date=18 October 2010}}</ref> Individual non-IPA letters may find their way into publications that otherwise use the standard IPA. This is especially common with: * Affricates, such as the Americanist [[barred lambda]] {{angbr IPA|ƛ}} for {{IPA|[t͜ɬ]}} or {{angbr IPA|č}} for {{IPA|[t͜ʃ&thinsp;]}}.<ref group=note>The motivation for this may vary. Some authors find the tie bars displeasing but the lack of tie bars confusing (i.e. {{angbr IPA|č}} for {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} as distinct from {{IPA|/tʃ/}}), while others simply prefer to have one letter for each segmental phoneme in a language.{{citation needed|date=September 2020}}</ref> * The [[Karlgren]] letters for Chinese vowels, {{angbr IPA|ɿ, ʅ&thinsp;, ʮ, ʯ&thinsp;}} * Digits for tonal phonemes that have conventional numbers in a local tradition, such as the [[Standard Chinese phonology#Tones|four tones of Standard Chinese]]. This may be more convenient for comparison between related languages and dialects than a phonetic transcription would be, because tones vary more unpredictably than segmental phonemes do. * Digits for tone levels, which are simpler to typeset, though the lack of standardization can cause confusion (e.g. {{angbr IPA|1}} is high tone in some languages but low tone in others; {{angbr IPA|3}} may be high, medium or low tone, depending on the local convention). * Iconic extensions of standard IPA letters that can be readily understood, such as retroflex [[voiced retroflex implosive|{{angbr|ᶑ&thinsp;}}]] and [[voiceless retroflex lateral fricative|{{angbr|ꞎ}}]]. These are referred to in the ''Handbook'' and have been included in IPA requests for Unicode support.<!--e.g. an official request for adding superscript retroflex letters to Unicode 14--> In addition, it is common to see ''ad hoc'' typewriter substitutions, generally capital letters, for when IPA support is not available, e.g. A for {{angbr IPA|ɑ}}, B for {{angbr IPA|β}} or {{angbr IPA|ɓ}}, D for {{angbr IPA|ð}}, {{angbr IPA|ɗ&thinsp;}} or {{angbr IPA|ɖ&thinsp;}}, E for {{angbr IPA|ɛ}}, F or P for {{angbr IPA|ɸ}}, G {{angbr IPA|ɣ}}, I {{angbr IPA|ɪ}}, L {{angbr IPA|ɬ}}, N {{angbr IPA|ŋ}}, O {{angbr IPA|ɔ}}, S {{angbr IPA|&thinsp;ʃ&thinsp;}}, T {{angbr IPA|θ}} or {{angbr IPA|ʈ&thinsp;}}, U {{angbr IPA|ʊ}}, V {{angbr IPA|ʋ}}, X {{angbr IPA|χ}}, Z {{angbr IPA|ʒ}}, as well as @ for {{angbr IPA|ə}} and 7 or ? for {{angbr IPA|ʔ}}. (See also [[SAMPA]] and [[X-SAMPA]] substitute notation.) ==Extensions== [[File:ExtIPA chart (2015).pdf|thumb|Chart of the Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet (extIPA), as of 2015]]{{Main|Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet}} The [[Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for Disordered Speech]], commonly abbreviated "extIPA" and sometimes called "Extended IPA", are symbols whose original purpose was to accurately transcribe [[Speech disorder|disordered speech]]. At the [[Kiel Convention]] in 1989, a group of linguists drew up the initial extensions,<ref>"At the 1989 Kiel Convention of the IPA, a sub-group was established to draw up recommendations for the transcription of disordered speech." ("Extensions to the IPA: An ExtIPA Chart" ''in'' International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;186.)</ref> which were based on the previous work of the PRDS (Phonetic Representation of Disordered Speech) Group in the early 1980s.<ref>{{cite book|last=PRDS Group|title=The Phonetic Representation of Disordered Speech|year=1983|publisher=London: The King's Fund}}</ref> The extensions were first published in 1990, then modified, and published again in 1994 in the ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'', when they were officially adopted by the [[International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association|ICPLA]].<ref>"Extensions to the IPA: An ExtIPA Chart" ''in'' International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp.&nbsp;186–187.</ref> While the original purpose was to transcribe disordered speech, linguists have used the extensions to designate a number of sounds within standard communication, such as hushing, gnashing teeth, and smacking lips,<ref name="world" /> as well as regular lexical sounds such as [[lateral fricative]]s that do not have standard IPA symbols. In addition to the Extensions to the IPA for disordered speech, there are the conventions of the [[Voice Quality Symbols]], which include a number of symbols for additional airstream mechanisms and secondary articulations in what they call "voice quality". ==Associated notation== Capital letters and various characters on the number row of the keyboard are commonly used to extend the alphabet in various ways. ===Associated symbols=== There are various punctuation-like conventions for linguistic transcription that are commonly used together with IPA. Some of the more common are: ;{{angbr|*}} :(a) A [[Comparative linguistics|reconstructed form]]. :(b) An [[Grammaticality|ungrammatical form]] (including an unphonemic form). ;{{angbr|**}} :(a) A reconstructed form, deeper (more ancient) than a single {{angbr|*}}, used when reconstructing even further back from already-starred forms. :(b) An ungrammatical form. A less common convention than {{angbr|*}} (b), this is sometimes used when reconstructed and ungrammatical forms occur in the same text.<ref>e.g. Alan Kaye (2007) ''Morphologies of Asia and Africa''. Eisenbrauns.</ref> ;{{angbr|×}}: An ungrammatical form. A less common convention than {{angbr|*}} (b), this is sometimes used when reconstructed and ungrammatical forms occur in the same text.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Lyle |title=Historical linguistics: an introduction |date=2013 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |location=Edinburgh |isbn=9780262518499 |pages=xix |edition=3.}}</ref> ;{{angbr|?}}: A doubtfully grammatical form. ;{{angbr|%}}: A generalized form, such as a typical shape of a [[wanderwort]] that has not actually been reconstructed.<ref>Haynie, Bowern, Epps, Hill & McConvell (2014) Wanderwörter in languages of the Americas and Australia. ''Ampersand'' 1:1–18.</ref> ;{{angbr|#}}: A word boundary &ndash; e.g. {{angbr|#V}} for a word-initial vowel. ;{{angbr|$}}: A [[phonological word]] boundary; e.g. {{angbr|H$}} for a high tone that occurs in such a position. ;{{angbr|_}}: The location of a segment &ndash; e.g. {{angbr|V_V}} for an intervocalic position === Capital letters === Full capital letters are not used as IPA symbols, except as typewriter substitutes (e.g. N for {{angbr IPA|ŋ}}, S for {{angbr IPA|&thinsp;ʃ&thinsp;}}, O for {{angbr IPA|ɔ}} &ndash; see [[SAMPA chart for English|SAMPA]]). They are, however, often used in conjunction with the IPA in two cases: # for [[archiphoneme|(archi)phonemes]] and for [[natural class]]es of sounds (that is, as wildcards). The [[extIPA]] chart, for example, uses capital letters as wildcards in its illustrations. # as carrying letters for the [[Voice Quality Symbols]]. Wildcards are commonly used in phonology to summarize syllable or word shapes, or to show the evolution of classes of sounds. For example, the possible syllable shapes of Mandarin can be abstracted as ranging from {{IPA|/V/}} (an atonic vowel) to {{IPA|/CGVNᵀ/}} (a consonant-glide-vowel-nasal syllable with tone), and [[word-final devoicing]] may be schematized as {{IPA|C}} → {{IPA|C̥}}/_#. In speech pathology, capital letters represent indeterminate sounds, and may be superscripted to indicate they are weakly articulated: e.g. {{IPA|[ᴰ]}} is a weak indeterminate alveolar, {{IPA|[ᴷ]}} a weak indeterminate velar.<ref>Perry (2000) ''Phonological/phonetic assessment of an English-speaking adult with [[dysarthria]]''</ref> There is a degree of variation between authors as to the capital letters used, but {{angbr IPA|C}} for {consonant}, {{angbr IPA|V}} for {vowel} and {{angbr IPA|N}} for {nasal} are ubiquitous in English-language material. Other common conventions are {{angbr IPA|T}} for {tone/accent} (tonicity)<!--e.g. Nathan White, 'Word in Hmong', in Phonological Word and Grammatical Word-->, {{angbr IPA|P}} for {plosive}<!--e.g. Karlsson & Sullivan (2005) /sP/ consonant clusters in Swedish, Vanderweide (2005) The acquisition of manner in pre-vocalic sequences, also Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics (HCHIEL)-->, {{angbr IPA|F}} for {fricative}<!--e.g. 2015 extIPA chart, or Pellegrino et al. "2010, a speech oddity: Phonetic transcription of reversed speech", Vanderweide (2005), also HCHIEL -->, {{angbr IPA|S}} for {sibilant}<!--e.g. Waterson (1987) Prosodic Phonology; Dolgopolsky, Indo-European Dict Nostratic Etymologies, also HCHIEL-->,<ref group=note>As in [[Afrasianist phonetic notation]]. {{angbr IPA|S}} is particularly ambiguous. It has been used for 'stop', 'fricative', 'sibilant', 'sonorant' and 'semivowel'. On the other hand, plosive/stop is frequently abbreviated {{angbr IPA|P}}, {{angbr IPA|T}} or {{angbr IPA|S}}. The illustrations given here use, as much as possible, letters that are capital versions of members of the sets they stand for: IPA {{IPA|[n]}} is a nasal and {{angbr IPA|N}} is any nasal; {{IPA|[p]}} is a plosive, {{IPA|[f]}} a fricative, {{IPA|[s]}} a sibilant, {{IPA|[l]}} both a lateral and a liquid, {{IPA|[r]}} both a rhotic and a resonant, and [ʞ] a click. {{angbr IPA|¢}} is an obstruent in Americanist notation, where it stands for {{IPA|[ts]}}. An alternative wildcard for 'glide', {{angbr IPA|J}}<!--e.g. International Journal of Slavic Linguistics and Poetics XXIII-->, fits this pattern, but is much less common than {{angbr IPA|G}} in English-language sources.</ref> {{angbr IPA|G}} for {glide/semivowel}<!--e.g. Vanderweide (2005), HCHIEL-->, {{angbr IPA|L}} for {lateral}<!--e.g. Smith 2000 Dependency Theory Meets OT, or in Australian languages that have a large set of laterals--> or {liquid}<!--e.g. Walker 1984 Pronunciation of Canadian French, or Pellegrino et al., or Vanderweide (2005), HCHIEL-->, {{angbr IPA|R}} for {rhotic}<!--e.g. Smith 2000 Dependency Theory Meets OT, or Pellegrino et al.--> or {resonant/sonorant<!--e.g. "R" for "sonorant" in Larry Hyman 'Coda constraints on tone', also HCHIEL-->},<ref group=note>At least in the notation of {{angbr|CRV-}} syllables, the {{angbr|R}} is understood to include liquids and glides but to exclude nasals, as in Bennett (2020: 115) 'Click Phonology', in Sands (ed.), ''Click Consonants'', Brill</ref><!--do a GBooks search for 'CLV' or 'CRV' + 'liquid'/'resonant' + 'phonology' for instances of L and R--> {{angbr IPA|₵}} for {obstruent},<!--e.g. International Journal of Slavic Linguistics and Poetics XXIII--> {{angbr IPA|Ʞ}} for {click}<!--see Bonny Sands 2020 'Introduction', ''Click Consonants'', Brill-->, {{angbr IPA|A<!--e.g. Dolgopolsky-->, E<!--e.g. Dolgopolsky-->, O, Ɨ, U<!--e.g. Dolgopolsky-->}} for {open, front, back, close, rounded vowel}<ref group=note>{Close vowel} may instead be {{angbr IPA|U}}, and {{angbr IPA|O}} may stand for {obstruent}.</ref> and {{angbr IPA|B, D, Ɉ, K, Q, Φ, H}} for {labial<!--HCHIEL-->, alveolar<!--Perry (2000)-->, post-alveolar/palatal, velar<!--HCHIEL, Perry (2000), or more generically as 'dorsal' in van de Vijver, Höhle & Ott, On the distribution of dorsals in complex and simple onsets in child German, Dutch and English-->, uvular, pharyngeal, glottal<ref group=note>Or glottal~pharyngeal {{angbr IPA|H}}, as in Afrasianist phonetic notation</ref> consonant}, respectively, and {{angbr IPA|X}} for {any sound}<!--e.g. Walker 1984 Pronunciation of Canadian French-->. The letters can be modified with IPA diacritics, for example {{angbr IPA|Cʼ}} for {ejective}, {{angbr IPA|Ƈ&thinsp;}} for {implosive}, {{angbr IPA|N͡C}} or {{angbr IPA|ᴺC}} for {prenasalized consonant}, {{angbr IPA|Ṽ}} for {[[nasal vowel]]}<!--e.g. Pellegrino et al.-->, {{angbr IPA|CʰV́}} for {aspirated CV syllable with high tone}, {{angbr IPA|S̬}} for {voiced sibilant}, {{angbr IPA|N̥}} for {voiceless nasal}<!--e.g. Huffman & Hinnebusch, 'The phonetic nature of "voiceless" nasals in Pokomo'-->, {{angbr IPA|P͡F}} or {{angbr IPA|Pꟳ}} for {affricate}, {{angbr IPA|Cʲ}} for {palatalized consonant}<!--e.g. Alexei Kochetov, Phonetic variation and gestural specification: Production of Russian consonants--> and {{angbr IPA|D̪}} for {dental consonant}. {{angbr IPA|H}}, {{angbr IPA|M}}, {{angbr IPA|L}} are also commonly used for high, mid and low tone, with {{angbr IPA|LH}} for rising tone and {{angbr IPA|HL}} for falling tone, rather than transcribing them overly precisely with IPA tone letters or with ambiguous digits.<ref group=note>Somewhat more precisely, {{angbr IPA|LM}} and {{angbr IPA|MH}} are sometimes used for low and high rising tones, and {{angbr IPA|HM}}, {{angbr IPA|ML}} for high and low falling tones; occasionally {{angbr IPA|R}} for 'rising' or {{angbr IPA|F}} for 'falling' is also seen.</ref> Typical examples of archiphonemic use of capital letters are {{angbr IPA|I}} for the Turkish harmonic vowel set {{IPA|{i y ɯ u}}};<ref group=note>For other Turkic languages, {{angbr IPA|I}} may be restricted to {{IPA|{ɯ i}}} (that is, to ''ı i''), {{angbr IPA|U}} to ''u ü'', {{angbr IPA|A}} to ''a e/ä'', etc.</ref> {{angbr IPA|D}} for the conflated flapped middle consonant of American English ''writer'' and ''rider''; {{angbr IPA|N}} for the [[homorganic]] syllable-coda nasal of languages such as Spanish and Japanese (essentially equivalent to the wild-card usage of the letter); and {{angbr IPA|R}} in cases where a phonemic trill {{IPA|/r/}} and flap {{IPA|/ɾ/}} are indeterminate, as in Spanish ''enrejar'' {{IPA|/eNreˈxaR/}} (the ''n'' is homorganic and the first ''r'' is a trill but the second is variable).<ref>[[Antonio Quilis]] (1997) ''Principios de fonología y fonética españolas'', p. 65.</ref> Similar usage is found for ''phonemic'' analysis, where a language does not distinguish sounds that have separate letters in the IPA. For instance, Castillian Spanish has been analyzed as having phonemes {{IPA|/Θ/}} and {{IPA|/S/}}, which surface as {{IPA|[θ]}} and {{IPA|[s]}} in voiceless environments and as {{IPA|[ð]}} and {{IPA|[z]}} in voiced environments (e.g. ''hazte'' {{IPA|/ˈaΘte/}}, → {{IPA|[ˈaθte]}}, vs ''hazme'' {{IPA|/ˈaΘme/}}, → {{IPA|[ˈaðme]}}; or ''las manos'' {{IPA|/laS ˈmanoS/}}, → {{IPA|[lazˈmanos]}}).<ref>Xavier Frías Conde (2001) ''Introducción a la fonología y fonética del español'', p. 11&ndash;12. Ianua. Revista Philologica Romanica.</ref> {{angbr IPA|V}}, {{angbr IPA|F}} and {{angbr IPA|C}} have completely different meanings as [[Voice Quality Symbols]], where they stand for "voice" (generally meaning [[secondary articulation]], as in {{angbr IPA|Ṽ}} "nasal voice", not phonetic voicing), "falsetto" and "creak". They may also take diacritics that indicate what kind of voice quality an utterance has, and may be used to extract a suprasegmental feature that occurs on all susceptible segments in a stretch of IPA. For instance, the transcription of [[Scottish Gaelic]] {{IPA|[kʷʰuˣʷt̪ʷs̟ʷ]}} 'cat' and {{IPA|[kʷʰʉˣʷt͜ʃʷ]}} 'cats' ([[Islay]] dialect) can be made more economical by extracting the suprasegmental labialization of the words: {{IPA|Vʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]}} and {{IPA|Vʷ[kʰʉˣt͜ʃ]}}.<ref>Laver (1994) ''Principles of Phonetics'', p. 374.</ref> The usual wildcard X or C might be used instead of V so that the reader does not misinterpret {{angbr IPA|Vʷ}} as meaning that only vowels are labialized (i.e. {{IPA|Xʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]}} for all segments labialized, {{IPA|Cʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]}} for all consonants labialized), or the carrier letter may be omitted altogether (e.g. {{IPA|ʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]}}, {{IPA|[ʷkʰuˣt̪s̟]}} or {{IPA|[kʰuˣt̪s̟]ʷ}}). (See {{section link|#Suprasegmentals}} for other transcription conventions.) ==Segments without letters== The blank cells on the IPA chart can be filled without much difficulty if the need arises. The expected retroflex letter forms have appeared in the literature for the [[retroflex implosive]] {{angbr IPA|ᶑ&thinsp;}}, the [[retroflex lateral flap]] {{angbr IPA|𝼈&thinsp;}} and the [[retroflex click]]s {{angbr IPA|𝼊&thinsp;}}; the first is mentioned in the IPA ''Handbook'' and the IPA requested Unicode support for superscript variants of all three. The missing voiceless lateral fricatives are provided for by the [[extIPA]]. The epiglottal trill is arguably covered by the generally trilled epiglottal "fricatives" {{angbr IPA|ʜ ʢ}}. Labiodental plosives {{angbr IPA|ȹ ȸ}} appear in some old Bantuist texts. ''Ad hoc'' near-close central vowels {{angbr IPA|ᵻ ᵿ}} are used in some descriptions of English. Diacritics can duplicate some of these; {{angbr IPA|p̪ b̪}} are now universal for labiodental plosives, {{angbr IPA|ɪ̈ ʊ̈}} are common for the central vowels and {{angbr IPA|ɭ̆&thinsp;}} is occasionally seen for the lateral flap. Diacritics are able to fill in most of the remainder of the charts.<ref>"Diacritics may also be employed to create symbols for phonemes, thus reducing the need to create new letter shapes." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p.&nbsp;27)</ref> If a sound cannot be transcribed, an asterisk {{angbr|*}} may be used, either as a letter or as a diacritic (as in {{angbr|k*}} sometimes seen for the [[Korean phonology|Korean]] "fortis" velar). ===Consonants=== Representations of consonant sounds outside of the core set are created by adding diacritics to letters with similar sound values. The Spanish bilabial and dental approximants are commonly written as lowered fricatives, {{IPA|[β̞]}} and {{IPA|[ð̞]}} respectively.<ref group=note>Dedicated letters have been proposed, such as rotated <span style="{{mirrorH}}"><span style="{{mirrorV}}">{{angbr IPA|β}}</span></span> and <span style="{{mirrorH}}"><span style="{{mirrorV}}">{{angbr IPA|ð}}</span></span>, reversed <span style="{{mirrorH}}">{{angbr IPA|β}}</span> and <span style="{{mirrorH}}">{{angbr IPA|ð}}</span>, or small-capital {{angbr IPA|{{sm|б}}}} and {{angbr IPA|ᴆ}}. Ball, Rahilly & Lowry (2017) ''Phonetics for speech pathology'', 3rd edition, Equinox, Sheffield.</ref> Similarly, voiced lateral fricatives would be written as raised lateral approximants, {{IPA|[ɭ˔ ʎ̝ ʟ̝]}}; extIPA provides {{angbr IPA|𝼅}} for the first of these. A few languages such as [[Banda languages|Banda]] have a bilabial flap as the preferred allophone of what is elsewhere a labiodental flap. It has been suggested that this be written with the labiodental flap letter and the advanced diacritic, {{IPA|[ⱱ̟]}}.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Olson | first1 = Kenneth S. | last2 = Hajek | first2 = John | year = 1999 | title = The phonetic status of the labial flap | journal = Journal of the International Phonetic Association | volume = 29 | issue = 2| pages = 101–114 | doi = 10.1017/s0025100300006484 | s2cid = 14438770 }}</ref> Similarly, a labiodental trill would be written {{IPA|[ʙ̪]}} (bilabial trill and the dental sign), and labiodental stops {{IPA|[p̪ b̪]}} rather than with the ''ad hoc'' letters sometimes found in the literature. Other taps can be written as extra-short plosives or laterals, e.g. {{IPA|[&thinsp;ɟ̆ ɢ̆ ʟ̆]}}, though in some cases the diacritic would need to be written below the letter. A [[retroflex trill]] can be written as a retracted {{IPA|[r̠]}}, just as non-subapical retroflex fricatives sometimes are. The remaining consonants &ndash; the uvular laterals ({{IPA|[ʟ̠]}} ''etc.'') and the palatal trill &ndash; while not strictly impossible, are very difficult to pronounce and are unlikely to occur even as allophones in the world's languages. ===Vowels=== The vowels are similarly manageable by using diacritics for raising, lowering, fronting, backing, centering, and mid-centering.<ref>"The diacritics...can be used to modify the lip or tongue position implied by a vowel symbol." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p.&nbsp;16)</ref> For example, the unrounded equivalent of {{IPA|[ʊ]}} can be transcribed as mid-centered {{IPA|[ɯ̽]}}, and the rounded equivalent of {{IPA|[æ]}} as raised {{IPA|[ɶ̝]}} or lowered {{IPA|[œ̞]}} (though for those who conceive of vowel space as a triangle, simple {{IPA|[ɶ]}} already is the rounded equivalent of {{IPA|[æ]}}). True mid vowels are lowered {{IPA|[e̞ ø̞ ɘ̞ ɵ̞ ɤ̞ o̞]}} or raised {{IPA|[ɛ̝ œ̝ ɜ̝ ɞ̝ ʌ̝ ɔ̝]}}, while centered {{IPA|[ɪ̈ ʊ̈]}} and {{IPA|[ä]}} (or, less commonly, {{IPA|[ɑ̈]}}) are near-close and open central vowels, respectively. The only known vowels that cannot be represented in this scheme are vowels with unexpected [[roundedness]], which would require a dedicated diacritic, such as protruded {{angbr IPA|ʏʷ}} and compressed {{angbr IPA|uᵝ}} (or protruded {{angbr IPA|ɪʷ}} and compressed {{angbr IPA|ɯᶹ}}). ==Symbol names== {{Main|Naming conventions of the International Phonetic Alphabet}} An IPA symbol is often distinguished from the sound it is intended to represent, since there is not necessarily a one-to-one correspondence between letter and sound in broad transcription, making articulatory descriptions such as "mid front rounded vowel" or "voiced velar stop" unreliable. While the ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association'' states that no official names exist for its symbols, it admits the presence of one or two common names for each.<ref>"...the International Phonetic Association has never officially approved a set of names..." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;31)</ref> The symbols also have [[Nonce word|nonce names]] in the [[Unicode]] standard. In many cases, the names in Unicode and the IPA ''Handbook'' differ. For example, the ''Handbook'' calls {{angbr IPA|ɛ}} "epsilon", while Unicode calls it "small letter open e". The traditional names of the Latin and Greek letters are usually used for unmodified letters.<ref group=note> For example, the IPA ''Handbook'' lists {{angbr IPA|p}} as "lower-case P" and {{angbr IPA|χ}} as "chi." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;171) </ref> Letters which are not directly derived from these alphabets, such as {{angbr IPA|ʕ}}, may have a variety of names, sometimes based on the appearance of the symbol or on the sound that it represents. In Unicode, some of the letters of Greek origin have Latin forms for use in IPA; the others use the characters from the Greek block. For diacritics, there are two methods of naming. For traditional diacritics, the IPA notes the name in a well known language; for example, {{angbr IPA|é}} is "e-[[Acute accent|acute]]", based on the name of the diacritic in English and French. Non-traditional diacritics are often named after objects they resemble, so {{angbr IPA|d̪}} is called "d-bridge". [[Geoffrey Pullum]] and [[William Ladusaw]] list a variety of names in use for IPA symbols, both current and retired, in their ''[[Phonetic Symbol Guide]]''; many of these found their way into Unicode.<ref name=Pullum/> ==Computer support== ===Unicode=== {{main|Phonetic symbols in Unicode#IPA}} [[Unicode]] supports nearly all of the IPA alphabet. Apart from basic Latin and Greek and general punctuation, the primary blocks are [[IPA Extensions]], [[Spacing Modifier Letters]] and [[Combining Diacritical Marks]], with lesser support from [[Phonetic Extensions]], [[Phonetic Extensions Supplement]], [[Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement]], and scattered characters elsewhere. The [[extended IPA]] is supported primarily by those blocks and [[Latin Extended-G]]. === IPA numbers === {{main|IPA number}} After the [[Kiel Convention]] in 1989, most IPA symbols were assigned an identifying number to prevent confusion between similar characters during the printing of manuscripts. The codes were never much used and have been superseded by Unicode.<ref>A chart of the numbers for the most common IPA symbols can be found on the IPA website.[https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/sites/default/files/IPA_Number_chart_(C)2005.pdf IPA number chart]</ref> ===Typefaces=== [[File:IPA font sample (SIL, Brill, Noto, Calibri).png|thumb|The sequence {{IPA|⟨˨˦˧꜒꜔꜓k͜𝼄a͎̽᷅ꟸ⟩}} in the fonts Gentium Book Plus, Andika, Brill, Noto Serif and Calibri. All of these fonts align diacritics well. Asterisks are characters not supported by that font. In Noto, the red tone letters do not link properly. This is a test sequence: Noto and Calibri support most IPA adequately.]] Many typefaces have support for IPA characters, but good diacritic rendering remains rare.<ref name="Es gilt das gesprochene Wort: Schriftarten für IPA-Transkriptionen">{{cite web |title=Es gilt das gesprochene Wort: Schriftarten für IPA-Transkriptionen |date=16 March 2014 |url=https://www.isoglosse.de/2014/03/schriftarten-ipa-transkriptionen/ | access-date=2022-08-18 |language=de}}</ref> [[Web browser]]s generally do not need any configuration to display IPA characters, provided that a typeface capable of doing so is available to the operating system. ====System fonts==== The ubiquitous [[Arial]] and [[Times New Roman]] fonts include IPA characters, but they are neither complete (especially Arial) nor render diacritics properly. The basic Latin [[Noto fonts]] are better, only failing with the more obscure characters. The proprietary [[Calibri]] font,<!--good diacritic placement of Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement, but incomplete tone support--> which is the default font of [[Microsoft Office]], has nearly complete IPA support with good diacritic rendering. {| class=wikitable !Font !!Sample !!Comments |- |[[Times New Roman]] || <span style="font-family:Times New Roman;">⟨˨˦˧꜒꜔꜓k͜𝼄a͎̽᷅ꟸ⟩</span> || The tone letters join properly, but the tie-bar and diacritics are displaced, and the diacritics overstrike each other rather than stacking |} ====Other commercial fonts==== [[Brill Publishers#Brill Typeface|Brill]]<!--comparable support to Calibri--> has good IPA support. It is a commercial font but freely available for non-commercial use.<ref name="Brill Typeface">{{cite web |title=Brill Typeface |url=https://brill.com/page/1228?language=en%20Brill%20Typeface |access-date=2022-08-18 |language=en |archive-date=18 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818094822/https://brill.com/page/1228?language=en%20Brill%20Typeface |url-status=dead }}</ref> ====Free fonts==== Typefaces that provide nearly full IPA support<!--e.g. Modifier Tone Letters such as tone-sandhi U+A712--> and properly render diacritics<!--e.g. Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement characters such as U+1DC5--> include [[Gentium|Gentium Plus]], [[Charis SIL]], [[Doulos SIL]], and [[Andika (font)|Andika]]. <!--SIL fonts seem to be the only ones with complete IPA support. --> In addition to the support found in other fonts, these fonts support the full range of old-style (pre-Kiel) staveless tone letters, which do not have dedicated Unicode support, through an option to suppress the stave of the Chao tone letters. ===ASCII and keyboard transliterations=== {{further|Comparison of ASCII encodings of the International Phonetic Alphabet}} Several systems have been developed that map the IPA symbols to [[ASCII]] characters. Notable systems include [[SAMPA]] and [[X-SAMPA]]. The usage of mapping systems in on-line text has to some extent been adopted in the context input methods, allowing convenient keying of IPA characters that would be otherwise unavailable on standard keyboard layouts. ===IETF language tags=== [[IETF language tag]]s have registered {{mono|fonipa}} as a variant subtag identifying text as written in IPA.<ref name="IANA">{{cite web |title=Language Subtag Registry |url=https://www.iana.org/assignments/language-subtag-registry/language-subtag-registry |publisher=IANA |access-date=30 April 2021 |language=en |date=2021-03-05}}</ref> Thus, an IPA transcription of English could be tagged as {{mono|en-fonipa}}. For the use of IPA without attribution to a concrete language, {{mono|und-fonipa}} is available. ===Computer input using on-screen keyboard=== Online IPA keyboard utilities are available, though none<!--before claiming something provides full support, verify that it supports the tone diacritics that do not appear on the IPA chart--> of them cover the complete range of IPA symbols and diacritics.<ref group=note>Online IPA keyboard utilities include the [https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/IPAcharts/inter_chart_2018/IPA_2018.html IPA 2018 i-charts] hosted by the IPA, [https://r12a.github.io/pickers/ipa/ IPA character picker 27] at GitHub, [http://ipa.typeit.org/full/ Type IPA phonetic symbols] at TypeIt.org, and an [https://westonruter.github.io/ipa-chart/keyboard/ IPA Chart keyboard] at GitHub.</ref> In April 2019, Google's [[Gboard]] for [[Android (operating system)|Android]] added an IPA keyboard to its platform.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/04/18/gboard-updated-with-63-new-languages-including-ipa-not-the-beer/|title=Gboard updated with 63 new languages, including IPA (not the beer)|date=18 April 2019|website=Android Police|language=en-US|access-date=28 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://support.google.com/gboard/answer/6380730?co=GENIE.Platform=Android|title=Set up Gboard – Android – Gboard Help|website=support.google.com|access-date=28 April 2019}}</ref> For iOS there are multiple free keyboard layouts available, e.g. "IPA Phonetic Keyboard".<ref>{{Cite web|title=IPA Phonetic Keyboard|url=https://apps.apple.com/lu/app/ipa-phonetic-keyboard/id1440241497|access-date=8 December 2020|website=App Store|language=en-gb}}</ref> ==See also== {{Div col}} * {{annotated link|Afroasiatic phonetic notation}} * {{annotated link|Americanist phonetic notation}} * {{annotated link|Arabic International Phonetic Alphabet}} * {{annotated link|Articulatory phonetics}} * {{annotated link|Case variants of IPA letters}} * {{annotated link|Cursive forms of the International Phonetic Alphabet}} * {{annotated link|Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet}} * [[Index of phonetics articles]] * {{annotated link|International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration}} * {{annotated link|International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects}} * [[List of international common standards]] * {{annotated link|Luciano Canepari}} * {{annotated link|Phonetic symbols in Unicode}} * {{annotated link|RFE Phonetic Alphabet}} * {{annotated link|SAMPA}} * {{annotated link|Semyon Novgorodov}} – inventor of IPA-based [[Yakut scripts]] * {{annotated link|TIPA (software)|TIPA}} provides IPA support for [[LaTeX]] * {{annotated link|UAI phonetic alphabet}} * {{annotated link|Uralic Phonetic Alphabet}} * {{annotated link|Voice Quality Symbols}} * {{annotated link|X-SAMPA}} {{Div col end}} ==Notes== {{Reflist|group=note|30em}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Further reading== {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{Cite journal|last=Ball|first=Martin J.|author2=John H. Esling|author3=B. Craig Dickson|year=1995|title=The VoQS system for the transcription of voice quality|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|volume=25|issue=2|pages=71–80|doi=10.1017/S0025100300005181|s2cid=145791575 }} * {{Cite journal|last=Duckworth|first=M.|author2=G. Allen|author3=M.J. Ball|date=December 1990|title=Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for the transcription of atypical speech|journal=Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics|volume=4|issue=4|pages=273–280|doi=10.3109/02699209008985489}} * {{Cite journal|last1=Hill|first1=Kenneth C.|date=March 1988|last2=Pullum|first2=Geoffrey K.|last3=Ladusaw|first3=William|title=Review of ''Phonetic Symbol Guide'' by G. K. Pullum & W. Ladusaw|journal=Language|volume=64|issue=1|pages=143–144|doi=10.2307/414792|jstor=414792}} * {{Cite journal|author=International Phonetic Association|year=1989|title=Report on the 1989 Kiel convention|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|volume=19|issue=2|pages=67–80|doi=10.1017/s0025100300003868|s2cid=249412330 }} * {{Cite book|author=International Phonetic Association|year=1999|title=Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet|location=Cambridge|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=0-521-65236-7}} (hb); {{ISBN|0-521-63751-1}} (pb). * {{Cite book|last=Jones|first=Daniel|author-link=Daniel Jones (phonetician)|title=English pronouncing dictionary|year=1988|edition=revised 14th|publisher=Dent|location=London|oclc=18415701|isbn=0-521-86230-2|url=https://archive.org/details/englishpronounci00dani}} * {{Cite journal|last=Ladefoged|first=Peter|author-link=Peter Ladefoged|date=September 1990|title=The revised International Phonetic Alphabet|journal=Language|volume=66|issue=3|pages=550–552|doi=10.2307/414611|jstor=414611}} * {{Cite journal|last=Ladefoged|first=Peter|author2=Morris Halle|date=September 1988|title=Some major features of the International Phonetic Alphabet|journal=Language|volume=64|issue=3|pages=577–582|doi=10.2307/414533|jstor=414533}} * {{Cite book|last=Laver|first=John|title=Principles of Phonetics|year=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|isbn=0-521-45031-4}} (hb); {{ISBN|0-521-45655-X}} (pb). * {{Cite book|last=Pullum|first=Geoffrey K.|author-link=Geoffrey Pullum|author2=William A. Ladusaw|title=Phonetic Symbol Guide|year=1986|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|location=Chicago|isbn=0-226-68532-2|title-link=Phonetic Symbol Guide}} * {{Cite book|last=Skinner|first=Edith|author2=Timothy Monich|author3=Lilene Mansell|title=Speak with Distinction|location=New York|publisher=Applause Theatre Book Publishers|year=1990|isbn=1-55783-047-9|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/speakwithdistinc0000skin}} * {{cite book|last1=Fromkin|first1=Victoria|last2=Rodman|first2=Robert|last3=Hyams|first3=Nina|title=An Introduction to Language|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00from_616|url-access=limited|date=2011|publisher=Wadsworth, Cengage Learning|location=Boston|pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00from_616/page/n252 233]–234|edition=9th|isbn=978-1-4282-6392-5}} {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Commons category|International Phonetic Alphabet}} * {{Official website|http://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org}} * [https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/IPAcharts/inter_chart_2018/IPA_2018.html Interactive IPA chart] <!-- Do not add links to unofficial pages per [[WP:LINKFARM]] - some might belong to [[Help:IPA]] --> {{IPA navigation}} {{Language phonologies}} {{List of writing systems}} {{Latin script}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:International Phonetic Alphabet| ]] [[Category:Phonetic guides]] [[Category:Unicode]] ch99jwadfkpw0mu8u84cyk84gkev8wj 323751 323750 2025-06-17T20:32:51Z Kwamikagami 3479 /* Vowels */ 323751 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|System of phonetic notation}} {{For|the international (civil) aviation organization (ICAO) spelling alphabet|NATO phonetic alphabet}} {{Self reference|For an introductory guide on IPA symbols with audio, see [[:Help:IPA]]. For the usage of the IPA on Wikipedia, see [[:Help:IPA/Introduction]] and [[:Help:IPA/English]].}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}} {{Infobox writing system |name = International Phonetic Alphabet |type = Alphabet |typedesc = – partially [[Featural alphabet|featural]] |languages = Used for [[Phonetics|phonetic]] and [[Phoneme|phonemic]] transcription of any language |time = 1888 to present |fam1 = [[Palaeotype alphabet]], [[English Phonotypic Alphabet]] |fam2 = [[Romic alphabet]] |sample = IPA in IPA.svg |imagesize = 200px |note = none |unicode = |iso15924 = |caption = "IPA" in IPA ({{IPA|[aɪ pʰiː eɪ]}}) }} {{SpecialChars | special = [[phonetics|phonetic]] [[symbol]]s | fix = Help:Special characters | characters = phonetic symbols }} [[File:IPA chart 2020.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|The official chart of the IPA, revised in 2020]] The '''International Phonetic Alphabet''' ('''IPA''') is an [[alphabet]]ic system of [[phonetic transcription|phonetic notation]] based primarily on the [[Latin script]]. It was devised by the [[International Phonetic Association]] in the late 19th century as a standardized representation of [[speech sound]]s in written form.<ref name="IPA 1999">International Phonetic Association (IPA), ''Handbook''.</ref> The IPA is used by [[lexicography|lexicographers]], [[foreign language]] students and teachers, [[linguistics|linguists]], [[speech–language pathology|speech–language pathologists]], singers, actors, [[constructed language]] creators, and translators.<ref name="world">{{Cite book|last=MacMahon|first=Michael K. C.|chapter=Phonetic Notation|editor=P. T. Daniels|editor2=W. Bright|title=The World's Writing Systems|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/821 821–846]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=1996|location=New York|isbn=0-19-507993-0|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/821}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|first=Joan |last=Wall |title=International Phonetic Alphabet for Singers: A Manual for English and Foreign Language Diction |publisher=Pst |year=1989 |isbn=1-877761-50-8 }}</ref> The IPA is designed to represent those qualities of speech that are part of [[wiktionary:lexical|lexical]] (and, to a limited extent, [[prosodic]]) sounds in [[oral language]]: [[phone (phonetics)|phones]], [[phoneme]]s, [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]], and the separation of [[word]]s and [[syllable]]s.<ref name="IPA 1999" /> To represent additional qualities of speech—such as tooth [[wiktionary:gnash|gnashing]], [[lisp]]ing, and sounds made with a [[cleft lip and cleft palate]]—an [[extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet|extended set of symbols]] may be used.<ref name="world" /> Segments are transcribed by one or more IPA symbols of two basic types: [[letter (alphabet)|letters]] and [[diacritic]]s. For example, the sound of the [[English language|English]] letter {{angbr|t}} may be transcribed in IPA with a single letter: {{IPA|[t]}}, or with a letter plus diacritics: {{IPA|[t̺ʰ]}}, depending on how precise one wishes to be. Slashes are used to signal [[phonemic transcription]]; therefore, {{IPA|/t/}} is more abstract than either {{IPA|[t̺ʰ]}} or {{IPA|[t]}} and might refer to either, depending on the context and language.<ref group=note>The inverted bridge under the {{angbr|t̺ʰ}} specifies it as [[apical consonant|apical]] (pronounced with the tip of the tongue), and the superscript ''h'' shows that it is [[aspirated consonant|aspirated]] (breathy). Both these qualities cause the English {{IPA|/t/}} to sound different from the French or Spanish {{IPA|/t/}}, which is a [[laminal consonant|laminal]] (pronounced with the blade of the tongue) and unaspirated {{IPA|[t̻]}}. {{IPA|[t̺ʰ]}} and {{IPA|[t̻]}} are thus two different, though similar, sounds.</ref> Occasionally, letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/ipachart.html |title=IPA: Alphabet |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010121927/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/ipachart.html |archive-date=10 October 2012 }}</ref> there are 107 segmental letters, an indefinitely large number of suprasegmental letters, 44 diacritics (not counting composites), and four extra-lexical [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosodic]] marks in the IPA. Most<!--the majority of tone letters are not shown; not all the components are even found in the IPA Handbook--> of these are shown in the current [[International Phonetic Alphabet chart|IPA chart]], posted below in this article and at the website of the IPA.<ref>{{cite web|title=Full IPA Chart|url=https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/full-ipa-chart|website=International Phonetic Association|access-date=24 April 2017}}</ref> ==History== {{Main|History of the International Phonetic Alphabet}} In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist [[Paul Passy]], formed what would be known from 1897 onwards as the [[International Phonetic Association]] (in French, {{lang|fr|l'Association phonétique internationale}}).<ref name="IPA194-196">International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp.&nbsp;194–196</ref> Their original alphabet was based on a [[spelling reform]] for English known as the [[Romic alphabet]], but to make it usable for other languages the values of the symbols were allowed to vary from language to language.<ref group=note>"Originally, the aim was to make available a set of phonetic symbols which would be given ''different'' articulatory values, if necessary, in different languages." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp.&nbsp;195–196)</ref> For example, the sound {{IPAblink|ʃ}} (the ''sh'' in ''shoe'') was originally represented with the letter {{angbr|c}} in English, but with the digraph {{angbr|{{lang|fr|ch}}}} in French.<ref name="IPA194-196"/> In 1888, the alphabet was revised to be uniform across languages, thus providing the base for all future revisions.<ref name="IPA194-196"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Passy |first=Paul |year=1888 |title=Our revised alphabet |journal=[[The Phonetic Teacher]] |pages=57–60}}</ref> The idea of making the IPA was first suggested by [[Otto Jespersen]] in a letter to Passy. It was developed by [[Alexander John Ellis]], [[Henry Sweet]], [[Daniel Jones (phonetician)|Daniel Jones]], and Passy.<ref>IPA in the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]</ref> Since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After revisions and expansions from the 1890s to the 1940s, the IPA remained primarily unchanged until the [[Kiel Convention]] in 1989. A minor revision took place in 1993 with the addition of four letters for [[mid central vowel]]s<ref name="world" /> and the removal of letters for [[implosive consonant#Voiceless implosives|voiceless implosives]].<ref name="Pullum">Pullum and Ladusaw, ''[[Phonetic Symbol Guide]]'', pp.&nbsp;152, 209</ref> The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a [[labiodental flap]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Nicolaidis |first=Katerina |title=Approval of New IPA Sound: The Labiodental Flap |url=http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/flap.htm |date=September 2005 |publisher=International Phonetic Association |access-date=17 September 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060902212308/http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/ipa/flap.htm |archive-date=2 September 2006}}</ref> Apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely of renaming symbols and categories and in modifying [[Typeface|typefaces]].<ref name="world" /> [[Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet]] for [[speech pathology]] (extIPA) were created in 1990 and were officially adopted by the [[International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association]] in 1994.<ref>International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;186</ref> ==Description== The general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound ([[segment (linguistics)|speech segment]]).<ref group=note>"From its earliest days [...] the International Phonetic Association has aimed to provide 'a separate sign for each distinctive sound; that is, for each sound which, being used instead of another, in the same language, can change the meaning of a word'." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;27)</ref> This means that: * It does not normally use [[multigraph (orthography)|combinations of letters]] to represent single sounds, the way English does with {{angbr|sh}}, {{angbr|th}} and {{angbr|ng}}, or single letters to represent multiple sounds, the way {{angbr|x}} represents {{IPA|/ks/}} or {{IPA|/ɡz/}} in English. * There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values, the way [[hard and soft C|{{angbr|c}}]] and [[hard and soft G|{{angbr|g}}]] in several European languages have a "hard" or "soft" pronunciation. * The IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, a property known as "selectiveness".<ref name="world"/><ref group=note> For instance, [[flap consonant|flaps and taps]] are two different kinds of [[Manner of articulation|articulation]], but since no language has (yet) been found to make a distinction between, say, an [[alveolar tap|alveolar flap]] and an alveolar tap, the IPA does not provide such sounds with dedicated letters. Instead, it provides a single letter (in this case,&nbsp;{{IPA|[ɾ]}}) for both. Strictly speaking, this makes the IPA a partially [[phonemic|phon''em''ic]] alphabet, not a purely [[phonetic|phon''et''ic]] one.</ref> However, if a large number of phonemically distinct letters can be derived with a diacritic, that may be used instead.<ref group=note>This exception to the rules was made primarily to explain why the IPA does not make a dental–alveolar distinction, despite one being phonemic in hundreds of languages, including most of the continent of Australia. [[Americanist Phonetic Notation]] makes (or at least made) a distinction between apical {{angbr|t d s z n l}} and laminal {{angbr|τ δ ς ζ ν λ}}, which is easily applicable to alveolar vs dental (when a language distinguishes apical alveolar from laminal dental, as in Australia), but despite several proposals to the Council, the IPA never voted to accept such a distinction.</ref> The alphabet is designed for transcribing sounds (phones), not [[phoneme]]s, though it is used for phonemic transcription as well. A few letters that did not indicate specific sounds have been retired ({{angbr IPA|ˇ}}, once used for the "compound" tone of Swedish and Norwegian, and {{angbr IPA|ƞ}}, once used for the [[moraic]] nasal of Japanese), though one remains: {{angbr IPA|ɧ}}, used for the [[sj-sound]] of Swedish. When the IPA is used for phonemic transcription, the letter–sound correspondence can be rather loose. For example, {{angbr IPA|c}} and {{angbr IPA|ɟ}} are used in the IPA ''Handbook'' for {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} and {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}}. Among the symbols of the IPA, 107 letters represent [[consonant]]s and [[vowel]]s, 31 [[diacritic]]s are used to modify these, and 17 additional signs indicate [[Segment (linguistics)|suprasegmental]] qualities such as [[length (phonetics)|length]], [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]], [[Stress (linguistics)|stress]], and [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]].<ref group=note> There are three<!--dbl acute and grave are compounds--> basic tone diacritics and five basic tone letters, both sets of which may be compounded. </ref> These are organized into a chart; the chart displayed here is the official chart as posted at the website of the IPA. ===Letter forms=== [[File:LowercaseG.svg|right|thumb|Loop-tail {{angbr IPA|g}} and open-tail {{angbr IPA|ɡ}} are graphic variants. Open-tail {{angbr IPA|ɡ}} was the original IPA symbol, but both are now considered correct. See [[history of the IPA]] for details.]] The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the [[Latin alphabet]].<ref group=note> "The non-roman letters of the International Phonetic Alphabet have been designed as far as possible to harmonize well with the roman letters. The Association does not recognize makeshift letters; It recognizes only letters which have been carefully cut so as to be in harmony with the other letters." (IPA 1949) </ref> For this reason, most letters are either [[Latin script|Latin]] or [[Greek alphabet|Greek]], or modifications thereof. Some letters are neither: for example, the letter denoting the [[glottal stop]], {{angbr IPA|ʔ}}, originally had the form of a dotless [[question mark]], and derives from an [[apostrophe]]. A few letters, such as that of the voiced [[pharyngeal consonant|pharyngeal fricative]], {{angbr IPA|ʕ}}, were inspired by other writing systems (in this case, the [[Arabic script|Arabic]] letter ⟨{{lang|ar|[[Ayin|ﻉ]]}}⟩, ''{{transliteration|ar|ʿayn}}'', via the reversed apostrophe).<ref name=Pullum/> <!--clearly, ʔ and ʕ are not of independent origin and reflect the transliteration of alif vs. ayin in Semitic philology. Source needed--> Some letter forms derive from existing letters: * The right-swinging tail, as in {{angbr IPA|ʈ ɖ ɳ ɽ ʂ ʐ ɻ ɭ&thinsp;}}, indicates [[retroflex consonant|retroflex]] articulation. It originates from the hook of an ''r''. * The top hook, as in {{angbr IPA|ɠ ɗ ɓ}}, indicates [[glottalic ingressive|implosion]]. * Several [[Nasal consonant|nasal consonants]] are based on the form {{angbr IPA|n}}: {{angbr IPA|n ɲ ɳ ŋ}}. {{angbr IPA|ɲ}} and {{angbr IPA|ŋ}} derive from [[Typographic ligature|ligatures]] of ''gn'' and ''ng,'' and {{angbr IPA|ɱ}} is an ''ad hoc'' imitation of {{angbr IPA|ŋ}}. * Letters turned 180 degrees for suggestive shapes, such as {{angbr IPA|ɐ ɔ ə ɟ ɓ ɥ ɾ ɯ ɹ ʇ ʊ ʌ ʍ ʎ}} from {{angbr IPA|a c e f ɡ h ᴊ<!--per Ellis, Pullum, etc.--> m r t <small>Ω</small> v w y}}.<ref group=note>Originally, {{IPA|[ʊ]}} was written as a small capital U. However, this was not easy to read, and so it was replaced with a turned small capital omega. In modern typefaces, it often has its own design, called a 'horseshoe'.</ref> Either the original letter may be reminiscent of the target sound (e.g., {{angbr IPA|ɐ ə ɹ ʇ ʍ}}) or the turned one (e.g., {{angbr IPA|ɔ ɟ ɓ ɥ ɾ ɯ ʌ ʎ<!--like both y and lambda-->}}). Rotation was popular in the era of [[Hot metal typesetting|mechanical typesetting]], as it had the advantage of not requiring the casting of special type for IPA symbols, much as the sorts had traditionally often pulled double duty for {{angbr|b}} and {{angbr|q}}, {{angbr|d}} and {{angbr|p}}, {{angbr|n}} and {{angbr|u}}, {{angbr|6}} and {{angbr|9}} to reduce cost. *:[[File:Turned small cap omega as a vowel.svg|thumb|An example of a font that uses turned small-capital omega, {{angbr|ꭥ}}, for the vowel {{angbr|ʊ}}. The symbol had originally been a small-capital {{angbr|ᴜ}}.]] * Among consonant letters, the [[Small caps|small capital]] letters {{angbr IPA|ɢ ʜ ʟ ɴ ʀ ʁ}}, and also {{angbr IPA|ꞯ}} in [[extIPA]], indicate more [[guttural]] sounds than their base letters. ({{angbr IPA|ʙ}}<!--for the bilabial trill--> is a late exception.) Among vowel letters, small capitals indicate [[lax vowel|"lax"]] vowels. Most of the original small-cap vowel letters have been modified into more distinctive shapes (e.g. {{angbr IPA|ʊ ɤ ɛ ʌ}} from {{sc|U Ɐ E A}}), with only {{angbr IPA|ɪ ʏ}} remaining as small capitals. ===Typography and iconicity=== The International Phonetic Alphabet is based on the [[Latin script]], and uses as few non-Latin letters as possible.<ref name = IPA194-196 /> The Association created the IPA so that the sound values of most letters would correspond to "international usage" (approximately [[Classical Latin]]).<ref name=IPA194-196/> Hence, the consonant letters {{angbr IPA|b}}, {{angbr IPA|d}}, {{angbr IPA|f}}, ([[hard G|hard]]) {{angbr IPA|ɡ}}, (non-silent) {{angbr IPA|h}}, (unaspirated) {{angbr IPA|k}}, {{angbr IPA|l}}, {{angbr IPA|m}}, {{angbr IPA|n}}, (unaspirated) {{angbr IPA|p}}, (voiceless) {{angbr IPA|s}}, (unaspirated) {{angbr IPA|t}}, {{angbr IPA|v}}, {{angbr IPA|w}}, and {{angbr IPA|z}} have more or less the values found in English; and the vowel letters {{angbr IPA|a}}, {{angbr IPA|e}}, {{angbr IPA|i}}, {{angbr IPA|o}}, {{angbr IPA|u}} correspond to the (long) sound values of Latin: {{IPA|[i]}} is like the vowel in ''mach{{strong|i}}ne'', {{IPA|[u]}} is as in ''r{{strong|u}}le'', etc. Other Latin letters, particularly {{angbr IPA|j}}, {{angbr IPA|r}} and {{angbr IPA|y}}, differ from English, but have their IPA values in Latin or other European languages. This basic Latin inventory was extended by adding small-capital and cursive forms, diacritics and rotation. The sound values of these letters are related to those of the original letters, and their derivation may be iconic.<ref>{{Citation | quote = The new letters should be suggestive of the sounds they represent, by their resemblance to the old ones. | publisher = International Phonetic Association | title = Handbook | page = 196}}.</ref> For example, letters with a rightward-facing hook at the bottom represent [[retroflex consonant|retroflex]] equivalents of the source letters, and small capital letters usually represent [[uvular consonant|uvular]] equivalents of their source letters. There are also several letters from the Greek alphabet, though their sound values may differ from Greek. The most extreme difference is {{angbr IPA|ʋ}}, which is a vowel in Greek but a consonant in the IPA. For most Greek letters, subtly different [[glyph]] shapes have been devised for the IPA, specifically {{angbr IPA|ɑ}}, {{angbr IPA|ꞵ}}, {{angbr IPA|ɣ}}, {{angbr IPA|ɛ}}, {{angbr IPA|ɸ}}, {{angbr IPA|ꭓ}} and {{angbr IPA|ʋ}}, which are encoded in [[Unicode]] separately from their parent Greek letters. One, however – {{angbr IPA|θ}} – has only its Greek form, while for {{angbr IPA|ꞵ ~ β}} and {{angbr IPA|ꭓ ~ χ}}, both Greek and Latin forms are in common use.<ref>Cf. the notes at the [[Unicode]] [http://unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0250.pdf#3 IPA EXTENSIONS code chart] as well as blogs by [http://evertype.com/blog/blog/category/unicode/ Michael Everson] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010200655/http://evertype.com/blog/blog/category/unicode/|date=10 October 2017}} and John Wells [http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2010/07/disunification-1.html here] and [http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2010/07/disunification-2.html here].</ref> The [[tone letter#IPA|tone letters]] are not derived from an alphabet, but from a [[pitch trace]] on a [[Scale (music)|musical scale]]. Beyond the letters themselves, there are a variety of secondary symbols which aid in transcription. [[Diacritic]] marks can be combined with IPA letters to add phonetic detail such as tone and [[secondary articulation]]s. There are also special symbols for prosodic features such as stress and intonation. ===Brackets and transcription delimiters=== There are two principal types of [[bracket]]s used to set off (delimit) IPA transcriptions: {| class="wikitable" ! | Symbol !! Use |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|[&nbsp;...&nbsp;]}} || [[Square brackets]] are used with [[phonetic]] notation, whether broad or narrow<ref name=IPA175>IPA ''Handbook'' p. 175</ref> – that is, for actual pronunciation, possibly including details of the pronunciation that may not be used for distinguishing words in the language being transcribed, which the author nonetheless wishes to document. Such phonetic notation is the primary function of the IPA. |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|/&nbsp;...&nbsp;/}} || [[Slash (punctuation)|Slashes]]<ref group="note">[[Merriam-Webster]] dictionaries use [[backslash]]es {{IPA|\&nbsp;...&nbsp;\}} to demarcate their in-house transcription system. This distinguishes their IPA-influenced system<!--the IPA influence is rather minimal, limited to the IPA stress marks and schwa, but the pronunciation data collected for MW's Third New International was in IPA and the IPA was seriously considered for its published transcription system.--> from true IPA, which is used between forward slashes in the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''.</ref> are used for abstract [[phonemic]] notation,<ref name=IPA175/> which note only features that are distinctive in the language, without any extraneous detail. For example, while the 'p' sounds of English ''pin'' and ''spin'' are pronounced differently (and this difference would be meaningful in some languages), the difference is not meaningful in English. Thus, ''phonemically'' the words are usually<!--could also be analyzed /pin/ and /sbin/--> analyzed as {{IPA|/ˈpɪn/}} and {{IPA|/ˈspɪn/}}, with the same phoneme {{IPA|/p/}}. To capture the difference between them (the [[allophone]]s of {{IPA|/p/}}), they can be transcribed phonetically as {{IPA|[pʰɪn]}} and {{IPA|[spɪn]}}. Phonemic notation commonly uses IPA symbols that are rather close to the default pronunciation of a phoneme, but for legibility or other reasons can use symbols that diverge from their designated values, such as {{IPA|/c, ɟ/}} for affricates typically pronounced {{IPA|[t͜ʃ, d͜ʒ]}}, as found in the ''Handbook'', or {{IPA|/r/}}, which in phonetic notation is a trill, for English ''r'' even when pronounced {{IPA|[ɹʷ]}}. |} Other conventions are less commonly seen: {| class="wikitable" ! | Symbol !! Use |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|&#x007B;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&#x007D;}} || [[Bracket#Curly brackets|Braces]] ("curly brackets") are used for [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosodic]] notation.<ref name=IPA176>IPA ''Handbook'' p. 176</ref> See [[Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet]] for examples in this system. |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|(&nbsp;...&nbsp;)}} || [[Parentheses]] are used for indistinguishable<ref name=IPA175/> or unidentified utterances. They are also seen for silent articulation (mouthing),<ref name=IPA191>IPA ''Handbook'' p. 191</ref> where the expected phonetic transcription is derived from lip-reading, and with periods to indicate silent pauses, for example {{IPA|(…)}} or {{IPA|(2 sec)}}. The latter usage is made official in the [[extIPA]], with unidentified segments circled.<ref>IPA (1999) ''Handbook'', p 188, 192</ref> |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|⸨&nbsp;...&nbsp;⸩}} || [[Parenthesis|Double parentheses]] indicate either a transcription of obscured speech or a description of the obscuring noise. The IPA specifies that they mark the obscured sound,<ref name=IPA176/> as in {{IPA|⸨2σ⸩}}, two audible syllables obscured by another sound. The current extIPA specifications prescribe double parentheses for the extraneous noise, such as ⸨cough⸩ or ⸨knock⸩ for a knock on a door, but the IPA ''Handbook'' identifies IPA and extIPA usage as equivalent.<ref>IPA (1999) ''Handbook'', p 176, 192</ref> Early publications of the extIPA explain double parentheses as marking "uncertainty because of noise which obscures the recording," and that within them "may be indicated as much detail as the transcriber can detect."<ref>Duckworth et al. (1990) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232077905_Extensions_to_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet_for_the_transcription_of_atypical_speech Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for the transcription of atypical speech.] ''[[Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics]]'' 4: 4: 278.</ref> |} All three of the above are provided by the IPA ''Handbook''. The following are not, but may be seen in IPA transcription or in associated material (especially angle brackets): {| class="wikitable" ! | Symbol !! Use |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|⟦&nbsp;...&nbsp;⟧}} || [[Square bracket|Double square brackets]] are used for extra-precise (especially narrow) transcription. This is consistent with the IPA convention of doubling a symbol to indicate greater degree. Double brackets may indicate that a letter has its cardinal IPA value. For example, {{IPA|⟦a⟧}} is an open front vowel, rather than the perhaps slightly different value (such as open central) that "{{IPA|[a]}}" may be used to transcribe in a particular language. Thus, two vowels transcribed for easy legibility as {{angbr IPA|[e]}} and {{angbr IPA|[ɛ]}} may be clarified as actually being {{IPA|⟦e̝⟧}} and {{IPA|⟦e⟧}}; {{angbr IPA|[ð]}} may be more precisely {{IPA|⟦ð̠̞ˠ⟧}}.<ref>Basbøll (2005) ''The Phonology of Danish'' pp. 45, 59</ref> Double brackets may also be used for a specific token or speaker; for example, the pronunciation of a child as opposed to the adult phonetic pronunciation that is their target.<ref>Karlsson & Sullivan (2005) ''/sP/ consonant clusters in Swedish: Acoustic measurements of phonological development''</ref> |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|⫽&nbsp;...&nbsp;⫽<br>&#x007C;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&#x007C;<br>‖&nbsp;...&nbsp;‖<br>&#x007B;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&#x007D;}} || [[Slash (punctuation)|Double slashes]] are used for [[morphophonemic]] transcription. This is also consistent with the IPA convention of doubling a symbol to indicate greater degree (in this case, more abstract than phonemic transcription). Other symbols sometimes seen for morphophonemic transcription are [[vertical bar|pipes]] and double pipes, from [[Americanist phonetic notation]]; and ''braces'' from [[set theory]], especially when enclosing the set of phonemes that constitute the morphophoneme, e.g. {{IPA|&#x007B;t d&#x007D;}} or {{IPA|&#x007B;t&#x007C;d&#x007D;}} or {{IPA|&#x007B;/t/, /d/&#x007D;}}. Only double slashes are unambiguous: both pipes and braces conflict with IPA prosodic transcription.<ref group=note>For example, the single and double pipe symbols are used for minor and major prosodic breaks. Although the ''Handbook'' specifies the prosodic symbols as "thick" vertical lines, which would be distinct from simple ASCII pipes (and similar to [[Dania transcription|Dania]] transcription), this is optional and was intended to keep them distinct from the pipes used as [[click letter]]s (''JIPA'' 19.2, p. 75). The ''Handbook'' (p. 174) assigns them the Unicode encodings U+007C, which is the simple ASCII pipe symbol, and U+2016.</ref> See [[morphophonology]] for examples. |- | style="text-align: center; | {{angbr IPA|&nbsp;...&nbsp;}}<br>{{IPA|⟪&nbsp;...&nbsp;⟫}} || [[Angle bracket]]s<ref group="note">The proper angle brackets in Unicode are the mathematical symbols (U+27E8 and U+27E9). Chevrons ‹...› (U+2039, U+203A) are sometimes substituted, as in Americanist phonetic notation, as are the less-than and greater-than signs <...> (U+003C, U+003E) found on ASCII keyboards.</ref> are used to mark both original Latin orthography and [[transliteration]] from another script<!--including e.g. Arabic and Chinese characters used to transcribe Latin script-->; they are also used to identify individual [[grapheme]]s of any script.<ref>Richard Sproat (2000) ''A Computational Theory of Writing Systems''. Cambridge University Press. Page 26.</ref><ref>Barry Heselwood (2013) ''Phonetic Transcription in Theory and Practice''. Edinburgh University Press. Page 8 ff, 29 ff.</ref> Within the IPA, they are used to indicate the IPA letters themselves rather than the sound values that they carry. Double angle brackets may occasionally be useful to distinguish original orthography from transliteration, or the idiosyncratic spelling of a manuscript from the normalized orthography of the language. For example, {{angbr IPA|cot}} would be used for the orthography of the English word ''cot'', as opposed to its pronunciation {{IPA|/ˈkɒt/}}. Italics are usual when words are written as themselves (as with ''cot'' in the previous sentence) rather than to specifically note their orthography. However, italic markup is not evident to sight-impaired readers who rely on [[screen reader]] technology. |} Some examples of contrasting brackets in the literature: {{block quote|In some English accents, the phoneme {{IPA|/l/}}, which is usually spelled as {{angbr|l}} or {{angbr|ll}}, is articulated as two distinct allophones: the clear {{IPA|[l]}} occurs before vowels and the consonant {{IPA|/j/}}, whereas the dark {{IPA|[ɫ]}}/{{IPA|[lˠ]}} occurs before consonants, except {{IPA|/j/}}, and at the end of words.<ref>Paul Tench (2011) ''Transcribing the Sound of English''. Cambridge University Press. Page 61.</ref>}} {{block quote|the alternations {{IPA|/f/}} &ndash; {{IPA|/v/}} in plural formation in one class of nouns, as in ''knife'' {{IPA|/naɪf/}} &ndash; ''knives'' {{IPA|/naɪvz/}}, which can be represented morphophonemically as {{IPA|{naɪV}}} &ndash; {{IPA|{naɪV+z}}}. The morphophoneme {{IPA|{V}}} stands for the phoneme set {{IPA|{/f/, /v/}}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Gibbon |first1= Dafydd |last2= Moore |first2= Roger |last3= Winski |first3= Richard |title= Handbook of Standards and Resources for Spoken Language Systems: Spoken language characterisation |date= 1998 |publisher= Walter de Gruyter |location= Berlin; New York |isbn= 9783110157345 |pages=61 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=8cxtWcsAk5MC&pg=PA61 |language= en}}</ref>}} {{block quote|{{IPA|[ˈf\faɪnəlz ˈhɛld ɪn (.) ⸨knock on door⸩ bɑɹsə{_𝑝ˈloʊnə and ˈmədɹɪd_𝑝}]}} &mdash; ''f-finals held in Barcelona and Madrid.''<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ball |first1=Martin J. |last2=Lowry |first2=Orla M. |author1-link=Martin J. Ball |title=Methods in Clinical Phonetics |date=2001 |publisher=Whurr |location=London |isbn=9781861561848 |pages=80 |chapter=Transcribing Disordered Speech |doi=10.1002/9780470777879.ch3|s2cid=58518097 }}</ref>}} ===Other representations=== {{main|Cursive forms of the International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA Braille}} IPA letters have [[cursive]] forms designed for use in manuscripts and when taking field notes, but the 1999 ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association'' recommended against their use, as cursive IPA is "harder for most people to decipher."{{sfn|International Phonetic Association|1999|p=31}} A [[braille]] representation of the IPA for blind or visually impaired professionals and students has also been developed.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Englebretson |first=Robert |date=2009 |title=An overview of IPA Braille: an updated tactile representation of the International Phonetic Alphabet |url=http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~reng/englebretson2009.pdf |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=39 |issue=1 |page=67 |access-date=5 April 2014 |doi=10.1017/s0025100308003691|citeseerx=10.1.1.501.366 |s2cid=36426880 }}</ref> =={{anchor|chart}}Modifying the IPA chart== [[File:Extended IPA chart 2005.png|thumb|upright=1.25|The authors of textbooks or similar publications often create revised versions of the IPA chart to express their own preferences or needs. The image displays one such version. All pulmonic consonants are moved to the consonant chart. Only the black symbols are on the official IPA chart; additional symbols are in grey. The grey fricatives are part of the [[extIPA]], and the grey retroflex letters are mentioned or implicit<!--'implicit' is the description used in the Unicode request for support for the missing retroflex letters--> in the ''Handbook''. The grey click is a retired IPA letter that is still in use.]] The International Phonetic Alphabet is occasionally modified by the Association. After each modification, the Association provides an updated simplified presentation of the alphabet in the form of a chart. (See [[History of the International Phonetic Alphabet|History of the IPA]].) Not all aspects of the alphabet can be accommodated in a chart of the size published by the IPA. The [[alveolo-palatal consonant|alveolo-palatal]] and [[epiglottal consonant|epiglottal]] consonants, for example, are not included in the consonant chart for reasons of space rather than of theory (two additional columns would be required, one between the retroflex and palatal columns and the other between the pharyngeal and glottal columns), and the [[lateral flap]] would require an additional row for that single consonant, so they are listed instead under the catchall block of "other symbols".<ref>{{cite book|last=Esling|first=John H.|author-link=John Esling|year=2010|chapter=Phonetic Notation|editor1-last=Hardcastle|editor1-first=William J.|editor2-last=Laver|editor2-first=John|editor3-last=Gibbon|editor3-first=Fiona E.|title=The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences|edition=2nd|pages=678–702|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|doi=10.1002/9781444317251.ch18|isbn=978-1-4051-4590-9}} pp.&nbsp;688, 693.</ref> The indefinitely large number of [[Chao tone letter|tone letters]] would make a full accounting impractical even on a larger page, and only a few examples are shown, and even the tone diacritics are not complete; the reversed tone letters are not illustrated at all. The procedure for modifying the alphabet or the chart is to propose the change in the ''[[Journal of the International Phonetic Association|Journal of the IPA]].'' (See, for example, August 2008 on an [[open central unrounded vowel]] and August 2011 on central approximants.)<ref name="cambridge1">{{cite journal|author1=Martin J. Ball |author2=Joan Rahilly |title=The symbolization of central approximants in the IPA |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=231–237 |publisher=Cambridge Journals Online |date=August 2011 |doi=10.1017/s0025100311000107|s2cid=144408497 }}<!-- Author, title, pages are unknown because the url is simply a link to the issue TOC. The same inadequate citation applies to the next reference. --></ref> Reactions to the proposal may be published in the same or subsequent issues of the Journal (as in August 2009 on the open central vowel).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayIssue?decade=2000&jid=IPA&volumeId=39&issueId=02&iid=5907924 |title=Cambridge Journals Online – Journal of the International Phonetic Association Vol. 39 Iss. 02 |publisher=Journals.cambridge.org |date=23 October 2012 |access-date=20 November 2012}}</ref> A formal proposal is then put to the Council of the IPA<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/about.html |title=IPA: About us |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010121905/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/about.html |archive-date=10 October 2012}}</ref> – which is elected by the membership<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/statutes.html |title=IPA: Statutes |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010121941/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/statutes.html |archive-date=10 October 2012}}</ref> – for further discussion and a formal vote.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/news/news200509.html |title=IPA: News |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111181340/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/news/news200509.html |archive-date=11 November 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/news/news201112.html |title=IPA: News |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111181349/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/news/news201112.html |archive-date=11 November 2012}}</ref> Nonetheless, many users of the alphabet, including the leadership of the Association itself, deviate from this norm.<ref group=note>See "Illustrations of the IPA" in the ''IPA Handbook'' (1999) for individual languages which for example may use {{angbr|/c/}} as a phonemic symbol for what is phonetically realized as {{IPA|[tʃ]}}, or superscript variants of IPA letters that are not officially defined.</ref> The ''Journal of the IPA'' finds it acceptable to mix IPA and [[extIPA]] symbols in consonant charts in their articles. (For instance, including the extIPA letter [[voiceless palatal lateral fricative|{{angbr IPA|𝼆}}]], rather than {{angbr IPA|ʎ̝̊}}, in an illustration of the IPA.)<ref name=pulmonic/> ==Usage== {{further|Phonetic transcription}} Of more than 160 IPA symbols, relatively few will be used to transcribe speech in any one language, with various levels of precision. A precise phonetic transcription, in which sounds are specified in detail, is known as a ''narrow transcription''. A coarser transcription with less detail is called a ''broad transcription.'' Both are relative terms, and both are generally enclosed in square brackets.<ref name="IPA 1999"/> Broad phonetic transcriptions may restrict themselves to easily heard details, or only to details that are relevant to the discussion at hand, and may differ little if at all from phonemic transcriptions, but they make no theoretical claim that all the distinctions transcribed are necessarily meaningful in the language. [[File:RPGA international.svg|200px|thumb|Phonetic transcriptions of the word ''international'' in two English dialects]] For example, the English word ''little'' may be transcribed broadly as {{IPA|[ˈlɪtəl]}}, approximately describing many pronunciations. A narrower transcription may focus on individual or dialectical details: {{IPA|[ˈɫɪɾɫ]}} in [[General American]], {{IPA|[ˈlɪʔo]}} in [[Cockney]], or {{IPA|[ˈɫɪːɫ]}} in [[Southern American English|Southern US English]]. Phonemic transcriptions, which express the conceptual counterparts of spoken sounds, are usually enclosed in slashes (/ /) and tend to use simpler letters with few diacritics. The choice of IPA letters may reflect theoretical claims of how speakers conceptualize sounds as phonemes or they may be merely a convenience for typesetting. Phonemic approximations between slashes do not have absolute sound values. For instance, in English, either the vowel of ''pick'' or the vowel of ''peak'' may be transcribed as {{IPA|/i/}}, so that ''pick'', ''peak'' would be transcribed as {{IPA|/ˈpik, ˈpiːk/}} or as {{IPA|/ˈpɪk, ˈpik/}}; and neither is identical to the vowel of the French ''{{lang|fr|pique}}'' which would also be transcribed {{IPA|/pik/}}. By contrast, a narrow phonetic transcription of ''pick'', ''peak'', ''pique'' could be: {{IPA|[pʰɪk]}}, {{IPA|[pʰiːk]}}, {{IPA|[pikʲ]}}. ===Linguists=== IPA is popular for transcription by linguists. Some American linguists, however, use a mix of IPA with [[Americanist phonetic notation]] or use some [[Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet|nonstandard symbols]] for various reasons.<ref name="thomason">{{cite web|url=http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/005287.html |title=Why I Don't Love the International Phonetic Alphabet |author=Sally Thomason |date=2 January 2008 |work=Language Log }}</ref> Authors who employ such nonstandard use are encouraged to include a chart or other explanation of their choices, which is good practice in general, as linguists differ in their understanding of the exact meaning of IPA symbols and common conventions change over time. ===Dictionaries=== ====English==== Many British dictionaries, including the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] and some [[Monolingual learner's dictionary|learner's dictionaries]] such as the ''[[Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary]]'' and the ''[[Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary]]'', now use [[Pronunciation respelling for English#International Phonetic Alphabet|the International Phonetic Alphabet]] to represent the pronunciation of words.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dictionary.cambridge.org/help/phonetics.htm |title=Phonetics |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge Dictionaries Online |access-date=11 March 2007 |archive-date=17 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110817233308/http://dictionary.cambridge.org/help/phonetics.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, most American (and some British) volumes use one of a variety of [[Pronunciation respelling for English|pronunciation respelling]] systems, intended to be more comfortable for readers of English and to be more acceptable across dialects, without the implication of a preferred pronunciation that the IPA might convey. For example, the respelling systems in many American dictionaries (such as ''[[Merriam-Webster Dictionary|Merriam-Webster]]'') use {{angbr|y}} for IPA {{IPA|[&thinsp;j]}} and {{angbr|sh}} for IPA {{IPA|[&thinsp;ʃ&thinsp;]}}, reflecting the usual spelling of those sounds in English.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/help/pronunciation-key |title=Merriam-Webster Online Pronunciation Symbols |access-date=4 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070601152219/http://mw1.merriam-webster.com/pronsymbols.html |archive-date=1 June 2007 |url-status=dead}}<br />{{Cite book|first=Michael|last=Agnes|title=Webster's New World College Dictionary|year=1999|publisher=Macmillan|location=New York|isbn=0-02-863119-6|page=xxiii|no-pp=true|url=https://archive.org/details/webstersnewworld00agne_0|url-access=registration}}<br />''[[Pronunciation respelling for English]]'' has detailed comparisons.</ref> (In IPA, {{IPA|[y]}} represents the sound of the French {{angbr|u}}, as in ''{{lang|fr|tu}}'', and {{IPA|[sh]}} represents the sequence of consonants in ''gra{{strong|ssh}}opper''.) ====Other languages==== The IPA is also not universal among dictionaries in languages other than English. Monolingual dictionaries of languages with [[phonemic orthography|phonemic orthographies]] generally do not bother with indicating the pronunciation of most words, and tend to use respelling systems for words with unexpected pronunciations. Dictionaries produced in Israel use the IPA rarely and sometimes use the [[Hebrew alphabet]] for transcription of foreign words.<ref group=note>Monolingual Hebrew dictionaries use pronunciation respelling for words with unusual spelling; for example, the ''[[Even-Shoshan Dictionary]]'' respells {{Script/Hebrew|תָּכְנִית}} as {{angbr|{{Script/Hebrew|תּוֹכְנִית}}}} because the word uses the ''[[kamatz]] katan''.</ref> Bilingual dictionaries that translate from foreign languages into Russian usually employ the IPA, but monolingual Russian dictionaries occasionally use pronunciation respelling for foreign words.<ref group=note>For example, [[Sergey Ozhegov]]'s dictionary adds [нэ́] in brackets to the French loan-word ''пенсне'' (''{{lang|fr|[[pince-nez]]}}'') to indicate that the final {{angbr|[[е]]}} does not [[Iotation|iotate]] the preceding {{angbr|[[н]]}}. </ref> The IPA is more common in bilingual dictionaries, but there are exceptions here too. Mass-market bilingual Czech dictionaries, for instance, tend to use the IPA only for sounds not found in [[Czech language|Czech]].<ref>{{in lang|cs}} {{Cite book|last=Fronek|first=J.|title=Velký anglicko-český slovník|year=2006|publisher=Leda|location=Praha|language=cs|isbn=80-7335-022-X|quote=In accordance with long-established Czech lexicographical tradition, a modified version of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is adopted in which letters of the Czech alphabet are employed.}}</ref> ===Standard orthographies and case variants=== {{main|Case variants of IPA letters}} IPA letters have been incorporated into the alphabets of various languages, notably via the [[Africa Alphabet]] in many sub-Saharan languages such as [[Hausa language|Hausa]], [[Fula language|Fula]], [[Akan language|Akan]], [[Gbe languages]], [[Manding languages]], [[Lingala language|Lingala]], etc. Capital case variants have been created for use in these languages. For example, [[Kabiyé language|Kabiyè]] of northern [[Togo]] has [[African D|Ɖ ɖ]], [[Eng (letter)|Ŋ ŋ]], [[Latin gamma|Ɣ ɣ]], [[Open O|Ɔ ɔ]], [[Latin epsilon|Ɛ ɛ]], [[Ʋ|Ʋ ʋ]]. These, and others, are supported by [[Unicode]], but appear in Latin ranges other than the [[IPA Extensions (Unicode block)|IPA extensions]]. In the IPA itself, however, only lower-case letters are used. The 1949 edition of the IPA handbook indicated that an asterisk {{angbr|*}} might be prefixed to indicate that a word was a proper name,<ref>''Principles of the International Phonetic Association,'' 1949:17.</ref> but this convention was not included in the 1999 ''Handbook'', which notes the contrary use of the asterisk as a placeholder for a sound or feature that does not have a symbol. ===Classical singing=== The IPA has widespread use among classical singers during preparation as they are frequently required to sing in a variety of foreign languages. They are also taught by vocal coaches to perfect diction and improve tone quality and tuning.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Severens|first=Sara E.|year=2017|title=The Effects of the International Phonetic Alphabet in Singing|journal=Student Scholar Showcase|url=https://digitalshowcase.lynchburg.edu/studentshowcase/2017/presentations/53/|language=en}}</ref> Opera [[libretto]]s are authoritatively transcribed in IPA, such as [[Nico Castel]]'s volumes<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.castelopera.com/libretti.htm | title=Nico Castel's Complete Libretti Series | publisher=Castel Opera Arts | access-date=29 September 2008 | archive-date=24 July 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724211024/http://www.castelopera.com/libretti.htm | url-status=dead }}</ref> and Timothy Cheek's book ''Singing in Czech''.<ref>{{Cite book | url=http://scarecrowpress.com/Catalog/SingleBook.shtml?command=Search&db=%5EDB/CATALOG.db&eqSKUdata=0810840030 | last=Cheek | first=Timothy | title=Singing in Czech | year=2001 | page=392 | isbn=978-0-8108-4003-4 | publisher=The Scarecrow Press | access-date=25 January 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007052429/http://scarecrowpress.com/Catalog/SingleBook.shtml?command=Search&db=%5EDB%2FCATALOG.db&eqSKUdata=0810840030 | archive-date=7 October 2011 | url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007052429/http://scarecrowpress.com/Catalog/SingleBook.shtml?command=Search&db=%5EDB%2FCATALOG.db&eqSKUdata=0810840030 |date=7 October 2011 }}</ref> Opera singers' ability to read IPA was used by the site ''Visual Thesaurus'', which employed several opera singers "to make recordings for the 150,000 words and phrases in VT's lexical database&nbsp;... for their vocal stamina, attention to the details of enunciation, and most of all, knowledge of IPA".<ref>{{cite web| url=http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=155 | title=Operatic IPA and the Visual Thesaurus | last=Zimmer | first=Benjamin | author-link=Benjamin Zimmer | work=[[Language Log]] | publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania]] | access-date=29 September 2009 | date=14 May 2008}}</ref> ==Letters== {{See also|International Phonetic Alphabet chart}} The International Phonetic Association organizes the letters of the IPA into three categories: [[pulmonic sounds|pulmonic]] consonants, non-pulmonic consonants, and vowels.<ref>"Segments can usefully be divided into two major categories, consonants and vowels." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;3)</ref><ref>International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;6.</ref> Pulmonic consonant letters are arranged singly or in pairs of voiceless ([[tenuis consonant|tenuis]]) and voiced sounds, with these then grouped in columns from front (labial) sounds on the left to back (glottal) sounds on the right. In official publications by the IPA, two columns are omitted to save space, with the letters listed among 'other symbols' even though theoretically they belong in the main chart,<ref group=note>They were moved "for presentational convenience [...] because of [their] rarity and the small number of types of sounds which are found there." (IPA ''Handbook'', p 18)</ref> and with the remaining consonants arranged in rows from full closure (occlusives: stops and nasals), to brief closure (vibrants: trills and taps), to partial closure (fricatives) and minimal closure (approximants), again with a row left out to save space. In the table below, a slightly different arrangement is made: All pulmonic consonants are included in the pulmonic-consonant table, and the vibrants and laterals are separated out so that the rows reflect the common [[lenition]] pathway of ''stop → fricative → approximant,'' as well as the fact that several letters pull double duty as both fricative and approximant; [[affricate]]s may be created by joining stops and fricatives from adjacent cells. Shaded cells represent articulations that are judged to be impossible. Vowel letters are also grouped in pairs—of unrounded and rounded vowel sounds—with these pairs also arranged from front on the left to back on the right, and from maximal closure at top to minimal closure at bottom. No vowel letters are omitted from the chart, though in the past some of the mid central vowels were listed among the 'other symbols'. ===Consonants=== ====Pulmonic consonants==== {{see also|IPA pulmonic consonant chart with audio}} A [[Egressive|pulmonic]] consonant is a consonant made by obstructing the [[glottis]] (the space between the vocal cords) or [[Human mouth|oral cavity]] (the mouth) and either simultaneously or subsequently letting out air from the lungs. Pulmonic consonants make up the majority of consonants in the IPA, as well as in human language. All consonants in English fall into this category.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fromkin|first=Victoria|author-link=Victoria Fromkin|author2=Rodman, Robert|title=An Introduction to Language|orig-year=1974|year=1998|publisher=Harcourt Brace College Publishers|location=Fort Worth, TX|edition=6th|isbn=0-03-018682-X|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00from_1}}</ref> The pulmonic consonant table, which includes most consonants, is arranged in rows that designate [[manner of articulation]], meaning how the consonant is produced, and columns that designate [[place of articulation]], meaning where in the vocal tract the consonant is produced. The main chart includes only consonants with a single place of articulation. {{IPA pulmonic consonants|caption=|affricates=no|notes=no}} '''Notes''' * In rows where some letters appear in pairs (the ''[[obstruent]]s''), the letter to the right represents a [[voice (phonetics)|voiced consonant]] (except [[breathy voice|breathy-voiced]] {{IPA|[ɦ]}}).<ref>Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1996, ''Sounds of the World's Languages,'' §2.1.</ref> In the other rows (the ''[[sonorant]]s''), the single letter represents a voiced consonant. * While IPA provides a single letter for the coronal places of articulation (for all consonants but fricatives), these do not always have to be used exactly. When dealing with a particular language, the letters may be treated as specifically dental, alveolar, or post-alveolar, as appropriate for that language, without diacritics. * Shaded areas indicate articulations judged to be impossible. * The letters {{IPA|[β, ð, ʁ, ʕ, ʢ]}} are canonically voiced fricatives but may be used for approximants.<ref>"A symbol such as {{IPA|[β]}}, shown on the chart in the position for a voiced bilabial fricative, can also be used to represent a voiced bilabial approximant if needed." (''Handbook'', p.9)</ref> * In many languages, such as English, {{IPA|[h]}} and {{IPA|[ɦ]}} are not actually glottal, fricatives, or approximants. Rather, they are bare [[phonation]].<ref>Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1996, ''Sounds of the World's Languages,'' §9.3.</ref> * It is primarily the shape of the tongue rather than its position that distinguishes the fricatives {{IPA|[ʃ ʒ]}}, {{IPA|[ɕ ʑ]}}, and {{IPA|[ʂ ʐ]}}. * {{IPA|[ʜ, ʢ]}} are defined as epiglottal fricatives under the "Other symbols" section in the official IPA chart, but they may be treated as trills at the same place of articulation as {{IPA|[ħ, ʕ]}} because trilling of the [[aryepiglottic fold]]s typically co-occurs.{{sfnp|Esling|2010|pp=688–9}} * Some listed phones are not known to exist as [[phoneme]]s in any language. ====Non-pulmonic consonants==== Non-pulmonic consonants are sounds whose airflow is not dependent on the lungs. These include [[click consonant|clicks]] (found in the [[Khoisan languages]] and some neighboring [[Bantu languages]] of Africa), [[Implosive consonant|implosives]] (found in languages such as [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Hausa language|Hausa]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]] and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]), and [[ejective consonant|ejectives]] (found in many [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Amerindian]] and [[Languages of the Caucasus|Caucasian languages]]). {{IPA non-pulmonic consonants|caption=|nonipa=no|affricates=no|notes=no}} '''Notes''' * Clicks have traditionally been described as consisting of a forward place of articulation, commonly called the click 'type' or historically the 'influx', and a rear place of articulation, which when combined with the voicing, aspiration, nasalization, affrication, ejection, [[contour click|timing]] etc. of the click is commonly called the click 'accompaniment' or historically the 'efflux'. The IPA click letters indicate only the click type (forward articulation and release). Therefore, all clicks require two letters for proper notation: {{angbr IPA|k͡ǂ, ɡ͡ǂ, ŋ͡ǂ, q͡ǂ, ɢ͡ǂ, ɴ͡ǂ}} ''etc.'', or with the order reversed if both the forward and rear releases are audible. The letter for the rear articulation is frequently omitted, in which case a {{angbr IPA|k}} may usually be assumed. However, some researchers dispute the idea that clicks should be analyzed as doubly articulated, as the traditional transcription implies, and analyze the rear occlusion as solely a part of the airstream mechanism.<ref>Amanda L. Miller ''et al.'', [https://web.archive.org/web/20070609200226/http://ling.cornell.edu/plab/amanda/amiller_jipa.pdf "Differences in airstream and posterior place of articulation among Nǀuu lingual stops"]. Submitted to the ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association''. Retrieved 27 May 2007.</ref> In transcriptions of such approaches, the click letter represents both places of articulation, with the different letters representing the different click types, and diacritics are used for the elements of the accompaniment: {{angbr IPA|ǂ, ǂ̬, ǂ̃}} ''etc.'' * Letters for the [[voiceless]] implosives {{angbr IPA|ƥ, ƭ, ƈ, ƙ, ʠ}} are no longer supported by the IPA, though they remain in Unicode. Instead, the IPA typically uses the voiced equivalent with a voiceless diacritic: {{angbr IPA|ɓ̥, ʛ̥}}, ''etc.''. * The letter for the [[Voiced retroflex implosive|retroflex implosive]], <span title="U+1D91">{{angbr IPA|ᶑ }}</span>, is not "explicitly IPA approved" (''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;166), but has the expected form if such a symbol were to be approved. * The ejective diacritic is placed at the right-hand margin of the consonant, rather than immediately after the letter for the stop: {{angbr IPA|t͜ʃʼ}}, {{angbr IPA|kʷʼ}}. In imprecise transcription, it often stands in for a superscript glottal stop in [[Glottalic consonant|glottalized]] but pulmonic [[sonorant]]s, such as {{IPA|[mˀ]}}, {{IPA|[lˀ]}}, {{IPA|[wˀ]}}, {{IPA|[aˀ]}} (also transcribable as creaky {{IPA|[m̰]}}, {{IPA|[l̰]}}, {{IPA|[w̰]}}, {{IPA|[a̰]}}). ====Affricates==== [[Affricate consonant|Affricates]] and [[Doubly articulated consonant|co-articulated]] stops are represented by two letters joined by a tie bar, either above or below the letters with no difference in meaning.<ref group=note>It is traditional to place the tie bar above the letters. It may be placed below to avoid overlap with ascenders or diacritic marks, or simply because it is more legible that way, as in {{cite web|author=Niesler, Louw, & Roux | date = 2005| title=Phonetic analysis of Afrikaans, English, Xhosa and Zulu using South African speech databases|url= http://www.ajol.info/index.php/salas/article/viewFile/6562/13287|publisher=Ajol.info|access-date=20 November 2012}}</ref> Affricates are optionally represented by [[Typographic ligature|ligatures]] (e.g. {{angbr IPA|ʦ, ʣ, ʧ, ʤ, ʨ, ʥ, ꭧ, ꭦ&thinsp;}}), though this is no longer official IPA usage<ref name="IPA 1999"/> because a great number of ligatures would be required to represent all affricates this way. Alternatively, a superscript notation for a consonant release is sometimes used to transcribe affricates, for example {{angbr IPA|tˢ}} for {{IPA|[t͜s]}}, paralleling {{IPA|[kˣ]}} ~ {{IPA|[k͜x]}}. The letters for the palatal plosives {{angbr IPA|c}} and {{angbr IPA|ɟ}} are often used as a convenience for {{IPA|[t͜ʃ]}} and {{IPA|[d͜ʒ]}} or similar affricates, even in official IPA publications, so they must be interpreted with care. {{IPA affricates|caption=|notes=no}} ====Co-articulated consonants==== [[Co-articulated consonant]]s are sounds that involve two simultaneous [[Place of articulation|places of articulation]] (are pronounced using two parts of the [[vocal tract]]). In English, the {{IPA|[w]}} in "went" is a coarticulated consonant, being pronounced by rounding the lips and raising the back of the tongue. Similar sounds are {{IPA|[ʍ]}} and {{IPA|[ɥ]}}. In some languages, plosives can be double-articulated, for example in the name of [[Laurent Gbagbo]]. {{IPA co-articulated consonants|caption=|notes=no}} '''Notes''' * {{IPA|[ɧ]}}, the [[sj-sound|Swedish ''sj''-sound]], is described by the IPA as a "simultaneous {{IPA|[ʃ]}} and {{IPA|[x]}}", but it is unlikely such a simultaneous fricative actually exists in any language.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ladefoged |first=Peter |author2=Ian Maddieson |year=1996 |title=The sounds of the world's languages |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell|pages=329–330|isbn=0-631-19815-6|author2-link=Ian Maddieson }}</ref> * Multiple tie bars can be used: {{angbr IPA|a͡b͡c}} or {{angbr IPA|a͜b͜c}}. For instance, if a prenasalized stop is transcribed {{angbr IPA|m͡b}}, and a doubly articulated stop {{angbr IPA|ɡ͡b}}, then a prenasalized doubly articulated stop would be {{angbr IPA|ŋ͡m͡ɡ͡b}} * If a diacritic needs to be placed on or under a tie bar, the [[combining grapheme joiner]] (U+034F) needs to be used, as in {{IPA|[b͜͏̰də̀bdɷ̀]}} 'chewed' ([[Margi language|Margi]]). Font support is spotty, however. ===Vowels=== {{Main|Vowel}} {{see also|IPA vowel chart with audio}} [[File:Cardinal vowel tongue position-front.svg|thumb|Tongue positions of [[Cardinal vowel|cardinal]] front vowels, with highest point indicated. The position of the highest point is used to determine vowel height and backness.]] [[File:Cardinal vowels-Jones x-ray.jpg|thumb|[[Radiography|X-ray photos]] show the sounds {{IPA|[i, u, a, ɑ]}}.]] The IPA defines a vowel as a sound which occurs at a syllable center.<ref>International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;10.</ref> Below is a chart depicting the vowels of the IPA. The IPA maps the vowels according to the position of the tongue. {{IPA vowels|caption=|notes=no}} The vertical axis of the chart is mapped by [[vowel height]]. Vowels pronounced with the tongue lowered are at the bottom, and vowels pronounced with the tongue raised are at the top. For example, {{IPA|[ɑ]}} (the first vowel in ''father'') is at the bottom because the tongue is lowered in this position. {{IPA|[i]}} (the vowel in "meet") is at the top because the sound is said with the tongue raised to the roof of the mouth. In a similar fashion, the horizontal axis of the chart is determined by [[vowel backness]]. Vowels with the tongue moved towards the front of the mouth (such as {{IPA|[ɛ]}}, the vowel in "met") are to the left in the chart, while those in which it is moved to the back (such as {{IPA|[ʌ]}}, the vowel in "but") are placed to the right in the chart. In places where vowels are paired, the right represents a [[Roundedness|rounded vowel]] (in which the lips are rounded) while the left is its unrounded counterpart. ====Diphthongs==== [[Diphthong]]s are typically specified with a non-syllabic diacritic, as in {{angbr IPA|uɪ̯}} or {{angbr IPA|u̯ɪ}}, or with a superscript for the on- or off-glide, as in {{angbr IPA|uᶦ}} or {{angbr IPA|ᵘɪ}}. Sometimes a tie bar is used: {{angbr IPA|u͡ɪ}}, especially if it is difficult to tell if the diphthong is characterized by an on-glide, an off-glide or is variable. '''Notes''' * {{angbr IPA|a}} officially represents a front vowel, but there is little if any distinction between front and central open vowels (see {{section link|Vowel#Acoustics}}), and {{angbr IPA|a}} is frequently used for an open central vowel.<ref name="thomason" /> If disambiguation is required, the [[Retraction (phonetics)|retraction diacritic]] or the [[Relative articulation#Centralized vowels|centralized diacritic]] may be added to indicate an open central vowel, as in {{angbr IPA|a̠}} or {{angbr IPA|ä}}. ==Diacritics and prosodic notation {{anchor|Diacritics}}== [[Diacritic]]s are used for phonetic detail. They are added to IPA letters to indicate a modification or specification of that letter's normal pronunciation.<ref name=IPA15>International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp.&nbsp;14–15.</ref> By being made superscript, any IPA letter may function as a diacritic, conferring elements of its articulation to the base letter. Those superscript letters listed below are specifically provided for by the IPA ''Handbook''; other uses can be illustrated with {{angbr IPA|tˢ}} ({{IPA|[t]}} with fricative release), {{angbr IPA|ᵗs}} ({{IPA|[s]}} with affricate onset), {{angbr IPA|ⁿd}} (prenasalized {{IPA|[d]}}), {{angbr IPA|bʱ}} ({{IPA|[b]}} with breathy voice), {{angbr IPA|mˀ}} (glottalized {{IPA|[m]}}), {{angbr IPA|sᶴ}} ({{IPA|[s]}} with a flavor of {{IPA|[ʃ]}}, i.e. a [[voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant]]), {{angbr IPA|oᶷ}} ({{IPA|[o]}} with [[Vowel breaking|diphthongization]]), {{angbr IPA|ɯᵝ}} ([[compressed vowel|compressed]] {{IPA|[ɯ]}}). Superscript diacritics placed after a letter are ambiguous between simultaneous modification of the sound and phonetic detail at the end of the sound. For example, labialized {{angbr IPA|kʷ}} may mean either simultaneous {{IPA|[k]}} and {{IPA|[w]}} or else {{IPA|[k]}} with a labialized release. Superscript diacritics placed before a letter, on the other hand, normally indicate a modification of the onset of the sound ({{angbr IPA|mˀ}} glottalized {{IPA|[m]}}, {{angbr IPA|ˀm}} {{IPA|[m]}} with a glottal onset). (See {{section link|#Superscript IPA}}.) {|class="wikitable" ! colspan=6|Syllabicity diacritics |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̩}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɹ̩ n̩}} |rowspan=2|[[Syllabic consonant|Syllabic]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̯}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɪ̯ ʊ̯}} |rowspan=2|[[Semivowel|Non-syllabic]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̍}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɻ̍ ŋ̍}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̑}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y̑}} |- ! colspan=6|Consonant-release diacritics |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;" |{{IPA|◌ʰ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tʰ}} |[[Aspiration (phonetics)|Aspirated]]{{ref label|Aspirated|a|}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̚}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|p̚}} |[[No audible release]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;" |{{IPA|◌ⁿ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|dⁿ}} |[[Nasal release]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ˡ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|dˡ}} |[[Lateral release (phonetics)|Lateral release]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;" |{{IPA|◌ᶿ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tᶿ}} |Voiceless dental fricative release |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ˣ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tˣ}} |Voiceless velar fricative release |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;" |{{IPA|◌ᵊ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|dᵊ}} |Mid central vowel release |colspan=3| |- ! colspan=6|Phonation diacritics |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̥}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" |{{IPA|n̥ d̥}} |rowspan=2|[[Voiceless]] |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̬}} |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|s̬ t̬}} |rowspan=2|[[Voice (phonetics)|Voiced]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̊}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" |{{IPA|ɻ̊ ŋ̊}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̤}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" |{{IPA|b̤ a̤}} |[[Breathy voice]]d{{ref label|Aspirated|a|}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̰}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|b̰ a̰}} |[[Creaky voice]]d |- ! colspan=6|Articulation diacritics |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̪}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" |{{IPA|t̪ d̪}} |rowspan=2|[[Dental consonant|Dental]] |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̼}} |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|t̼ d̼}} |rowspan=2|[[Linguolabial consonant|Linguolabial]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌͆}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" |{{IPA|ɮ͆}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̺}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|t̺ d̺}} |[[Apical consonant|Apical]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̻}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|t̻ d̻}} |[[Laminal consonant|Laminal]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̟}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|u̟ t̟}} |rowspan=2|[[Relative articulation#Advanced and retracted|Advanced (fronted)]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̠}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|i̠ t̠}} |rowspan=2|[[Relative articulation#Advanced and retracted|Retracted (backed)]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌᫈}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɡ᫈}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̄}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|q̄}}{{ref label|retracted|b|}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̈}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ë ä}} |[[Relative articulation#Centralized vowels|Centralized]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̽}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|e̽ ɯ̽}} |[[Mid-centralized]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̝}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|e̝ r̝}} |rowspan=2|[[Relative articulation#Raised and lowered|Raised]] <br>({{IPA|[r̝], [ɭ˔]}} are fricatives) |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̞}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|e̞ β̞}} |rowspan=2|[[Relative articulation#Raised and lowered|Lowered]] <br>({{IPA|[β̞], [ɣ˕]}} are approximants) |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌˔}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɭ˔}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌˕}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y˕ ɣ˕}} |- ! colspan=6|Co-articulation diacritics |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̹}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɔ̹ x̹}} |rowspan=2| More [[Roundedness|rounded]]<br>(over-rounding) |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̜}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɔ̜ xʷ̜}} |rowspan=2| Less rounded<br>(under-rounding){{ref label|less rounded labialization|c|}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌͗}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y͗ χ͗}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌͑}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y͑ χ͑ʷ}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ʷ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tʷ dʷ}} |[[Labialization|Labialized]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ʲ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tʲ dʲ}} |[[Palatalization (phonetics)|Palatalized]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ˠ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tˠ dˠ}} |[[Velarization|Velarized]] |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̴}} |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA link|ɫ}} {{IPA|ᵶ}} |rowspan=2|Velarized or pharyngealized |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ˤ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tˤ aˤ}} |[[Pharyngealization|Pharyngealized]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̘}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|e̘ o̘}} |rowspan=2|[[Advanced and retracted tongue root|Advanced tongue root]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̙}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|e̙ o̙}} |rowspan=2|[[Advanced and retracted tongue root|Retracted tongue root]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌&#xAB6A;}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y&#xAB6A;}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌&#xAB6B;}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y&#xAB6B;}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̃}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ẽ z̃}} |[[Nasalization|Nasalized]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌˞}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɚ ɝ}} |[[R-colored vowel|Rhoticity]] |} '''Notes''' : {{note|Aspirated|a}} With aspirated voiced consonants, the aspiration is usually also voiced (voiced aspirated – but see [[aspirated voiced|voiced consonants with voiceless aspiration]]). Many linguists prefer one of the diacritics dedicated to breathy voice over simple aspiration, such as {{angbr IPA|b̤}}. Some linguists restrict that diacritic to [[sonorant]]s, such as breathy-voice {{angbr IPA|m̤}}, and transcribe voiced-aspirated obstruents as e.g. {{angbr IPA|bʱ}}. : {{note|retracted|b}} Care must be taken that a superscript retraction sign is not mistaken for mid tone. : {{note|less rounded labialization|c}} These are relative to the cardinal value of the letter. They can also apply to unrounded vowels: {{IPA|[ɛ̜]}} is more spread (less rounded) than cardinal {{IPA|[ɛ]}}, and {{IPA|[ɯ̹]}} is less spread than cardinal {{IPA|[ɯ]}}.<ref>'Further report on the 1989 Kiel Convention', ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'' 20:2 (December 1990), p. 23.</ref><br>Since {{angbr IPA|xʷ}} can mean that the {{IPA|[x]}} is labialized (rounded) throughout its articulation, and {{angbr IPA|x̜}} makes no sense ({{IPA|[x]}} is already completely unrounded), {{angbr IPA|x̜ʷ}} can only mean a less-labialized/rounded {{IPA|[xʷ]}}. However, readers might mistake {{angbr IPA|x̜ʷ}} for "{{IPA|[x̜]}}" with a labialized off-glide, or might wonder if the two diacritics cancel each other out. Placing the 'less rounded' diacritic under the labialization diacritic, {{angbr IPA|xʷ̜}}, makes it clear that it is the labialization that is 'less rounded' than its cardinal IPA value. Subdiacritics (diacritics normally placed below a letter) may be moved above a letter to avoid conflict with a [[descender]], as in voiceless {{angbr IPA|ŋ̊}}.<ref name=IPA15 /> The raising and lowering diacritics have optional spacing forms {{angbr IPA|˔}}, {{angbr IPA|˕}} that avoid descenders. The state of the [[glottis]] can be finely transcribed with diacritics. A series of alveolar plosives ranging from open-glottis to closed-glottis [[phonation]] is: {|class="wikitable" |+Phonation scale |- ! Open glottis |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" |{{IPA|[t]}} |[[voiceless]] |- | |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[d̤]}} |[[breathy voice]], also called ''murmured'' |- | |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[d̥]}} |[[slack voice]] |- ![[Sweet spot (phonetics)|Sweet spot]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[d]}} |[[modal voice]] |- | |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[d̬]}} |[[stiff voice]] |- | |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[d̰]}} |[[creaky voice]] |- !Closed glottis |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[ʔ͡t]}} |glottal closure |} Additional diacritics are provided by the [[Extensions to the IPA]] for speech pathology. ===Suprasegmentals=== These symbols describe the features of a language above the [[Phonological hierarchy|level]] of individual consonants and vowels, that is, at the level of syllable, word or [[phrase]]. These include [[prosody (linguistics)|prosody]], pitch, [[length (phonetics)|length]], [[stress (linguistics)|stress]], intensity, [[tone (linguistics)|tone]] and gemination of the sounds of a language, as well as the [[rhythm]] and [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] of speech.<ref name="Handbook13">International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;13.</ref> Various ligatures of pitch/tone letters and diacritics are provided for by the [[Kiel Convention]] and used in the IPA ''Handbook'' despite not being found in the summary of the IPA alphabet found on the one-page chart. Under [[#Capital letters|capital letters]] below we will see how a carrier letter may be used to indicate suprasegmental features such as labialization or nasalization. Some authors omit the carrier letter, for e.g. suffixed {{IPA|[kʰuˣt̪s̟]ʷ}} or prefixed {{IPA|[ʷkʰuˣt̪s̟]}},<ref>Cf. the {{IPA|/ʷ.../}} and {{IPA|/ʲ.../}} transcriptions in Eszter Ernst-Kurdi (2017) ''The Phonology of Mada'', SIL Yaoundé.</ref> or place a spacing variant of a diacritic such as {{angbr IPA|˔}}<!--a spacing ATR or RTR diacritic would be a better example, when those have broader font support--> or {{angbr IPA|˜}} at the beginning or end of a word to indicate that it applies to the entire word.<ref>E.g. Aaron Dolgopolsky (2013) ''Indo-European Dictionary with Nostratic Etymologies''.</ref> {| class="wikitable" ! colspan=4|Length, stress, and rhythm |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ˈke}} | Primary [[stress (linguistics)|stress]] (appears<br /> before stressed syllable) | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ˌke}} | [[Secondary stress]] (appears<br /> before stressed syllable) |- | rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|eː kː}} | rowspan=2 | [[Length (phonetics)|Long]] ([[Vowel length|long vowel]] or<br />[[gemination|geminate consonant]]) | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|eˑ}} | Half-long |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ə̆ ɢ̆}} | [[Extra-short]] |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ek.ste}}<br>{{IPA|eks.te}} | [[Syllable]] break <br>(internal boundary) | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|es‿e}} | [[Connected speech|Linking]] (lack of a boundary; <br>a [[phonological word]])<ref group=note>The IPA ''Handbook'' variously defines the "linking" symbol as marking the "lack of a boundary" (p. 23) or "absence of a break" (p. 174), and gives [[French liaison]] and English [[linking r]] as examples. The illustration for Croatian uses it to tie atonic [[clitic]]s to tonic words, with no resulting change in implied syllable structure. It is also sometimes used simply to indicate that the consonant ending one word forms a syllable with the vowel beginning the following word.</ref> |- ! colspan=4|Intonation |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|{{!}}}} | [[Prosodic unit|Minor or foot break]] | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|‖}} | [[Prosodic unit|Major or intonation break]] |- | style="text-align:center;font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|↗&#xFE0E;}} | [[Intonation (linguistics)|Global rise]]<ref group=note name="global">The global rise and fall arrows come before the affected syllable or prosodic unit, like stress and upstep/downstep. This contrasts with the Chao tone letters (listed below), which most commonly come after. One will occasionally see a horizontal arrow {{angbr IPA|→}} for global level pitch (only dropping due to [[downdrift]]), e.g. in Julie Barbour (2012) ''A Grammar of Neverver''. Additionally, some fonts display the arrows as [[emoji]] by default, if &amp;#xFE0E; is not appended.</ref> | style="text-align:center;font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|↘&#xFE0E;}} | [[Intonation (linguistics)|Global fall]]<ref group=note name="global"/> |- ! colspan=4|Up- and down-step |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ꜛke}} | [[Upstep (phonetics)|Upstep]] | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ꜜke}} | [[Downstep (phonetics)|Downstep]] |} {| class="wikitable" ! colspan=13|Pitch diacritics<ref group=note name=pitch>There is not a one-to-one correspondence between tone diacritics and tone letters. When pitch is transcribed with diacritics, the three pitches {{angbr IPA|é ē è}} are taken as the basic levels and are called 'high', 'mid' and 'low'. Contour tones combine only these three and are called {{angbr IPA|e᷇}} 'high-mid' etc. The more extreme pitches, which do not form contours, are {{angbr IPA|e̋}} 'extra-high' and {{angbr IPA|ȅ}} 'extra-low', using [[#Comparative degree|doubled diacritics]]. When transcribed with tone letters, however, combinations of all five levels are possible. Thus, {{angbr IPA|e˥ e˧ e˩}} may be called 'high', 'mid' and 'low', with {{angbr IPA|e˦ e˨}} being 'near-high' and 'near-low', analogous to descriptions of vowel height. In a three-level transcription, {{angbr IPA|é ē è}} are identified with {{angbr IPA|e˥ e˧ e˩}}, but in a five-level transcription, {{angbr IPA|e̋ ȅ}} are identified with {{angbr IPA|e˥ e˩}} (''JIPA'' 19.2: 76).</ref> |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|ŋ̋ e̋}} | Extra high | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ̌ ě}} | Rising | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷄ e᷄}} | Mid-rising |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ́ é}} | High | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ̂ ê}} | Falling | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷅ e᷅}} | Low-rising |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ̄ ē}} | Mid | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷈ e᷈}} | Peaking (rising&ndash;falling) | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷇ e᷇}} | High-falling |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ̀ è}} | Low | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷉ e᷉}} | Dipping (falling&ndash;rising) | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷆ e᷆}} | Mid-falling |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{nowrap|{{IPA|ŋ̏ ȅ}}}} | Extra low | style="text-align:center;" colspan=4| (''etc.'')<ref group=note>Although any combination of tone diacritics is theoretically possible, such as {{angbr IPA|e᪰}} for a falling&ndash;rising&ndash;falling tone, any other than those illustrated are vanishingly rare.</ref> |} {| class="wikitable" ! colspan=5|[[Chao tone letter]]s<ref group=note name=pitch/> |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|˥e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|꜒e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|e˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|e꜒}} | High |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˦e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜓e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˦}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜓}} | Half-high |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˧e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜔e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜔}} | Mid |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˨e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜕e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˨}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜕}} | Half-low |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˩e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜖e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜖}} | Low |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˩˥e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜖꜒e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜖꜒}} | Rising (low to high or generic) |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˥˩e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜒꜖e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜒꜖}} | Falling (high to low or generic) |- | style="text-align:center;" colspan=5| (''etc.'') |} The old staveless tone letters, which are effectively obsolete, include high {{angbr IPA|ˉe}}, mid {{angbr IPA|˗e}}, low {{angbr IPA|ˍe}}, rising {{angbr IPA|ˊe}} and falling {{angbr IPA|ˋe}}. ====Stress==== Officially, the [[Stress (linguistics)|stress marks]] {{angbr IPA|ˈ ˌ}} appear before the stressed syllable, and thus mark the syllable boundary as well as stress (though the syllable boundary may still be explicitly marked with a period).<ref name=report/> Occasionally the stress mark is placed immediately before the nucleus of the syllable, after any consonantal onset.{{sfnp|Esling|2010|p=691}} In such transcriptions, the stress mark does not mark a syllable boundary. The primary stress mark may be [[#Comparative degree|doubled]] {{angbr IPA|ˈˈ}} for extra stress (such as prosodic stress). The secondary stress mark is sometimes seen doubled {{angbr IPA|ˌˌ}} for extra-weak stress, but this convention has not been adopted by the IPA.<ref name=report/> Some dictionaries place both stress marks before a syllable, {{angbr IPA|¦}}, to indicate that pronunciations with either primary or secondary stress are heard, though this is not IPA usage.<ref>For example, {{MW|Balearic}}.</ref> ====Boundary markers==== There are three boundary markers: {{angbr IPA|.}} for a syllable break, {{angbr IPA|<nowiki>|</nowiki>}} for a minor prosodic break and {{angbr IPA|‖}} for a major prosodic break. The tags 'minor' and 'major' are intentionally ambiguous. Depending on need, 'minor' may vary from a [[foot (prosody)|foot]] break to a break in list-intonation to a continuing–prosodic unit boundary (equivalent to a comma), and while 'major' is often any intonation break, it may be restricted to a final–prosodic unit boundary (equivalent to a period). The 'major' symbol may also be doubled, {{angbr IPA|‖‖}}, for a stronger break.{{#tag:ref|Russian sources commonly use a wavy line like {{unichar|2E3E|WIGGLY VERTICAL LINE}} (approx. ⌇) for a less-than-minor break, such as the slight break in list intonation (e.g. the very slight break between digits in a telephone number).<ref>Ž.V. Ganiev (2012) ''Sovremennyj ruskij jazyk.'' Flinta/Nauka.</ref> A dotted line like {{unichar|2E3D|VERTICAL SIX DOTS}} or {{unichar|2999|DOTTED FENCE}} is sometimes seen instead.|group="note"}} Although not part of the IPA, the following additional boundary markers are often used in conjunction with the IPA: {{angbr IPA|μ}} for a [[mora (linguistics)|mora]] or mora boundary, {{angbr IPA|σ}} for a syllable or syllable boundary, {{angbr IPA|+}} for a morpheme boundary, {{angbr IPA|#}} for a word boundary (may be doubled, {{angbr IPA|##}}, for e.g. a breath-group boundary),<ref>Nicholas Evans (1995) ''A Grammar of Kayardild''. Mouton de Gruyter.</ref> {{angbr IPA|$}} for a phrase or intermediate boundary and {{angbr IPA|%}} for a prosodic boundary. For example, C# is a word-final consonant, %V a post-[[pausa]] vowel, and T% an IU-final tone (edge tone). ====Pitch and tone==== {{see also|tone letter}} {{angbr IPA|ꜛ ꜜ}} are defined in the ''Handbook'' as "upstep" and "downstep", concepts from tonal languages. However, the upstep symbol can also be used for [[pitch reset]], and the IPA ''Handbook'' uses it for prosody in the illustration for Portuguese, a non-tonal language. Phonetic pitch and phonemic tone may be indicated by either diacritics placed over the nucleus of the syllable (e.g., high-pitch {{angbr IPA|é}}) or by [[Chao tone letter]]s placed either before or after the word or syllable. There are three graphic variants of the tone letters: with or without a stave, and facing left or facing right from the stave. The stave was introduced with the 1989 Kiel Convention, as was the option of placing a staved letter after the word or syllable, while retaining the older conventions. There are therefore six<!--One of our sources says 'seven', but the staveless tone letters were only allowed before the word/syllable pre-Kiel, and that was not changed in the Kiel Convention.--> ways to transcribe pitch/tone in the IPA: i.e., {{angbr IPA|é}}, {{angbr IPA|˦e}}, {{angbr IPA|e˦}}, {{angbr IPA|꜓e}}, {{angbr IPA|e꜓}} and {{angbr IPA|ˉe}} for a high pitch/tone.<ref name=report/><ref>Ian Maddieson (December 1990) The transcription of tone in the IPA, JIPA 20.2, p. 31.</ref><ref>Barry Heselwood (2013) ''Phonetic Transcription in Theory and Practice''. Edinburgh University Press. Page 7.</ref> Of the tone letters, only left-facing staved letters and a few representative combinations are shown in the summary on the ''Chart'', and in practice it is currently more common for tone letters to occur after the syllable/word than before, as in the Chao tradition. Placement before the word is a carry-over from the pre-Kiel IPA convention, as is still the case for the stress and upstep/downstep marks. The IPA endorses the Chao tradition of using the left-facing tone letters, {{angbr IPA|˥ ˦ ˧ ˨ ˩}}, for underlying tone, and the right-facing letters, {{angbr IPA|꜒ ꜓ ꜔ ꜕ ꜖}}, for surface tone, as occurs in [[tone sandhi]], and for the intonation of non-tonal languages.<ref group=note>Maddieson and others have noted that a phonemic/phonetic distinction should be handled by /slash/ or [bracket] delimiters. However, the reversed tone letters remain in use for tone sandhi.</ref> In the Portuguese illustration in the 1999 ''Handbook'', tone letters are placed before a word or syllable to indicate prosodic pitch (equivalent to {{IPA|[↗︎]}} global rise and {{IPA|[↘︎]}} global fall, but allowing more precision), and in the Cantonese illustration they are placed after a word/syllable to indicate lexical tone. Theoretically therefore prosodic pitch and lexical tone could be simultaneously transcribed in a single text, though this is not a formalized distinction. Rising and falling pitch, as in [[contour tone]]s, are indicated by combining the pitch diacritics and letters in the table, such as grave plus acute for rising {{IPA|[ě]}} and acute plus grave for falling {{IPA|[ê]}}. Only six combinations of two diacritics are supported, and only across three levels (high, mid, low), despite the diacritics supporting five levels of pitch in isolation. The four other explicitly approved rising and falling diacritic combinations are high/mid rising {{IPA|[e᷄]}}, low rising {{IPA|[e᷅]}}, high falling {{IPA|[e᷇]}}, and low/mid falling {{IPA|[e᷆]}}.<ref group=note>A work-around sometimes seen when a language has more than one rising or falling tone, and the author wishes to avoid the poorly legible diacritics {{angbr IPA|e᷄, e᷅, e᷇, e᷆}} but does not wish to employ tone letters, is to restrict the generic rising {{angbr IPA|ě}} and falling {{angbr IPA|ê}} diacritics to the higher-pitched of the rising and falling tones, say {{IPA|/e˥˧/}} and {{IPA|/e˧˥/}}, and to resurrect the retired (pre-Kiel) IPA subscript diacritics {{angbr IPA|e̗}} and {{angbr IPA|e̖}} for the lower-pitched rising and falling tones, say {{IPA|/e˩˧/}} and {{IPA|/e˧˩/}}. When a language has either four or six level tones, the two middle tones are sometimes transcribed as high-mid {{angbr IPA|e̍}} (non-standard) and low-mid {{angbr IPA|ē}}. Non-standard {{angbr IPA|e̍}} is occasionally seen combined with acute and grave diacritcs or with the macron to distinguish contour tones that involve the higher of the two mid tone levels.</ref> The Chao tone letters, on the other hand, may be combined in any pattern, and are therefore used for more complex contours and finer distinctions than the diacritics allow, such as mid-rising {{IPA|[e˨˦]}}, extra-high falling {{IPA|[e˥˦]}}, etc. There are 20 such possibilities. However, in Chao's original proposal, which was adopted by the IPA in 1989, he stipulated that the half-high and half-low letters {{angbr IPA|˦ ˨}} may be combined with each other, but not with the other three tone letters, so as not to create spuriously precise distinctions. With this restriction, there are 8 possibilities.<ref name=Chao>{{Citation | last = Chao | first = Yuen-Ren | year = 1930 | title = {{IPA|ə sistim əv}} "{{IPA|toun}}-{{IPA|letəz}}" | trans-title = A system of "tone-letters" | journal = Le Maître Phonétique | volume = 30 | pages = 24–27 | jstor = 44704341 }}</ref> The old staveless tone letters tend to be more restricted than the staved letters, though not as restricted as the diacritics. Officially, they support as many distinctions as the staved letters,<ref>See for example Pe Maung Tin [-phe -maʊ̃ -tɪ̃ː] (1924) bɜˑmiːz. ''Le Maître Phonétique'', vol. 2 (39), no. 5, pp. 4&ndash;5, where five pitch levels are distinguished</ref> but typically only three pitch levels are distinguished. Unicode supports default or high-pitch {{angbr IPA|ˉ ˊ ˋ ˆ ˇ ˜ ˙}} and low-pitch {{angbr IPA|ˍ ˏ ˎ ꞈ ˬ ˷}}. Only a few mid-pitch tones are supported (such as {{angbr IPA|˗ ˴}}), and then only accidentally. Although tone diacritics and tone letters are presented as equivalent on the chart, "this was done only to simplify the layout of the chart. The two sets of symbols are not comparable in this way."<ref>''Handbook'', p. 14.</ref> Using diacritics, a high tone is {{angbr IPA|é}} and a low tone is {{angbr IPA|è}}; in tone letters, these are {{angbr IPA|e˥}} and {{angbr IPA|e˩}}. One can double the diacritics for extra-high {{angbr IPA|e̋}} and extra-low {{angbr IPA|ȅ}}; there is no parallel to this using tone letters. Instead, tone letters have mid-high {{angbr IPA|e˦}} and mid-low {{angbr IPA|e˨}}; again, there is no equivalent among the diacritics. The correspondence breaks down even further once they start combining. For more complex tones, one may combine three or four tone diacritics in any permutation,<ref name=report>P.J. Roach, Report on the 1989 Kiel Convention, ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'', Vol. 19, No. 2 (December 1989), p. 75–76</ref> though in practice only generic peaking (rising-falling) {{IPA|e᷈}} and dipping (falling-rising) {{IPA|e᷉}} combinations are used. Chao tone letters are required for finer detail ({{IPA|e˧˥˧, e˩˨˩, e˦˩˧, e˨˩˦}}, etc.). Although only 10 peaking and dipping tones were proposed in Chao's original, limited set of tone letters, phoneticians often make finer distinctions, and indeed an example is found on the IPA Chart.<ref group=note>The example has changed over the years. In the chart included in the 1999 IPA ''Handbook'', it was {{IPA|[˦˥˦]}}, and since the 2018 revision of the chart it has been {{IPA|[˧˦˨]}}.</ref> The system allows the transcription of 112<!--125 less 5 triple letters and 8 other combos that form a straight line (e.g. 2-3-4)--> peaking and dipping pitch contours, including tones that are level for part of their length. {| class="wikitable" |+ Original (restricted) set of Chao tone letters<ref group=note>Chao did not include tone shapes such as {{IPA|[˨˦˦], [˧˩˩]}}, which rise or fall and then level off (or vice versa). Such tone shapes are, however, frequently encountered in the modern literature.</ref> ! Register ! Level<br><ref group=note>In Chao's Sinological convention, a single tone letter {{angbr IPA|˥}} is used for a high tone on a [[checked syllable]], and a double tone letter {{angbr IPA|˥˥}} for a high tone on an open syllable. Such redundant doubling is not used in the ''Handbook'', where the tones of Cantonese {{IPA|[si˥]}} 'silk' and {{IPA|[sɪk˥]}} 'color' are transcribed the same way. If the author wishes to indicate a difference in phonetic or phonemic length, the IPA accomplishes that with the length marks {{angbr IPA|◌̆ ◌ˑ ◌ː}} rather than through the tone letters.</ref> ! Rising ! Falling ! Peaking ! Dipping |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˧˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˩˧}} |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˨}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˨˨}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˨˦}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˦˨}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˨˦˨}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˦˨˦}} |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˥˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˧˥}} |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˦}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˦˦}} | | | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˥˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˩˥}} |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˥˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˩˧}} |} More complex contours are possible. Chao gave an example of {{IPA|[꜔꜒꜖꜔]}} (mid-high-low-mid) from English prosody.<ref name=Chao/> Chao tone letters generally appear after each syllable, for a language with syllable tone ({{angbr IPA|a˧vɔ˥˩}}), or after the phonological word, for a language with [[word tone]] ({{angbr IPA|avɔ˧˥˩}}). The IPA gives the option of placing the tone letters before the word or syllable ({{angbr IPA|˧a˥˩vɔ}}, {{angbr IPA|˧˥˩avɔ}}), but this is rare for lexical tone. (And indeed reversed tone letters may be used to clarify that they apply to the following rather than to the preceding syllable: {{angbr IPA|꜔a꜒꜖vɔ}}, {{angbr IPA|꜔꜒꜖avɔ}}.) The staveless letters are not directly supported by Unicode, but some fonts allow the stave in Chao tone letters to be suppressed. ===Comparative degree=== IPA diacritics may be doubled to indicate an extra degree of the feature indicated.<ref name=K&L>Kelly & Local (1989) ''Doing Phonology'', [[Manchester University Press]].</ref> This is a productive process, but apart from extra-high and extra-low tones {{angbr IPA|ə̋, ə̏}} being marked by doubled high- and low-tone diacritics, and the major [[prosodic unit|prosodic break]] {{angbr IPA|‖}} being marked as a double minor break {{angbr IPA|{{!}}}}, it is not specifically regulated by the IPA. (Note that transcription marks are similar: double slashes indicate extra (morpho)-phonemic, double square brackets especially precise, and double parentheses especially unintelligible.) For example, the stress mark may be doubled to indicate an extra degree of stress, such as prosodic stress in English.<ref>Bloomfield (1933) ''Language'' p. 91</ref> An example in French, with a single stress mark for normal prosodic stress at the end of each [[prosodic unit]] (marked as a minor prosodic break), and a double stress mark for contrastive/emphatic stress: {{IPA|[ˈˈɑ̃ːˈtre {{!}} məˈsjø ‖ ˈˈvwala maˈdam ‖]}} ''{{lang|fr|Entrez monsieur, voilà madame}}.''<ref>Passy, 1958, ''Conversations françaises en transcription phonétique.'' 2nd ed.</ref> Similarly, a doubled secondary stress mark {{angbr IPA|ˌˌ}} is commonly used for tertiary (extra-light) stress.<ref>Yuen Ren Chao (1968) ''Language and Symbolic Systems'', p. xxiii</ref> In a similar vein, the effectively obsolete (though never retired) staveless tone letters were once doubled for an emphatic rising intonation {{angbr IPA|˶}} and an emphatic falling intonation {{angbr IPA|˵}}.<ref>Geoffrey Barker (2005) ''Intonation Patterns in Tyrolean German'', p. 11.</ref> [[Length (phonetics)|Length]] is commonly extended by repeating the length mark, as in English ''shhh!'' {{IPA|[ʃːːː]}}, or for "overlong" segments in [[Estonian phonology|Estonian]]: * ''vere'' {{IPA|/vere/}} 'blood [gen.sg.]', ''veere'' {{IPA|/veːre/}} 'edge [gen.sg.]', ''veere'' {{IPA|/veːːre/}} 'roll [imp. 2nd sg.]' * ''lina'' {{IPA|/linɑ/}} 'sheet', ''linna'' {{IPA|/linːɑ/}} 'town [gen. sg.]', ''linna'' {{IPA|/linːːɑ/}} 'town [ine. sg.]' (Normally additional degrees of length are handled by the extra-short or half-long diacritic, but the first two words in each of the Estonian examples are analyzed as simply short and long, requiring a different remedy for the final words.) Occasionally other diacritics are doubled: * [[R-colored vowel|Rhoticity]] in [[Badaga language|Badaga]] {{IPA|/be/}} "mouth", {{IPA|/be˞/}} "bangle", and {{IPA|/be˞˞/}} "crop".<ref>{{SOWL|314}}</ref> * Mild and strong [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspiration]]s, {{IPA|[kʰ]}}, {{IPA|[kʰʰ]}}.<ref group=note>Sometimes the obsolete transcription {{angbr IPA|k{{okina}}}} (with a turned apostrophe) for weak aspiration vs. {{angbr IPA|kʰ}} for strong aspiration is still seen.</ref><!-- Korean does not (primarily) contrast for degrees of aspiration, as the distinction is made mainly with a low tone following the weak stop and a high tone following the aspirated stop, for dialects (including Seoul) that aspirate prosodically initial stops. --> * [[Nasal vowel|Nasalization]], as in [[Palantla Chinantec]] lightly nasalized {{IPA|/ẽ/}} vs heavily nasalized {{IPA|/e͌/}},<ref>Peter Ladefoged (1971) ''Preliminaries of Linguistic Phonetics'', p. 35.</ref> though in [[extIPA]] the latter indicates [[velopharyngeal frication]]. * Weak vs strong [[ejective]]s, {{IPA|[kʼ]}}, {{IPA|[kˮ]}}.<ref>Fallon (2013) ''The Synchronic and Diachronic Phonology of Ejectives'', p. 267</ref> * Especially lowered, e.g. {{IPA|[t̞̞]}} (or {{IPA|[t̞˕]}}, if the former symbol does not display properly) for {{IPA|/t/}} as a weak fricative in some pronunciations of ''register''.<ref>Heselwood (2013) ''Phonetic Transcription in Theory and Practice'', p. 233.</ref> * Especially retracted, e.g. {{IPA|[ø̠̠]}} or {{IPA|[s̠̠]}},<ref>E.g. in Laver (1994) ''Principles of Phonetics'', pp. 559–560</ref><ref name=K&L/><ref>Hein van der Voort (2005) 'Kwaza in a Comparative Perspective', ''IJAL'' 71:4.</ref> though some care might be needed to distinguish this from indications of alveolar or alveolarized articulation in [[extIPA]], e.g. {{IPA|[s͇]}}. * The transcription of [[strident vowel|strident]] and [[harsh voice]] as extra-creaky {{IPA|/a᷽/}} may be motivated by the similarities of these phonations. ==Ambiguous letters== A number of IPA letters are not consistently used for their official values. A distinction between voiced fricatives and approximants is only partially implemented by the IPA, for example. Even with the relatively recent addition of the palatal fricative {{angbr IPA|ʝ}} and the velar approximant {{angbr IPA|ɰ}} to the alphabet, other letters, though defined as fricatives, are often ambiguous between fricative and approximant. For forward places, {{angbr IPA|β}} and {{angbr IPA|ð}} can generally be assumed to be fricatives unless they carry a lowering diacritic. Rearward, however, {{angbr IPA|ʁ}} and {{angbr IPA|ʕ}} are perhaps more commonly intended to be approximants even without a lowering diacritic. {{angbr IPA|h}} and {{angbr IPA|ɦ}} are similarly either fricatives or approximants, depending on the language, or even glottal "transitions", without that often being specified in the transcription. Another common ambiguity is among the letters for palatal consonants. {{angbr IPA|c}} and {{angbr IPA|ɟ}} are not uncommonly used as a typographic convenience for affricates, typically {{IPA|[t͜ʃ]}} and {{IPA|[d͜ʒ]}}, while {{angbr IPA|ɲ}} and {{angbr IPA|ʎ}} are commonly used for palatalized alveolar {{IPA|[n̠ʲ]}} and {{IPA|[l̠ʲ]}}. To some extent this may be an effect of analysis, but it is common to match up single IPA letters to the phonemes of a language, without overly worrying about phonetic precision. It has been argued that the lower-pharyngeal (epiglottal) fricatives {{angbr IPA|ʜ}} and {{angbr IPA|ʢ}} are better characterized as trills, rather than as fricatives that have incidental trilling.<ref>John Esling (2010) "Phonetic Notation", in Hardcastle, Laver & Gibbon (eds) ''The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences'', 2nd ed., p 695.</ref> This has the advantage of merging the upper-pharyngeal fricatives {{IPA|[ħ, ʕ]}} together with the epiglottal plosive {{IPA|[ʡ]}} and trills {{IPA|[ʜ ʢ]}} into a single pharyngeal column in the consonant chart. However, in [[Shilha language|Shilha Berber]] the epiglottal fricatives are not trilled.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ridouane |first1=Rachid |title=Tashlhiyt Berber |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |date=August 2014 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=207–221 |doi=10.1017/S0025100313000388 |s2cid=232344118 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Alderete |first1=John |last2=Jebbour |first2=Abdelkrim |last3=Kachoub |first3=Bouchra |last4=Wilbee |first4=Holly |title=Tashlhiyt Berber grammar synopsis |url=https://www.sfu.ca/~alderete/datasets/aldereteEtal2015_tashlhiytGrammarSynopsis.pdf |publisher=Simon Fraser University |access-date=20 November 2021}}</ref> Although they might be transcribed {{angbr IPA|ħ̠ ʢ̠}} to indicate this, the far more common transcription is {{angbr IPA|ʜ ʢ}}, which is therefore ambiguous between languages. Among vowels, {{angbr IPA|a}} is officially a front vowel, but is more commonly treated as a central vowel. The difference, to the extent it is even possible, is not phonemic in any language. For all phonetic notation, it is good practice for an author to specify exactly what they mean by the symbols that they use. ==Redundant letters== Three letters are not needed and would be hard to justify today by the standards of the modern IPA, but are retained due to inertia. {{angbr IPA|ʍ}} appears because it is found in English; officially it is a fricative, with terminology dating to the days before 'fricative' and 'approximant' were distinguished. Based on how all other fricatives and approximants are transcribed, one would expect either {{angbr IPA|xʷ}} for a fricative (not how it is actually used) or {{angbr IPA|w̥}} for an approximant. Indeed, outside of English transcription, that is what is more commonly found in the literature. {{angbr IPA|ɱ}} is another historic remnant. It is a nearly universal allophone of {{IPA|[m]}} before {{IPA|[f]}} and {{IPA|[v]}}, but it is only phonemically distinct in a single language (Kukuya), a fact that was discovered long after it was standardized in the IPA. (A number of consonants do not have dedicated IPA letters despite being phonemic in many more languages.) {{angbr IPA|ɱ}} is retained because of its historical use for European languages, where it could easily be normalized to {{angbr IPA|m̪}}. There have been several votes to retire {{angbr IPA|ɱ}} from the IPA, but so far they have failed. Finally, {{angbr IPA|ɧ}} is officially a simultaneous postalveolar and velar fricative, a realization that does not appear to exist in any language. It is retained because it is convenient for the transcription of Swedish, where it is used for a consonant that has various realizations in different dialects. That is, it is not actually a phonetic character at all, but a phonemic one, which is officially beyond the purview of the IPA alphabet; indeed, another phonemic IPA letter, {{angbr IPA|[[ƞ]]}} for the homorganic nasal of Japanese, was retired because it had no defined phonetic value. ==Superscript letters== {{anchor|Superscript IPA}}{{further|Unicode subscripts and superscripts#Superscript IPA|Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet#Superscript variants}} Superscript IPA letters may be used to indicate [[secondary articulation]]; onsets, releases and other transitions; shades of sound; light epenthetic sounds and incompletely articulated sounds. In 2020, the IPA and [[International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association|ICPLA]] endorsed the Unicode encoding of superscript variants of all contemporary IPA letters apart from the [[Chao tone letter]]s, including the extended retroflex letters {{angbr IPA|ꞎ 𝼅 𝼈 ᶑ 𝼊&thinsp;}}, which were thus confirmed as being implicit in the IPA alphabet.<ref name=pulmonic>Kirk Miller & Michael Ashby, [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20252r-mod-ipa-a.pdf L2/20-252R] Unicode request for IPA modifier-letters (a), pulmonic</ref><ref name=non-pulmonic>Kirk Miller & Michael Ashby, [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20253r-mod-ipa-b.pdf L2/20-253R] Unicode request for IPA modifier letters (b), non-pulmonic.</ref><ref>Kirk Miller & Martin Ball, [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20116r-ext-ipa-voqs-expansion.pdf L2/20-116R] Expansion of the extIPA and VoQS.</ref> Superscript letters can be meaningfully modified by [[combining character|combining diacritics]], just as baseline letters can. For example, a superscript dental nasal is {{angbr IPA|ⁿ̪d̪}}, a superscript voiceless velar nasal is {{angbr IPA|ᵑ̊ǂ}}, and labial-velar prenasalization is {{angbr IPA|ᵑ͡ᵐɡ͡b}}. Although the diacritic may seem a bit oversized compared to the superscript letter it modifies, e.g. {{angbr IPA|ᵓ̃}}, this can be an aid to legibility, just as it is with the composite superscript c-cedilla {{angbr IPA|ᶜ̧}} and rhotic vowels {{angbr IPA|ᵊ˞ ᶟ˞}}. Superscript length marks can be used to indicate the length of aspiration of a consonant, e.g. {{IPA|[pʰ tʰ&#x10782; kʰ&#x10781;]}}. Another option is to double the diacritic: {{angbr IPA|kʰʰ}}.<ref name=pulmonic/> ==Obsolete and nonstandard symbols== {{Main|Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet|Click letter|Sinological extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet}} A number of IPA letters and diacritics have been retired or replaced over the years. This number includes duplicate symbols, symbols that were replaced due to user preference, and unitary symbols that were rendered with diacritics or digraphs to reduce the inventory of the IPA. The rejected symbols are now considered obsolete, though some are still seen in the literature. The IPA once had several pairs of duplicate symbols from alternative proposals, but eventually settled on one or the other. An example is the vowel letter {{angbr IPA|ɷ}}, rejected in favor of {{angbr IPA|ʊ}}. Affricates were once transcribed with ligatures, such as {{angbr IPA|ʦ ʣ, ʧ ʤ, ʨ ʥ, ꭧ ꭦ&thinsp;}} (and others not found in Unicode). These have been officially retired but are still used. Letters for specific combinations of primary and secondary articulation have also been mostly retired, with the idea that such features should be indicated with tie bars or diacritics: {{angbr IPA|ƍ}} for {{IPA|[zʷ]}} is one. In addition, the rare voiceless implosives, {{angbr IPA|ƥ ƭ ƈ ƙ ʠ&thinsp;}}, were dropped soon after their introduction and are now usually written {{angbr IPA|ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ʄ̊ ɠ̊ ʛ̥&thinsp;}}. The original set of click letters, {{angbr IPA|ʇ, ʗ, ʖ, ʞ}}, was retired but is still sometimes seen, as the current pipe letters {{angbr IPA|ǀ, ǃ, ǁ, ǂ}} can cause problems with legibility, especially when used with brackets ([ ] or / /), the letter {{angbr IPA|l}}, or the [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosodic]] marks {{angbr IPA|<nowiki>|</nowiki>, ‖}}. (For this reason, some publications which use the current IPA pipe letters disallow IPA brackets.<!--The Routledge Khoisan Handbook, for example-->)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2009/09/click-symbols.html |title=John Wells's phonetic blog |publisher=Phonetic-blog.blogspot.com |date=9 September 2009 |access-date=18 October 2010}}</ref> Individual non-IPA letters may find their way into publications that otherwise use the standard IPA. This is especially common with: * Affricates, such as the Americanist [[barred lambda]] {{angbr IPA|ƛ}} for {{IPA|[t͜ɬ]}} or {{angbr IPA|č}} for {{IPA|[t͜ʃ&thinsp;]}}.<ref group=note>The motivation for this may vary. Some authors find the tie bars displeasing but the lack of tie bars confusing (i.e. {{angbr IPA|č}} for {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} as distinct from {{IPA|/tʃ/}}), while others simply prefer to have one letter for each segmental phoneme in a language.{{citation needed|date=September 2020}}</ref> * The [[Karlgren]] letters for Chinese vowels, {{angbr IPA|ɿ, ʅ&thinsp;, ʮ, ʯ&thinsp;}} * Digits for tonal phonemes that have conventional numbers in a local tradition, such as the [[Standard Chinese phonology#Tones|four tones of Standard Chinese]]. This may be more convenient for comparison between related languages and dialects than a phonetic transcription would be, because tones vary more unpredictably than segmental phonemes do. * Digits for tone levels, which are simpler to typeset, though the lack of standardization can cause confusion (e.g. {{angbr IPA|1}} is high tone in some languages but low tone in others; {{angbr IPA|3}} may be high, medium or low tone, depending on the local convention). * Iconic extensions of standard IPA letters that can be readily understood, such as retroflex [[voiced retroflex implosive|{{angbr|ᶑ&thinsp;}}]] and [[voiceless retroflex lateral fricative|{{angbr|ꞎ}}]]. These are referred to in the ''Handbook'' and have been included in IPA requests for Unicode support.<!--e.g. an official request for adding superscript retroflex letters to Unicode 14--> In addition, it is common to see ''ad hoc'' typewriter substitutions, generally capital letters, for when IPA support is not available, e.g. A for {{angbr IPA|ɑ}}, B for {{angbr IPA|β}} or {{angbr IPA|ɓ}}, D for {{angbr IPA|ð}}, {{angbr IPA|ɗ&thinsp;}} or {{angbr IPA|ɖ&thinsp;}}, E for {{angbr IPA|ɛ}}, F or P for {{angbr IPA|ɸ}}, G {{angbr IPA|ɣ}}, I {{angbr IPA|ɪ}}, L {{angbr IPA|ɬ}}, N {{angbr IPA|ŋ}}, O {{angbr IPA|ɔ}}, S {{angbr IPA|&thinsp;ʃ&thinsp;}}, T {{angbr IPA|θ}} or {{angbr IPA|ʈ&thinsp;}}, U {{angbr IPA|ʊ}}, V {{angbr IPA|ʋ}}, X {{angbr IPA|χ}}, Z {{angbr IPA|ʒ}}, as well as @ for {{angbr IPA|ə}} and 7 or ? for {{angbr IPA|ʔ}}. (See also [[SAMPA]] and [[X-SAMPA]] substitute notation.) ==Extensions== [[File:ExtIPA chart (2015).pdf|thumb|Chart of the Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet (extIPA), as of 2015]]{{Main|Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet}} The [[Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for Disordered Speech]], commonly abbreviated "extIPA" and sometimes called "Extended IPA", are symbols whose original purpose was to accurately transcribe [[Speech disorder|disordered speech]]. At the [[Kiel Convention]] in 1989, a group of linguists drew up the initial extensions,<ref>"At the 1989 Kiel Convention of the IPA, a sub-group was established to draw up recommendations for the transcription of disordered speech." ("Extensions to the IPA: An ExtIPA Chart" ''in'' International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;186.)</ref> which were based on the previous work of the PRDS (Phonetic Representation of Disordered Speech) Group in the early 1980s.<ref>{{cite book|last=PRDS Group|title=The Phonetic Representation of Disordered Speech|year=1983|publisher=London: The King's Fund}}</ref> The extensions were first published in 1990, then modified, and published again in 1994 in the ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'', when they were officially adopted by the [[International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association|ICPLA]].<ref>"Extensions to the IPA: An ExtIPA Chart" ''in'' International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp.&nbsp;186–187.</ref> While the original purpose was to transcribe disordered speech, linguists have used the extensions to designate a number of sounds within standard communication, such as hushing, gnashing teeth, and smacking lips,<ref name="world" /> as well as regular lexical sounds such as [[lateral fricative]]s that do not have standard IPA symbols. In addition to the Extensions to the IPA for disordered speech, there are the conventions of the [[Voice Quality Symbols]], which include a number of symbols for additional airstream mechanisms and secondary articulations in what they call "voice quality". ==Associated notation== Capital letters and various characters on the number row of the keyboard are commonly used to extend the alphabet in various ways. ===Associated symbols=== There are various punctuation-like conventions for linguistic transcription that are commonly used together with IPA. Some of the more common are: ;{{angbr|*}} :(a) A [[Comparative linguistics|reconstructed form]]. :(b) An [[Grammaticality|ungrammatical form]] (including an unphonemic form). ;{{angbr|**}} :(a) A reconstructed form, deeper (more ancient) than a single {{angbr|*}}, used when reconstructing even further back from already-starred forms. :(b) An ungrammatical form. A less common convention than {{angbr|*}} (b), this is sometimes used when reconstructed and ungrammatical forms occur in the same text.<ref>e.g. Alan Kaye (2007) ''Morphologies of Asia and Africa''. Eisenbrauns.</ref> ;{{angbr|×}}: An ungrammatical form. A less common convention than {{angbr|*}} (b), this is sometimes used when reconstructed and ungrammatical forms occur in the same text.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Lyle |title=Historical linguistics: an introduction |date=2013 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |location=Edinburgh |isbn=9780262518499 |pages=xix |edition=3.}}</ref> ;{{angbr|?}}: A doubtfully grammatical form. ;{{angbr|%}}: A generalized form, such as a typical shape of a [[wanderwort]] that has not actually been reconstructed.<ref>Haynie, Bowern, Epps, Hill & McConvell (2014) Wanderwörter in languages of the Americas and Australia. ''Ampersand'' 1:1–18.</ref> ;{{angbr|#}}: A word boundary &ndash; e.g. {{angbr|#V}} for a word-initial vowel. ;{{angbr|$}}: A [[phonological word]] boundary; e.g. {{angbr|H$}} for a high tone that occurs in such a position. ;{{angbr|_}}: The location of a segment &ndash; e.g. {{angbr|V_V}} for an intervocalic position === Capital letters === Full capital letters are not used as IPA symbols, except as typewriter substitutes (e.g. N for {{angbr IPA|ŋ}}, S for {{angbr IPA|&thinsp;ʃ&thinsp;}}, O for {{angbr IPA|ɔ}} &ndash; see [[SAMPA chart for English|SAMPA]]). They are, however, often used in conjunction with the IPA in two cases: # for [[archiphoneme|(archi)phonemes]] and for [[natural class]]es of sounds (that is, as wildcards). The [[extIPA]] chart, for example, uses capital letters as wildcards in its illustrations. # as carrying letters for the [[Voice Quality Symbols]]. Wildcards are commonly used in phonology to summarize syllable or word shapes, or to show the evolution of classes of sounds. For example, the possible syllable shapes of Mandarin can be abstracted as ranging from {{IPA|/V/}} (an atonic vowel) to {{IPA|/CGVNᵀ/}} (a consonant-glide-vowel-nasal syllable with tone), and [[word-final devoicing]] may be schematized as {{IPA|C}} → {{IPA|C̥}}/_#. In speech pathology, capital letters represent indeterminate sounds, and may be superscripted to indicate they are weakly articulated: e.g. {{IPA|[ᴰ]}} is a weak indeterminate alveolar, {{IPA|[ᴷ]}} a weak indeterminate velar.<ref>Perry (2000) ''Phonological/phonetic assessment of an English-speaking adult with [[dysarthria]]''</ref> There is a degree of variation between authors as to the capital letters used, but {{angbr IPA|C}} for {consonant}, {{angbr IPA|V}} for {vowel} and {{angbr IPA|N}} for {nasal} are ubiquitous in English-language material. Other common conventions are {{angbr IPA|T}} for {tone/accent} (tonicity)<!--e.g. Nathan White, 'Word in Hmong', in Phonological Word and Grammatical Word-->, {{angbr IPA|P}} for {plosive}<!--e.g. Karlsson & Sullivan (2005) /sP/ consonant clusters in Swedish, Vanderweide (2005) The acquisition of manner in pre-vocalic sequences, also Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics (HCHIEL)-->, {{angbr IPA|F}} for {fricative}<!--e.g. 2015 extIPA chart, or Pellegrino et al. "2010, a speech oddity: Phonetic transcription of reversed speech", Vanderweide (2005), also HCHIEL -->, {{angbr IPA|S}} for {sibilant}<!--e.g. Waterson (1987) Prosodic Phonology; Dolgopolsky, Indo-European Dict Nostratic Etymologies, also HCHIEL-->,<ref group=note>As in [[Afrasianist phonetic notation]]. {{angbr IPA|S}} is particularly ambiguous. It has been used for 'stop', 'fricative', 'sibilant', 'sonorant' and 'semivowel'. On the other hand, plosive/stop is frequently abbreviated {{angbr IPA|P}}, {{angbr IPA|T}} or {{angbr IPA|S}}. The illustrations given here use, as much as possible, letters that are capital versions of members of the sets they stand for: IPA {{IPA|[n]}} is a nasal and {{angbr IPA|N}} is any nasal; {{IPA|[p]}} is a plosive, {{IPA|[f]}} a fricative, {{IPA|[s]}} a sibilant, {{IPA|[l]}} both a lateral and a liquid, {{IPA|[r]}} both a rhotic and a resonant, and [ʞ] a click. {{angbr IPA|¢}} is an obstruent in Americanist notation, where it stands for {{IPA|[ts]}}. An alternative wildcard for 'glide', {{angbr IPA|J}}<!--e.g. International Journal of Slavic Linguistics and Poetics XXIII-->, fits this pattern, but is much less common than {{angbr IPA|G}} in English-language sources.</ref> {{angbr IPA|G}} for {glide/semivowel}<!--e.g. Vanderweide (2005), HCHIEL-->, {{angbr IPA|L}} for {lateral}<!--e.g. Smith 2000 Dependency Theory Meets OT, or in Australian languages that have a large set of laterals--> or {liquid}<!--e.g. Walker 1984 Pronunciation of Canadian French, or Pellegrino et al., or Vanderweide (2005), HCHIEL-->, {{angbr IPA|R}} for {rhotic}<!--e.g. Smith 2000 Dependency Theory Meets OT, or Pellegrino et al.--> or {resonant/sonorant<!--e.g. "R" for "sonorant" in Larry Hyman 'Coda constraints on tone', also HCHIEL-->},<ref group=note>At least in the notation of {{angbr|CRV-}} syllables, the {{angbr|R}} is understood to include liquids and glides but to exclude nasals, as in Bennett (2020: 115) 'Click Phonology', in Sands (ed.), ''Click Consonants'', Brill</ref><!--do a GBooks search for 'CLV' or 'CRV' + 'liquid'/'resonant' + 'phonology' for instances of L and R--> {{angbr IPA|₵}} for {obstruent},<!--e.g. International Journal of Slavic Linguistics and Poetics XXIII--> {{angbr IPA|Ʞ}} for {click}<!--see Bonny Sands 2020 'Introduction', ''Click Consonants'', Brill-->, {{angbr IPA|A<!--e.g. Dolgopolsky-->, E<!--e.g. Dolgopolsky-->, O, Ɨ, U<!--e.g. Dolgopolsky-->}} for {open, front, back, close, rounded vowel}<ref group=note>{Close vowel} may instead be {{angbr IPA|U}}, and {{angbr IPA|O}} may stand for {obstruent}.</ref> and {{angbr IPA|B, D, Ɉ, K, Q, Φ, H}} for {labial<!--HCHIEL-->, alveolar<!--Perry (2000)-->, post-alveolar/palatal, velar<!--HCHIEL, Perry (2000), or more generically as 'dorsal' in van de Vijver, Höhle & Ott, On the distribution of dorsals in complex and simple onsets in child German, Dutch and English-->, uvular, pharyngeal, glottal<ref group=note>Or glottal~pharyngeal {{angbr IPA|H}}, as in Afrasianist phonetic notation</ref> consonant}, respectively, and {{angbr IPA|X}} for {any sound}<!--e.g. Walker 1984 Pronunciation of Canadian French-->. The letters can be modified with IPA diacritics, for example {{angbr IPA|Cʼ}} for {ejective}, {{angbr IPA|Ƈ&thinsp;}} for {implosive}, {{angbr IPA|N͡C}} or {{angbr IPA|ᴺC}} for {prenasalized consonant}, {{angbr IPA|Ṽ}} for {[[nasal vowel]]}<!--e.g. Pellegrino et al.-->, {{angbr IPA|CʰV́}} for {aspirated CV syllable with high tone}, {{angbr IPA|S̬}} for {voiced sibilant}, {{angbr IPA|N̥}} for {voiceless nasal}<!--e.g. Huffman & Hinnebusch, 'The phonetic nature of "voiceless" nasals in Pokomo'-->, {{angbr IPA|P͡F}} or {{angbr IPA|Pꟳ}} for {affricate}, {{angbr IPA|Cʲ}} for {palatalized consonant}<!--e.g. Alexei Kochetov, Phonetic variation and gestural specification: Production of Russian consonants--> and {{angbr IPA|D̪}} for {dental consonant}. {{angbr IPA|H}}, {{angbr IPA|M}}, {{angbr IPA|L}} are also commonly used for high, mid and low tone, with {{angbr IPA|LH}} for rising tone and {{angbr IPA|HL}} for falling tone, rather than transcribing them overly precisely with IPA tone letters or with ambiguous digits.<ref group=note>Somewhat more precisely, {{angbr IPA|LM}} and {{angbr IPA|MH}} are sometimes used for low and high rising tones, and {{angbr IPA|HM}}, {{angbr IPA|ML}} for high and low falling tones; occasionally {{angbr IPA|R}} for 'rising' or {{angbr IPA|F}} for 'falling' is also seen.</ref> Typical examples of archiphonemic use of capital letters are {{angbr IPA|I}} for the Turkish harmonic vowel set {{IPA|{i y ɯ u}}};<ref group=note>For other Turkic languages, {{angbr IPA|I}} may be restricted to {{IPA|{ɯ i}}} (that is, to ''ı i''), {{angbr IPA|U}} to ''u ü'', {{angbr IPA|A}} to ''a e/ä'', etc.</ref> {{angbr IPA|D}} for the conflated flapped middle consonant of American English ''writer'' and ''rider''; {{angbr IPA|N}} for the [[homorganic]] syllable-coda nasal of languages such as Spanish and Japanese (essentially equivalent to the wild-card usage of the letter); and {{angbr IPA|R}} in cases where a phonemic trill {{IPA|/r/}} and flap {{IPA|/ɾ/}} are indeterminate, as in Spanish ''enrejar'' {{IPA|/eNreˈxaR/}} (the ''n'' is homorganic and the first ''r'' is a trill but the second is variable).<ref>[[Antonio Quilis]] (1997) ''Principios de fonología y fonética españolas'', p. 65.</ref> Similar usage is found for ''phonemic'' analysis, where a language does not distinguish sounds that have separate letters in the IPA. For instance, Castillian Spanish has been analyzed as having phonemes {{IPA|/Θ/}} and {{IPA|/S/}}, which surface as {{IPA|[θ]}} and {{IPA|[s]}} in voiceless environments and as {{IPA|[ð]}} and {{IPA|[z]}} in voiced environments (e.g. ''hazte'' {{IPA|/ˈaΘte/}}, → {{IPA|[ˈaθte]}}, vs ''hazme'' {{IPA|/ˈaΘme/}}, → {{IPA|[ˈaðme]}}; or ''las manos'' {{IPA|/laS ˈmanoS/}}, → {{IPA|[lazˈmanos]}}).<ref>Xavier Frías Conde (2001) ''Introducción a la fonología y fonética del español'', p. 11&ndash;12. Ianua. Revista Philologica Romanica.</ref> {{angbr IPA|V}}, {{angbr IPA|F}} and {{angbr IPA|C}} have completely different meanings as [[Voice Quality Symbols]], where they stand for "voice" (generally meaning [[secondary articulation]], as in {{angbr IPA|Ṽ}} "nasal voice", not phonetic voicing), "falsetto" and "creak". They may also take diacritics that indicate what kind of voice quality an utterance has, and may be used to extract a suprasegmental feature that occurs on all susceptible segments in a stretch of IPA. For instance, the transcription of [[Scottish Gaelic]] {{IPA|[kʷʰuˣʷt̪ʷs̟ʷ]}} 'cat' and {{IPA|[kʷʰʉˣʷt͜ʃʷ]}} 'cats' ([[Islay]] dialect) can be made more economical by extracting the suprasegmental labialization of the words: {{IPA|Vʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]}} and {{IPA|Vʷ[kʰʉˣt͜ʃ]}}.<ref>Laver (1994) ''Principles of Phonetics'', p. 374.</ref> The usual wildcard X or C might be used instead of V so that the reader does not misinterpret {{angbr IPA|Vʷ}} as meaning that only vowels are labialized (i.e. {{IPA|Xʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]}} for all segments labialized, {{IPA|Cʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]}} for all consonants labialized), or the carrier letter may be omitted altogether (e.g. {{IPA|ʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]}}, {{IPA|[ʷkʰuˣt̪s̟]}} or {{IPA|[kʰuˣt̪s̟]ʷ}}). (See {{section link|#Suprasegmentals}} for other transcription conventions.) ==Segments without letters== The blank cells on the IPA chart can be filled without much difficulty if the need arises. The expected retroflex letter forms have appeared in the literature for the [[retroflex implosive]] {{angbr IPA|ᶑ&thinsp;}}, the [[retroflex lateral flap]] {{angbr IPA|𝼈&thinsp;}} and the [[retroflex click]]s {{angbr IPA|𝼊&thinsp;}}; the first is mentioned in the IPA ''Handbook'' and the IPA requested Unicode support for superscript variants of all three. The missing voiceless lateral fricatives are provided for by the [[extIPA]]. The epiglottal trill is arguably covered by the generally trilled epiglottal "fricatives" {{angbr IPA|ʜ ʢ}}. Labiodental plosives {{angbr IPA|ȹ ȸ}} appear in some old Bantuist texts. ''Ad hoc'' near-close central vowels {{angbr IPA|ᵻ ᵿ}} are used in some descriptions of English. Diacritics can duplicate some of these; {{angbr IPA|p̪ b̪}} are now universal for labiodental plosives, {{angbr IPA|ɪ̈ ʊ̈}} are common for the central vowels and {{angbr IPA|ɭ̆&thinsp;}} is occasionally seen for the lateral flap. Diacritics are able to fill in most of the remainder of the charts.<ref>"Diacritics may also be employed to create symbols for phonemes, thus reducing the need to create new letter shapes." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p.&nbsp;27)</ref> If a sound cannot be transcribed, an asterisk {{angbr|*}} may be used, either as a letter or as a diacritic (as in {{angbr|k*}} sometimes seen for the [[Korean phonology|Korean]] "fortis" velar). ===Consonants=== Representations of consonant sounds outside of the core set are created by adding diacritics to letters with similar sound values. The Spanish bilabial and dental approximants are commonly written as lowered fricatives, {{IPA|[β̞]}} and {{IPA|[ð̞]}} respectively.<ref group=note>Dedicated letters have been proposed, such as rotated <span style="{{mirrorH}}"><span style="{{mirrorV}}">{{angbr IPA|β}}</span></span> and <span style="{{mirrorH}}"><span style="{{mirrorV}}">{{angbr IPA|ð}}</span></span>, reversed <span style="{{mirrorH}}">{{angbr IPA|β}}</span> and <span style="{{mirrorH}}">{{angbr IPA|ð}}</span>, or small-capital {{angbr IPA|{{sm|б}}}} and {{angbr IPA|ᴆ}}. Ball, Rahilly & Lowry (2017) ''Phonetics for speech pathology'', 3rd edition, Equinox, Sheffield.</ref> Similarly, voiced lateral fricatives would be written as raised lateral approximants, {{IPA|[ɭ˔ ʎ̝ ʟ̝]}}; extIPA provides {{angbr IPA|𝼅}} for the first of these. A few languages such as [[Banda languages|Banda]] have a bilabial flap as the preferred allophone of what is elsewhere a labiodental flap. It has been suggested that this be written with the labiodental flap letter and the advanced diacritic, {{IPA|[ⱱ̟]}}.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Olson | first1 = Kenneth S. | last2 = Hajek | first2 = John | year = 1999 | title = The phonetic status of the labial flap | journal = Journal of the International Phonetic Association | volume = 29 | issue = 2| pages = 101–114 | doi = 10.1017/s0025100300006484 | s2cid = 14438770 }}</ref> Similarly, a labiodental trill would be written {{IPA|[ʙ̪]}} (bilabial trill and the dental sign), and labiodental stops {{IPA|[p̪ b̪]}} rather than with the ''ad hoc'' letters sometimes found in the literature. Other taps can be written as extra-short plosives or laterals, e.g. {{IPA|[&thinsp;ɟ̆ ɢ̆ ʟ̆]}}, though in some cases the diacritic would need to be written below the letter. A [[retroflex trill]] can be written as a retracted {{IPA|[r̠]}}, just as non-subapical retroflex fricatives sometimes are. The remaining consonants &ndash; the uvular laterals ({{IPA|[ʟ̠]}} ''etc.'') and the palatal trill &ndash; while not strictly impossible, are very difficult to pronounce and are unlikely to occur even as allophones in the world's languages. ===Vowels=== The vowels are similarly manageable by using diacritics for raising, lowering, fronting, backing, centering, and mid-centering.<ref>"The diacritics...can be used to modify the lip or tongue position implied by a vowel symbol." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p.&nbsp;16)</ref> For example, the unrounded equivalent of {{IPA|[ʊ]}} can be transcribed as mid-centered {{IPA|[ɯ̽]}}, and the rounded equivalent of {{IPA|[æ]}} as raised {{IPA|[ɶ̝]}} or lowered {{IPA|[œ̞]}} (though for those who conceive of vowel space as a triangle, simple {{IPA|[ɶ]}} already is the rounded equivalent of {{IPA|[æ]}}). True mid vowels are lowered {{IPA|[e̞ ø̞ ɘ̞ ɵ̞ ɤ̞ o̞]}} or raised {{IPA|[ɛ̝ œ̝ ɜ̝ ɞ̝ ʌ̝ ɔ̝]}}, while centered {{IPA|[ɪ̈ ʊ̈]}} and {{IPA|[ä]}} (or, less commonly, {{IPA|[ɑ̈]}}) are near-close and open central vowels, respectively. The only known vowels that cannot be represented in this scheme are vowels with unexpected [[roundedness]], which would require a dedicated diacritic, such as protruded {{angbr IPA|ʏʷ}} and compressed {{angbr IPA|uᵝ}} (or protruded {{angbr IPA|ɪʷ}} and compressed {{angbr IPA|ɯᶹ}}). ==Symbol names== {{Main|Naming conventions of the International Phonetic Alphabet}} An IPA symbol is often distinguished from the sound it is intended to represent, since there is not necessarily a one-to-one correspondence between letter and sound in broad transcription, making articulatory descriptions such as "mid front rounded vowel" or "voiced velar stop" unreliable. While the ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association'' states that no official names exist for its symbols, it admits the presence of one or two common names for each.<ref>"...the International Phonetic Association has never officially approved a set of names..." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;31)</ref> The symbols also have [[Nonce word|nonce names]] in the [[Unicode]] standard. In many cases, the names in Unicode and the IPA ''Handbook'' differ. For example, the ''Handbook'' calls {{angbr IPA|ɛ}} "epsilon", while Unicode calls it "small letter open e". The traditional names of the Latin and Greek letters are usually used for unmodified letters.<ref group=note> For example, the IPA ''Handbook'' lists {{angbr IPA|p}} as "lower-case P" and {{angbr IPA|χ}} as "chi." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;171) </ref> Letters which are not directly derived from these alphabets, such as {{angbr IPA|ʕ}}, may have a variety of names, sometimes based on the appearance of the symbol or on the sound that it represents. In Unicode, some of the letters of Greek origin have Latin forms for use in IPA; the others use the characters from the Greek block. For diacritics, there are two methods of naming. For traditional diacritics, the IPA notes the name in a well known language; for example, {{angbr IPA|é}} is "e-[[Acute accent|acute]]", based on the name of the diacritic in English and French. Non-traditional diacritics are often named after objects they resemble, so {{angbr IPA|d̪}} is called "d-bridge". [[Geoffrey Pullum]] and [[William Ladusaw]] list a variety of names in use for IPA symbols, both current and retired, in their ''[[Phonetic Symbol Guide]]''; many of these found their way into Unicode.<ref name=Pullum/> ==Computer support== ===Unicode=== {{main|Phonetic symbols in Unicode#IPA}} [[Unicode]] supports nearly all of the IPA alphabet. Apart from basic Latin and Greek and general punctuation, the primary blocks are [[IPA Extensions]], [[Spacing Modifier Letters]] and [[Combining Diacritical Marks]], with lesser support from [[Phonetic Extensions]], [[Phonetic Extensions Supplement]], [[Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement]], and scattered characters elsewhere. The [[extended IPA]] is supported primarily by those blocks and [[Latin Extended-G]]. === IPA numbers === {{main|IPA number}} After the [[Kiel Convention]] in 1989, most IPA symbols were assigned an identifying number to prevent confusion between similar characters during the printing of manuscripts. The codes were never much used and have been superseded by Unicode.<ref>A chart of the numbers for the most common IPA symbols can be found on the IPA website.[https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/sites/default/files/IPA_Number_chart_(C)2005.pdf IPA number chart]</ref> ===Typefaces=== [[File:IPA font sample (SIL, Brill, Noto, Calibri).png|thumb|The sequence {{IPA|⟨˨˦˧꜒꜔꜓k͜𝼄a͎̽᷅ꟸ⟩}} in the fonts Gentium Book Plus, Andika, Brill, Noto Serif and Calibri. All of these fonts align diacritics well. Asterisks are characters not supported by that font. In Noto, the red tone letters do not link properly. This is a test sequence: Noto and Calibri support most IPA adequately.]] Many typefaces have support for IPA characters, but good diacritic rendering remains rare.<ref name="Es gilt das gesprochene Wort: Schriftarten für IPA-Transkriptionen">{{cite web |title=Es gilt das gesprochene Wort: Schriftarten für IPA-Transkriptionen |date=16 March 2014 |url=https://www.isoglosse.de/2014/03/schriftarten-ipa-transkriptionen/ | access-date=2022-08-18 |language=de}}</ref> [[Web browser]]s generally do not need any configuration to display IPA characters, provided that a typeface capable of doing so is available to the operating system. ====System fonts==== The ubiquitous [[Arial]] and [[Times New Roman]] fonts include IPA characters, but they are neither complete (especially Arial) nor render diacritics properly. The basic Latin [[Noto fonts]] are better, only failing with the more obscure characters. The proprietary [[Calibri]] font,<!--good diacritic placement of Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement, but incomplete tone support--> which is the default font of [[Microsoft Office]], has nearly complete IPA support with good diacritic rendering. {| class=wikitable !Font !!Sample !!Comments |- |[[Times New Roman]] || <span style="font-family:Times New Roman;">⟨˨˦˧꜒꜔꜓k͜𝼄a͎̽᷅ꟸ⟩</span> || The tone letters join properly, but the tie-bar and diacritics are displaced, and the diacritics overstrike each other rather than stacking |} ====Other commercial fonts==== [[Brill Publishers#Brill Typeface|Brill]]<!--comparable support to Calibri--> has good IPA support. It is a commercial font but freely available for non-commercial use.<ref name="Brill Typeface">{{cite web |title=Brill Typeface |url=https://brill.com/page/1228?language=en%20Brill%20Typeface |access-date=2022-08-18 |language=en |archive-date=18 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818094822/https://brill.com/page/1228?language=en%20Brill%20Typeface |url-status=dead }}</ref> ====Free fonts==== Typefaces that provide nearly full IPA support<!--e.g. Modifier Tone Letters such as tone-sandhi U+A712--> and properly render diacritics<!--e.g. Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement characters such as U+1DC5--> include [[Gentium|Gentium Plus]], [[Charis SIL]], [[Doulos SIL]], and [[Andika (font)|Andika]]. <!--SIL fonts seem to be the only ones with complete IPA support. --> In addition to the support found in other fonts, these fonts support the full range of old-style (pre-Kiel) staveless tone letters, which do not have dedicated Unicode support, through an option to suppress the stave of the Chao tone letters. ===ASCII and keyboard transliterations=== {{further|Comparison of ASCII encodings of the International Phonetic Alphabet}} Several systems have been developed that map the IPA symbols to [[ASCII]] characters. Notable systems include [[SAMPA]] and [[X-SAMPA]]. The usage of mapping systems in on-line text has to some extent been adopted in the context input methods, allowing convenient keying of IPA characters that would be otherwise unavailable on standard keyboard layouts. ===IETF language tags=== [[IETF language tag]]s have registered {{mono|fonipa}} as a variant subtag identifying text as written in IPA.<ref name="IANA">{{cite web |title=Language Subtag Registry |url=https://www.iana.org/assignments/language-subtag-registry/language-subtag-registry |publisher=IANA |access-date=30 April 2021 |language=en |date=2021-03-05}}</ref> Thus, an IPA transcription of English could be tagged as {{mono|en-fonipa}}. For the use of IPA without attribution to a concrete language, {{mono|und-fonipa}} is available. ===Computer input using on-screen keyboard=== Online IPA keyboard utilities are available, though none<!--before claiming something provides full support, verify that it supports the tone diacritics that do not appear on the IPA chart--> of them cover the complete range of IPA symbols and diacritics.<ref group=note>Online IPA keyboard utilities include the [https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/IPAcharts/inter_chart_2018/IPA_2018.html IPA 2018 i-charts] hosted by the IPA, [https://r12a.github.io/pickers/ipa/ IPA character picker 27] at GitHub, [http://ipa.typeit.org/full/ Type IPA phonetic symbols] at TypeIt.org, and an [https://westonruter.github.io/ipa-chart/keyboard/ IPA Chart keyboard] at GitHub.</ref> In April 2019, Google's [[Gboard]] for [[Android (operating system)|Android]] added an IPA keyboard to its platform.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/04/18/gboard-updated-with-63-new-languages-including-ipa-not-the-beer/|title=Gboard updated with 63 new languages, including IPA (not the beer)|date=18 April 2019|website=Android Police|language=en-US|access-date=28 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://support.google.com/gboard/answer/6380730?co=GENIE.Platform=Android|title=Set up Gboard – Android – Gboard Help|website=support.google.com|access-date=28 April 2019}}</ref> For iOS there are multiple free keyboard layouts available, e.g. "IPA Phonetic Keyboard".<ref>{{Cite web|title=IPA Phonetic Keyboard|url=https://apps.apple.com/lu/app/ipa-phonetic-keyboard/id1440241497|access-date=8 December 2020|website=App Store|language=en-gb}}</ref> ==See also== {{Div col}} * {{annotated link|Afroasiatic phonetic notation}} * {{annotated link|Americanist phonetic notation}} * {{annotated link|Arabic International Phonetic Alphabet}} * {{annotated link|Articulatory phonetics}} * {{annotated link|Case variants of IPA letters}} * {{annotated link|Cursive forms of the International Phonetic Alphabet}} * {{annotated link|Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet}} * [[Index of phonetics articles]] * {{annotated link|International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration}} * {{annotated link|International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects}} * [[List of international common standards]] * {{annotated link|Luciano Canepari}} * {{annotated link|Phonetic symbols in Unicode}} * {{annotated link|RFE Phonetic Alphabet}} * {{annotated link|SAMPA}} * {{annotated link|Semyon Novgorodov}} – inventor of IPA-based [[Yakut scripts]] * {{annotated link|TIPA (software)|TIPA}} provides IPA support for [[LaTeX]] * {{annotated link|UAI phonetic alphabet}} * {{annotated link|Uralic Phonetic Alphabet}} * {{annotated link|Voice Quality Symbols}} * {{annotated link|X-SAMPA}} {{Div col end}} ==Notes== {{Reflist|group=note|30em}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Further reading== {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{Cite journal|last=Ball|first=Martin J.|author2=John H. Esling|author3=B. Craig Dickson|year=1995|title=The VoQS system for the transcription of voice quality|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|volume=25|issue=2|pages=71–80|doi=10.1017/S0025100300005181|s2cid=145791575 }} * {{Cite journal|last=Duckworth|first=M.|author2=G. Allen|author3=M.J. Ball|date=December 1990|title=Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for the transcription of atypical speech|journal=Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics|volume=4|issue=4|pages=273–280|doi=10.3109/02699209008985489}} * {{Cite journal|last1=Hill|first1=Kenneth C.|date=March 1988|last2=Pullum|first2=Geoffrey K.|last3=Ladusaw|first3=William|title=Review of ''Phonetic Symbol Guide'' by G. K. Pullum & W. Ladusaw|journal=Language|volume=64|issue=1|pages=143–144|doi=10.2307/414792|jstor=414792}} * {{Cite journal|author=International Phonetic Association|year=1989|title=Report on the 1989 Kiel convention|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|volume=19|issue=2|pages=67–80|doi=10.1017/s0025100300003868|s2cid=249412330 }} * {{Cite book|author=International Phonetic Association|year=1999|title=Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet|location=Cambridge|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=0-521-65236-7}} (hb); {{ISBN|0-521-63751-1}} (pb). * {{Cite book|last=Jones|first=Daniel|author-link=Daniel Jones (phonetician)|title=English pronouncing dictionary|year=1988|edition=revised 14th|publisher=Dent|location=London|oclc=18415701|isbn=0-521-86230-2|url=https://archive.org/details/englishpronounci00dani}} * {{Cite journal|last=Ladefoged|first=Peter|author-link=Peter Ladefoged|date=September 1990|title=The revised International Phonetic Alphabet|journal=Language|volume=66|issue=3|pages=550–552|doi=10.2307/414611|jstor=414611}} * {{Cite journal|last=Ladefoged|first=Peter|author2=Morris Halle|date=September 1988|title=Some major features of the International Phonetic Alphabet|journal=Language|volume=64|issue=3|pages=577–582|doi=10.2307/414533|jstor=414533}} * {{Cite book|last=Laver|first=John|title=Principles of Phonetics|year=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|isbn=0-521-45031-4}} (hb); {{ISBN|0-521-45655-X}} (pb). * {{Cite book|last=Pullum|first=Geoffrey K.|author-link=Geoffrey Pullum|author2=William A. Ladusaw|title=Phonetic Symbol Guide|year=1986|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|location=Chicago|isbn=0-226-68532-2|title-link=Phonetic Symbol Guide}} * {{Cite book|last=Skinner|first=Edith|author2=Timothy Monich|author3=Lilene Mansell|title=Speak with Distinction|location=New York|publisher=Applause Theatre Book Publishers|year=1990|isbn=1-55783-047-9|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/speakwithdistinc0000skin}} * {{cite book|last1=Fromkin|first1=Victoria|last2=Rodman|first2=Robert|last3=Hyams|first3=Nina|title=An Introduction to Language|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00from_616|url-access=limited|date=2011|publisher=Wadsworth, Cengage Learning|location=Boston|pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00from_616/page/n252 233]–234|edition=9th|isbn=978-1-4282-6392-5}} {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Commons category|International Phonetic Alphabet}} * {{Official website|http://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org}} * [https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/IPAcharts/inter_chart_2018/IPA_2018.html Interactive IPA chart] <!-- Do not add links to unofficial pages per [[WP:LINKFARM]] - some might belong to [[Help:IPA]] --> {{IPA navigation}} {{Language phonologies}} {{List of writing systems}} {{Latin script}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:International Phonetic Alphabet| ]] [[Category:Phonetic guides]] [[Category:Unicode]] 3wgczmbrb1x1t4s3agfekhtglrsvf61 323752 323751 2025-06-17T20:33:34Z Kwamikagami 3479 /* Extensions */ 323752 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|System of phonetic notation}} {{For|the international (civil) aviation organization (ICAO) spelling alphabet|NATO phonetic alphabet}} {{Self reference|For an introductory guide on IPA symbols with audio, see [[:Help:IPA]]. For the usage of the IPA on Wikipedia, see [[:Help:IPA/Introduction]] and [[:Help:IPA/English]].}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}} {{Infobox writing system |name = International Phonetic Alphabet |type = Alphabet |typedesc = – partially [[Featural alphabet|featural]] |languages = Used for [[Phonetics|phonetic]] and [[Phoneme|phonemic]] transcription of any language |time = 1888 to present |fam1 = [[Palaeotype alphabet]], [[English Phonotypic Alphabet]] |fam2 = [[Romic alphabet]] |sample = IPA in IPA.svg |imagesize = 200px |note = none |unicode = |iso15924 = |caption = "IPA" in IPA ({{IPA|[aɪ pʰiː eɪ]}}) }} {{SpecialChars | special = [[phonetics|phonetic]] [[symbol]]s | fix = Help:Special characters | characters = phonetic symbols }} [[File:IPA chart 2020.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|The official chart of the IPA, revised in 2020]] The '''International Phonetic Alphabet''' ('''IPA''') is an [[alphabet]]ic system of [[phonetic transcription|phonetic notation]] based primarily on the [[Latin script]]. It was devised by the [[International Phonetic Association]] in the late 19th century as a standardized representation of [[speech sound]]s in written form.<ref name="IPA 1999">International Phonetic Association (IPA), ''Handbook''.</ref> The IPA is used by [[lexicography|lexicographers]], [[foreign language]] students and teachers, [[linguistics|linguists]], [[speech–language pathology|speech–language pathologists]], singers, actors, [[constructed language]] creators, and translators.<ref name="world">{{Cite book|last=MacMahon|first=Michael K. C.|chapter=Phonetic Notation|editor=P. T. Daniels|editor2=W. Bright|title=The World's Writing Systems|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/821 821–846]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=1996|location=New York|isbn=0-19-507993-0|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/821}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|first=Joan |last=Wall |title=International Phonetic Alphabet for Singers: A Manual for English and Foreign Language Diction |publisher=Pst |year=1989 |isbn=1-877761-50-8 }}</ref> The IPA is designed to represent those qualities of speech that are part of [[wiktionary:lexical|lexical]] (and, to a limited extent, [[prosodic]]) sounds in [[oral language]]: [[phone (phonetics)|phones]], [[phoneme]]s, [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]], and the separation of [[word]]s and [[syllable]]s.<ref name="IPA 1999" /> To represent additional qualities of speech—such as tooth [[wiktionary:gnash|gnashing]], [[lisp]]ing, and sounds made with a [[cleft lip and cleft palate]]—an [[extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet|extended set of symbols]] may be used.<ref name="world" /> Segments are transcribed by one or more IPA symbols of two basic types: [[letter (alphabet)|letters]] and [[diacritic]]s. For example, the sound of the [[English language|English]] letter {{angbr|t}} may be transcribed in IPA with a single letter: {{IPA|[t]}}, or with a letter plus diacritics: {{IPA|[t̺ʰ]}}, depending on how precise one wishes to be. Slashes are used to signal [[phonemic transcription]]; therefore, {{IPA|/t/}} is more abstract than either {{IPA|[t̺ʰ]}} or {{IPA|[t]}} and might refer to either, depending on the context and language.<ref group=note>The inverted bridge under the {{angbr|t̺ʰ}} specifies it as [[apical consonant|apical]] (pronounced with the tip of the tongue), and the superscript ''h'' shows that it is [[aspirated consonant|aspirated]] (breathy). Both these qualities cause the English {{IPA|/t/}} to sound different from the French or Spanish {{IPA|/t/}}, which is a [[laminal consonant|laminal]] (pronounced with the blade of the tongue) and unaspirated {{IPA|[t̻]}}. {{IPA|[t̺ʰ]}} and {{IPA|[t̻]}} are thus two different, though similar, sounds.</ref> Occasionally, letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/ipachart.html |title=IPA: Alphabet |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010121927/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/ipachart.html |archive-date=10 October 2012 }}</ref> there are 107 segmental letters, an indefinitely large number of suprasegmental letters, 44 diacritics (not counting composites), and four extra-lexical [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosodic]] marks in the IPA. Most<!--the majority of tone letters are not shown; not all the components are even found in the IPA Handbook--> of these are shown in the current [[International Phonetic Alphabet chart|IPA chart]], posted below in this article and at the website of the IPA.<ref>{{cite web|title=Full IPA Chart|url=https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/full-ipa-chart|website=International Phonetic Association|access-date=24 April 2017}}</ref> ==History== {{Main|History of the International Phonetic Alphabet}} In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist [[Paul Passy]], formed what would be known from 1897 onwards as the [[International Phonetic Association]] (in French, {{lang|fr|l'Association phonétique internationale}}).<ref name="IPA194-196">International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp.&nbsp;194–196</ref> Their original alphabet was based on a [[spelling reform]] for English known as the [[Romic alphabet]], but to make it usable for other languages the values of the symbols were allowed to vary from language to language.<ref group=note>"Originally, the aim was to make available a set of phonetic symbols which would be given ''different'' articulatory values, if necessary, in different languages." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp.&nbsp;195–196)</ref> For example, the sound {{IPAblink|ʃ}} (the ''sh'' in ''shoe'') was originally represented with the letter {{angbr|c}} in English, but with the digraph {{angbr|{{lang|fr|ch}}}} in French.<ref name="IPA194-196"/> In 1888, the alphabet was revised to be uniform across languages, thus providing the base for all future revisions.<ref name="IPA194-196"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Passy |first=Paul |year=1888 |title=Our revised alphabet |journal=[[The Phonetic Teacher]] |pages=57–60}}</ref> The idea of making the IPA was first suggested by [[Otto Jespersen]] in a letter to Passy. It was developed by [[Alexander John Ellis]], [[Henry Sweet]], [[Daniel Jones (phonetician)|Daniel Jones]], and Passy.<ref>IPA in the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]</ref> Since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After revisions and expansions from the 1890s to the 1940s, the IPA remained primarily unchanged until the [[Kiel Convention]] in 1989. A minor revision took place in 1993 with the addition of four letters for [[mid central vowel]]s<ref name="world" /> and the removal of letters for [[implosive consonant#Voiceless implosives|voiceless implosives]].<ref name="Pullum">Pullum and Ladusaw, ''[[Phonetic Symbol Guide]]'', pp.&nbsp;152, 209</ref> The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a [[labiodental flap]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Nicolaidis |first=Katerina |title=Approval of New IPA Sound: The Labiodental Flap |url=http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/flap.htm |date=September 2005 |publisher=International Phonetic Association |access-date=17 September 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060902212308/http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/ipa/flap.htm |archive-date=2 September 2006}}</ref> Apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely of renaming symbols and categories and in modifying [[Typeface|typefaces]].<ref name="world" /> [[Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet]] for [[speech pathology]] (extIPA) were created in 1990 and were officially adopted by the [[International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association]] in 1994.<ref>International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;186</ref> ==Description== The general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound ([[segment (linguistics)|speech segment]]).<ref group=note>"From its earliest days [...] the International Phonetic Association has aimed to provide 'a separate sign for each distinctive sound; that is, for each sound which, being used instead of another, in the same language, can change the meaning of a word'." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;27)</ref> This means that: * It does not normally use [[multigraph (orthography)|combinations of letters]] to represent single sounds, the way English does with {{angbr|sh}}, {{angbr|th}} and {{angbr|ng}}, or single letters to represent multiple sounds, the way {{angbr|x}} represents {{IPA|/ks/}} or {{IPA|/ɡz/}} in English. * There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values, the way [[hard and soft C|{{angbr|c}}]] and [[hard and soft G|{{angbr|g}}]] in several European languages have a "hard" or "soft" pronunciation. * The IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, a property known as "selectiveness".<ref name="world"/><ref group=note> For instance, [[flap consonant|flaps and taps]] are two different kinds of [[Manner of articulation|articulation]], but since no language has (yet) been found to make a distinction between, say, an [[alveolar tap|alveolar flap]] and an alveolar tap, the IPA does not provide such sounds with dedicated letters. Instead, it provides a single letter (in this case,&nbsp;{{IPA|[ɾ]}}) for both. Strictly speaking, this makes the IPA a partially [[phonemic|phon''em''ic]] alphabet, not a purely [[phonetic|phon''et''ic]] one.</ref> However, if a large number of phonemically distinct letters can be derived with a diacritic, that may be used instead.<ref group=note>This exception to the rules was made primarily to explain why the IPA does not make a dental–alveolar distinction, despite one being phonemic in hundreds of languages, including most of the continent of Australia. [[Americanist Phonetic Notation]] makes (or at least made) a distinction between apical {{angbr|t d s z n l}} and laminal {{angbr|τ δ ς ζ ν λ}}, which is easily applicable to alveolar vs dental (when a language distinguishes apical alveolar from laminal dental, as in Australia), but despite several proposals to the Council, the IPA never voted to accept such a distinction.</ref> The alphabet is designed for transcribing sounds (phones), not [[phoneme]]s, though it is used for phonemic transcription as well. A few letters that did not indicate specific sounds have been retired ({{angbr IPA|ˇ}}, once used for the "compound" tone of Swedish and Norwegian, and {{angbr IPA|ƞ}}, once used for the [[moraic]] nasal of Japanese), though one remains: {{angbr IPA|ɧ}}, used for the [[sj-sound]] of Swedish. When the IPA is used for phonemic transcription, the letter–sound correspondence can be rather loose. For example, {{angbr IPA|c}} and {{angbr IPA|ɟ}} are used in the IPA ''Handbook'' for {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} and {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}}. Among the symbols of the IPA, 107 letters represent [[consonant]]s and [[vowel]]s, 31 [[diacritic]]s are used to modify these, and 17 additional signs indicate [[Segment (linguistics)|suprasegmental]] qualities such as [[length (phonetics)|length]], [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]], [[Stress (linguistics)|stress]], and [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]].<ref group=note> There are three<!--dbl acute and grave are compounds--> basic tone diacritics and five basic tone letters, both sets of which may be compounded. </ref> These are organized into a chart; the chart displayed here is the official chart as posted at the website of the IPA. ===Letter forms=== [[File:LowercaseG.svg|right|thumb|Loop-tail {{angbr IPA|g}} and open-tail {{angbr IPA|ɡ}} are graphic variants. Open-tail {{angbr IPA|ɡ}} was the original IPA symbol, but both are now considered correct. See [[history of the IPA]] for details.]] The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the [[Latin alphabet]].<ref group=note> "The non-roman letters of the International Phonetic Alphabet have been designed as far as possible to harmonize well with the roman letters. The Association does not recognize makeshift letters; It recognizes only letters which have been carefully cut so as to be in harmony with the other letters." (IPA 1949) </ref> For this reason, most letters are either [[Latin script|Latin]] or [[Greek alphabet|Greek]], or modifications thereof. Some letters are neither: for example, the letter denoting the [[glottal stop]], {{angbr IPA|ʔ}}, originally had the form of a dotless [[question mark]], and derives from an [[apostrophe]]. A few letters, such as that of the voiced [[pharyngeal consonant|pharyngeal fricative]], {{angbr IPA|ʕ}}, were inspired by other writing systems (in this case, the [[Arabic script|Arabic]] letter ⟨{{lang|ar|[[Ayin|ﻉ]]}}⟩, ''{{transliteration|ar|ʿayn}}'', via the reversed apostrophe).<ref name=Pullum/> <!--clearly, ʔ and ʕ are not of independent origin and reflect the transliteration of alif vs. ayin in Semitic philology. Source needed--> Some letter forms derive from existing letters: * The right-swinging tail, as in {{angbr IPA|ʈ ɖ ɳ ɽ ʂ ʐ ɻ ɭ&thinsp;}}, indicates [[retroflex consonant|retroflex]] articulation. It originates from the hook of an ''r''. * The top hook, as in {{angbr IPA|ɠ ɗ ɓ}}, indicates [[glottalic ingressive|implosion]]. * Several [[Nasal consonant|nasal consonants]] are based on the form {{angbr IPA|n}}: {{angbr IPA|n ɲ ɳ ŋ}}. {{angbr IPA|ɲ}} and {{angbr IPA|ŋ}} derive from [[Typographic ligature|ligatures]] of ''gn'' and ''ng,'' and {{angbr IPA|ɱ}} is an ''ad hoc'' imitation of {{angbr IPA|ŋ}}. * Letters turned 180 degrees for suggestive shapes, such as {{angbr IPA|ɐ ɔ ə ɟ ɓ ɥ ɾ ɯ ɹ ʇ ʊ ʌ ʍ ʎ}} from {{angbr IPA|a c e f ɡ h ᴊ<!--per Ellis, Pullum, etc.--> m r t <small>Ω</small> v w y}}.<ref group=note>Originally, {{IPA|[ʊ]}} was written as a small capital U. However, this was not easy to read, and so it was replaced with a turned small capital omega. In modern typefaces, it often has its own design, called a 'horseshoe'.</ref> Either the original letter may be reminiscent of the target sound (e.g., {{angbr IPA|ɐ ə ɹ ʇ ʍ}}) or the turned one (e.g., {{angbr IPA|ɔ ɟ ɓ ɥ ɾ ɯ ʌ ʎ<!--like both y and lambda-->}}). Rotation was popular in the era of [[Hot metal typesetting|mechanical typesetting]], as it had the advantage of not requiring the casting of special type for IPA symbols, much as the sorts had traditionally often pulled double duty for {{angbr|b}} and {{angbr|q}}, {{angbr|d}} and {{angbr|p}}, {{angbr|n}} and {{angbr|u}}, {{angbr|6}} and {{angbr|9}} to reduce cost. *:[[File:Turned small cap omega as a vowel.svg|thumb|An example of a font that uses turned small-capital omega, {{angbr|ꭥ}}, for the vowel {{angbr|ʊ}}. The symbol had originally been a small-capital {{angbr|ᴜ}}.]] * Among consonant letters, the [[Small caps|small capital]] letters {{angbr IPA|ɢ ʜ ʟ ɴ ʀ ʁ}}, and also {{angbr IPA|ꞯ}} in [[extIPA]], indicate more [[guttural]] sounds than their base letters. ({{angbr IPA|ʙ}}<!--for the bilabial trill--> is a late exception.) Among vowel letters, small capitals indicate [[lax vowel|"lax"]] vowels. Most of the original small-cap vowel letters have been modified into more distinctive shapes (e.g. {{angbr IPA|ʊ ɤ ɛ ʌ}} from {{sc|U Ɐ E A}}), with only {{angbr IPA|ɪ ʏ}} remaining as small capitals. ===Typography and iconicity=== The International Phonetic Alphabet is based on the [[Latin script]], and uses as few non-Latin letters as possible.<ref name = IPA194-196 /> The Association created the IPA so that the sound values of most letters would correspond to "international usage" (approximately [[Classical Latin]]).<ref name=IPA194-196/> Hence, the consonant letters {{angbr IPA|b}}, {{angbr IPA|d}}, {{angbr IPA|f}}, ([[hard G|hard]]) {{angbr IPA|ɡ}}, (non-silent) {{angbr IPA|h}}, (unaspirated) {{angbr IPA|k}}, {{angbr IPA|l}}, {{angbr IPA|m}}, {{angbr IPA|n}}, (unaspirated) {{angbr IPA|p}}, (voiceless) {{angbr IPA|s}}, (unaspirated) {{angbr IPA|t}}, {{angbr IPA|v}}, {{angbr IPA|w}}, and {{angbr IPA|z}} have more or less the values found in English; and the vowel letters {{angbr IPA|a}}, {{angbr IPA|e}}, {{angbr IPA|i}}, {{angbr IPA|o}}, {{angbr IPA|u}} correspond to the (long) sound values of Latin: {{IPA|[i]}} is like the vowel in ''mach{{strong|i}}ne'', {{IPA|[u]}} is as in ''r{{strong|u}}le'', etc. Other Latin letters, particularly {{angbr IPA|j}}, {{angbr IPA|r}} and {{angbr IPA|y}}, differ from English, but have their IPA values in Latin or other European languages. This basic Latin inventory was extended by adding small-capital and cursive forms, diacritics and rotation. The sound values of these letters are related to those of the original letters, and their derivation may be iconic.<ref>{{Citation | quote = The new letters should be suggestive of the sounds they represent, by their resemblance to the old ones. | publisher = International Phonetic Association | title = Handbook | page = 196}}.</ref> For example, letters with a rightward-facing hook at the bottom represent [[retroflex consonant|retroflex]] equivalents of the source letters, and small capital letters usually represent [[uvular consonant|uvular]] equivalents of their source letters. There are also several letters from the Greek alphabet, though their sound values may differ from Greek. The most extreme difference is {{angbr IPA|ʋ}}, which is a vowel in Greek but a consonant in the IPA. For most Greek letters, subtly different [[glyph]] shapes have been devised for the IPA, specifically {{angbr IPA|ɑ}}, {{angbr IPA|ꞵ}}, {{angbr IPA|ɣ}}, {{angbr IPA|ɛ}}, {{angbr IPA|ɸ}}, {{angbr IPA|ꭓ}} and {{angbr IPA|ʋ}}, which are encoded in [[Unicode]] separately from their parent Greek letters. One, however – {{angbr IPA|θ}} – has only its Greek form, while for {{angbr IPA|ꞵ ~ β}} and {{angbr IPA|ꭓ ~ χ}}, both Greek and Latin forms are in common use.<ref>Cf. the notes at the [[Unicode]] [http://unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0250.pdf#3 IPA EXTENSIONS code chart] as well as blogs by [http://evertype.com/blog/blog/category/unicode/ Michael Everson] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010200655/http://evertype.com/blog/blog/category/unicode/|date=10 October 2017}} and John Wells [http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2010/07/disunification-1.html here] and [http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2010/07/disunification-2.html here].</ref> The [[tone letter#IPA|tone letters]] are not derived from an alphabet, but from a [[pitch trace]] on a [[Scale (music)|musical scale]]. Beyond the letters themselves, there are a variety of secondary symbols which aid in transcription. [[Diacritic]] marks can be combined with IPA letters to add phonetic detail such as tone and [[secondary articulation]]s. There are also special symbols for prosodic features such as stress and intonation. ===Brackets and transcription delimiters=== There are two principal types of [[bracket]]s used to set off (delimit) IPA transcriptions: {| class="wikitable" ! | Symbol !! Use |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|[&nbsp;...&nbsp;]}} || [[Square brackets]] are used with [[phonetic]] notation, whether broad or narrow<ref name=IPA175>IPA ''Handbook'' p. 175</ref> – that is, for actual pronunciation, possibly including details of the pronunciation that may not be used for distinguishing words in the language being transcribed, which the author nonetheless wishes to document. Such phonetic notation is the primary function of the IPA. |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|/&nbsp;...&nbsp;/}} || [[Slash (punctuation)|Slashes]]<ref group="note">[[Merriam-Webster]] dictionaries use [[backslash]]es {{IPA|\&nbsp;...&nbsp;\}} to demarcate their in-house transcription system. This distinguishes their IPA-influenced system<!--the IPA influence is rather minimal, limited to the IPA stress marks and schwa, but the pronunciation data collected for MW's Third New International was in IPA and the IPA was seriously considered for its published transcription system.--> from true IPA, which is used between forward slashes in the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''.</ref> are used for abstract [[phonemic]] notation,<ref name=IPA175/> which note only features that are distinctive in the language, without any extraneous detail. For example, while the 'p' sounds of English ''pin'' and ''spin'' are pronounced differently (and this difference would be meaningful in some languages), the difference is not meaningful in English. Thus, ''phonemically'' the words are usually<!--could also be analyzed /pin/ and /sbin/--> analyzed as {{IPA|/ˈpɪn/}} and {{IPA|/ˈspɪn/}}, with the same phoneme {{IPA|/p/}}. To capture the difference between them (the [[allophone]]s of {{IPA|/p/}}), they can be transcribed phonetically as {{IPA|[pʰɪn]}} and {{IPA|[spɪn]}}. Phonemic notation commonly uses IPA symbols that are rather close to the default pronunciation of a phoneme, but for legibility or other reasons can use symbols that diverge from their designated values, such as {{IPA|/c, ɟ/}} for affricates typically pronounced {{IPA|[t͜ʃ, d͜ʒ]}}, as found in the ''Handbook'', or {{IPA|/r/}}, which in phonetic notation is a trill, for English ''r'' even when pronounced {{IPA|[ɹʷ]}}. |} Other conventions are less commonly seen: {| class="wikitable" ! | Symbol !! Use |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|&#x007B;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&#x007D;}} || [[Bracket#Curly brackets|Braces]] ("curly brackets") are used for [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosodic]] notation.<ref name=IPA176>IPA ''Handbook'' p. 176</ref> See [[Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet]] for examples in this system. |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|(&nbsp;...&nbsp;)}} || [[Parentheses]] are used for indistinguishable<ref name=IPA175/> or unidentified utterances. They are also seen for silent articulation (mouthing),<ref name=IPA191>IPA ''Handbook'' p. 191</ref> where the expected phonetic transcription is derived from lip-reading, and with periods to indicate silent pauses, for example {{IPA|(…)}} or {{IPA|(2 sec)}}. The latter usage is made official in the [[extIPA]], with unidentified segments circled.<ref>IPA (1999) ''Handbook'', p 188, 192</ref> |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|⸨&nbsp;...&nbsp;⸩}} || [[Parenthesis|Double parentheses]] indicate either a transcription of obscured speech or a description of the obscuring noise. The IPA specifies that they mark the obscured sound,<ref name=IPA176/> as in {{IPA|⸨2σ⸩}}, two audible syllables obscured by another sound. The current extIPA specifications prescribe double parentheses for the extraneous noise, such as ⸨cough⸩ or ⸨knock⸩ for a knock on a door, but the IPA ''Handbook'' identifies IPA and extIPA usage as equivalent.<ref>IPA (1999) ''Handbook'', p 176, 192</ref> Early publications of the extIPA explain double parentheses as marking "uncertainty because of noise which obscures the recording," and that within them "may be indicated as much detail as the transcriber can detect."<ref>Duckworth et al. (1990) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232077905_Extensions_to_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet_for_the_transcription_of_atypical_speech Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for the transcription of atypical speech.] ''[[Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics]]'' 4: 4: 278.</ref> |} All three of the above are provided by the IPA ''Handbook''. The following are not, but may be seen in IPA transcription or in associated material (especially angle brackets): {| class="wikitable" ! | Symbol !! Use |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|⟦&nbsp;...&nbsp;⟧}} || [[Square bracket|Double square brackets]] are used for extra-precise (especially narrow) transcription. This is consistent with the IPA convention of doubling a symbol to indicate greater degree. Double brackets may indicate that a letter has its cardinal IPA value. For example, {{IPA|⟦a⟧}} is an open front vowel, rather than the perhaps slightly different value (such as open central) that "{{IPA|[a]}}" may be used to transcribe in a particular language. Thus, two vowels transcribed for easy legibility as {{angbr IPA|[e]}} and {{angbr IPA|[ɛ]}} may be clarified as actually being {{IPA|⟦e̝⟧}} and {{IPA|⟦e⟧}}; {{angbr IPA|[ð]}} may be more precisely {{IPA|⟦ð̠̞ˠ⟧}}.<ref>Basbøll (2005) ''The Phonology of Danish'' pp. 45, 59</ref> Double brackets may also be used for a specific token or speaker; for example, the pronunciation of a child as opposed to the adult phonetic pronunciation that is their target.<ref>Karlsson & Sullivan (2005) ''/sP/ consonant clusters in Swedish: Acoustic measurements of phonological development''</ref> |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|⫽&nbsp;...&nbsp;⫽<br>&#x007C;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&#x007C;<br>‖&nbsp;...&nbsp;‖<br>&#x007B;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&#x007D;}} || [[Slash (punctuation)|Double slashes]] are used for [[morphophonemic]] transcription. This is also consistent with the IPA convention of doubling a symbol to indicate greater degree (in this case, more abstract than phonemic transcription). Other symbols sometimes seen for morphophonemic transcription are [[vertical bar|pipes]] and double pipes, from [[Americanist phonetic notation]]; and ''braces'' from [[set theory]], especially when enclosing the set of phonemes that constitute the morphophoneme, e.g. {{IPA|&#x007B;t d&#x007D;}} or {{IPA|&#x007B;t&#x007C;d&#x007D;}} or {{IPA|&#x007B;/t/, /d/&#x007D;}}. Only double slashes are unambiguous: both pipes and braces conflict with IPA prosodic transcription.<ref group=note>For example, the single and double pipe symbols are used for minor and major prosodic breaks. Although the ''Handbook'' specifies the prosodic symbols as "thick" vertical lines, which would be distinct from simple ASCII pipes (and similar to [[Dania transcription|Dania]] transcription), this is optional and was intended to keep them distinct from the pipes used as [[click letter]]s (''JIPA'' 19.2, p. 75). The ''Handbook'' (p. 174) assigns them the Unicode encodings U+007C, which is the simple ASCII pipe symbol, and U+2016.</ref> See [[morphophonology]] for examples. |- | style="text-align: center; | {{angbr IPA|&nbsp;...&nbsp;}}<br>{{IPA|⟪&nbsp;...&nbsp;⟫}} || [[Angle bracket]]s<ref group="note">The proper angle brackets in Unicode are the mathematical symbols (U+27E8 and U+27E9). Chevrons ‹...› (U+2039, U+203A) are sometimes substituted, as in Americanist phonetic notation, as are the less-than and greater-than signs <...> (U+003C, U+003E) found on ASCII keyboards.</ref> are used to mark both original Latin orthography and [[transliteration]] from another script<!--including e.g. Arabic and Chinese characters used to transcribe Latin script-->; they are also used to identify individual [[grapheme]]s of any script.<ref>Richard Sproat (2000) ''A Computational Theory of Writing Systems''. Cambridge University Press. Page 26.</ref><ref>Barry Heselwood (2013) ''Phonetic Transcription in Theory and Practice''. Edinburgh University Press. Page 8 ff, 29 ff.</ref> Within the IPA, they are used to indicate the IPA letters themselves rather than the sound values that they carry. Double angle brackets may occasionally be useful to distinguish original orthography from transliteration, or the idiosyncratic spelling of a manuscript from the normalized orthography of the language. For example, {{angbr IPA|cot}} would be used for the orthography of the English word ''cot'', as opposed to its pronunciation {{IPA|/ˈkɒt/}}. Italics are usual when words are written as themselves (as with ''cot'' in the previous sentence) rather than to specifically note their orthography. However, italic markup is not evident to sight-impaired readers who rely on [[screen reader]] technology. |} Some examples of contrasting brackets in the literature: {{block quote|In some English accents, the phoneme {{IPA|/l/}}, which is usually spelled as {{angbr|l}} or {{angbr|ll}}, is articulated as two distinct allophones: the clear {{IPA|[l]}} occurs before vowels and the consonant {{IPA|/j/}}, whereas the dark {{IPA|[ɫ]}}/{{IPA|[lˠ]}} occurs before consonants, except {{IPA|/j/}}, and at the end of words.<ref>Paul Tench (2011) ''Transcribing the Sound of English''. Cambridge University Press. Page 61.</ref>}} {{block quote|the alternations {{IPA|/f/}} &ndash; {{IPA|/v/}} in plural formation in one class of nouns, as in ''knife'' {{IPA|/naɪf/}} &ndash; ''knives'' {{IPA|/naɪvz/}}, which can be represented morphophonemically as {{IPA|{naɪV}}} &ndash; {{IPA|{naɪV+z}}}. The morphophoneme {{IPA|{V}}} stands for the phoneme set {{IPA|{/f/, /v/}}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Gibbon |first1= Dafydd |last2= Moore |first2= Roger |last3= Winski |first3= Richard |title= Handbook of Standards and Resources for Spoken Language Systems: Spoken language characterisation |date= 1998 |publisher= Walter de Gruyter |location= Berlin; New York |isbn= 9783110157345 |pages=61 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=8cxtWcsAk5MC&pg=PA61 |language= en}}</ref>}} {{block quote|{{IPA|[ˈf\faɪnəlz ˈhɛld ɪn (.) ⸨knock on door⸩ bɑɹsə{_𝑝ˈloʊnə and ˈmədɹɪd_𝑝}]}} &mdash; ''f-finals held in Barcelona and Madrid.''<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ball |first1=Martin J. |last2=Lowry |first2=Orla M. |author1-link=Martin J. Ball |title=Methods in Clinical Phonetics |date=2001 |publisher=Whurr |location=London |isbn=9781861561848 |pages=80 |chapter=Transcribing Disordered Speech |doi=10.1002/9780470777879.ch3|s2cid=58518097 }}</ref>}} ===Other representations=== {{main|Cursive forms of the International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA Braille}} IPA letters have [[cursive]] forms designed for use in manuscripts and when taking field notes, but the 1999 ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association'' recommended against their use, as cursive IPA is "harder for most people to decipher."{{sfn|International Phonetic Association|1999|p=31}} A [[braille]] representation of the IPA for blind or visually impaired professionals and students has also been developed.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Englebretson |first=Robert |date=2009 |title=An overview of IPA Braille: an updated tactile representation of the International Phonetic Alphabet |url=http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~reng/englebretson2009.pdf |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=39 |issue=1 |page=67 |access-date=5 April 2014 |doi=10.1017/s0025100308003691|citeseerx=10.1.1.501.366 |s2cid=36426880 }}</ref> =={{anchor|chart}}Modifying the IPA chart== [[File:Extended IPA chart 2005.png|thumb|upright=1.25|The authors of textbooks or similar publications often create revised versions of the IPA chart to express their own preferences or needs. The image displays one such version. All pulmonic consonants are moved to the consonant chart. Only the black symbols are on the official IPA chart; additional symbols are in grey. The grey fricatives are part of the [[extIPA]], and the grey retroflex letters are mentioned or implicit<!--'implicit' is the description used in the Unicode request for support for the missing retroflex letters--> in the ''Handbook''. The grey click is a retired IPA letter that is still in use.]] The International Phonetic Alphabet is occasionally modified by the Association. After each modification, the Association provides an updated simplified presentation of the alphabet in the form of a chart. (See [[History of the International Phonetic Alphabet|History of the IPA]].) Not all aspects of the alphabet can be accommodated in a chart of the size published by the IPA. The [[alveolo-palatal consonant|alveolo-palatal]] and [[epiglottal consonant|epiglottal]] consonants, for example, are not included in the consonant chart for reasons of space rather than of theory (two additional columns would be required, one between the retroflex and palatal columns and the other between the pharyngeal and glottal columns), and the [[lateral flap]] would require an additional row for that single consonant, so they are listed instead under the catchall block of "other symbols".<ref>{{cite book|last=Esling|first=John H.|author-link=John Esling|year=2010|chapter=Phonetic Notation|editor1-last=Hardcastle|editor1-first=William J.|editor2-last=Laver|editor2-first=John|editor3-last=Gibbon|editor3-first=Fiona E.|title=The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences|edition=2nd|pages=678–702|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|doi=10.1002/9781444317251.ch18|isbn=978-1-4051-4590-9}} pp.&nbsp;688, 693.</ref> The indefinitely large number of [[Chao tone letter|tone letters]] would make a full accounting impractical even on a larger page, and only a few examples are shown, and even the tone diacritics are not complete; the reversed tone letters are not illustrated at all. The procedure for modifying the alphabet or the chart is to propose the change in the ''[[Journal of the International Phonetic Association|Journal of the IPA]].'' (See, for example, August 2008 on an [[open central unrounded vowel]] and August 2011 on central approximants.)<ref name="cambridge1">{{cite journal|author1=Martin J. Ball |author2=Joan Rahilly |title=The symbolization of central approximants in the IPA |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=231–237 |publisher=Cambridge Journals Online |date=August 2011 |doi=10.1017/s0025100311000107|s2cid=144408497 }}<!-- Author, title, pages are unknown because the url is simply a link to the issue TOC. The same inadequate citation applies to the next reference. --></ref> Reactions to the proposal may be published in the same or subsequent issues of the Journal (as in August 2009 on the open central vowel).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayIssue?decade=2000&jid=IPA&volumeId=39&issueId=02&iid=5907924 |title=Cambridge Journals Online – Journal of the International Phonetic Association Vol. 39 Iss. 02 |publisher=Journals.cambridge.org |date=23 October 2012 |access-date=20 November 2012}}</ref> A formal proposal is then put to the Council of the IPA<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/about.html |title=IPA: About us |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010121905/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/about.html |archive-date=10 October 2012}}</ref> – which is elected by the membership<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/statutes.html |title=IPA: Statutes |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010121941/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/statutes.html |archive-date=10 October 2012}}</ref> – for further discussion and a formal vote.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/news/news200509.html |title=IPA: News |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111181340/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/news/news200509.html |archive-date=11 November 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/news/news201112.html |title=IPA: News |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111181349/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/news/news201112.html |archive-date=11 November 2012}}</ref> Nonetheless, many users of the alphabet, including the leadership of the Association itself, deviate from this norm.<ref group=note>See "Illustrations of the IPA" in the ''IPA Handbook'' (1999) for individual languages which for example may use {{angbr|/c/}} as a phonemic symbol for what is phonetically realized as {{IPA|[tʃ]}}, or superscript variants of IPA letters that are not officially defined.</ref> The ''Journal of the IPA'' finds it acceptable to mix IPA and [[extIPA]] symbols in consonant charts in their articles. (For instance, including the extIPA letter [[voiceless palatal lateral fricative|{{angbr IPA|𝼆}}]], rather than {{angbr IPA|ʎ̝̊}}, in an illustration of the IPA.)<ref name=pulmonic/> ==Usage== {{further|Phonetic transcription}} Of more than 160 IPA symbols, relatively few will be used to transcribe speech in any one language, with various levels of precision. A precise phonetic transcription, in which sounds are specified in detail, is known as a ''narrow transcription''. A coarser transcription with less detail is called a ''broad transcription.'' Both are relative terms, and both are generally enclosed in square brackets.<ref name="IPA 1999"/> Broad phonetic transcriptions may restrict themselves to easily heard details, or only to details that are relevant to the discussion at hand, and may differ little if at all from phonemic transcriptions, but they make no theoretical claim that all the distinctions transcribed are necessarily meaningful in the language. [[File:RPGA international.svg|200px|thumb|Phonetic transcriptions of the word ''international'' in two English dialects]] For example, the English word ''little'' may be transcribed broadly as {{IPA|[ˈlɪtəl]}}, approximately describing many pronunciations. A narrower transcription may focus on individual or dialectical details: {{IPA|[ˈɫɪɾɫ]}} in [[General American]], {{IPA|[ˈlɪʔo]}} in [[Cockney]], or {{IPA|[ˈɫɪːɫ]}} in [[Southern American English|Southern US English]]. Phonemic transcriptions, which express the conceptual counterparts of spoken sounds, are usually enclosed in slashes (/ /) and tend to use simpler letters with few diacritics. The choice of IPA letters may reflect theoretical claims of how speakers conceptualize sounds as phonemes or they may be merely a convenience for typesetting. Phonemic approximations between slashes do not have absolute sound values. For instance, in English, either the vowel of ''pick'' or the vowel of ''peak'' may be transcribed as {{IPA|/i/}}, so that ''pick'', ''peak'' would be transcribed as {{IPA|/ˈpik, ˈpiːk/}} or as {{IPA|/ˈpɪk, ˈpik/}}; and neither is identical to the vowel of the French ''{{lang|fr|pique}}'' which would also be transcribed {{IPA|/pik/}}. By contrast, a narrow phonetic transcription of ''pick'', ''peak'', ''pique'' could be: {{IPA|[pʰɪk]}}, {{IPA|[pʰiːk]}}, {{IPA|[pikʲ]}}. ===Linguists=== IPA is popular for transcription by linguists. Some American linguists, however, use a mix of IPA with [[Americanist phonetic notation]] or use some [[Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet|nonstandard symbols]] for various reasons.<ref name="thomason">{{cite web|url=http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/005287.html |title=Why I Don't Love the International Phonetic Alphabet |author=Sally Thomason |date=2 January 2008 |work=Language Log }}</ref> Authors who employ such nonstandard use are encouraged to include a chart or other explanation of their choices, which is good practice in general, as linguists differ in their understanding of the exact meaning of IPA symbols and common conventions change over time. ===Dictionaries=== ====English==== Many British dictionaries, including the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] and some [[Monolingual learner's dictionary|learner's dictionaries]] such as the ''[[Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary]]'' and the ''[[Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary]]'', now use [[Pronunciation respelling for English#International Phonetic Alphabet|the International Phonetic Alphabet]] to represent the pronunciation of words.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dictionary.cambridge.org/help/phonetics.htm |title=Phonetics |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge Dictionaries Online |access-date=11 March 2007 |archive-date=17 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110817233308/http://dictionary.cambridge.org/help/phonetics.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, most American (and some British) volumes use one of a variety of [[Pronunciation respelling for English|pronunciation respelling]] systems, intended to be more comfortable for readers of English and to be more acceptable across dialects, without the implication of a preferred pronunciation that the IPA might convey. For example, the respelling systems in many American dictionaries (such as ''[[Merriam-Webster Dictionary|Merriam-Webster]]'') use {{angbr|y}} for IPA {{IPA|[&thinsp;j]}} and {{angbr|sh}} for IPA {{IPA|[&thinsp;ʃ&thinsp;]}}, reflecting the usual spelling of those sounds in English.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/help/pronunciation-key |title=Merriam-Webster Online Pronunciation Symbols |access-date=4 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070601152219/http://mw1.merriam-webster.com/pronsymbols.html |archive-date=1 June 2007 |url-status=dead}}<br />{{Cite book|first=Michael|last=Agnes|title=Webster's New World College Dictionary|year=1999|publisher=Macmillan|location=New York|isbn=0-02-863119-6|page=xxiii|no-pp=true|url=https://archive.org/details/webstersnewworld00agne_0|url-access=registration}}<br />''[[Pronunciation respelling for English]]'' has detailed comparisons.</ref> (In IPA, {{IPA|[y]}} represents the sound of the French {{angbr|u}}, as in ''{{lang|fr|tu}}'', and {{IPA|[sh]}} represents the sequence of consonants in ''gra{{strong|ssh}}opper''.) ====Other languages==== The IPA is also not universal among dictionaries in languages other than English. Monolingual dictionaries of languages with [[phonemic orthography|phonemic orthographies]] generally do not bother with indicating the pronunciation of most words, and tend to use respelling systems for words with unexpected pronunciations. Dictionaries produced in Israel use the IPA rarely and sometimes use the [[Hebrew alphabet]] for transcription of foreign words.<ref group=note>Monolingual Hebrew dictionaries use pronunciation respelling for words with unusual spelling; for example, the ''[[Even-Shoshan Dictionary]]'' respells {{Script/Hebrew|תָּכְנִית}} as {{angbr|{{Script/Hebrew|תּוֹכְנִית}}}} because the word uses the ''[[kamatz]] katan''.</ref> Bilingual dictionaries that translate from foreign languages into Russian usually employ the IPA, but monolingual Russian dictionaries occasionally use pronunciation respelling for foreign words.<ref group=note>For example, [[Sergey Ozhegov]]'s dictionary adds [нэ́] in brackets to the French loan-word ''пенсне'' (''{{lang|fr|[[pince-nez]]}}'') to indicate that the final {{angbr|[[е]]}} does not [[Iotation|iotate]] the preceding {{angbr|[[н]]}}. </ref> The IPA is more common in bilingual dictionaries, but there are exceptions here too. Mass-market bilingual Czech dictionaries, for instance, tend to use the IPA only for sounds not found in [[Czech language|Czech]].<ref>{{in lang|cs}} {{Cite book|last=Fronek|first=J.|title=Velký anglicko-český slovník|year=2006|publisher=Leda|location=Praha|language=cs|isbn=80-7335-022-X|quote=In accordance with long-established Czech lexicographical tradition, a modified version of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is adopted in which letters of the Czech alphabet are employed.}}</ref> ===Standard orthographies and case variants=== {{main|Case variants of IPA letters}} IPA letters have been incorporated into the alphabets of various languages, notably via the [[Africa Alphabet]] in many sub-Saharan languages such as [[Hausa language|Hausa]], [[Fula language|Fula]], [[Akan language|Akan]], [[Gbe languages]], [[Manding languages]], [[Lingala language|Lingala]], etc. Capital case variants have been created for use in these languages. For example, [[Kabiyé language|Kabiyè]] of northern [[Togo]] has [[African D|Ɖ ɖ]], [[Eng (letter)|Ŋ ŋ]], [[Latin gamma|Ɣ ɣ]], [[Open O|Ɔ ɔ]], [[Latin epsilon|Ɛ ɛ]], [[Ʋ|Ʋ ʋ]]. These, and others, are supported by [[Unicode]], but appear in Latin ranges other than the [[IPA Extensions (Unicode block)|IPA extensions]]. In the IPA itself, however, only lower-case letters are used. The 1949 edition of the IPA handbook indicated that an asterisk {{angbr|*}} might be prefixed to indicate that a word was a proper name,<ref>''Principles of the International Phonetic Association,'' 1949:17.</ref> but this convention was not included in the 1999 ''Handbook'', which notes the contrary use of the asterisk as a placeholder for a sound or feature that does not have a symbol. ===Classical singing=== The IPA has widespread use among classical singers during preparation as they are frequently required to sing in a variety of foreign languages. They are also taught by vocal coaches to perfect diction and improve tone quality and tuning.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Severens|first=Sara E.|year=2017|title=The Effects of the International Phonetic Alphabet in Singing|journal=Student Scholar Showcase|url=https://digitalshowcase.lynchburg.edu/studentshowcase/2017/presentations/53/|language=en}}</ref> Opera [[libretto]]s are authoritatively transcribed in IPA, such as [[Nico Castel]]'s volumes<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.castelopera.com/libretti.htm | title=Nico Castel's Complete Libretti Series | publisher=Castel Opera Arts | access-date=29 September 2008 | archive-date=24 July 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724211024/http://www.castelopera.com/libretti.htm | url-status=dead }}</ref> and Timothy Cheek's book ''Singing in Czech''.<ref>{{Cite book | url=http://scarecrowpress.com/Catalog/SingleBook.shtml?command=Search&db=%5EDB/CATALOG.db&eqSKUdata=0810840030 | last=Cheek | first=Timothy | title=Singing in Czech | year=2001 | page=392 | isbn=978-0-8108-4003-4 | publisher=The Scarecrow Press | access-date=25 January 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007052429/http://scarecrowpress.com/Catalog/SingleBook.shtml?command=Search&db=%5EDB%2FCATALOG.db&eqSKUdata=0810840030 | archive-date=7 October 2011 | url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007052429/http://scarecrowpress.com/Catalog/SingleBook.shtml?command=Search&db=%5EDB%2FCATALOG.db&eqSKUdata=0810840030 |date=7 October 2011 }}</ref> Opera singers' ability to read IPA was used by the site ''Visual Thesaurus'', which employed several opera singers "to make recordings for the 150,000 words and phrases in VT's lexical database&nbsp;... for their vocal stamina, attention to the details of enunciation, and most of all, knowledge of IPA".<ref>{{cite web| url=http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=155 | title=Operatic IPA and the Visual Thesaurus | last=Zimmer | first=Benjamin | author-link=Benjamin Zimmer | work=[[Language Log]] | publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania]] | access-date=29 September 2009 | date=14 May 2008}}</ref> ==Letters== {{See also|International Phonetic Alphabet chart}} The International Phonetic Association organizes the letters of the IPA into three categories: [[pulmonic sounds|pulmonic]] consonants, non-pulmonic consonants, and vowels.<ref>"Segments can usefully be divided into two major categories, consonants and vowels." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;3)</ref><ref>International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;6.</ref> Pulmonic consonant letters are arranged singly or in pairs of voiceless ([[tenuis consonant|tenuis]]) and voiced sounds, with these then grouped in columns from front (labial) sounds on the left to back (glottal) sounds on the right. In official publications by the IPA, two columns are omitted to save space, with the letters listed among 'other symbols' even though theoretically they belong in the main chart,<ref group=note>They were moved "for presentational convenience [...] because of [their] rarity and the small number of types of sounds which are found there." (IPA ''Handbook'', p 18)</ref> and with the remaining consonants arranged in rows from full closure (occlusives: stops and nasals), to brief closure (vibrants: trills and taps), to partial closure (fricatives) and minimal closure (approximants), again with a row left out to save space. In the table below, a slightly different arrangement is made: All pulmonic consonants are included in the pulmonic-consonant table, and the vibrants and laterals are separated out so that the rows reflect the common [[lenition]] pathway of ''stop → fricative → approximant,'' as well as the fact that several letters pull double duty as both fricative and approximant; [[affricate]]s may be created by joining stops and fricatives from adjacent cells. Shaded cells represent articulations that are judged to be impossible. Vowel letters are also grouped in pairs—of unrounded and rounded vowel sounds—with these pairs also arranged from front on the left to back on the right, and from maximal closure at top to minimal closure at bottom. No vowel letters are omitted from the chart, though in the past some of the mid central vowels were listed among the 'other symbols'. ===Consonants=== ====Pulmonic consonants==== {{see also|IPA pulmonic consonant chart with audio}} A [[Egressive|pulmonic]] consonant is a consonant made by obstructing the [[glottis]] (the space between the vocal cords) or [[Human mouth|oral cavity]] (the mouth) and either simultaneously or subsequently letting out air from the lungs. Pulmonic consonants make up the majority of consonants in the IPA, as well as in human language. All consonants in English fall into this category.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fromkin|first=Victoria|author-link=Victoria Fromkin|author2=Rodman, Robert|title=An Introduction to Language|orig-year=1974|year=1998|publisher=Harcourt Brace College Publishers|location=Fort Worth, TX|edition=6th|isbn=0-03-018682-X|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00from_1}}</ref> The pulmonic consonant table, which includes most consonants, is arranged in rows that designate [[manner of articulation]], meaning how the consonant is produced, and columns that designate [[place of articulation]], meaning where in the vocal tract the consonant is produced. The main chart includes only consonants with a single place of articulation. {{IPA pulmonic consonants|caption=|affricates=no|notes=no}} '''Notes''' * In rows where some letters appear in pairs (the ''[[obstruent]]s''), the letter to the right represents a [[voice (phonetics)|voiced consonant]] (except [[breathy voice|breathy-voiced]] {{IPA|[ɦ]}}).<ref>Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1996, ''Sounds of the World's Languages,'' §2.1.</ref> In the other rows (the ''[[sonorant]]s''), the single letter represents a voiced consonant. * While IPA provides a single letter for the coronal places of articulation (for all consonants but fricatives), these do not always have to be used exactly. When dealing with a particular language, the letters may be treated as specifically dental, alveolar, or post-alveolar, as appropriate for that language, without diacritics. * Shaded areas indicate articulations judged to be impossible. * The letters {{IPA|[β, ð, ʁ, ʕ, ʢ]}} are canonically voiced fricatives but may be used for approximants.<ref>"A symbol such as {{IPA|[β]}}, shown on the chart in the position for a voiced bilabial fricative, can also be used to represent a voiced bilabial approximant if needed." (''Handbook'', p.9)</ref> * In many languages, such as English, {{IPA|[h]}} and {{IPA|[ɦ]}} are not actually glottal, fricatives, or approximants. Rather, they are bare [[phonation]].<ref>Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1996, ''Sounds of the World's Languages,'' §9.3.</ref> * It is primarily the shape of the tongue rather than its position that distinguishes the fricatives {{IPA|[ʃ ʒ]}}, {{IPA|[ɕ ʑ]}}, and {{IPA|[ʂ ʐ]}}. * {{IPA|[ʜ, ʢ]}} are defined as epiglottal fricatives under the "Other symbols" section in the official IPA chart, but they may be treated as trills at the same place of articulation as {{IPA|[ħ, ʕ]}} because trilling of the [[aryepiglottic fold]]s typically co-occurs.{{sfnp|Esling|2010|pp=688–9}} * Some listed phones are not known to exist as [[phoneme]]s in any language. ====Non-pulmonic consonants==== Non-pulmonic consonants are sounds whose airflow is not dependent on the lungs. These include [[click consonant|clicks]] (found in the [[Khoisan languages]] and some neighboring [[Bantu languages]] of Africa), [[Implosive consonant|implosives]] (found in languages such as [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Hausa language|Hausa]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]] and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]), and [[ejective consonant|ejectives]] (found in many [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Amerindian]] and [[Languages of the Caucasus|Caucasian languages]]). {{IPA non-pulmonic consonants|caption=|nonipa=no|affricates=no|notes=no}} '''Notes''' * Clicks have traditionally been described as consisting of a forward place of articulation, commonly called the click 'type' or historically the 'influx', and a rear place of articulation, which when combined with the voicing, aspiration, nasalization, affrication, ejection, [[contour click|timing]] etc. of the click is commonly called the click 'accompaniment' or historically the 'efflux'. The IPA click letters indicate only the click type (forward articulation and release). Therefore, all clicks require two letters for proper notation: {{angbr IPA|k͡ǂ, ɡ͡ǂ, ŋ͡ǂ, q͡ǂ, ɢ͡ǂ, ɴ͡ǂ}} ''etc.'', or with the order reversed if both the forward and rear releases are audible. The letter for the rear articulation is frequently omitted, in which case a {{angbr IPA|k}} may usually be assumed. However, some researchers dispute the idea that clicks should be analyzed as doubly articulated, as the traditional transcription implies, and analyze the rear occlusion as solely a part of the airstream mechanism.<ref>Amanda L. Miller ''et al.'', [https://web.archive.org/web/20070609200226/http://ling.cornell.edu/plab/amanda/amiller_jipa.pdf "Differences in airstream and posterior place of articulation among Nǀuu lingual stops"]. Submitted to the ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association''. Retrieved 27 May 2007.</ref> In transcriptions of such approaches, the click letter represents both places of articulation, with the different letters representing the different click types, and diacritics are used for the elements of the accompaniment: {{angbr IPA|ǂ, ǂ̬, ǂ̃}} ''etc.'' * Letters for the [[voiceless]] implosives {{angbr IPA|ƥ, ƭ, ƈ, ƙ, ʠ}} are no longer supported by the IPA, though they remain in Unicode. Instead, the IPA typically uses the voiced equivalent with a voiceless diacritic: {{angbr IPA|ɓ̥, ʛ̥}}, ''etc.''. * The letter for the [[Voiced retroflex implosive|retroflex implosive]], <span title="U+1D91">{{angbr IPA|ᶑ }}</span>, is not "explicitly IPA approved" (''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;166), but has the expected form if such a symbol were to be approved. * The ejective diacritic is placed at the right-hand margin of the consonant, rather than immediately after the letter for the stop: {{angbr IPA|t͜ʃʼ}}, {{angbr IPA|kʷʼ}}. In imprecise transcription, it often stands in for a superscript glottal stop in [[Glottalic consonant|glottalized]] but pulmonic [[sonorant]]s, such as {{IPA|[mˀ]}}, {{IPA|[lˀ]}}, {{IPA|[wˀ]}}, {{IPA|[aˀ]}} (also transcribable as creaky {{IPA|[m̰]}}, {{IPA|[l̰]}}, {{IPA|[w̰]}}, {{IPA|[a̰]}}). ====Affricates==== [[Affricate consonant|Affricates]] and [[Doubly articulated consonant|co-articulated]] stops are represented by two letters joined by a tie bar, either above or below the letters with no difference in meaning.<ref group=note>It is traditional to place the tie bar above the letters. It may be placed below to avoid overlap with ascenders or diacritic marks, or simply because it is more legible that way, as in {{cite web|author=Niesler, Louw, & Roux | date = 2005| title=Phonetic analysis of Afrikaans, English, Xhosa and Zulu using South African speech databases|url= http://www.ajol.info/index.php/salas/article/viewFile/6562/13287|publisher=Ajol.info|access-date=20 November 2012}}</ref> Affricates are optionally represented by [[Typographic ligature|ligatures]] (e.g. {{angbr IPA|ʦ, ʣ, ʧ, ʤ, ʨ, ʥ, ꭧ, ꭦ&thinsp;}}), though this is no longer official IPA usage<ref name="IPA 1999"/> because a great number of ligatures would be required to represent all affricates this way. Alternatively, a superscript notation for a consonant release is sometimes used to transcribe affricates, for example {{angbr IPA|tˢ}} for {{IPA|[t͜s]}}, paralleling {{IPA|[kˣ]}} ~ {{IPA|[k͜x]}}. The letters for the palatal plosives {{angbr IPA|c}} and {{angbr IPA|ɟ}} are often used as a convenience for {{IPA|[t͜ʃ]}} and {{IPA|[d͜ʒ]}} or similar affricates, even in official IPA publications, so they must be interpreted with care. {{IPA affricates|caption=|notes=no}} ====Co-articulated consonants==== [[Co-articulated consonant]]s are sounds that involve two simultaneous [[Place of articulation|places of articulation]] (are pronounced using two parts of the [[vocal tract]]). In English, the {{IPA|[w]}} in "went" is a coarticulated consonant, being pronounced by rounding the lips and raising the back of the tongue. Similar sounds are {{IPA|[ʍ]}} and {{IPA|[ɥ]}}. In some languages, plosives can be double-articulated, for example in the name of [[Laurent Gbagbo]]. {{IPA co-articulated consonants|caption=|notes=no}} '''Notes''' * {{IPA|[ɧ]}}, the [[sj-sound|Swedish ''sj''-sound]], is described by the IPA as a "simultaneous {{IPA|[ʃ]}} and {{IPA|[x]}}", but it is unlikely such a simultaneous fricative actually exists in any language.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ladefoged |first=Peter |author2=Ian Maddieson |year=1996 |title=The sounds of the world's languages |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell|pages=329–330|isbn=0-631-19815-6|author2-link=Ian Maddieson }}</ref> * Multiple tie bars can be used: {{angbr IPA|a͡b͡c}} or {{angbr IPA|a͜b͜c}}. For instance, if a prenasalized stop is transcribed {{angbr IPA|m͡b}}, and a doubly articulated stop {{angbr IPA|ɡ͡b}}, then a prenasalized doubly articulated stop would be {{angbr IPA|ŋ͡m͡ɡ͡b}} * If a diacritic needs to be placed on or under a tie bar, the [[combining grapheme joiner]] (U+034F) needs to be used, as in {{IPA|[b͜͏̰də̀bdɷ̀]}} 'chewed' ([[Margi language|Margi]]). Font support is spotty, however. ===Vowels=== {{Main|Vowel}} {{see also|IPA vowel chart with audio}} [[File:Cardinal vowel tongue position-front.svg|thumb|Tongue positions of [[Cardinal vowel|cardinal]] front vowels, with highest point indicated. The position of the highest point is used to determine vowel height and backness.]] [[File:Cardinal vowels-Jones x-ray.jpg|thumb|[[Radiography|X-ray photos]] show the sounds {{IPA|[i, u, a, ɑ]}}.]] The IPA defines a vowel as a sound which occurs at a syllable center.<ref>International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;10.</ref> Below is a chart depicting the vowels of the IPA. The IPA maps the vowels according to the position of the tongue. {{IPA vowels|caption=|notes=no}} The vertical axis of the chart is mapped by [[vowel height]]. Vowels pronounced with the tongue lowered are at the bottom, and vowels pronounced with the tongue raised are at the top. For example, {{IPA|[ɑ]}} (the first vowel in ''father'') is at the bottom because the tongue is lowered in this position. {{IPA|[i]}} (the vowel in "meet") is at the top because the sound is said with the tongue raised to the roof of the mouth. In a similar fashion, the horizontal axis of the chart is determined by [[vowel backness]]. Vowels with the tongue moved towards the front of the mouth (such as {{IPA|[ɛ]}}, the vowel in "met") are to the left in the chart, while those in which it is moved to the back (such as {{IPA|[ʌ]}}, the vowel in "but") are placed to the right in the chart. In places where vowels are paired, the right represents a [[Roundedness|rounded vowel]] (in which the lips are rounded) while the left is its unrounded counterpart. ====Diphthongs==== [[Diphthong]]s are typically specified with a non-syllabic diacritic, as in {{angbr IPA|uɪ̯}} or {{angbr IPA|u̯ɪ}}, or with a superscript for the on- or off-glide, as in {{angbr IPA|uᶦ}} or {{angbr IPA|ᵘɪ}}. Sometimes a tie bar is used: {{angbr IPA|u͡ɪ}}, especially if it is difficult to tell if the diphthong is characterized by an on-glide, an off-glide or is variable. '''Notes''' * {{angbr IPA|a}} officially represents a front vowel, but there is little if any distinction between front and central open vowels (see {{section link|Vowel#Acoustics}}), and {{angbr IPA|a}} is frequently used for an open central vowel.<ref name="thomason" /> If disambiguation is required, the [[Retraction (phonetics)|retraction diacritic]] or the [[Relative articulation#Centralized vowels|centralized diacritic]] may be added to indicate an open central vowel, as in {{angbr IPA|a̠}} or {{angbr IPA|ä}}. ==Diacritics and prosodic notation {{anchor|Diacritics}}== [[Diacritic]]s are used for phonetic detail. They are added to IPA letters to indicate a modification or specification of that letter's normal pronunciation.<ref name=IPA15>International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp.&nbsp;14–15.</ref> By being made superscript, any IPA letter may function as a diacritic, conferring elements of its articulation to the base letter. Those superscript letters listed below are specifically provided for by the IPA ''Handbook''; other uses can be illustrated with {{angbr IPA|tˢ}} ({{IPA|[t]}} with fricative release), {{angbr IPA|ᵗs}} ({{IPA|[s]}} with affricate onset), {{angbr IPA|ⁿd}} (prenasalized {{IPA|[d]}}), {{angbr IPA|bʱ}} ({{IPA|[b]}} with breathy voice), {{angbr IPA|mˀ}} (glottalized {{IPA|[m]}}), {{angbr IPA|sᶴ}} ({{IPA|[s]}} with a flavor of {{IPA|[ʃ]}}, i.e. a [[voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant]]), {{angbr IPA|oᶷ}} ({{IPA|[o]}} with [[Vowel breaking|diphthongization]]), {{angbr IPA|ɯᵝ}} ([[compressed vowel|compressed]] {{IPA|[ɯ]}}). Superscript diacritics placed after a letter are ambiguous between simultaneous modification of the sound and phonetic detail at the end of the sound. For example, labialized {{angbr IPA|kʷ}} may mean either simultaneous {{IPA|[k]}} and {{IPA|[w]}} or else {{IPA|[k]}} with a labialized release. Superscript diacritics placed before a letter, on the other hand, normally indicate a modification of the onset of the sound ({{angbr IPA|mˀ}} glottalized {{IPA|[m]}}, {{angbr IPA|ˀm}} {{IPA|[m]}} with a glottal onset). (See {{section link|#Superscript IPA}}.) {|class="wikitable" ! colspan=6|Syllabicity diacritics |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̩}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɹ̩ n̩}} |rowspan=2|[[Syllabic consonant|Syllabic]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̯}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɪ̯ ʊ̯}} |rowspan=2|[[Semivowel|Non-syllabic]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̍}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɻ̍ ŋ̍}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̑}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y̑}} |- ! colspan=6|Consonant-release diacritics |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;" |{{IPA|◌ʰ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tʰ}} |[[Aspiration (phonetics)|Aspirated]]{{ref label|Aspirated|a|}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̚}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|p̚}} |[[No audible release]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;" |{{IPA|◌ⁿ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|dⁿ}} |[[Nasal release]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ˡ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|dˡ}} |[[Lateral release (phonetics)|Lateral release]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;" |{{IPA|◌ᶿ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tᶿ}} |Voiceless dental fricative release |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ˣ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tˣ}} |Voiceless velar fricative release |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;" |{{IPA|◌ᵊ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|dᵊ}} |Mid central vowel release |colspan=3| |- ! colspan=6|Phonation diacritics |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̥}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" |{{IPA|n̥ d̥}} |rowspan=2|[[Voiceless]] |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̬}} |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|s̬ t̬}} |rowspan=2|[[Voice (phonetics)|Voiced]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̊}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" |{{IPA|ɻ̊ ŋ̊}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̤}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" |{{IPA|b̤ a̤}} |[[Breathy voice]]d{{ref label|Aspirated|a|}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̰}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|b̰ a̰}} |[[Creaky voice]]d |- ! colspan=6|Articulation diacritics |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̪}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" |{{IPA|t̪ d̪}} |rowspan=2|[[Dental consonant|Dental]] |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̼}} |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|t̼ d̼}} |rowspan=2|[[Linguolabial consonant|Linguolabial]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌͆}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" |{{IPA|ɮ͆}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̺}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|t̺ d̺}} |[[Apical consonant|Apical]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̻}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|t̻ d̻}} |[[Laminal consonant|Laminal]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̟}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|u̟ t̟}} |rowspan=2|[[Relative articulation#Advanced and retracted|Advanced (fronted)]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̠}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|i̠ t̠}} |rowspan=2|[[Relative articulation#Advanced and retracted|Retracted (backed)]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌᫈}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɡ᫈}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̄}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|q̄}}{{ref label|retracted|b|}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̈}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ë ä}} |[[Relative articulation#Centralized vowels|Centralized]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̽}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|e̽ ɯ̽}} |[[Mid-centralized]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̝}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|e̝ r̝}} |rowspan=2|[[Relative articulation#Raised and lowered|Raised]] <br>({{IPA|[r̝], [ɭ˔]}} are fricatives) |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̞}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|e̞ β̞}} |rowspan=2|[[Relative articulation#Raised and lowered|Lowered]] <br>({{IPA|[β̞], [ɣ˕]}} are approximants) |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌˔}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɭ˔}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌˕}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y˕ ɣ˕}} |- ! colspan=6|Co-articulation diacritics |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̹}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɔ̹ x̹}} |rowspan=2| More [[Roundedness|rounded]]<br>(over-rounding) |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̜}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɔ̜ xʷ̜}} |rowspan=2| Less rounded<br>(under-rounding){{ref label|less rounded labialization|c|}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌͗}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y͗ χ͗}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌͑}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y͑ χ͑ʷ}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ʷ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tʷ dʷ}} |[[Labialization|Labialized]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ʲ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tʲ dʲ}} |[[Palatalization (phonetics)|Palatalized]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ˠ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tˠ dˠ}} |[[Velarization|Velarized]] |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̴}} |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA link|ɫ}} {{IPA|ᵶ}} |rowspan=2|Velarized or pharyngealized |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ˤ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tˤ aˤ}} |[[Pharyngealization|Pharyngealized]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̘}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|e̘ o̘}} |rowspan=2|[[Advanced and retracted tongue root|Advanced tongue root]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̙}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|e̙ o̙}} |rowspan=2|[[Advanced and retracted tongue root|Retracted tongue root]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌&#xAB6A;}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y&#xAB6A;}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌&#xAB6B;}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y&#xAB6B;}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̃}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ẽ z̃}} |[[Nasalization|Nasalized]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌˞}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɚ ɝ}} |[[R-colored vowel|Rhoticity]] |} '''Notes''' : {{note|Aspirated|a}} With aspirated voiced consonants, the aspiration is usually also voiced (voiced aspirated – but see [[aspirated voiced|voiced consonants with voiceless aspiration]]). Many linguists prefer one of the diacritics dedicated to breathy voice over simple aspiration, such as {{angbr IPA|b̤}}. Some linguists restrict that diacritic to [[sonorant]]s, such as breathy-voice {{angbr IPA|m̤}}, and transcribe voiced-aspirated obstruents as e.g. {{angbr IPA|bʱ}}. : {{note|retracted|b}} Care must be taken that a superscript retraction sign is not mistaken for mid tone. : {{note|less rounded labialization|c}} These are relative to the cardinal value of the letter. They can also apply to unrounded vowels: {{IPA|[ɛ̜]}} is more spread (less rounded) than cardinal {{IPA|[ɛ]}}, and {{IPA|[ɯ̹]}} is less spread than cardinal {{IPA|[ɯ]}}.<ref>'Further report on the 1989 Kiel Convention', ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'' 20:2 (December 1990), p. 23.</ref><br>Since {{angbr IPA|xʷ}} can mean that the {{IPA|[x]}} is labialized (rounded) throughout its articulation, and {{angbr IPA|x̜}} makes no sense ({{IPA|[x]}} is already completely unrounded), {{angbr IPA|x̜ʷ}} can only mean a less-labialized/rounded {{IPA|[xʷ]}}. However, readers might mistake {{angbr IPA|x̜ʷ}} for "{{IPA|[x̜]}}" with a labialized off-glide, or might wonder if the two diacritics cancel each other out. Placing the 'less rounded' diacritic under the labialization diacritic, {{angbr IPA|xʷ̜}}, makes it clear that it is the labialization that is 'less rounded' than its cardinal IPA value. Subdiacritics (diacritics normally placed below a letter) may be moved above a letter to avoid conflict with a [[descender]], as in voiceless {{angbr IPA|ŋ̊}}.<ref name=IPA15 /> The raising and lowering diacritics have optional spacing forms {{angbr IPA|˔}}, {{angbr IPA|˕}} that avoid descenders. The state of the [[glottis]] can be finely transcribed with diacritics. A series of alveolar plosives ranging from open-glottis to closed-glottis [[phonation]] is: {|class="wikitable" |+Phonation scale |- ! Open glottis |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" |{{IPA|[t]}} |[[voiceless]] |- | |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[d̤]}} |[[breathy voice]], also called ''murmured'' |- | |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[d̥]}} |[[slack voice]] |- ![[Sweet spot (phonetics)|Sweet spot]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[d]}} |[[modal voice]] |- | |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[d̬]}} |[[stiff voice]] |- | |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[d̰]}} |[[creaky voice]] |- !Closed glottis |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[ʔ͡t]}} |glottal closure |} Additional diacritics are provided by the [[Extensions to the IPA]] for speech pathology. ===Suprasegmentals=== These symbols describe the features of a language above the [[Phonological hierarchy|level]] of individual consonants and vowels, that is, at the level of syllable, word or [[phrase]]. These include [[prosody (linguistics)|prosody]], pitch, [[length (phonetics)|length]], [[stress (linguistics)|stress]], intensity, [[tone (linguistics)|tone]] and gemination of the sounds of a language, as well as the [[rhythm]] and [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] of speech.<ref name="Handbook13">International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;13.</ref> Various ligatures of pitch/tone letters and diacritics are provided for by the [[Kiel Convention]] and used in the IPA ''Handbook'' despite not being found in the summary of the IPA alphabet found on the one-page chart. Under [[#Capital letters|capital letters]] below we will see how a carrier letter may be used to indicate suprasegmental features such as labialization or nasalization. Some authors omit the carrier letter, for e.g. suffixed {{IPA|[kʰuˣt̪s̟]ʷ}} or prefixed {{IPA|[ʷkʰuˣt̪s̟]}},<ref>Cf. the {{IPA|/ʷ.../}} and {{IPA|/ʲ.../}} transcriptions in Eszter Ernst-Kurdi (2017) ''The Phonology of Mada'', SIL Yaoundé.</ref> or place a spacing variant of a diacritic such as {{angbr IPA|˔}}<!--a spacing ATR or RTR diacritic would be a better example, when those have broader font support--> or {{angbr IPA|˜}} at the beginning or end of a word to indicate that it applies to the entire word.<ref>E.g. Aaron Dolgopolsky (2013) ''Indo-European Dictionary with Nostratic Etymologies''.</ref> {| class="wikitable" ! colspan=4|Length, stress, and rhythm |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ˈke}} | Primary [[stress (linguistics)|stress]] (appears<br /> before stressed syllable) | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ˌke}} | [[Secondary stress]] (appears<br /> before stressed syllable) |- | rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|eː kː}} | rowspan=2 | [[Length (phonetics)|Long]] ([[Vowel length|long vowel]] or<br />[[gemination|geminate consonant]]) | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|eˑ}} | Half-long |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ə̆ ɢ̆}} | [[Extra-short]] |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ek.ste}}<br>{{IPA|eks.te}} | [[Syllable]] break <br>(internal boundary) | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|es‿e}} | [[Connected speech|Linking]] (lack of a boundary; <br>a [[phonological word]])<ref group=note>The IPA ''Handbook'' variously defines the "linking" symbol as marking the "lack of a boundary" (p. 23) or "absence of a break" (p. 174), and gives [[French liaison]] and English [[linking r]] as examples. The illustration for Croatian uses it to tie atonic [[clitic]]s to tonic words, with no resulting change in implied syllable structure. It is also sometimes used simply to indicate that the consonant ending one word forms a syllable with the vowel beginning the following word.</ref> |- ! colspan=4|Intonation |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|{{!}}}} | [[Prosodic unit|Minor or foot break]] | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|‖}} | [[Prosodic unit|Major or intonation break]] |- | style="text-align:center;font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|↗&#xFE0E;}} | [[Intonation (linguistics)|Global rise]]<ref group=note name="global">The global rise and fall arrows come before the affected syllable or prosodic unit, like stress and upstep/downstep. This contrasts with the Chao tone letters (listed below), which most commonly come after. One will occasionally see a horizontal arrow {{angbr IPA|→}} for global level pitch (only dropping due to [[downdrift]]), e.g. in Julie Barbour (2012) ''A Grammar of Neverver''. Additionally, some fonts display the arrows as [[emoji]] by default, if &amp;#xFE0E; is not appended.</ref> | style="text-align:center;font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|↘&#xFE0E;}} | [[Intonation (linguistics)|Global fall]]<ref group=note name="global"/> |- ! colspan=4|Up- and down-step |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ꜛke}} | [[Upstep (phonetics)|Upstep]] | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ꜜke}} | [[Downstep (phonetics)|Downstep]] |} {| class="wikitable" ! colspan=13|Pitch diacritics<ref group=note name=pitch>There is not a one-to-one correspondence between tone diacritics and tone letters. When pitch is transcribed with diacritics, the three pitches {{angbr IPA|é ē è}} are taken as the basic levels and are called 'high', 'mid' and 'low'. Contour tones combine only these three and are called {{angbr IPA|e᷇}} 'high-mid' etc. The more extreme pitches, which do not form contours, are {{angbr IPA|e̋}} 'extra-high' and {{angbr IPA|ȅ}} 'extra-low', using [[#Comparative degree|doubled diacritics]]. When transcribed with tone letters, however, combinations of all five levels are possible. Thus, {{angbr IPA|e˥ e˧ e˩}} may be called 'high', 'mid' and 'low', with {{angbr IPA|e˦ e˨}} being 'near-high' and 'near-low', analogous to descriptions of vowel height. In a three-level transcription, {{angbr IPA|é ē è}} are identified with {{angbr IPA|e˥ e˧ e˩}}, but in a five-level transcription, {{angbr IPA|e̋ ȅ}} are identified with {{angbr IPA|e˥ e˩}} (''JIPA'' 19.2: 76).</ref> |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|ŋ̋ e̋}} | Extra high | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ̌ ě}} | Rising | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷄ e᷄}} | Mid-rising |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ́ é}} | High | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ̂ ê}} | Falling | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷅ e᷅}} | Low-rising |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ̄ ē}} | Mid | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷈ e᷈}} | Peaking (rising&ndash;falling) | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷇ e᷇}} | High-falling |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ̀ è}} | Low | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷉ e᷉}} | Dipping (falling&ndash;rising) | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷆ e᷆}} | Mid-falling |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{nowrap|{{IPA|ŋ̏ ȅ}}}} | Extra low | style="text-align:center;" colspan=4| (''etc.'')<ref group=note>Although any combination of tone diacritics is theoretically possible, such as {{angbr IPA|e᪰}} for a falling&ndash;rising&ndash;falling tone, any other than those illustrated are vanishingly rare.</ref> |} {| class="wikitable" ! colspan=5|[[Chao tone letter]]s<ref group=note name=pitch/> |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|˥e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|꜒e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|e˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|e꜒}} | High |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˦e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜓e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˦}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜓}} | Half-high |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˧e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜔e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜔}} | Mid |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˨e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜕e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˨}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜕}} | Half-low |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˩e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜖e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜖}} | Low |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˩˥e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜖꜒e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜖꜒}} | Rising (low to high or generic) |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˥˩e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜒꜖e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜒꜖}} | Falling (high to low or generic) |- | style="text-align:center;" colspan=5| (''etc.'') |} The old staveless tone letters, which are effectively obsolete, include high {{angbr IPA|ˉe}}, mid {{angbr IPA|˗e}}, low {{angbr IPA|ˍe}}, rising {{angbr IPA|ˊe}} and falling {{angbr IPA|ˋe}}. ====Stress==== Officially, the [[Stress (linguistics)|stress marks]] {{angbr IPA|ˈ ˌ}} appear before the stressed syllable, and thus mark the syllable boundary as well as stress (though the syllable boundary may still be explicitly marked with a period).<ref name=report/> Occasionally the stress mark is placed immediately before the nucleus of the syllable, after any consonantal onset.{{sfnp|Esling|2010|p=691}} In such transcriptions, the stress mark does not mark a syllable boundary. The primary stress mark may be [[#Comparative degree|doubled]] {{angbr IPA|ˈˈ}} for extra stress (such as prosodic stress). The secondary stress mark is sometimes seen doubled {{angbr IPA|ˌˌ}} for extra-weak stress, but this convention has not been adopted by the IPA.<ref name=report/> Some dictionaries place both stress marks before a syllable, {{angbr IPA|¦}}, to indicate that pronunciations with either primary or secondary stress are heard, though this is not IPA usage.<ref>For example, {{MW|Balearic}}.</ref> ====Boundary markers==== There are three boundary markers: {{angbr IPA|.}} for a syllable break, {{angbr IPA|<nowiki>|</nowiki>}} for a minor prosodic break and {{angbr IPA|‖}} for a major prosodic break. The tags 'minor' and 'major' are intentionally ambiguous. Depending on need, 'minor' may vary from a [[foot (prosody)|foot]] break to a break in list-intonation to a continuing–prosodic unit boundary (equivalent to a comma), and while 'major' is often any intonation break, it may be restricted to a final–prosodic unit boundary (equivalent to a period). The 'major' symbol may also be doubled, {{angbr IPA|‖‖}}, for a stronger break.{{#tag:ref|Russian sources commonly use a wavy line like {{unichar|2E3E|WIGGLY VERTICAL LINE}} (approx. ⌇) for a less-than-minor break, such as the slight break in list intonation (e.g. the very slight break between digits in a telephone number).<ref>Ž.V. Ganiev (2012) ''Sovremennyj ruskij jazyk.'' Flinta/Nauka.</ref> A dotted line like {{unichar|2E3D|VERTICAL SIX DOTS}} or {{unichar|2999|DOTTED FENCE}} is sometimes seen instead.|group="note"}} Although not part of the IPA, the following additional boundary markers are often used in conjunction with the IPA: {{angbr IPA|μ}} for a [[mora (linguistics)|mora]] or mora boundary, {{angbr IPA|σ}} for a syllable or syllable boundary, {{angbr IPA|+}} for a morpheme boundary, {{angbr IPA|#}} for a word boundary (may be doubled, {{angbr IPA|##}}, for e.g. a breath-group boundary),<ref>Nicholas Evans (1995) ''A Grammar of Kayardild''. Mouton de Gruyter.</ref> {{angbr IPA|$}} for a phrase or intermediate boundary and {{angbr IPA|%}} for a prosodic boundary. For example, C# is a word-final consonant, %V a post-[[pausa]] vowel, and T% an IU-final tone (edge tone). ====Pitch and tone==== {{see also|tone letter}} {{angbr IPA|ꜛ ꜜ}} are defined in the ''Handbook'' as "upstep" and "downstep", concepts from tonal languages. However, the upstep symbol can also be used for [[pitch reset]], and the IPA ''Handbook'' uses it for prosody in the illustration for Portuguese, a non-tonal language. Phonetic pitch and phonemic tone may be indicated by either diacritics placed over the nucleus of the syllable (e.g., high-pitch {{angbr IPA|é}}) or by [[Chao tone letter]]s placed either before or after the word or syllable. There are three graphic variants of the tone letters: with or without a stave, and facing left or facing right from the stave. The stave was introduced with the 1989 Kiel Convention, as was the option of placing a staved letter after the word or syllable, while retaining the older conventions. There are therefore six<!--One of our sources says 'seven', but the staveless tone letters were only allowed before the word/syllable pre-Kiel, and that was not changed in the Kiel Convention.--> ways to transcribe pitch/tone in the IPA: i.e., {{angbr IPA|é}}, {{angbr IPA|˦e}}, {{angbr IPA|e˦}}, {{angbr IPA|꜓e}}, {{angbr IPA|e꜓}} and {{angbr IPA|ˉe}} for a high pitch/tone.<ref name=report/><ref>Ian Maddieson (December 1990) The transcription of tone in the IPA, JIPA 20.2, p. 31.</ref><ref>Barry Heselwood (2013) ''Phonetic Transcription in Theory and Practice''. Edinburgh University Press. Page 7.</ref> Of the tone letters, only left-facing staved letters and a few representative combinations are shown in the summary on the ''Chart'', and in practice it is currently more common for tone letters to occur after the syllable/word than before, as in the Chao tradition. Placement before the word is a carry-over from the pre-Kiel IPA convention, as is still the case for the stress and upstep/downstep marks. The IPA endorses the Chao tradition of using the left-facing tone letters, {{angbr IPA|˥ ˦ ˧ ˨ ˩}}, for underlying tone, and the right-facing letters, {{angbr IPA|꜒ ꜓ ꜔ ꜕ ꜖}}, for surface tone, as occurs in [[tone sandhi]], and for the intonation of non-tonal languages.<ref group=note>Maddieson and others have noted that a phonemic/phonetic distinction should be handled by /slash/ or [bracket] delimiters. However, the reversed tone letters remain in use for tone sandhi.</ref> In the Portuguese illustration in the 1999 ''Handbook'', tone letters are placed before a word or syllable to indicate prosodic pitch (equivalent to {{IPA|[↗︎]}} global rise and {{IPA|[↘︎]}} global fall, but allowing more precision), and in the Cantonese illustration they are placed after a word/syllable to indicate lexical tone. Theoretically therefore prosodic pitch and lexical tone could be simultaneously transcribed in a single text, though this is not a formalized distinction. Rising and falling pitch, as in [[contour tone]]s, are indicated by combining the pitch diacritics and letters in the table, such as grave plus acute for rising {{IPA|[ě]}} and acute plus grave for falling {{IPA|[ê]}}. Only six combinations of two diacritics are supported, and only across three levels (high, mid, low), despite the diacritics supporting five levels of pitch in isolation. The four other explicitly approved rising and falling diacritic combinations are high/mid rising {{IPA|[e᷄]}}, low rising {{IPA|[e᷅]}}, high falling {{IPA|[e᷇]}}, and low/mid falling {{IPA|[e᷆]}}.<ref group=note>A work-around sometimes seen when a language has more than one rising or falling tone, and the author wishes to avoid the poorly legible diacritics {{angbr IPA|e᷄, e᷅, e᷇, e᷆}} but does not wish to employ tone letters, is to restrict the generic rising {{angbr IPA|ě}} and falling {{angbr IPA|ê}} diacritics to the higher-pitched of the rising and falling tones, say {{IPA|/e˥˧/}} and {{IPA|/e˧˥/}}, and to resurrect the retired (pre-Kiel) IPA subscript diacritics {{angbr IPA|e̗}} and {{angbr IPA|e̖}} for the lower-pitched rising and falling tones, say {{IPA|/e˩˧/}} and {{IPA|/e˧˩/}}. When a language has either four or six level tones, the two middle tones are sometimes transcribed as high-mid {{angbr IPA|e̍}} (non-standard) and low-mid {{angbr IPA|ē}}. Non-standard {{angbr IPA|e̍}} is occasionally seen combined with acute and grave diacritcs or with the macron to distinguish contour tones that involve the higher of the two mid tone levels.</ref> The Chao tone letters, on the other hand, may be combined in any pattern, and are therefore used for more complex contours and finer distinctions than the diacritics allow, such as mid-rising {{IPA|[e˨˦]}}, extra-high falling {{IPA|[e˥˦]}}, etc. There are 20 such possibilities. However, in Chao's original proposal, which was adopted by the IPA in 1989, he stipulated that the half-high and half-low letters {{angbr IPA|˦ ˨}} may be combined with each other, but not with the other three tone letters, so as not to create spuriously precise distinctions. With this restriction, there are 8 possibilities.<ref name=Chao>{{Citation | last = Chao | first = Yuen-Ren | year = 1930 | title = {{IPA|ə sistim əv}} "{{IPA|toun}}-{{IPA|letəz}}" | trans-title = A system of "tone-letters" | journal = Le Maître Phonétique | volume = 30 | pages = 24–27 | jstor = 44704341 }}</ref> The old staveless tone letters tend to be more restricted than the staved letters, though not as restricted as the diacritics. Officially, they support as many distinctions as the staved letters,<ref>See for example Pe Maung Tin [-phe -maʊ̃ -tɪ̃ː] (1924) bɜˑmiːz. ''Le Maître Phonétique'', vol. 2 (39), no. 5, pp. 4&ndash;5, where five pitch levels are distinguished</ref> but typically only three pitch levels are distinguished. Unicode supports default or high-pitch {{angbr IPA|ˉ ˊ ˋ ˆ ˇ ˜ ˙}} and low-pitch {{angbr IPA|ˍ ˏ ˎ ꞈ ˬ ˷}}. Only a few mid-pitch tones are supported (such as {{angbr IPA|˗ ˴}}), and then only accidentally. Although tone diacritics and tone letters are presented as equivalent on the chart, "this was done only to simplify the layout of the chart. The two sets of symbols are not comparable in this way."<ref>''Handbook'', p. 14.</ref> Using diacritics, a high tone is {{angbr IPA|é}} and a low tone is {{angbr IPA|è}}; in tone letters, these are {{angbr IPA|e˥}} and {{angbr IPA|e˩}}. One can double the diacritics for extra-high {{angbr IPA|e̋}} and extra-low {{angbr IPA|ȅ}}; there is no parallel to this using tone letters. Instead, tone letters have mid-high {{angbr IPA|e˦}} and mid-low {{angbr IPA|e˨}}; again, there is no equivalent among the diacritics. The correspondence breaks down even further once they start combining. For more complex tones, one may combine three or four tone diacritics in any permutation,<ref name=report>P.J. Roach, Report on the 1989 Kiel Convention, ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'', Vol. 19, No. 2 (December 1989), p. 75–76</ref> though in practice only generic peaking (rising-falling) {{IPA|e᷈}} and dipping (falling-rising) {{IPA|e᷉}} combinations are used. Chao tone letters are required for finer detail ({{IPA|e˧˥˧, e˩˨˩, e˦˩˧, e˨˩˦}}, etc.). Although only 10 peaking and dipping tones were proposed in Chao's original, limited set of tone letters, phoneticians often make finer distinctions, and indeed an example is found on the IPA Chart.<ref group=note>The example has changed over the years. In the chart included in the 1999 IPA ''Handbook'', it was {{IPA|[˦˥˦]}}, and since the 2018 revision of the chart it has been {{IPA|[˧˦˨]}}.</ref> The system allows the transcription of 112<!--125 less 5 triple letters and 8 other combos that form a straight line (e.g. 2-3-4)--> peaking and dipping pitch contours, including tones that are level for part of their length. {| class="wikitable" |+ Original (restricted) set of Chao tone letters<ref group=note>Chao did not include tone shapes such as {{IPA|[˨˦˦], [˧˩˩]}}, which rise or fall and then level off (or vice versa). Such tone shapes are, however, frequently encountered in the modern literature.</ref> ! Register ! Level<br><ref group=note>In Chao's Sinological convention, a single tone letter {{angbr IPA|˥}} is used for a high tone on a [[checked syllable]], and a double tone letter {{angbr IPA|˥˥}} for a high tone on an open syllable. Such redundant doubling is not used in the ''Handbook'', where the tones of Cantonese {{IPA|[si˥]}} 'silk' and {{IPA|[sɪk˥]}} 'color' are transcribed the same way. If the author wishes to indicate a difference in phonetic or phonemic length, the IPA accomplishes that with the length marks {{angbr IPA|◌̆ ◌ˑ ◌ː}} rather than through the tone letters.</ref> ! Rising ! Falling ! Peaking ! Dipping |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˧˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˩˧}} |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˨}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˨˨}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˨˦}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˦˨}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˨˦˨}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˦˨˦}} |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˥˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˧˥}} |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˦}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˦˦}} | | | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˥˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˩˥}} |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˥˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˩˧}} |} More complex contours are possible. Chao gave an example of {{IPA|[꜔꜒꜖꜔]}} (mid-high-low-mid) from English prosody.<ref name=Chao/> Chao tone letters generally appear after each syllable, for a language with syllable tone ({{angbr IPA|a˧vɔ˥˩}}), or after the phonological word, for a language with [[word tone]] ({{angbr IPA|avɔ˧˥˩}}). The IPA gives the option of placing the tone letters before the word or syllable ({{angbr IPA|˧a˥˩vɔ}}, {{angbr IPA|˧˥˩avɔ}}), but this is rare for lexical tone. (And indeed reversed tone letters may be used to clarify that they apply to the following rather than to the preceding syllable: {{angbr IPA|꜔a꜒꜖vɔ}}, {{angbr IPA|꜔꜒꜖avɔ}}.) The staveless letters are not directly supported by Unicode, but some fonts allow the stave in Chao tone letters to be suppressed. ===Comparative degree=== IPA diacritics may be doubled to indicate an extra degree of the feature indicated.<ref name=K&L>Kelly & Local (1989) ''Doing Phonology'', [[Manchester University Press]].</ref> This is a productive process, but apart from extra-high and extra-low tones {{angbr IPA|ə̋, ə̏}} being marked by doubled high- and low-tone diacritics, and the major [[prosodic unit|prosodic break]] {{angbr IPA|‖}} being marked as a double minor break {{angbr IPA|{{!}}}}, it is not specifically regulated by the IPA. (Note that transcription marks are similar: double slashes indicate extra (morpho)-phonemic, double square brackets especially precise, and double parentheses especially unintelligible.) For example, the stress mark may be doubled to indicate an extra degree of stress, such as prosodic stress in English.<ref>Bloomfield (1933) ''Language'' p. 91</ref> An example in French, with a single stress mark for normal prosodic stress at the end of each [[prosodic unit]] (marked as a minor prosodic break), and a double stress mark for contrastive/emphatic stress: {{IPA|[ˈˈɑ̃ːˈtre {{!}} məˈsjø ‖ ˈˈvwala maˈdam ‖]}} ''{{lang|fr|Entrez monsieur, voilà madame}}.''<ref>Passy, 1958, ''Conversations françaises en transcription phonétique.'' 2nd ed.</ref> Similarly, a doubled secondary stress mark {{angbr IPA|ˌˌ}} is commonly used for tertiary (extra-light) stress.<ref>Yuen Ren Chao (1968) ''Language and Symbolic Systems'', p. xxiii</ref> In a similar vein, the effectively obsolete (though never retired) staveless tone letters were once doubled for an emphatic rising intonation {{angbr IPA|˶}} and an emphatic falling intonation {{angbr IPA|˵}}.<ref>Geoffrey Barker (2005) ''Intonation Patterns in Tyrolean German'', p. 11.</ref> [[Length (phonetics)|Length]] is commonly extended by repeating the length mark, as in English ''shhh!'' {{IPA|[ʃːːː]}}, or for "overlong" segments in [[Estonian phonology|Estonian]]: * ''vere'' {{IPA|/vere/}} 'blood [gen.sg.]', ''veere'' {{IPA|/veːre/}} 'edge [gen.sg.]', ''veere'' {{IPA|/veːːre/}} 'roll [imp. 2nd sg.]' * ''lina'' {{IPA|/linɑ/}} 'sheet', ''linna'' {{IPA|/linːɑ/}} 'town [gen. sg.]', ''linna'' {{IPA|/linːːɑ/}} 'town [ine. sg.]' (Normally additional degrees of length are handled by the extra-short or half-long diacritic, but the first two words in each of the Estonian examples are analyzed as simply short and long, requiring a different remedy for the final words.) Occasionally other diacritics are doubled: * [[R-colored vowel|Rhoticity]] in [[Badaga language|Badaga]] {{IPA|/be/}} "mouth", {{IPA|/be˞/}} "bangle", and {{IPA|/be˞˞/}} "crop".<ref>{{SOWL|314}}</ref> * Mild and strong [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspiration]]s, {{IPA|[kʰ]}}, {{IPA|[kʰʰ]}}.<ref group=note>Sometimes the obsolete transcription {{angbr IPA|k{{okina}}}} (with a turned apostrophe) for weak aspiration vs. {{angbr IPA|kʰ}} for strong aspiration is still seen.</ref><!-- Korean does not (primarily) contrast for degrees of aspiration, as the distinction is made mainly with a low tone following the weak stop and a high tone following the aspirated stop, for dialects (including Seoul) that aspirate prosodically initial stops. --> * [[Nasal vowel|Nasalization]], as in [[Palantla Chinantec]] lightly nasalized {{IPA|/ẽ/}} vs heavily nasalized {{IPA|/e͌/}},<ref>Peter Ladefoged (1971) ''Preliminaries of Linguistic Phonetics'', p. 35.</ref> though in [[extIPA]] the latter indicates [[velopharyngeal frication]]. * Weak vs strong [[ejective]]s, {{IPA|[kʼ]}}, {{IPA|[kˮ]}}.<ref>Fallon (2013) ''The Synchronic and Diachronic Phonology of Ejectives'', p. 267</ref> * Especially lowered, e.g. {{IPA|[t̞̞]}} (or {{IPA|[t̞˕]}}, if the former symbol does not display properly) for {{IPA|/t/}} as a weak fricative in some pronunciations of ''register''.<ref>Heselwood (2013) ''Phonetic Transcription in Theory and Practice'', p. 233.</ref> * Especially retracted, e.g. {{IPA|[ø̠̠]}} or {{IPA|[s̠̠]}},<ref>E.g. in Laver (1994) ''Principles of Phonetics'', pp. 559–560</ref><ref name=K&L/><ref>Hein van der Voort (2005) 'Kwaza in a Comparative Perspective', ''IJAL'' 71:4.</ref> though some care might be needed to distinguish this from indications of alveolar or alveolarized articulation in [[extIPA]], e.g. {{IPA|[s͇]}}. * The transcription of [[strident vowel|strident]] and [[harsh voice]] as extra-creaky {{IPA|/a᷽/}} may be motivated by the similarities of these phonations. ==Ambiguous letters== A number of IPA letters are not consistently used for their official values. A distinction between voiced fricatives and approximants is only partially implemented by the IPA, for example. Even with the relatively recent addition of the palatal fricative {{angbr IPA|ʝ}} and the velar approximant {{angbr IPA|ɰ}} to the alphabet, other letters, though defined as fricatives, are often ambiguous between fricative and approximant. For forward places, {{angbr IPA|β}} and {{angbr IPA|ð}} can generally be assumed to be fricatives unless they carry a lowering diacritic. Rearward, however, {{angbr IPA|ʁ}} and {{angbr IPA|ʕ}} are perhaps more commonly intended to be approximants even without a lowering diacritic. {{angbr IPA|h}} and {{angbr IPA|ɦ}} are similarly either fricatives or approximants, depending on the language, or even glottal "transitions", without that often being specified in the transcription. Another common ambiguity is among the letters for palatal consonants. {{angbr IPA|c}} and {{angbr IPA|ɟ}} are not uncommonly used as a typographic convenience for affricates, typically {{IPA|[t͜ʃ]}} and {{IPA|[d͜ʒ]}}, while {{angbr IPA|ɲ}} and {{angbr IPA|ʎ}} are commonly used for palatalized alveolar {{IPA|[n̠ʲ]}} and {{IPA|[l̠ʲ]}}. To some extent this may be an effect of analysis, but it is common to match up single IPA letters to the phonemes of a language, without overly worrying about phonetic precision. It has been argued that the lower-pharyngeal (epiglottal) fricatives {{angbr IPA|ʜ}} and {{angbr IPA|ʢ}} are better characterized as trills, rather than as fricatives that have incidental trilling.<ref>John Esling (2010) "Phonetic Notation", in Hardcastle, Laver & Gibbon (eds) ''The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences'', 2nd ed., p 695.</ref> This has the advantage of merging the upper-pharyngeal fricatives {{IPA|[ħ, ʕ]}} together with the epiglottal plosive {{IPA|[ʡ]}} and trills {{IPA|[ʜ ʢ]}} into a single pharyngeal column in the consonant chart. However, in [[Shilha language|Shilha Berber]] the epiglottal fricatives are not trilled.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ridouane |first1=Rachid |title=Tashlhiyt Berber |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |date=August 2014 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=207–221 |doi=10.1017/S0025100313000388 |s2cid=232344118 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Alderete |first1=John |last2=Jebbour |first2=Abdelkrim |last3=Kachoub |first3=Bouchra |last4=Wilbee |first4=Holly |title=Tashlhiyt Berber grammar synopsis |url=https://www.sfu.ca/~alderete/datasets/aldereteEtal2015_tashlhiytGrammarSynopsis.pdf |publisher=Simon Fraser University |access-date=20 November 2021}}</ref> Although they might be transcribed {{angbr IPA|ħ̠ ʢ̠}} to indicate this, the far more common transcription is {{angbr IPA|ʜ ʢ}}, which is therefore ambiguous between languages. Among vowels, {{angbr IPA|a}} is officially a front vowel, but is more commonly treated as a central vowel. The difference, to the extent it is even possible, is not phonemic in any language. For all phonetic notation, it is good practice for an author to specify exactly what they mean by the symbols that they use. ==Redundant letters== Three letters are not needed and would be hard to justify today by the standards of the modern IPA, but are retained due to inertia. {{angbr IPA|ʍ}} appears because it is found in English; officially it is a fricative, with terminology dating to the days before 'fricative' and 'approximant' were distinguished. Based on how all other fricatives and approximants are transcribed, one would expect either {{angbr IPA|xʷ}} for a fricative (not how it is actually used) or {{angbr IPA|w̥}} for an approximant. Indeed, outside of English transcription, that is what is more commonly found in the literature. {{angbr IPA|ɱ}} is another historic remnant. It is a nearly universal allophone of {{IPA|[m]}} before {{IPA|[f]}} and {{IPA|[v]}}, but it is only phonemically distinct in a single language (Kukuya), a fact that was discovered long after it was standardized in the IPA. (A number of consonants do not have dedicated IPA letters despite being phonemic in many more languages.) {{angbr IPA|ɱ}} is retained because of its historical use for European languages, where it could easily be normalized to {{angbr IPA|m̪}}. There have been several votes to retire {{angbr IPA|ɱ}} from the IPA, but so far they have failed. Finally, {{angbr IPA|ɧ}} is officially a simultaneous postalveolar and velar fricative, a realization that does not appear to exist in any language. It is retained because it is convenient for the transcription of Swedish, where it is used for a consonant that has various realizations in different dialects. That is, it is not actually a phonetic character at all, but a phonemic one, which is officially beyond the purview of the IPA alphabet; indeed, another phonemic IPA letter, {{angbr IPA|[[ƞ]]}} for the homorganic nasal of Japanese, was retired because it had no defined phonetic value. ==Superscript letters== {{anchor|Superscript IPA}}{{further|Unicode subscripts and superscripts#Superscript IPA|Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet#Superscript variants}} Superscript IPA letters may be used to indicate [[secondary articulation]]; onsets, releases and other transitions; shades of sound; light epenthetic sounds and incompletely articulated sounds. In 2020, the IPA and [[International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association|ICPLA]] endorsed the Unicode encoding of superscript variants of all contemporary IPA letters apart from the [[Chao tone letter]]s, including the extended retroflex letters {{angbr IPA|ꞎ 𝼅 𝼈 ᶑ 𝼊&thinsp;}}, which were thus confirmed as being implicit in the IPA alphabet.<ref name=pulmonic>Kirk Miller & Michael Ashby, [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20252r-mod-ipa-a.pdf L2/20-252R] Unicode request for IPA modifier-letters (a), pulmonic</ref><ref name=non-pulmonic>Kirk Miller & Michael Ashby, [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20253r-mod-ipa-b.pdf L2/20-253R] Unicode request for IPA modifier letters (b), non-pulmonic.</ref><ref>Kirk Miller & Martin Ball, [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20116r-ext-ipa-voqs-expansion.pdf L2/20-116R] Expansion of the extIPA and VoQS.</ref> Superscript letters can be meaningfully modified by [[combining character|combining diacritics]], just as baseline letters can. For example, a superscript dental nasal is {{angbr IPA|ⁿ̪d̪}}, a superscript voiceless velar nasal is {{angbr IPA|ᵑ̊ǂ}}, and labial-velar prenasalization is {{angbr IPA|ᵑ͡ᵐɡ͡b}}. Although the diacritic may seem a bit oversized compared to the superscript letter it modifies, e.g. {{angbr IPA|ᵓ̃}}, this can be an aid to legibility, just as it is with the composite superscript c-cedilla {{angbr IPA|ᶜ̧}} and rhotic vowels {{angbr IPA|ᵊ˞ ᶟ˞}}. Superscript length marks can be used to indicate the length of aspiration of a consonant, e.g. {{IPA|[pʰ tʰ&#x10782; kʰ&#x10781;]}}. Another option is to double the diacritic: {{angbr IPA|kʰʰ}}.<ref name=pulmonic/> ==Obsolete and nonstandard symbols== {{Main|Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet|Click letter|Sinological extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet}} A number of IPA letters and diacritics have been retired or replaced over the years. This number includes duplicate symbols, symbols that were replaced due to user preference, and unitary symbols that were rendered with diacritics or digraphs to reduce the inventory of the IPA. The rejected symbols are now considered obsolete, though some are still seen in the literature. The IPA once had several pairs of duplicate symbols from alternative proposals, but eventually settled on one or the other. An example is the vowel letter {{angbr IPA|ɷ}}, rejected in favor of {{angbr IPA|ʊ}}. Affricates were once transcribed with ligatures, such as {{angbr IPA|ʦ ʣ, ʧ ʤ, ʨ ʥ, ꭧ ꭦ&thinsp;}} (and others not found in Unicode). These have been officially retired but are still used. Letters for specific combinations of primary and secondary articulation have also been mostly retired, with the idea that such features should be indicated with tie bars or diacritics: {{angbr IPA|ƍ}} for {{IPA|[zʷ]}} is one. In addition, the rare voiceless implosives, {{angbr IPA|ƥ ƭ ƈ ƙ ʠ&thinsp;}}, were dropped soon after their introduction and are now usually written {{angbr IPA|ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ʄ̊ ɠ̊ ʛ̥&thinsp;}}. The original set of click letters, {{angbr IPA|ʇ, ʗ, ʖ, ʞ}}, was retired but is still sometimes seen, as the current pipe letters {{angbr IPA|ǀ, ǃ, ǁ, ǂ}} can cause problems with legibility, especially when used with brackets ([ ] or / /), the letter {{angbr IPA|l}}, or the [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosodic]] marks {{angbr IPA|<nowiki>|</nowiki>, ‖}}. (For this reason, some publications which use the current IPA pipe letters disallow IPA brackets.<!--The Routledge Khoisan Handbook, for example-->)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2009/09/click-symbols.html |title=John Wells's phonetic blog |publisher=Phonetic-blog.blogspot.com |date=9 September 2009 |access-date=18 October 2010}}</ref> Individual non-IPA letters may find their way into publications that otherwise use the standard IPA. This is especially common with: * Affricates, such as the Americanist [[barred lambda]] {{angbr IPA|ƛ}} for {{IPA|[t͜ɬ]}} or {{angbr IPA|č}} for {{IPA|[t͜ʃ&thinsp;]}}.<ref group=note>The motivation for this may vary. Some authors find the tie bars displeasing but the lack of tie bars confusing (i.e. {{angbr IPA|č}} for {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} as distinct from {{IPA|/tʃ/}}), while others simply prefer to have one letter for each segmental phoneme in a language.{{citation needed|date=September 2020}}</ref> * The [[Karlgren]] letters for Chinese vowels, {{angbr IPA|ɿ, ʅ&thinsp;, ʮ, ʯ&thinsp;}} * Digits for tonal phonemes that have conventional numbers in a local tradition, such as the [[Standard Chinese phonology#Tones|four tones of Standard Chinese]]. This may be more convenient for comparison between related languages and dialects than a phonetic transcription would be, because tones vary more unpredictably than segmental phonemes do. * Digits for tone levels, which are simpler to typeset, though the lack of standardization can cause confusion (e.g. {{angbr IPA|1}} is high tone in some languages but low tone in others; {{angbr IPA|3}} may be high, medium or low tone, depending on the local convention). * Iconic extensions of standard IPA letters that can be readily understood, such as retroflex [[voiced retroflex implosive|{{angbr|ᶑ&thinsp;}}]] and [[voiceless retroflex lateral fricative|{{angbr|ꞎ}}]]. These are referred to in the ''Handbook'' and have been included in IPA requests for Unicode support.<!--e.g. an official request for adding superscript retroflex letters to Unicode 14--> In addition, it is common to see ''ad hoc'' typewriter substitutions, generally capital letters, for when IPA support is not available, e.g. A for {{angbr IPA|ɑ}}, B for {{angbr IPA|β}} or {{angbr IPA|ɓ}}, D for {{angbr IPA|ð}}, {{angbr IPA|ɗ&thinsp;}} or {{angbr IPA|ɖ&thinsp;}}, E for {{angbr IPA|ɛ}}, F or P for {{angbr IPA|ɸ}}, G {{angbr IPA|ɣ}}, I {{angbr IPA|ɪ}}, L {{angbr IPA|ɬ}}, N {{angbr IPA|ŋ}}, O {{angbr IPA|ɔ}}, S {{angbr IPA|&thinsp;ʃ&thinsp;}}, T {{angbr IPA|θ}} or {{angbr IPA|ʈ&thinsp;}}, U {{angbr IPA|ʊ}}, V {{angbr IPA|ʋ}}, X {{angbr IPA|χ}}, Z {{angbr IPA|ʒ}}, as well as @ for {{angbr IPA|ə}} and 7 or ? for {{angbr IPA|ʔ}}. (See also [[SAMPA]] and [[X-SAMPA]] substitute notation.) ==Extensions== [[File:ExtIPA chart (2021).pdf|thumb|upright=1.25|Chart of the Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet (extIPA), as of 2021]]{{Main|Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet}} The [[Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for Disordered Speech]], commonly abbreviated "extIPA" and sometimes called "Extended IPA", are symbols whose original purpose was to accurately transcribe [[Speech disorder|disordered speech]]. At the [[Kiel Convention]] in 1989, a group of linguists drew up the initial extensions,<ref>"At the 1989 Kiel Convention of the IPA, a sub-group was established to draw up recommendations for the transcription of disordered speech." ("Extensions to the IPA: An ExtIPA Chart" ''in'' International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;186.)</ref> which were based on the previous work of the PRDS (Phonetic Representation of Disordered Speech) Group in the early 1980s.<ref>{{cite book|last=PRDS Group|title=The Phonetic Representation of Disordered Speech|year=1983|publisher=London: The King's Fund}}</ref> The extensions were first published in 1990, then modified, and published again in 1994 in the ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'', when they were officially adopted by the [[International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association|ICPLA]].<ref>"Extensions to the IPA: An ExtIPA Chart" ''in'' International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp.&nbsp;186–187.</ref> While the original purpose was to transcribe disordered speech, linguists have used the extensions to designate a number of sounds within standard communication, such as hushing, gnashing teeth, and smacking lips,<ref name="world" /> as well as regular lexical sounds such as [[lateral fricative]]s that do not have standard IPA symbols. In addition to the Extensions to the IPA for disordered speech, there are the conventions of the [[Voice Quality Symbols]], which include a number of symbols for additional airstream mechanisms and secondary articulations in what they call "voice quality". ==Associated notation== Capital letters and various characters on the number row of the keyboard are commonly used to extend the alphabet in various ways. ===Associated symbols=== There are various punctuation-like conventions for linguistic transcription that are commonly used together with IPA. Some of the more common are: ;{{angbr|*}} :(a) A [[Comparative linguistics|reconstructed form]]. :(b) An [[Grammaticality|ungrammatical form]] (including an unphonemic form). ;{{angbr|**}} :(a) A reconstructed form, deeper (more ancient) than a single {{angbr|*}}, used when reconstructing even further back from already-starred forms. :(b) An ungrammatical form. A less common convention than {{angbr|*}} (b), this is sometimes used when reconstructed and ungrammatical forms occur in the same text.<ref>e.g. Alan Kaye (2007) ''Morphologies of Asia and Africa''. Eisenbrauns.</ref> ;{{angbr|×}}: An ungrammatical form. A less common convention than {{angbr|*}} (b), this is sometimes used when reconstructed and ungrammatical forms occur in the same text.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Lyle |title=Historical linguistics: an introduction |date=2013 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |location=Edinburgh |isbn=9780262518499 |pages=xix |edition=3.}}</ref> ;{{angbr|?}}: A doubtfully grammatical form. ;{{angbr|%}}: A generalized form, such as a typical shape of a [[wanderwort]] that has not actually been reconstructed.<ref>Haynie, Bowern, Epps, Hill & McConvell (2014) Wanderwörter in languages of the Americas and Australia. ''Ampersand'' 1:1–18.</ref> ;{{angbr|#}}: A word boundary &ndash; e.g. {{angbr|#V}} for a word-initial vowel. ;{{angbr|$}}: A [[phonological word]] boundary; e.g. {{angbr|H$}} for a high tone that occurs in such a position. ;{{angbr|_}}: The location of a segment &ndash; e.g. {{angbr|V_V}} for an intervocalic position === Capital letters === Full capital letters are not used as IPA symbols, except as typewriter substitutes (e.g. N for {{angbr IPA|ŋ}}, S for {{angbr IPA|&thinsp;ʃ&thinsp;}}, O for {{angbr IPA|ɔ}} &ndash; see [[SAMPA chart for English|SAMPA]]). They are, however, often used in conjunction with the IPA in two cases: # for [[archiphoneme|(archi)phonemes]] and for [[natural class]]es of sounds (that is, as wildcards). The [[extIPA]] chart, for example, uses capital letters as wildcards in its illustrations. # as carrying letters for the [[Voice Quality Symbols]]. Wildcards are commonly used in phonology to summarize syllable or word shapes, or to show the evolution of classes of sounds. For example, the possible syllable shapes of Mandarin can be abstracted as ranging from {{IPA|/V/}} (an atonic vowel) to {{IPA|/CGVNᵀ/}} (a consonant-glide-vowel-nasal syllable with tone), and [[word-final devoicing]] may be schematized as {{IPA|C}} → {{IPA|C̥}}/_#. In speech pathology, capital letters represent indeterminate sounds, and may be superscripted to indicate they are weakly articulated: e.g. {{IPA|[ᴰ]}} is a weak indeterminate alveolar, {{IPA|[ᴷ]}} a weak indeterminate velar.<ref>Perry (2000) ''Phonological/phonetic assessment of an English-speaking adult with [[dysarthria]]''</ref> There is a degree of variation between authors as to the capital letters used, but {{angbr IPA|C}} for {consonant}, {{angbr IPA|V}} for {vowel} and {{angbr IPA|N}} for {nasal} are ubiquitous in English-language material. Other common conventions are {{angbr IPA|T}} for {tone/accent} (tonicity)<!--e.g. Nathan White, 'Word in Hmong', in Phonological Word and Grammatical Word-->, {{angbr IPA|P}} for {plosive}<!--e.g. Karlsson & Sullivan (2005) /sP/ consonant clusters in Swedish, Vanderweide (2005) The acquisition of manner in pre-vocalic sequences, also Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics (HCHIEL)-->, {{angbr IPA|F}} for {fricative}<!--e.g. 2015 extIPA chart, or Pellegrino et al. "2010, a speech oddity: Phonetic transcription of reversed speech", Vanderweide (2005), also HCHIEL -->, {{angbr IPA|S}} for {sibilant}<!--e.g. Waterson (1987) Prosodic Phonology; Dolgopolsky, Indo-European Dict Nostratic Etymologies, also HCHIEL-->,<ref group=note>As in [[Afrasianist phonetic notation]]. {{angbr IPA|S}} is particularly ambiguous. It has been used for 'stop', 'fricative', 'sibilant', 'sonorant' and 'semivowel'. On the other hand, plosive/stop is frequently abbreviated {{angbr IPA|P}}, {{angbr IPA|T}} or {{angbr IPA|S}}. The illustrations given here use, as much as possible, letters that are capital versions of members of the sets they stand for: IPA {{IPA|[n]}} is a nasal and {{angbr IPA|N}} is any nasal; {{IPA|[p]}} is a plosive, {{IPA|[f]}} a fricative, {{IPA|[s]}} a sibilant, {{IPA|[l]}} both a lateral and a liquid, {{IPA|[r]}} both a rhotic and a resonant, and [ʞ] a click. {{angbr IPA|¢}} is an obstruent in Americanist notation, where it stands for {{IPA|[ts]}}. An alternative wildcard for 'glide', {{angbr IPA|J}}<!--e.g. International Journal of Slavic Linguistics and Poetics XXIII-->, fits this pattern, but is much less common than {{angbr IPA|G}} in English-language sources.</ref> {{angbr IPA|G}} for {glide/semivowel}<!--e.g. Vanderweide (2005), HCHIEL-->, {{angbr IPA|L}} for {lateral}<!--e.g. Smith 2000 Dependency Theory Meets OT, or in Australian languages that have a large set of laterals--> or {liquid}<!--e.g. Walker 1984 Pronunciation of Canadian French, or Pellegrino et al., or Vanderweide (2005), HCHIEL-->, {{angbr IPA|R}} for {rhotic}<!--e.g. Smith 2000 Dependency Theory Meets OT, or Pellegrino et al.--> or {resonant/sonorant<!--e.g. "R" for "sonorant" in Larry Hyman 'Coda constraints on tone', also HCHIEL-->},<ref group=note>At least in the notation of {{angbr|CRV-}} syllables, the {{angbr|R}} is understood to include liquids and glides but to exclude nasals, as in Bennett (2020: 115) 'Click Phonology', in Sands (ed.), ''Click Consonants'', Brill</ref><!--do a GBooks search for 'CLV' or 'CRV' + 'liquid'/'resonant' + 'phonology' for instances of L and R--> {{angbr IPA|₵}} for {obstruent},<!--e.g. International Journal of Slavic Linguistics and Poetics XXIII--> {{angbr IPA|Ʞ}} for {click}<!--see Bonny Sands 2020 'Introduction', ''Click Consonants'', Brill-->, {{angbr IPA|A<!--e.g. Dolgopolsky-->, E<!--e.g. Dolgopolsky-->, O, Ɨ, U<!--e.g. Dolgopolsky-->}} for {open, front, back, close, rounded vowel}<ref group=note>{Close vowel} may instead be {{angbr IPA|U}}, and {{angbr IPA|O}} may stand for {obstruent}.</ref> and {{angbr IPA|B, D, Ɉ, K, Q, Φ, H}} for {labial<!--HCHIEL-->, alveolar<!--Perry (2000)-->, post-alveolar/palatal, velar<!--HCHIEL, Perry (2000), or more generically as 'dorsal' in van de Vijver, Höhle & Ott, On the distribution of dorsals in complex and simple onsets in child German, Dutch and English-->, uvular, pharyngeal, glottal<ref group=note>Or glottal~pharyngeal {{angbr IPA|H}}, as in Afrasianist phonetic notation</ref> consonant}, respectively, and {{angbr IPA|X}} for {any sound}<!--e.g. Walker 1984 Pronunciation of Canadian French-->. The letters can be modified with IPA diacritics, for example {{angbr IPA|Cʼ}} for {ejective}, {{angbr IPA|Ƈ&thinsp;}} for {implosive}, {{angbr IPA|N͡C}} or {{angbr IPA|ᴺC}} for {prenasalized consonant}, {{angbr IPA|Ṽ}} for {[[nasal vowel]]}<!--e.g. Pellegrino et al.-->, {{angbr IPA|CʰV́}} for {aspirated CV syllable with high tone}, {{angbr IPA|S̬}} for {voiced sibilant}, {{angbr IPA|N̥}} for {voiceless nasal}<!--e.g. Huffman & Hinnebusch, 'The phonetic nature of "voiceless" nasals in Pokomo'-->, {{angbr IPA|P͡F}} or {{angbr IPA|Pꟳ}} for {affricate}, {{angbr IPA|Cʲ}} for {palatalized consonant}<!--e.g. Alexei Kochetov, Phonetic variation and gestural specification: Production of Russian consonants--> and {{angbr IPA|D̪}} for {dental consonant}. {{angbr IPA|H}}, {{angbr IPA|M}}, {{angbr IPA|L}} are also commonly used for high, mid and low tone, with {{angbr IPA|LH}} for rising tone and {{angbr IPA|HL}} for falling tone, rather than transcribing them overly precisely with IPA tone letters or with ambiguous digits.<ref group=note>Somewhat more precisely, {{angbr IPA|LM}} and {{angbr IPA|MH}} are sometimes used for low and high rising tones, and {{angbr IPA|HM}}, {{angbr IPA|ML}} for high and low falling tones; occasionally {{angbr IPA|R}} for 'rising' or {{angbr IPA|F}} for 'falling' is also seen.</ref> Typical examples of archiphonemic use of capital letters are {{angbr IPA|I}} for the Turkish harmonic vowel set {{IPA|{i y ɯ u}}};<ref group=note>For other Turkic languages, {{angbr IPA|I}} may be restricted to {{IPA|{ɯ i}}} (that is, to ''ı i''), {{angbr IPA|U}} to ''u ü'', {{angbr IPA|A}} to ''a e/ä'', etc.</ref> {{angbr IPA|D}} for the conflated flapped middle consonant of American English ''writer'' and ''rider''; {{angbr IPA|N}} for the [[homorganic]] syllable-coda nasal of languages such as Spanish and Japanese (essentially equivalent to the wild-card usage of the letter); and {{angbr IPA|R}} in cases where a phonemic trill {{IPA|/r/}} and flap {{IPA|/ɾ/}} are indeterminate, as in Spanish ''enrejar'' {{IPA|/eNreˈxaR/}} (the ''n'' is homorganic and the first ''r'' is a trill but the second is variable).<ref>[[Antonio Quilis]] (1997) ''Principios de fonología y fonética españolas'', p. 65.</ref> Similar usage is found for ''phonemic'' analysis, where a language does not distinguish sounds that have separate letters in the IPA. For instance, Castillian Spanish has been analyzed as having phonemes {{IPA|/Θ/}} and {{IPA|/S/}}, which surface as {{IPA|[θ]}} and {{IPA|[s]}} in voiceless environments and as {{IPA|[ð]}} and {{IPA|[z]}} in voiced environments (e.g. ''hazte'' {{IPA|/ˈaΘte/}}, → {{IPA|[ˈaθte]}}, vs ''hazme'' {{IPA|/ˈaΘme/}}, → {{IPA|[ˈaðme]}}; or ''las manos'' {{IPA|/laS ˈmanoS/}}, → {{IPA|[lazˈmanos]}}).<ref>Xavier Frías Conde (2001) ''Introducción a la fonología y fonética del español'', p. 11&ndash;12. Ianua. Revista Philologica Romanica.</ref> {{angbr IPA|V}}, {{angbr IPA|F}} and {{angbr IPA|C}} have completely different meanings as [[Voice Quality Symbols]], where they stand for "voice" (generally meaning [[secondary articulation]], as in {{angbr IPA|Ṽ}} "nasal voice", not phonetic voicing), "falsetto" and "creak". They may also take diacritics that indicate what kind of voice quality an utterance has, and may be used to extract a suprasegmental feature that occurs on all susceptible segments in a stretch of IPA. For instance, the transcription of [[Scottish Gaelic]] {{IPA|[kʷʰuˣʷt̪ʷs̟ʷ]}} 'cat' and {{IPA|[kʷʰʉˣʷt͜ʃʷ]}} 'cats' ([[Islay]] dialect) can be made more economical by extracting the suprasegmental labialization of the words: {{IPA|Vʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]}} and {{IPA|Vʷ[kʰʉˣt͜ʃ]}}.<ref>Laver (1994) ''Principles of Phonetics'', p. 374.</ref> The usual wildcard X or C might be used instead of V so that the reader does not misinterpret {{angbr IPA|Vʷ}} as meaning that only vowels are labialized (i.e. {{IPA|Xʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]}} for all segments labialized, {{IPA|Cʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]}} for all consonants labialized), or the carrier letter may be omitted altogether (e.g. {{IPA|ʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]}}, {{IPA|[ʷkʰuˣt̪s̟]}} or {{IPA|[kʰuˣt̪s̟]ʷ}}). (See {{section link|#Suprasegmentals}} for other transcription conventions.) ==Segments without letters== The blank cells on the IPA chart can be filled without much difficulty if the need arises. The expected retroflex letter forms have appeared in the literature for the [[retroflex implosive]] {{angbr IPA|ᶑ&thinsp;}}, the [[retroflex lateral flap]] {{angbr IPA|𝼈&thinsp;}} and the [[retroflex click]]s {{angbr IPA|𝼊&thinsp;}}; the first is mentioned in the IPA ''Handbook'' and the IPA requested Unicode support for superscript variants of all three. The missing voiceless lateral fricatives are provided for by the [[extIPA]]. The epiglottal trill is arguably covered by the generally trilled epiglottal "fricatives" {{angbr IPA|ʜ ʢ}}. Labiodental plosives {{angbr IPA|ȹ ȸ}} appear in some old Bantuist texts. ''Ad hoc'' near-close central vowels {{angbr IPA|ᵻ ᵿ}} are used in some descriptions of English. Diacritics can duplicate some of these; {{angbr IPA|p̪ b̪}} are now universal for labiodental plosives, {{angbr IPA|ɪ̈ ʊ̈}} are common for the central vowels and {{angbr IPA|ɭ̆&thinsp;}} is occasionally seen for the lateral flap. Diacritics are able to fill in most of the remainder of the charts.<ref>"Diacritics may also be employed to create symbols for phonemes, thus reducing the need to create new letter shapes." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p.&nbsp;27)</ref> If a sound cannot be transcribed, an asterisk {{angbr|*}} may be used, either as a letter or as a diacritic (as in {{angbr|k*}} sometimes seen for the [[Korean phonology|Korean]] "fortis" velar). ===Consonants=== Representations of consonant sounds outside of the core set are created by adding diacritics to letters with similar sound values. The Spanish bilabial and dental approximants are commonly written as lowered fricatives, {{IPA|[β̞]}} and {{IPA|[ð̞]}} respectively.<ref group=note>Dedicated letters have been proposed, such as rotated <span style="{{mirrorH}}"><span style="{{mirrorV}}">{{angbr IPA|β}}</span></span> and <span style="{{mirrorH}}"><span style="{{mirrorV}}">{{angbr IPA|ð}}</span></span>, reversed <span style="{{mirrorH}}">{{angbr IPA|β}}</span> and <span style="{{mirrorH}}">{{angbr IPA|ð}}</span>, or small-capital {{angbr IPA|{{sm|б}}}} and {{angbr IPA|ᴆ}}. Ball, Rahilly & Lowry (2017) ''Phonetics for speech pathology'', 3rd edition, Equinox, Sheffield.</ref> Similarly, voiced lateral fricatives would be written as raised lateral approximants, {{IPA|[ɭ˔ ʎ̝ ʟ̝]}}; extIPA provides {{angbr IPA|𝼅}} for the first of these. A few languages such as [[Banda languages|Banda]] have a bilabial flap as the preferred allophone of what is elsewhere a labiodental flap. It has been suggested that this be written with the labiodental flap letter and the advanced diacritic, {{IPA|[ⱱ̟]}}.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Olson | first1 = Kenneth S. | last2 = Hajek | first2 = John | year = 1999 | title = The phonetic status of the labial flap | journal = Journal of the International Phonetic Association | volume = 29 | issue = 2| pages = 101–114 | doi = 10.1017/s0025100300006484 | s2cid = 14438770 }}</ref> Similarly, a labiodental trill would be written {{IPA|[ʙ̪]}} (bilabial trill and the dental sign), and labiodental stops {{IPA|[p̪ b̪]}} rather than with the ''ad hoc'' letters sometimes found in the literature. Other taps can be written as extra-short plosives or laterals, e.g. {{IPA|[&thinsp;ɟ̆ ɢ̆ ʟ̆]}}, though in some cases the diacritic would need to be written below the letter. A [[retroflex trill]] can be written as a retracted {{IPA|[r̠]}}, just as non-subapical retroflex fricatives sometimes are. The remaining consonants &ndash; the uvular laterals ({{IPA|[ʟ̠]}} ''etc.'') and the palatal trill &ndash; while not strictly impossible, are very difficult to pronounce and are unlikely to occur even as allophones in the world's languages. ===Vowels=== The vowels are similarly manageable by using diacritics for raising, lowering, fronting, backing, centering, and mid-centering.<ref>"The diacritics...can be used to modify the lip or tongue position implied by a vowel symbol." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p.&nbsp;16)</ref> For example, the unrounded equivalent of {{IPA|[ʊ]}} can be transcribed as mid-centered {{IPA|[ɯ̽]}}, and the rounded equivalent of {{IPA|[æ]}} as raised {{IPA|[ɶ̝]}} or lowered {{IPA|[œ̞]}} (though for those who conceive of vowel space as a triangle, simple {{IPA|[ɶ]}} already is the rounded equivalent of {{IPA|[æ]}}). True mid vowels are lowered {{IPA|[e̞ ø̞ ɘ̞ ɵ̞ ɤ̞ o̞]}} or raised {{IPA|[ɛ̝ œ̝ ɜ̝ ɞ̝ ʌ̝ ɔ̝]}}, while centered {{IPA|[ɪ̈ ʊ̈]}} and {{IPA|[ä]}} (or, less commonly, {{IPA|[ɑ̈]}}) are near-close and open central vowels, respectively. The only known vowels that cannot be represented in this scheme are vowels with unexpected [[roundedness]], which would require a dedicated diacritic, such as protruded {{angbr IPA|ʏʷ}} and compressed {{angbr IPA|uᵝ}} (or protruded {{angbr IPA|ɪʷ}} and compressed {{angbr IPA|ɯᶹ}}). ==Symbol names== {{Main|Naming conventions of the International Phonetic Alphabet}} An IPA symbol is often distinguished from the sound it is intended to represent, since there is not necessarily a one-to-one correspondence between letter and sound in broad transcription, making articulatory descriptions such as "mid front rounded vowel" or "voiced velar stop" unreliable. While the ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association'' states that no official names exist for its symbols, it admits the presence of one or two common names for each.<ref>"...the International Phonetic Association has never officially approved a set of names..." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;31)</ref> The symbols also have [[Nonce word|nonce names]] in the [[Unicode]] standard. In many cases, the names in Unicode and the IPA ''Handbook'' differ. For example, the ''Handbook'' calls {{angbr IPA|ɛ}} "epsilon", while Unicode calls it "small letter open e". The traditional names of the Latin and Greek letters are usually used for unmodified letters.<ref group=note> For example, the IPA ''Handbook'' lists {{angbr IPA|p}} as "lower-case P" and {{angbr IPA|χ}} as "chi." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;171) </ref> Letters which are not directly derived from these alphabets, such as {{angbr IPA|ʕ}}, may have a variety of names, sometimes based on the appearance of the symbol or on the sound that it represents. In Unicode, some of the letters of Greek origin have Latin forms for use in IPA; the others use the characters from the Greek block. For diacritics, there are two methods of naming. For traditional diacritics, the IPA notes the name in a well known language; for example, {{angbr IPA|é}} is "e-[[Acute accent|acute]]", based on the name of the diacritic in English and French. Non-traditional diacritics are often named after objects they resemble, so {{angbr IPA|d̪}} is called "d-bridge". [[Geoffrey Pullum]] and [[William Ladusaw]] list a variety of names in use for IPA symbols, both current and retired, in their ''[[Phonetic Symbol Guide]]''; many of these found their way into Unicode.<ref name=Pullum/> ==Computer support== ===Unicode=== {{main|Phonetic symbols in Unicode#IPA}} [[Unicode]] supports nearly all of the IPA alphabet. Apart from basic Latin and Greek and general punctuation, the primary blocks are [[IPA Extensions]], [[Spacing Modifier Letters]] and [[Combining Diacritical Marks]], with lesser support from [[Phonetic Extensions]], [[Phonetic Extensions Supplement]], [[Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement]], and scattered characters elsewhere. The [[extended IPA]] is supported primarily by those blocks and [[Latin Extended-G]]. === IPA numbers === {{main|IPA number}} After the [[Kiel Convention]] in 1989, most IPA symbols were assigned an identifying number to prevent confusion between similar characters during the printing of manuscripts. The codes were never much used and have been superseded by Unicode.<ref>A chart of the numbers for the most common IPA symbols can be found on the IPA website.[https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/sites/default/files/IPA_Number_chart_(C)2005.pdf IPA number chart]</ref> ===Typefaces=== [[File:IPA font sample (SIL, Brill, Noto, Calibri).png|thumb|The sequence {{IPA|⟨˨˦˧꜒꜔꜓k͜𝼄a͎̽᷅ꟸ⟩}} in the fonts Gentium Book Plus, Andika, Brill, Noto Serif and Calibri. All of these fonts align diacritics well. Asterisks are characters not supported by that font. In Noto, the red tone letters do not link properly. This is a test sequence: Noto and Calibri support most IPA adequately.]] Many typefaces have support for IPA characters, but good diacritic rendering remains rare.<ref name="Es gilt das gesprochene Wort: Schriftarten für IPA-Transkriptionen">{{cite web |title=Es gilt das gesprochene Wort: Schriftarten für IPA-Transkriptionen |date=16 March 2014 |url=https://www.isoglosse.de/2014/03/schriftarten-ipa-transkriptionen/ | access-date=2022-08-18 |language=de}}</ref> [[Web browser]]s generally do not need any configuration to display IPA characters, provided that a typeface capable of doing so is available to the operating system. ====System fonts==== The ubiquitous [[Arial]] and [[Times New Roman]] fonts include IPA characters, but they are neither complete (especially Arial) nor render diacritics properly. The basic Latin [[Noto fonts]] are better, only failing with the more obscure characters. The proprietary [[Calibri]] font,<!--good diacritic placement of Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement, but incomplete tone support--> which is the default font of [[Microsoft Office]], has nearly complete IPA support with good diacritic rendering. {| class=wikitable !Font !!Sample !!Comments |- |[[Times New Roman]] || <span style="font-family:Times New Roman;">⟨˨˦˧꜒꜔꜓k͜𝼄a͎̽᷅ꟸ⟩</span> || The tone letters join properly, but the tie-bar and diacritics are displaced, and the diacritics overstrike each other rather than stacking |} ====Other commercial fonts==== [[Brill Publishers#Brill Typeface|Brill]]<!--comparable support to Calibri--> has good IPA support. It is a commercial font but freely available for non-commercial use.<ref name="Brill Typeface">{{cite web |title=Brill Typeface |url=https://brill.com/page/1228?language=en%20Brill%20Typeface |access-date=2022-08-18 |language=en |archive-date=18 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818094822/https://brill.com/page/1228?language=en%20Brill%20Typeface |url-status=dead }}</ref> ====Free fonts==== Typefaces that provide nearly full IPA support<!--e.g. Modifier Tone Letters such as tone-sandhi U+A712--> and properly render diacritics<!--e.g. Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement characters such as U+1DC5--> include [[Gentium|Gentium Plus]], [[Charis SIL]], [[Doulos SIL]], and [[Andika (font)|Andika]]. <!--SIL fonts seem to be the only ones with complete IPA support. --> In addition to the support found in other fonts, these fonts support the full range of old-style (pre-Kiel) staveless tone letters, which do not have dedicated Unicode support, through an option to suppress the stave of the Chao tone letters. ===ASCII and keyboard transliterations=== {{further|Comparison of ASCII encodings of the International Phonetic Alphabet}} Several systems have been developed that map the IPA symbols to [[ASCII]] characters. Notable systems include [[SAMPA]] and [[X-SAMPA]]. The usage of mapping systems in on-line text has to some extent been adopted in the context input methods, allowing convenient keying of IPA characters that would be otherwise unavailable on standard keyboard layouts. ===IETF language tags=== [[IETF language tag]]s have registered {{mono|fonipa}} as a variant subtag identifying text as written in IPA.<ref name="IANA">{{cite web |title=Language Subtag Registry |url=https://www.iana.org/assignments/language-subtag-registry/language-subtag-registry |publisher=IANA |access-date=30 April 2021 |language=en |date=2021-03-05}}</ref> Thus, an IPA transcription of English could be tagged as {{mono|en-fonipa}}. For the use of IPA without attribution to a concrete language, {{mono|und-fonipa}} is available. ===Computer input using on-screen keyboard=== Online IPA keyboard utilities are available, though none<!--before claiming something provides full support, verify that it supports the tone diacritics that do not appear on the IPA chart--> of them cover the complete range of IPA symbols and diacritics.<ref group=note>Online IPA keyboard utilities include the [https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/IPAcharts/inter_chart_2018/IPA_2018.html IPA 2018 i-charts] hosted by the IPA, [https://r12a.github.io/pickers/ipa/ IPA character picker 27] at GitHub, [http://ipa.typeit.org/full/ Type IPA phonetic symbols] at TypeIt.org, and an [https://westonruter.github.io/ipa-chart/keyboard/ IPA Chart keyboard] at GitHub.</ref> In April 2019, Google's [[Gboard]] for [[Android (operating system)|Android]] added an IPA keyboard to its platform.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/04/18/gboard-updated-with-63-new-languages-including-ipa-not-the-beer/|title=Gboard updated with 63 new languages, including IPA (not the beer)|date=18 April 2019|website=Android Police|language=en-US|access-date=28 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://support.google.com/gboard/answer/6380730?co=GENIE.Platform=Android|title=Set up Gboard – Android – Gboard Help|website=support.google.com|access-date=28 April 2019}}</ref> For iOS there are multiple free keyboard layouts available, e.g. "IPA Phonetic Keyboard".<ref>{{Cite web|title=IPA Phonetic Keyboard|url=https://apps.apple.com/lu/app/ipa-phonetic-keyboard/id1440241497|access-date=8 December 2020|website=App Store|language=en-gb}}</ref> ==See also== {{Div col}} * {{annotated link|Afroasiatic phonetic notation}} * {{annotated link|Americanist phonetic notation}} * {{annotated link|Arabic International Phonetic Alphabet}} * {{annotated link|Articulatory phonetics}} * {{annotated link|Case variants of IPA letters}} * {{annotated link|Cursive forms of the International Phonetic Alphabet}} * {{annotated link|Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet}} * [[Index of phonetics articles]] * {{annotated link|International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration}} * {{annotated link|International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects}} * [[List of international common standards]] * {{annotated link|Luciano Canepari}} * {{annotated link|Phonetic symbols in Unicode}} * {{annotated link|RFE Phonetic Alphabet}} * {{annotated link|SAMPA}} * {{annotated link|Semyon Novgorodov}} – inventor of IPA-based [[Yakut scripts]] * {{annotated link|TIPA (software)|TIPA}} provides IPA support for [[LaTeX]] * {{annotated link|UAI phonetic alphabet}} * {{annotated link|Uralic Phonetic Alphabet}} * {{annotated link|Voice Quality Symbols}} * {{annotated link|X-SAMPA}} {{Div col end}} ==Notes== {{Reflist|group=note|30em}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Further reading== {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{Cite journal|last=Ball|first=Martin J.|author2=John H. Esling|author3=B. Craig Dickson|year=1995|title=The VoQS system for the transcription of voice quality|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|volume=25|issue=2|pages=71–80|doi=10.1017/S0025100300005181|s2cid=145791575 }} * {{Cite journal|last=Duckworth|first=M.|author2=G. Allen|author3=M.J. Ball|date=December 1990|title=Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for the transcription of atypical speech|journal=Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics|volume=4|issue=4|pages=273–280|doi=10.3109/02699209008985489}} * {{Cite journal|last1=Hill|first1=Kenneth C.|date=March 1988|last2=Pullum|first2=Geoffrey K.|last3=Ladusaw|first3=William|title=Review of ''Phonetic Symbol Guide'' by G. K. Pullum & W. Ladusaw|journal=Language|volume=64|issue=1|pages=143–144|doi=10.2307/414792|jstor=414792}} * {{Cite journal|author=International Phonetic Association|year=1989|title=Report on the 1989 Kiel convention|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|volume=19|issue=2|pages=67–80|doi=10.1017/s0025100300003868|s2cid=249412330 }} * {{Cite book|author=International Phonetic Association|year=1999|title=Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet|location=Cambridge|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=0-521-65236-7}} (hb); {{ISBN|0-521-63751-1}} (pb). * {{Cite book|last=Jones|first=Daniel|author-link=Daniel Jones (phonetician)|title=English pronouncing dictionary|year=1988|edition=revised 14th|publisher=Dent|location=London|oclc=18415701|isbn=0-521-86230-2|url=https://archive.org/details/englishpronounci00dani}} * {{Cite journal|last=Ladefoged|first=Peter|author-link=Peter Ladefoged|date=September 1990|title=The revised International Phonetic Alphabet|journal=Language|volume=66|issue=3|pages=550–552|doi=10.2307/414611|jstor=414611}} * {{Cite journal|last=Ladefoged|first=Peter|author2=Morris Halle|date=September 1988|title=Some major features of the International Phonetic Alphabet|journal=Language|volume=64|issue=3|pages=577–582|doi=10.2307/414533|jstor=414533}} * {{Cite book|last=Laver|first=John|title=Principles of Phonetics|year=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|isbn=0-521-45031-4}} (hb); {{ISBN|0-521-45655-X}} (pb). * {{Cite book|last=Pullum|first=Geoffrey K.|author-link=Geoffrey Pullum|author2=William A. Ladusaw|title=Phonetic Symbol Guide|year=1986|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|location=Chicago|isbn=0-226-68532-2|title-link=Phonetic Symbol Guide}} * {{Cite book|last=Skinner|first=Edith|author2=Timothy Monich|author3=Lilene Mansell|title=Speak with Distinction|location=New York|publisher=Applause Theatre Book Publishers|year=1990|isbn=1-55783-047-9|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/speakwithdistinc0000skin}} * {{cite book|last1=Fromkin|first1=Victoria|last2=Rodman|first2=Robert|last3=Hyams|first3=Nina|title=An Introduction to Language|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00from_616|url-access=limited|date=2011|publisher=Wadsworth, Cengage Learning|location=Boston|pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00from_616/page/n252 233]–234|edition=9th|isbn=978-1-4282-6392-5}} {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Commons category|International Phonetic Alphabet}} * {{Official website|http://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org}} * [https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/IPAcharts/inter_chart_2018/IPA_2018.html Interactive IPA chart] <!-- Do not add links to unofficial pages per [[WP:LINKFARM]] - some might belong to [[Help:IPA]] --> {{IPA navigation}} {{Language phonologies}} {{List of writing systems}} {{Latin script}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:International Phonetic Alphabet| ]] [[Category:Phonetic guides]] [[Category:Unicode]] o5c389gl4or8ycimokx07b5s0lwsn1m 0 63292 323789 321287 2025-06-18T11:46:22Z Girmitya 41 323789 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox settlement | name = Toronto | official_name = City of Toronto | settlement_type = [[List of cities in Ontario|City]] ([[List of municipalities in Ontario#Single-tier municipalities|single-tier]])<!-- Consensus see: [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Ontario/Archive 1#City infoboxes: "tier" or "conventional" municipal statuses (or both)?]] --> | image_skyline = {{multiple image | border = infobox | total_width = 280 | perrow = 1/2/2/2 | caption_align = center | image1 = CC 2022-06-18 193-Pano (cropped) 01.jpg<!--Please don't change without consensus in article talk page--> | caption1 = Skyline of [[Downtown Toronto]] and [[CN Tower]] | image2 = Ontario Legislative Building, Toronto, South view 20170417 1.jpg<!--Please don't change without consensus in article talk page--> | caption2 = [[Ontario Legislative Building]] | image3 = Nathan Phillips Square (33343114810).jpg<!--Please don't change without consensus in article talk page--> | caption3 = [[Toronto Sign]] & [[Toronto City Hall|City Hall]] | image4 = Toronto - ON - Humber Bay und Humber Bay Arch Bridge.jpg<!--Please don't change without consensus in article talk page--> | caption4 = [[Humber Bay Arch Bridge]] | image5 = Casa Loma (23170005321).jpg<!--Please don't change without consensus in article talk page--> | caption5 = [[Casa Loma]] | image6 = Royal Ontario Museum in Fall 2021.jpg | caption6 = [[Royal Ontario Museum]] | image7 = Scarborough bluffs -b.jpg | caption7 = [[Scarborough Bluffs]] }} | image_size = 250px | image_flag = Toronto Flag.svg | flag_size = 125px | flag_link = Flag of Toronto | image_seal = Coat of arms of Toronto.png | seal_type = Coat of arms | seal_size = 95px | seal_link = Coat of arms of Toronto | image_blank_emblem = Toronto, City of.svg | blank_emblem_type = Logo | blank_emblem_size = 140px | etymology = From the [[Mohawk language|Mohawk]] word {{lang|iro|tkaronto}} ('tree in the water there'), the name of a channel between Lakes [[Lake Simcoe|Simcoe]] and [[Lake Couchiching|Couchiching]] | nicknames = [[Name of Toronto#Nicknames|See list]] | motto = Diversity Our Strength<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.toronto.ca/city-government/awards-tributes/tributes/history-of-city-symbols/ |website=www.toronto.ca |title=History of City Symbols |publisher=City of Toronto |year=2020 |access-date=October 27, 2020 |archive-date=August 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812134238/https://www.toronto.ca/city-government/awards-tributes/tributes/history-of-city-symbols/ |url-status=live |last1=Toronto |first1=City of }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Social Construction of Diversity: Recasting the Master Narrative of Industrial Nations |last1=Harzig |first1=Christiane |last2=Juteau |first2=Danielle |author2-link=Danielle Juteau |last3=Schmitt |first3=Irina |publisher=Berghahn Books |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-57181-376-3 |page=310 |quote=In reflecting and capturing this sense of the city, one of the first actions of the newly amalgamated Toronto City Council in 1998 was to adopt "Diversity Our Strength" as its official motto. }}</ref>{{efn|The motto is typically rendered without punctuation, while the city's coat of arms uses [[Bullet (typography)|typographical bullets]] to space the words used in the motto. However, some sources from the municipal government of Toronto use punctuation to describe the motto as "Diversity, Our Strength."<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.toronto.ca/city-government/accessibility-human-rights/equity-diversity-inclusion/ |title=Equity, Diversity & Inclusion |author=City of Toronto Government |date=August 18, 2017 |access-date=October 27, 2020 |archive-date=October 9, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009135713/https://www.toronto.ca/city-government/accessibility-human-rights/equity-diversity-inclusion/ |url-status=live }}</ref>}} | image_map = {{hidden begin|title=OpenStreetMap|ta1=center}}{{Maplink|frame=yes|plain=y|frame-width=250|frame-height=200|frame-align=center|zoom=8|type=point|title=Toronto|marker=city|type2=shape|stroke-width2=2|stroke-color2=#808080}}{{hidden end}} | coordinates = {{coord|43|44|30|N|79|22|24|W|region:CA-ON_type:city|notes=<ref name=cgndbtor>{{Cite cgndb|FEUZB|Toronto|access-date=March 11, 2025}}</ref>|display=inline,title}} | pushpin_map = Ontario#Canada | pushpin_mapsize = 250px | pushpin_map_caption = Location of Toronto in Ontario | pushpin_label = Toronto | pushpin_label_position = left | pushpin_relief = yes | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = Canada | subdivision_type1 = [[Provinces and territories of Canada|Province]] | subdivision_name1 = [[Ontario]] | subdivision_type2 = [[List of regions of Canada|Region]] | subdivision_name2 = [[Southern Ontario]] | parts_type = [[Amalgamation of Toronto|Communities]] | parts = {{hlist|[[East York]]|[[Etobicoke]]|[[North York]]|[[Old Toronto]]|[[Scarborough, Ontario|Scarborough]]|[[York, Toronto|York]]}} | established_title1 = Established | established_date1 = {{start date and age|1793|08|27}} (as [[York, Upper Canada|York]]) | established_title2 = [[Municipal corporation|Incorporated]] | established_date2 = {{start date and age|1834|03|06}} (as [[Municipal government of Toronto|City of Toronto]]) | established_title3 = [[List of census divisions of Ontario|Amalgamated into division]] | established_date3 = {{start date and age|1953|01|20}} (as [[Metropolitan Toronto]]) | established_title4 = [[Merger (politics)|Amalgamated]] | established_date4 = {{start date and age|1998|01|01}} (as current City of Toronto) | government_type = [[List of municipalities in Ontario#Single-tier municipalities|Single-tier municipality]] with a [[Mayor–council government|mayor–council system]] | governing_body = [[Toronto City Council]] | leader_title = [[Mayor of Toronto|Mayor]] | leader_name = [[Olivia Chow]] | leader_title1 = [[Deputy Mayor of Toronto|Statutory Deputy Mayor]] | leader_name1 = [[Ausma Malik]] | unit_pref = Metric | total_type = City | area_footnotes = &nbsp;<ref name=2016censusCSD>{{SCref|unit=csd|name=2016csd|year=2016|accessdate=2017-02-12|code=3520005}}</ref><ref name=2011censusPC>{{cite web |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/pd-pl/Table-Tableau.cfm?LANG=Eng&T=801&PR=0&RPP=9999&SR=1&S=3&O=D |title=Population and dwelling counts, for population centres, 2011 and 2006 censuses |work=[[2011 Canadian census|2011 Census of Population]] |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]] |date=January 13, 2014 |access-date=December 11, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141026043520/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/pd-pl/Table-Tableau.cfm?LANG=Eng&T=801&PR=0&RPP=9999&SR=1&S=3&O=D |archive-date=October 26, 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=2011censusCMA>{{cite web |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/pd-pl/Table-Tableau.cfm?LANG=Eng&T=205&S=3&RPP=50 |title=Population and dwelling counts, for census metropolitan areas, 2011 and 2006 censuses |work=[[2011 Canadian census|2011 Census of Population]] |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]] |date=January 13, 2014 |access-date=December 11, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120622041944/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/pd-pl/Table-Tableau.cfm?LANG=Eng&T=205&S=3&RPP=50 |archive-date=June 22, 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> | area_magnitude = | area_total_km2 = 630.20 | area_urban_km2 = 1792.99 | area_metro_km2 = 5905.71 | elevation_m = 76.5 | population_as_of = [[2021 Canadian census|2021]] | population_footnotes =<ref>{{cite web |title=Census Profile, 2021 Census |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&SearchText=Toronto&DGUIDlist=2021A00053520005&GENDERlist=1&STATISTIClist=1&HEADERlist=0 |website=www12.statcan.gc.ca |date=February 9, 2022 |publisher=Statistics Canada |access-date=February 10, 2022 |archive-date=February 10, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210174708/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&SearchText=Toronto&DGUIDlist=2021A00053520005&GENDERlist=1&STATISTIClist=1&HEADERlist=0 |url-status=live }}</ref> | population_rank = [[List of North American cities by population|4th]] in North America<br />[[List of the largest municipalities in Canada by population|1st]] in Canada | population_density_km2 = 4,427.8 | population_total = 2,794,356<!--Please don't change until the 2026 Canadian Census is released per [[WP:CANPOP]]--> ([[List of the largest population centres in Canada|1st]]) | population_blank1_title = Metro | population_blank1 = 6,202,225<!--Please don't change until the 2026 Canadian Census is released per [[WP:CANPOP]]--> ([[List of census metropolitan areas and agglomerations in Canada|1st]]) | population_blank2_title = [[Golden Horseshoe|Region]] | population_blank2 = 9,765,188<!--Please don't change until the 2026 Canadian Census is released per [[WP:CANPOP]]--> | pop_est_as_of = | population_est = | population_demonym = Torontonian | population_note = | postal_code_type = Postal code span | postal_code = [[List of postal codes of Canada: M|M]] | area_codes = [[Area codes 416, 647, and 437|416, 647, 437]] | unemployment_rate = | blank_name_sec1 = [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] (Toronto {{Abbr|CMA|Census metropolitan area}}) | blank_info_sec1 = {{CAD|link=yes}}473.7&nbsp;billion (2021)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3610046801 |title=Gross domestic product (GDP) at basic prices, by census metropolitan area (CMA) |date=January 25, 2025 |access-date=January 25, 2025 |archive-date=January 22, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122184338/https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3610046801 |url-status=live }}</ref> | blank1_name_sec1 = GDP per capita (Toronto {{Abbr|CMA|Census metropolitan area}}) | blank1_info_sec1 = {{CAD}}73,176 (2021) | timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]] | utc_offset = −05:00 | timezone_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]] | utc_offset_DST = −04:00 | website = {{Official URL}} }} '''Toronto''', [[Canada]] ke sab se barraa city, aur [[Ontario]] Province ke capital hae. [[vibhag:T]] [[vibhag:Canada ke city]] fw61tlz298vgbc0eiofru5y0inuomwx 0 63327 323780 321347 2025-06-18T11:17:29Z Girmitya 41 323780 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox body of water | name = North America ke barraa talaab | other_name = Great Lakes | image = Great Lakes, No Clouds (4968915002) Brighter.jpg | alt = Five continent-sized lakes | caption = North America ke barraa talaab ke chhaapa NASA<br/> ke Aqua satellite August 2010 me liis rahaa. Left se<br/> right: [[Lake Superior]], [[Lake Michigan|Michigan]], [[Lake Huron|Huron]], [[Lake Erie|Erie]], [[Lake Ontario|Ontario]] | image_bathymetry = Great Lakes bathymetry map.png | alt_bathymetry = | caption_bathymetry = Great Lakes ke Bathymetry map | location = [[North America]] ke east me | coordinates = {{coord|45|N|84|W|region:US_type:waterbody_scale:7500000}} | type = mitthaa paani waala kuchh<br/> talaab jon ek duusre se jurraa hae | part_of = [[Great Lakes Basin]] | inflow = Past: [[precipitation]] and [[meltwater]]<br />Now: [[river]]s, precipitation,<br/> aur [[Spring (hydrology)|groundwater spring]]s | outflow = Evaporation, [[Saint Lawrence Naddi]]<br/>se [[Atlantic Ocean]] | catchment = <!-- {{convert|VALUE|UNITS}} must be used --> | basin_countries = [[Canada]], [[United States]] | agency = | area = {{convert|94250|sqmi|0}} | depth = {{cvt|60–480|ft|m}} talaab pe nirbhar | max-depth = {{cvt|210–1300|ft|m}} talaab pe nirbhar | volume = {{convert|5439|cumi|0}} (lowest) | salinity = | shore = <!-- {{convert|VALUE|UNITS}} must be used --> | elevation = <!-- {{convert|VALUE|UNITS}} must be used --> | temperature_high = <!-- {{convert|VALUE|UNITS}} must be used --> | temperature_low = <!-- {{convert|VALUE|UNITS}} must be used --> | frozen = around January to March | islands = | trenches = | cities = <!-- Map --> | website = | reference = <!-- In the article --> }} '''Great Lakes''', jiske '''North America ke barraa talaab''' bhi bola jaae hae, kuchh barraa jurraa mitthaa paani waala talaab hae jon Canada–United States border pe hae. Paanch talaab he [[Lake Superior|Superior]], [[Lake Michigan|Michigan]], [[Lake Huron|Huron]], [[Lake Erie|Erie]], aur [[Lake Ontario|Ontario]] . Great Lakes Waterway ke kaaran log taab me boat se travel kare sake hae. Ii sab lake [[Atlantic Ocean]] ke [[Saint Lawrence Naddi]] se, aur [[Mississippi Naddi]] se Illinois Waterway me jurre hae. Great Lakes, mitthaa paani waala talaab ke sab se barraa group hae agar area ke dekha jaae aur duusra sab se barraa agar volume dekha jaae. <ref>{{cite web |title=Great Lakes |url=http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/basicinfo.html |publisher=[[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] |date=June 28, 2006 |access-date=February 19, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=LUHNA Chapter 6: Historical Landcover Changes in the Great Lakes Region |publisher=USGS: Ecosystems |date=November 20, 2003 |access-date=February 19, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111122929/http://biology.usgs.gov/luhna/chap6.html |url=http://biology.usgs.gov/luhna/chap6.html |archive-date=January 11, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ghassemi |first=Fereidoun |title=Inter-basin water transfer |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-86969-0}}</ref> Puura surface area {{convert|94250|sqmi|0}} aur puura volume {{convert|5439|cumi|0}} hae. <ref name="EPAphysical">{{cite web |title=Great Lakes: Basic Information: Physical Facts |url=http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/physfacts.html |publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |date=May 25, 2011 |access-date=November 9, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529233616/http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/physfacts.html |archive-date=May 29, 2012}}</ref> [[vibhag:N]] [[vibhag:Canada ke talaab]] [[vibhag:United States of America ke talaab]] hytmot2nm5c7ihu94q0qsxcanw4esod 323781 323780 2025-06-18T11:17:56Z Girmitya 41 323781 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox body of water | name = North America ke barraa talaab | other_name = Great Lakes | image = Great Lakes, No Clouds (4968915002) Brighter.jpg | alt = Five continent-sized lakes | caption = North America ke barraa talaab ke chhaapa NASA<br/> ke Aqua satellite August 2010 me liis rahaa. Left se<br/> right: [[Lake Superior]], [[Lake Michigan|Michigan]], [[Lake Huron|Huron]], [[Lake Erie|Erie]], [[Lake Ontario|Ontario]] | image_bathymetry = Great Lakes bathymetry map.png | alt_bathymetry = | caption_bathymetry = Great Lakes ke Bathymetry map | location = [[North America]] ke east me | coordinates = {{coord|45|N|84|W|region:US_type:waterbody_scale:7500000}} | type = mitthaa paani waala kuchh<br/> talaab jon ek duusre se jurraa hae | part_of = [[Great Lakes Basin]] | inflow = Past: [[precipitation]] and [[meltwater]]<br />Now: [[river]]s, precipitation,<br/> aur [[Spring (hydrology)|groundwater spring]]s | outflow = Evaporation, [[Saint Lawrence Naddi]]<br/>se [[Atlantic Ocean]] | catchment = <!-- {{convert|VALUE|UNITS}} must be used --> | basin_countries = [[Canada]], [[United States]] | agency = | area = {{convert|94250|sqmi|0}} | depth = {{cvt|60–480|ft|m}} talaab pe nirbhar | max-depth = {{cvt|210–1300|ft|m}} talaab pe nirbhar | volume = {{convert|5439|cumi|0}} (lowest) | salinity = | shore = <!-- {{convert|VALUE|UNITS}} must be used --> | elevation = <!-- {{convert|VALUE|UNITS}} must be used --> | temperature_high = <!-- {{convert|VALUE|UNITS}} must be used --> | temperature_low = <!-- {{convert|VALUE|UNITS}} must be used --> | frozen = around January to March | islands = | trenches = | cities = <!-- Map --> | website = | reference = <!-- In the article --> }} '''Great Lakes''', jiske '''North America ke barraa talaab''' bhi bola jaae hae, kuchh barraa jurraa mitthaa paani waala talaab hae jon Canada–United States border pe hae. Paanch talaab he [[Lake Superior|Superior]], [[Lake Michigan|Michigan]], [[Lake Huron|Huron]], [[Lake Erie|Erie]], aur [[Lake Ontario|Ontario]] . Great Lakes Waterway ke kaaran log taab me boat se travel kare sake hae. Ii sab lake [[Atlantic Ocean]] ke [[Saint Lawrence Naddi]] se, aur [[Mississippi Naddi]] se Illinois Waterway me jurre hae. Great Lakes, mitthaa paani waala talaab ke sab se barraa group hae agar area ke dekha jaae aur duusra sab se barraa agar volume dekha jaae. <ref>{{cite web |title=Great Lakes |url=http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/basicinfo.html |publisher=[[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] |date=June 28, 2006 |access-date=February 19, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=LUHNA Chapter 6: Historical Landcover Changes in the Great Lakes Region |publisher=USGS: Ecosystems |date=November 20, 2003 |access-date=February 19, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111122929/http://biology.usgs.gov/luhna/chap6.html |url=http://biology.usgs.gov/luhna/chap6.html |archive-date=January 11, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ghassemi |first=Fereidoun |title=Inter-basin water transfer |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-86969-0}}</ref> Puura surface area {{convert|94250|sqmi|0}} aur puura volume {{convert|5439|cumi|0}} hae. <ref name="EPAphysical">{{cite web |title=Great Lakes: Basic Information: Physical Facts |url=http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/physfacts.html |publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |date=May 25, 2011 |access-date=November 9, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529233616/http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/physfacts.html |archive-date=May 29, 2012}}</ref> [[vibhag:N]] [[vibhag:Canada]] [[vibhag:United States of America]] [[vibhag:North America ke talaab]] 0gpzadh2m0xf30pyk2j5rf54172p3e5 323782 323781 2025-06-18T11:19:34Z Girmitya 41 323782 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox body of water | name = North America ke barraa talaab | other_name = Great Lakes | image = Great Lakes, No Clouds (4968915002) Brighter.jpg | alt = Five continent-sized lakes | caption = North America ke barraa talaab ke chhaapa NASA<br/> ke Aqua satellite August 2010 me liis rahaa. Left se<br/> right: [[Lake Superior]], [[Lake Michigan|Michigan]], [[Lake Huron|Huron]], [[Lake Erie|Erie]], [[Lake Ontario|Ontario]] | image_bathymetry = Great Lakes bathymetry map.png | alt_bathymetry = | caption_bathymetry = Great Lakes ke Bathymetry map | location = [[North America]] ke east me | coordinates = {{coord|45|N|84|W|region:US_type:waterbody_scale:7500000}} | type = mitthaa paani waala kuchh<br/> talaab jon ek duusre se jurraa hae | part_of = [[Great Lakes Basin]] | inflow = Past: [[precipitation]] and [[meltwater]]<br />Now: [[river]]s, precipitation,<br/> aur [[Spring (hydrology)|groundwater spring]]s | outflow = Evaporation, [[Saint Lawrence Naddi]]<br/>se [[Atlantic Ocean]] | catchment = <!-- {{convert|VALUE|UNITS}} must be used --> | basin_countries = [[Canada]], [[United States]] | agency = | area = {{convert|94250|sqmi|0}} | depth = {{cvt|60–480|ft|m}} talaab pe nirbhar | max-depth = {{cvt|210–1300|ft|m}} talaab pe nirbhar | volume = {{convert|5439|cumi|0}} (lowest) | salinity = | shore = <!-- {{convert|VALUE|UNITS}} must be used --> | elevation = <!-- {{convert|VALUE|UNITS}} must be used --> | temperature_high = <!-- {{convert|VALUE|UNITS}} must be used --> | temperature_low = <!-- {{convert|VALUE|UNITS}} must be used --> | frozen = around January to March | islands = | trenches = | cities = <!-- Map --> | website = | reference = <!-- In the article --> }} '''Great Lakes''', jiske '''North America ke barraa talaab''' bhi bola jaae hae, kuchh barraa jurraa mitthaa paani waala talaab hae jon Canada–United States border pe hae. Paanch talaab he [[Lake Superior|Superior]], [[Lake Michigan|Michigan]], [[Lake Huron|Huron]], [[Lake Erie|Erie]], aur [[Lake Ontario|Ontario]] . Great Lakes Waterway ke kaaran log taab me boat se travel kare sake hae. Ii sab lake [[Atlantic Ocean]] ke [[Saint Lawrence Naddi]] se, aur [[Mississippi Naddi]] se Illinois Waterway me jurre hae. Great Lakes, mitthaa paani waala talaab ke sab se barraa group hae agar area ke dekha jaae aur duusra sab se barraa agar volume dekha jaae. <ref>{{cite web |title=Great Lakes |url=http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/basicinfo.html |publisher=[[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] |date=June 28, 2006 |access-date=February 19, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=LUHNA Chapter 6: Historical Landcover Changes in the Great Lakes Region |publisher=USGS: Ecosystems |date=November 20, 2003 |access-date=February 19, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111122929/http://biology.usgs.gov/luhna/chap6.html |url=http://biology.usgs.gov/luhna/chap6.html |archive-date=January 11, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ghassemi |first=Fereidoun |title=Inter-basin water transfer |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-86969-0}}</ref> Puura surface area {{convert|94250|sqmi|0}} aur puura volume {{convert|5439|cumi|0}} hae. <ref name="EPAphysical">{{cite web |title=Great Lakes: Basic Information: Physical Facts |url=http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/physfacts.html |publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |date=May 25, 2011 |access-date=November 9, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529233616/http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/physfacts.html |archive-date=May 29, 2012}}</ref> [[vibhag:N]] [[vibhag:North America ke talaab]] 2d7nvur4b63w8zdxawxwxndvq9217qu 0 63329 323778 321667 2025-06-18T11:15:51Z Girmitya 41 323778 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox body of water | name = Superior Talaab | native_name = {{Native name|oj|Gichi-gami or Anishinaabewi-gichi-gami}} | image = Lake Superior, ISS.jpg | caption = Lake Superior ke chhaapa [[International Space Station]]<br/> se June 6, 2019 me lewa gais rahaa | location = [[North America]] | group = [[Great Lakes]] | image_bathymetry = Lake Superior bathymetry map.png | caption_bathymetry = Lake Superior ke [[bathymetry|bathymetric map]].<br/>Iske sab se gahiraa jagha iske southeastern shore<br/> me hae, jiske "×" se mark karaa gais hae. <br/>Eastern hissa ke gahiraa trenches saait tunnel<br/> valley se banaa rahaa. | coords = {{Coord|47.7|N|87.5|W|name=Lake Superior|type:waterbody_scale:5000000}} | lake_type = [[Glacial]] | inflow = [[Nipigon Naddi|Nipigon]], [[Saint Louis Naddi (Lake Superior tributary)|St. Louis]], [[Pigeon River (Minnesota-Ontario)|Pigeon]], [[Pic River|Pic]],<br/> [[White River (Ontario)|White]], [[Michipicoten River|Michipicoten]], [[Kaministiquia River|Kaministiquia]],<br/> [[Ontonagon River|Ontonagon]], [[Tahquamenon River]]s | outflow = [[St. Marys River (Michigan-Ontario)|St. Marys River]] | catchment = {{convert|49300|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}} | basin_countries = Canada and the United States | length = {{convert|350|<!--statute-->smi|km|abbr=on}} | width = {{convert|160|<!--statute-->smi|km|abbr=on}} | area = {{convert|82100|sqkm|mi2|abbr=on}} | depth = {{convert|483|ft|m|abbr=on}} | max-depth = {{convert|1333|ft|m|abbr=on}} | volume = {{convert|12070|km3|mi3|abbr=on}} | residence_time = 191 years | shore = {{convert|1729|mi|km|abbr=on}} plus {{convert|997|mi|km|abbr=on}}<br/> islands ke khaatir<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.michigan.gov/deq/0,4561,7-135-3313_3677-15959--,00.html |title = Shorelines of the Great Lakes |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150405211915/https://www.michigan.gov/deq/0%2C4561%2C7-135-3313_3677-15959--%2C00.html |archive-date = April 5, 2015 |publisher = [[Michigan Department of Environmental Quality]] }}</ref> | elevation = {{convert|601.71|ft|m|0|abbr=on}} (2013 average)<ref>{{cite web |url = http://w3.lre.usace.army.mil/hh/GreatLakesWaterLevels/GLWL-CurrentMonth-Feet.pdf |title = Great Lakes Water Levels |publisher = United States Army Corps of Engineers |access-date = June 27, 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130418004734/http://w3.lre.usace.army.mil/hh/GreatLakesWaterLevels/GLWL-CurrentMonth-Feet.pdf |archive-date = April 18, 2013 |url-status = dead }} The link also has daily elevations for the current month.</ref> | islands = [[Isle Royale]], [[Apostle Islands]],<br/> [[Michipicoten Island]], [[Grand Island Township, Michigan|Grand Island]],<br/> [[Slate Islands (Ontario)|Slate Islands]] | islands_category = Islands of the Great Lakes | cities = {{plainlist|1= * [[Thunder Bay]], Ontario *[[Duluth, Minnesota]] *[[Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario]] *[[Marquette, Michigan]] *[[Superior, Wisconsin]] *[[Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan]] }} | frozen = <!-- Map --> | pushpin_map = North America | pushpin_label_position = | pushpin_map_alt = Location of Lake Superior in North America. | pushpin_map_caption = <!-- Below --> }} '''Superior Talaab''', [[dunia]] ke sab se barraa mitthaa paani waala talaab hae, by area. [[Caspian Samundar]] sab se barraa talaab hae, lekin isme khaara paani hae, aur tiisra sab se barra talaab by volume. <ref>{{Cite news|last=Bencomo|first=Phil|date=2015-10-06|title=Just How Big is Lake Superior?|language=en-us|work=Lake Superior Magazine|url=https://www.lakesuperior.com/the-lake/lake-superior/how-big-is-lake-superior/|access-date=2021-07-09}}</ref> Dunia ke 10% mitthaa paani ii talaab me hae.<ref>https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth#overview</ref><ref>https://www.livescience.com/31952-lake-superior.html</ref> Ii [[North America ke barraa talaab]] me se northernmost aur westernmost hae, Canada–United States ke border, Canadian province [[Ontario]] north aur east me aur U.S. states [[Minnesota]] west me aur [[Michigan]] aur [[Wisconsin]] south me.<ref name=pursuit>{{cite web |url = http://www.seagrant.umn.edu/superior/facts |title = Superior Pursuit: Facts About the Greatest Great Lake |author = Minnesota Sea Grant |publisher = University of Minnesota |access-date = August 9, 2007 |archive-date = July 21, 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170721093144/http://www.seagrant.umn.edu/superior/facts |url-status = dead }}</ref> Ii [[Lake Huron]] me drain hoe hae [[St. Marys River (Michigan–Ontario)|St. Marys River]] se, fir niche waala Great Lakes me jaae ke baad [[Saint Lawrence Naddi]] se [[Atlantic Ocean]] me nikle hae. ==Naam== [[File:LS-MetOp-B.png|thumb|left|False color view of Lake Superior|alt=False color view of Lake Superior as seen by the AVHRR instrument onboard MetOp-B. Made in a 221 composition, so colors are approximate. Received by an amateur station via the HRPT downlink with a 1m parabolic antenna.]] [[File:Lake-Superior.svg|thumb|left|Map of [[Great Lakes]] (Lake Superior in darker blue)]] {{DEFAULTSORT:Superior, Lake}} [[vibhag:S]] [[vibhag:Canada ke talaab]] [[vibhag:United States of America ke talaab]] 38pa3trnblmdding3bw0dqetuvewxxa 0 63333 323775 321671 2025-06-18T11:12:22Z Girmitya 41 323775 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox body of water | name = Michigan Talaab | native_name = | image = Lake Michigan in true color.jpg | caption = Lake Michigan jaise International Space Station<br/> (August 19, 2019) se dekhae hae. [[Chicago]],<br/> talaab ke extreme S.W. me hae. | image_bathymetry = Lake Michigan bathymetry map.png | caption_bathymetry = Lake Michigan ke bathymetric map.<ref name="GLBathMich">[http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/greatlakes/greatlakes.html National Geophysical Data Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403230341/http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/greatlakes/greatlakes.html |date=April 3, 2015 }}, 1996. Bathymetry of Lake Michigan. National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA. doi:10.7289/V5B85627 [access date: March 23, 2015].</ref><ref name="GLBathHur">[http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/greatlakes/greatlakes.html National Geophysical Data Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403230341/http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/greatlakes/greatlakes.html |date=April 3, 2015 }}, 1999. Bathymetry of Lake Huron. National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA. doi:10.7289/V5G15XS5 [access date: March 23, 2015]. (only small portion of this map)</ref><ref name="GLOBE">National Geophysical Data Center, 1999. [http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/topo/gltiles.html Global Land One-kilometer Base Elevation (GLOBE) v.1.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110210142322/http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/topo/gltiles.html |date=February 10, 2011 }} Hastings, D. and P.K. Dunbar. National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA. doi:10.7289/V52R3PMS [access date: March 16, 2015].</ref><br/> Sab se gahiraa jagha "x" se marked hae.<ref name="NOAA_GLERL">{{cite web |url=https://www.glerl.noaa.gov/education/ourlakes/gl_tour.html |title=About Our Great Lakes: Tour |publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory (GLERL) |access-date=December 15, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170507173208/https://www.glerl.noaa.gov/education/ourlakes/gl_tour.html |archive-date=May 7, 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> | location = United States | group = [[Great Lakes]] | coords = {{Coord|44|N|87|W|region:US_type:waterbody_scale:5000000}} | lake_type = [[Glacial lake|Glacial]] | inflow = [[Straits of Mackinac]], [[Fox River (Green Bay tributary)|Fox River]],<br/> [[Grand River (Michigan)|Grand River]], [[Menominee River]],<br/> [[Milwaukee River]], [[Muskegon River]],<br/> [[Kalamazoo River]], [[St. Joseph River (Lake Michigan)|St. Joseph River]] | outflow = [[Straits of Mackinac]]; also, controlled<br/> discharge through locks on the<br/> [[Chicago River]] (and its <br/>[[North Shore Channel]]), and [[Calumet River]] | catchment = | basin_countries = [[United States]] | length = {{convert|307|mi|km|abbr=on}} | width = {{convert|118|mi|km|abbr=on}} | min_width = {{convert|91|mi|km|abbr=on}} | area = {{convert|22404|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}}<ref name="LakeMichigan2009">{{cite web|url=http://www.great-lakes.net/lakes/michigan.html#overview|title=Lake Michigan |publisher=Great-lakes.net |date=June 18, 2009 |access-date=January 14, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100101170911/http://www.great-lakes.net/lakes/michigan.html#overview |archive-date=January 1, 2010}}</ref> | depth = {{convert|279|ft|m|abbr=on}} | max-depth = {{convert|923|ft|m|abbr=on}}<ref name="nyt" /> | volume = {{convert|1183|cumi|km3|abbr=on}} | residence_time = 99 years | shore = {{convert|1400|mi|km|abbr=on}} plus<br/> {{convert|238|mi|km|abbr=on}} for islands<ref>[https://www.michigan.gov/deq/0,4561,7-135-3313_3677-15959--,00.html Shorelines of the Great Lakes] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405211915/https://www.michigan.gov/deq/0%2C4561%2C7-135-3313_3677-15959--%2C00.html|date=April 5, 2015}}</ref> | elevation = {{convert|577|ft|m|abbr=on}}<ref name="nyt" /> | islands = ''see [[#Islands|list]]'' | islands_category = Islands of the Great Lakes | cities = ''see [[#Cities|list]]'' <!-- Map -->| pushpin_map = North America | pushpin_label_position = | pushpin_map_alt = Location of Lake Michigan in North America. | pushpin_map_caption = <!-- Below --> | website = | reference = <ref name="nyt">{{harvnb|Wright|2006|p=64}}</ref> }} '''Michigan Talaab''' ( {{respell|MISH|ig|ən}}) paanch [[North America ke barraa talaab]] me se ek hae. Agar volume ke dekha jaae tab ii paanch me se duusra sab se barraa hae.<ref name="LakeMichigan2009" /> ({{convert|1180|cumi|km3|abbr=on}}) aur gahiraai ({{convert|923|ft|m|abbr=on}}) [[Lake Superior]] ke baad aur tiisra sab se barraa by surface area ({{convert|22405|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}}), Lake Superior aur [[Lake Huron]] ke baad. East me ii Lake Huron se, chauraa aur gahiraa [[Straits of Mackinac]] se, jisse iske surface elevation iske eastern counterpart ke rakam hae; hydrologically, duuno bodies [[Lake Michigan–Huron|a single lake]] hae, aur ii dunia ke sab se barra mitthaa paani waala talaab hae.<ref>{{cite web |title=Great Lakes Map |publisher=[[Michigan Department of Environmental Quality]] |year=2013 |url=http://www.michigan.gov/deq/0,1607,7-135-3313_3677-15926--,00.html |access-date=August 26, 2013 |archive-date=November 26, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111126121350/http://www.michigan.gov/deq/0,1607,7-135-3313_3677-15926--,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> {{DEFAULTSORT:Michigan, Lake}} [[vibhag:M]] [[vibhag:United States of America ke talaab]] ob4yjwlkg1z7jq0uzrpsjnw2dy6tet4 0 63335 323774 321674 2025-06-18T11:11:28Z Girmitya 41 323774 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox body of water | name = Huron Talaab | native_name = | image = Lake Huron in winter.jpg | caption = Lake Huron, Georgian Bay, aur frozen [[North Channel (Ontario)|North Channel]]<br/> (top), jaise International Space Station se dekhae hae, <br/>on April 20, 2018 | image_bathymetry = Lake Huron bathymetry map.png | caption_bathymetry = Lake Huron ke bathymetric map.<br/> Sab se gahiraa jagha "×" se marked hae. | location = [[North America]] | group = [[Great Lakes]] | coords = {{coord|44.8|N|82.4|W|type:waterbody_scale:5000000}} | lake_type = [[Glacial lake|Glacial]] | inflow = [[Straits of Mackinac]], [[St. Marys River (Michigan–Ontario)|St. Marys River]] | outflow = [[St. Clair River]] | catchment = {{convert|51,700|sqmi|km2}} | basin_countries = [[Canada]] and the [[United States]] | length = {{convert|206|mi|abbr=on}} | width = {{convert|183|mi|abbr=on}} | area = {{convert|23,007|sqmi|km2}} | depth = {{convert|195|ft|abbr=on}} | max-depth = {{convert|750|ft|0|abbr=on}} | volume = {{convert|844.8|cumi|0|abbr=on}} | shore = {{convert|1850|mi|km|abbr=on}} plus<br/> {{convert|1980|mi|km|abbr=on}} for islands<ref>{{Cite web |url = https://www.michigan.gov/deq/0,4561,7-135-3313_3677-15959--,00.html |title = Shorelines of the Great Lakes |publisher = Michigan Department of Environmental Quality |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150405211915/https://www.michigan.gov/deq/0%2C4561%2C7-135-3313_3677-15959--%2C00.html |archive-date = April 5, 2015 }}</ref> | elevation = {{convert|577|ft|abbr=on}} | residence_time = 22 years | islands = [[Manitoulin Island|Manitoulin]] | islands_category = Islands of the Great Lakes | sections = [[Georgian Bay]], [[North Channel (Ontario)|North Channel]] | cities = [[Bay City, Michigan|Bay City]], [[Alpena, Michigan|Alpena]], [[Cheboygan, Michigan|Cheboygan]],<br/> [[St. Ignace, Michigan|St. Ignace]], [[Port Huron, Michigan|Port Huron]] in Michigan; <br/>[[Goderich, Ontario|Goderich]], [[Sarnia]], [[Owen Sound]]<br/> in Ontario <!-- Map -->| pushpin_map = North America | pushpin_label_position = | pushpin_map_alt = Location of Lake Huron in North America. | pushpin_map_caption = <!-- Below --> | website = | reference = <ref name=nyt>{{cite book |editor-first = John W. |editor-last = Wright |year = 2006 |title = The New York Times Almanac |url = https://archive.org/details/newyorktimes200600wrig |url-access = registration |edition = 2007 |publisher = Penguin Books |location = New York |isbn = 0-14-303820-6 |page = [https://archive.org/details/newyorktimes200600wrig/page/64 64] |via = Archive.org }}</ref> }} [[File:Lake-Huron.svg|thumb|upright|Map of Lake Huron and the other [[Great Lakes]] ]] '''Huron Talaab''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|jʊər|ɒ|n|,_|-|ən}} {{respell|HURE|on|,_-|ən}}) paanch [[North America ke barraa talaab]] me se ek hae. Iske north aur east me Canadian province [[Ontario]], aur south aur west me U.S. state [[Michigan]] hae. Iske naam puraana French explorers log de rahin, jon iske hian ke adiwasi, [[Wyandot people|Huron]] (Wyandot) ke naam ii talaab ke de rahin. [[Hydrology|Hydrologically]], Lake Huron me [[Lake Michigan–Huron]] ke eastern hissa hae, aur iske surface elevation [[Lake Michigan]] ke rakam hae, jisse ii connected hae {{Convert|5|mi|km|adj = mid|-wide}}, {{Convert|20|fathom|ft m|adj = mid|-deep}} [[Straits of Mackinac]] se. Puura jorr ke, Lake Michigan–Huron dunia ke sab se barraa mitthaa paani waala talaab hae by area. <ref name=GLERL>{{cite web |quote = Lakes Michigan and Huron are considered to be one lake hydraulically because of their connection through the deep Straits of Mackinac." Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory, part of the [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]. |url = http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/res/Programs/glscf/hydrology.html |title = Great Lakes Sensitivity to Climatic Forcing: Hydrological Models |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100808074846/http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/res/Programs/glscf/hydrology.html |archive-date= August 8, 2010 |publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |year = 2006 }}</ref><ref name=USACE>{{cite book |quote = Lakes Michigan and Huron are considered to be one lake, as they rise and fall together due to their union at the Straits of Mackinac |publisher = United States Army Corps of Engineers |chapter = Hydrological Components |url = http://www.edisonsault.com/CustServ/USACOE%20LS%20WATER%208%2007.pdf |title = Record Low Water Levels Expected on Lake Superior |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081015125647/http://www.edisonsault.com/CustServ/USACOE%20LS%20WATER%208%2007.pdf |archive-date = October 15, 2008 |date = August 2007 |page = 6 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015125647/http://www.edisonsault.com/CustServ/USACOE%20LS%20WATER%208%2007.pdf |date=October 15, 2008 }}</ref> [[Huronian glaciation]] ke naam dewa gais hae Lake Huron ilaaka se sabuut ekkatthaa kare se. Ii lake ke northern hissa me [[North Channel (Ontario)|North Channel]] aur [[Georgian Bay]] hae. [[Saginaw Bay]], ii talaab ke southwest corner me hae. Isme paani [[St. Marys River (Michigan–Ontario)|St. Marys River]] jon [[Lake Superior]] se aae hae, se aae hae, aur main outlet [[St. Clair River]], [[Lake Erie]] ke taraf hae. Lake Huron ke kaafi barraa drainage basin hae, jon Michigan and Ontario ke hissa ke cover kare hae. Paani, Lake Huron me, aur sab talaab ke mukaable me, aur jorr se bahe hae aur iske retention time khaali 22 years hae. {{DEFAULTSORT:Huron, Lake}} [[vibhag:H]] [[vibhag:Canada ke talaab]] [[vibhag:United States of America ke talaab]] 5wcfgnsss0ly8rgtn24z8ql7ee273cf 0 63336 323769 321677 2025-06-18T11:06:17Z Girmitya 41 323769 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox body of water | name = Erie Talaab | native_name = | image = A1.23188.1851.LakeErie.143.250m.jpg | caption = Lake Erie ke NOAA satellite chhaapa from July 7, 2023.<br/> Light green swirls [[algae bloom]], talaab ke western edge me hae. | image_bathymetry = Lake Erie and Lake Saint Clair bathymetry map.png | caption_bathymetry = Lake Erie aur [[Lake St. Clair|Lake Saint Clair]] ke [[Bathymetry|bathymetric]] map. <br/>Sab se gahiraa jgha "×" se marked hae. | coords = {{coord|42.2|N|81.2|W|type:waterbody_scale:3000000}} | location = [[North America]] | group = [[Great Lakes]] | lake_type = [[Glacial lake|Glacial]] | inflow = [[Detroit River]] | outflow = [[Niagara River]]<br/>[[Welland Canal]] | catchment = | basin_countries = {{flag|Canada}}<br>{{flag|United States}} | length = {{convert|241|mi|km|abbr=on}} | width = {{convert|57|mi|km|abbr=on}} | area = {{convert|9910|sqmi|km2|-2|abbr=on}} | depth = {{convert|62|ft|m|0|abbr=on}} | max-depth = {{convert|210|ft|m|0|abbr=on}} | volume = {{convert|116|cumi|km3|abbr=on}} | residence_time = 2.6 years | shore = {{convert|799|mi|km|abbr=on}}<br/> plus {{convert|72|mi|km|abbr=on}} for islands<ref>[https://www.michigan.gov/deq/0,4561,7-135-3313_3677-15959--,00.html Shorelines of the Great Lakes] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405211915/https://www.michigan.gov/deq/0%2C4561%2C7-135-3313_3677-15959--%2C00.html|date=April 5, 2015}}</ref> | elevation = {{convert|569|ft|m|0|abbr=on}} | islands = 24+ ''(see [[#Islands|list]])'' | islands_category = Islands of the Great Lakes | cities = [[Cleveland|Cleveland, Ohio]]<br>[[Buffalo, New York]]<br/>[[Erie, Pennsylvania]]<br/>[[Toledo, Ohio]]<br/>[[Monroe, Michigan]]<br/>[[Leamington, Ontario]]<br/>[[Port Colborne, Ontario]]<br/> <!-- Map -->| pushpin_map = North America | pushpin_label_position = | pushpin_map_alt = Location of Lake Erie in North America. | pushpin_map_caption = <!-- Below --> | website = | reference = }} [[File:Lake-Erie.svg|thumb|right| The [[Great Lakes]], with Lake Erie highlighted in darker blue ]] '''Erie Talaab''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɪr|i}} {{respell|EER|ee}}) paanch [[North America ke barraa talaab]] me se 4th sab se barra hae by surface area aur dunia bhar me 11th sab se barra talaab hae. Ii Great Lahes ke southernmost, shallowest, aur sab se chhotaa by [[volume]] hae<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/us/A0817584.html|title=Erie, Lake - FactMonster|website=www.factmonster.com|access-date=September 5, 2006|archive-date=February 29, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229070745/http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/us/A0817584.html|url-status=live}}</ref> aur iske sab se kamti average water retention time hae. Iske sab se gahiraa jagha me , Lake Erie {{convert|210|ft|m|sp=us}} gahiraa hae, jiske matlab hae ki ii ekke Great Lake hae jiske deepest point sea level seuppar hae.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-01-18 |title=Great Lakes Profile |url=https://vividmaps.com/great-lakes-profile/ |access-date=2024-01-10 |website=Vivid Maps |language=en-US |archive-date=November 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231123233925/https://vividmaps.com/great-lakes-profile/ |url-status=live }}</ref> {{DEFAULTSORT:Erie, Lake}} [[vibhag:E]] [[vibhag:Canada ke talaab]] [[vibhag:United States of America ke talaab]] bjjsgk5ks1z91pgauul9ila7ky24wl6 0 63338 323786 321680 2025-06-18T11:43:45Z Girmitya 41 323786 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox body of water | name = Ontario Talaab | native_name ={{native name|oj|Niigaani-gichigami}} | image = ISS-36 Lake Ontario (horizontal).jpg | caption = Lake Ontario International Space Station sedekhae hae on<br/> August 24, 2013. Cloudy yellowish chij algae bloom hae. | image_bathymetry = Lake Ontario bathymetry map.png | caption_bathymetry = Lake Ontario ke [[Bathymetry|bathymetric]] map.<br/> Sab se gahiraa jagha "×" se marked hae. | location = [[North America]] | group = [[Great Lakes]] | pushpin_map = OntarioSab se gahiraa jagha | coords = {{coord|43.7|N|77.9|W|type:waterbody_scale:3000000}} | lake_type = [[Glacial lake|Glacial]] | etymology = ''Ontarí:io'', a Huron ([[Wyandot language|Wyandot]])<br/> sabd jiske matlab "great lake" hae | inflow = [[Niagara River]] | outflow = [[St. Lawrence River]] | catchment = {{convert|24720|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}} | basin_countries = [[Canada]] and [[United States]] | length = {{convert|193|mi|km|abbr=on}} | width = {{convert|53|mi|km|abbr=on}} | area = {{convert|7323|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}} | depth = {{convert|283|ft|m|abbr=on}}{{sfn|Wright|2006|p=64}} | max-depth = {{convert|802|ft|m|abbr=on}}{{sfn|Wright|2006|p=64}} | volume = {{convert|391.4|cumi|km3|abbr=on}} | residence_time = 6 years | shore = {{convert|634|mi|km|abbr=on}}<br/> plus {{convert|78|mi|km|abbr=on}} for islands<ref>[https://www.michigan.gov/deq/0,4561,7-135-3313_3677-15959--,00.html Shorelines of the Great Lakes] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150405211915/https://www.michigan.gov/deq/0%2C4561%2C7-135-3313_3677-15959--%2C00.html |date=April 5, 2015 }}</ref> | elevation = {{convert|243|ft|m|abbr=on}} | islands = | islands_category = Islands in the Great Lakes | cities = [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]]<br> [[Mississauga]], [[Ontario]]<br>[[Hamilton, Ontario]]<br> [[Rochester, New York|Rochester]], [[New York (state)|New York]] | reference ={{sfn|Wright|2006|p=64}} }} '''Ontario Talaab''' paanch [[North America ke barraa talaab]] me se ek hae. Iske north, west, aur southwest me Canadian province [[Ontario]], aur south aur east me U.S. state [[New York (state)|New York]] hae. [[Canada–United States border]] ii talaab ke biich me se jaae hae. Canada ke taraf, khaas city hae: [[Kingston, Ontario|Kingston]], [[Mississauga]], [[Toronto]], [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]], aur [[St. Catharines]]. American ke side, khaas cities hae: [[Rochester, New York|Rochester]] aur [[Watertown, New York|Watertown]]. {{DEFAULTSORT:Ontario, Lake}} [[vibhag:O]] [[vibhag:Canada ke talaab]] [[vibhag:United States of America ke talaab]] mbn804qpago4q59dqfhhh0ahlykwz3y 0 63369 323772 321683 2025-06-18T11:08:39Z Girmitya 41 323772 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox body of water |name = Great Bear Talaab |native_name = * {{nativename|fr|Grand lac de l'Ours}} |image = Great Bear Lake (de).png |image_size = 300 |pushpin_map=Canada Northwest Territories |caption = Great Bear Lake, Northwest Territories |image_bathymetry = |caption_bathymetry = |location = [[Northwest Territories]] |coords = {{Coord|65|50|01|N|120|45|06|W|region:CA-NT_type:waterbody_scale:2000000</ref>}} |lake_type = [[Glacial lake|Glacial]] |inflow = |outflow = [[Great Bear River]] |catchment = {{cvt|114717|km2}}<ref name=Johnson_1975a/><ref name=EoEarth/> |basin_countries = Canada |length = |width = |area = {{cvt|31153|km2}}<ref name=Johnson_1975a/><ref name=EoEarth/> |depth = {{cvt|71.7|m}}<ref name=Johnson_1975a/><ref name=EoEarth/> |max-depth = {{cvt|446|m}}<ref name=Johnson_1975a/><ref name=EoEarth/> |volume = {{cvt|2234|km3}}<ref name=Johnson_1975a/><ref name=EoEarth/> |residence_time = 124 years<ref name=Johnson_1975a/> |shore = {{cvt|2719|km}} (plus {{cvt|824|km}}<br/> island shoreline)<ref name=Johnson_1975a/><ref name=EoEarth/> |elevation = {{cvt|156|m}} |islands = 26 main islands, totalling<br/> {{cvt|759.3|km2}} in area<ref name=Johnson_1975a/> |frozen = November - July<ref name=EoEarth/> |cities = [[Délı̨nę]] |reference =<ref name=Johnson_1975a>{{Cite journal|last=Johnson|first=L.|date=1975|title=Physical and chemical characteristics of Great Bear Lake|journal=J. Fish. Res. Board Can.|volume=32|pages=1971–1987|doi=10.1139/f75-234|issue=11|url=http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/nam/nam-30.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605082305/http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/nam/nam-30.html|archive-date=5 June 2011|access-date=6 April 2025|archivedate=5 June 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605082305/http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/nam/nam-30.html}} (World Lakes Database)</ref><ref name=EoEarth>{{Citation|last=Hebert|first=Paul| date=2007| contribution=Great Bear Lake, Northwest Territories| title=Encyclopedia of Earth |access-date=7 December 2007| url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Great_Bear_Lake,_Northwest_Territories| publisher=Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment | location=Washington, DC}}</ref> }} '''Great Bear Talaab''', Canada ke boreal jangal ke ek talaab hae. Ii sab se barraa talaab hae jon puura Canada me hae. ([[Lake Superior]] aur [[Lake Huron]] aur barraa hae lekin ii duuno Canada–US border pr hae, aur ii North America ke 4th sab se barra talaa b aur [[dunia]] ke 8th sab se barraa talaab hae. <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/worlds-largest-lakes-2228655 |title=World's largest lakes|publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|access-date=7 August 2023}}</ref> Ii talaab [[Northwest Territories]] me hae, [[Arctic Circle]] me, [[65th parallel north|65]] aur [[67th parallel north|67 degrees]] ke biich me aur northern latitude [[118th meridian west|118]] aur [[123rd meridian west|123 degrees]] ke biich me aur ii {{cvt|156|m}} samundar ke level se uppar hae. [[vibhag:G]] [[vibhag:Canada ke talaab]] dwvpnmr094q2cuy59vee0bsf02bqvy3 0 63371 323773 321686 2025-06-18T11:09:42Z Girmitya 41 323773 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox body of water | name = Great Slave Talaab | other_name = ''Grand lac des Esclaves'' (French)<br>''Tıdeè'' ([[Dogrib language|Tłı̨chǫ Yatıì]])<br>''Tinde’e'' ([[Yellowknives|Wıìlıìdeh Yatii/Tetsǫ́t’ıné Yatıé]])<br>''Tu Nedhé'' ([[Chipewyan language|Dëne Sųłıné Yatıé]])<br>''Tucho'' ([[Slavey language|Dehcho Dene Zhatıé]])<br> | image = Canada.A2002160.1920.721.250m.jpg | caption = Great Slave Lake aur [[Lake Athabasca]] ke [[NASA]] ke photo | image_bathymetry = | caption_bathymetry = | location = [[Northwest Territories]] |coords = {{coord|61|30|01|N|114|00|04|W|region:CA-NT_type:waterbody}} | lake_type = [[Glacial lake|Glacial]] | inflow = [[Hay River (Canada)|Hay River]], [[Slave River]], [[Taltson River]], [[Lockhart River (Northwest Territories)|Lockhart River]],<br/> [[Yellowknife River]], [[Snare River]] (through [[Marian Lake]]<br/> aur [[Frank Channel]]), [[Marian River]] (through Marian<br/> Lake aur [[Frank Channel]]), [[Stark River]] | outflow = [[Mackenzie River]] |catchment = {{cvt|971000|km2}} | basin_countries = Canada |length = {{cvt|469|km}}<ref name="Distance Calculator">{{cite web| url=http://www.daftlogic.com/projects-google-maps-distance-calculator.htm|title=Google Maps Distance Calculator (From Behchoko to the Slave River Delta it is 203 km and from the Mackenzie River to the furthest reaches of the East Arm it is 469 km)| access-date=2014-12-22}}</ref> |width = {{cvt|203|km}}<ref name="Distance Calculator"/> |area = {{cvt|27200|km2}} |depth = {{cvt|41|m}} |max-depth = {{cvt|614|m}} |volume = {{cvt|1115|km3}} | residence_time = |shore = {{cvt|3057|km}} |elevation = {{cvt|156|m}} | islands = | frozen = November - mid June | cities = [[Yellowknife]], [[Hay River, Northwest Territories|Hay River]], [[Behchokǫ̀]], [[Fort Resolution]],<br/> [[Łutselk'e]], [[Hay River Reserve]], [[Dettah]], [[Ndilǫ]] <!-- Map --> | pushpin_map = Canada Northwest Territories | pushpin_label_position = | pushpin_map_alt = Location of the lake in Canada. | pushpin_map_caption = <!-- Below --> | website = | reference = | embedded = {{Infobox mapframe |wikidata=yes |zoom=5 |coord=|61|30|01|N|144|00|04|W| {{WikidataCoord|display=i}}}} }} '''Great Slave Talaab''', jiske [[Dogrib bhasa]] me '''Tıdeè''' ke naam se jaana jaae hae,<ref>{{cite web |title=Kw'ahtidee Jimmy Bruneau |url=https://www.nwtliteracy.ca/sites/default/files/resources/134195_nwt_literacy_jimmy_bruneau_web_0.pdf |website=Northwest Territories |publisher=NWT Literary Council |access-date=2021-02-10}}</ref> Dogrib/Chipewyan me '''Tinde’e''',<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://research.library.mun.ca/14450/1/thesis.pdf|title=Indigenous Risk Perceptions and Land-Use in Yellowknife, NT|accessdate=12 March 2024}}</ref> Chipewyan bhasa me '''Tu Nedhé''',<ref>{{cite web |last=Wohlberg |first=Meagan |title=We Are T'satsąot'inę: Renaming Yellowknife |url=https://edgenorth.ca/article/we-are-t-satsaot-ine-renaming-yellowknife |website=Edge North |access-date=2021-02-10 |archive-date=27 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827140545/https://edgenorth.ca/article/we-are-t-satsaot-ine-renaming-yellowknife |url-status=dead }}</ref> aur Slavey bhasa me '''Tucho''' bola jaae hae,<ref>{{cite web |last=Cohen |first=Sidney |title=Big Lake |url=https://www.uphere.ca/articles/big-lake |website=Up Here |access-date=2021-02-10}}</ref>}} [[Canada]] ke [[Northwest Territories]] me , duusra sab se barraa talaab hae ([[Great Bear Lake]] ke baad), Ii North America ke sab se gahiraa talaab hae jiske gahiraai {{cvt|614|m}} hae, aur [[dunia]] ke 10th sab se barraa talaab hae by area. Ii {{cvt|469|km}} lambaa aur {{cvt|20|to|203|km}} chaurraa hae.<ref name="Distance Calculator"/> Iske area {{cvt|27200|km2}} hae territory ke southern hissa me. Iske volume {{cvt|1070|km3}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schertzer |first1=William M. |last2=Rouse |first2=Wayne R. |last3=Blanken |first3=Peter D. |last4=Walker |first4=Anne E. |date=August 2003 |title=Over-Lake Meteorology and Estimated Bulk Heat Exchange of Great Slave Lake in 1998 and 1999 |journal=Journal of Hydrometeorology |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=650 |doi=10.1175/1525-7541(2003)004<0649:OMAEBH>2.0.CO;2 |publisher=American Meteorological Society |bibcode=2003JHyMe...4..649S |s2cid=24895512 |access-date=2011-01-21 |url=http://www.colorado.edu/geography/blanken/PDF%20Copies%20of%20my%20papers/Over-lake%20meteorology%20and%20estimated%20bulk%20heat%20exchange%20of%20Great%20Slave%20Lake%20in%201998%20and%201999.pdf |quote=The surface area of Great Slave Lake is 27,200 km2 with a total volume of 1,070 km3 (van der Leeden et al. 1990) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121013225252/http://www.colorado.edu/geography/blanken/PDF%20Copies%20of%20my%20papers/Over-lake%20meteorology%20and%20estimated%20bulk%20heat%20exchange%20of%20Great%20Slave%20Lake%20in%201998%20and%201999.pdf |archive-date=2012-10-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref> se {{cvt|1580|km3}} hae and up to {{cvt|2088|km3}}<ref name="worldlake">{{Cite web|url=http://www.worldlakes.org/lakedetails.asp?lakeid=8843|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031128031121/http://www.worldlakes.org/lakedetails.asp?lakeid=8843|url-status=usurped|archive-date=28 November 2003|title=LakeNet - Lakes|website=www.worldlakes.org}}</ref> jiske matlab hae ki ii10th or 12th sab se barra talaab hae, by volume. [[vibhag:G]] [[vibhag:Canada ke talaab]] 5wf8k5a4usdebgxbh5e8ldlb65lv5yu 0 63372 323779 321689 2025-06-18T11:16:36Z Girmitya 41 323779 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox body of water | name = Winnipeg Talaab | other_name = | image_bathymetry = Lake Winnipeg map.png | caption_bathymetry = Map | location = [[Manitoba]], Canada | coords = {{coord|52|7|N|97|15|W|type:waterbody_region:CA_scale:2500000}} | lake_type = [[Glacial lake|Glacial]] | inflow = [[Winnipeg River]], [[Saskatchewan River]],<br/> [[Red River of the North|Red River]] | outflow = [[Nelson River]] | pushpin_map = Manitoba#Canada | pushpin_map_caption = Location of the lake in Manitoba | catchment = {{convert|982900|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} | basin_countries = [[Canada]] and the [[United States]] | length = {{convert|416|km|mi|abbr=on}} | width = {{convert|100|km|mi|-1|abbr=on}} (N Basin)<br/>{{convert|40|km|mi|-1|abbr=on}} (S Basin) | area = {{convert|24514|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}} | depth = {{convert|12|m|ft|abbr=on}} | max-depth = {{convert|36|m|ft|abbr=on}} | volume = {{convert|294|km3|cumi|abbr=on}}<ref name=ManitobaQuickFacts>{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.mb.ca/waterstewardship/water_quality/lake_winnipeg/facts.html |title=Lake Winnipeg Quick Facts |access-date=14 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180311104704/http://www.gov.mb.ca/waterstewardship/water_quality/lake_winnipeg/facts.html |archive-date=11 March 2018 }}</ref> | residence_time = 3.5 years <ref>[http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/local/breakingnews/124536339.html Massive flood expected to take toll on Lake Winnipeg, feed algae blooms] [[Winnipeg Free Press]]</ref> | shore = {{convert|1858|km|mi|abbr=on}} | elevation = {{convert|217|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} | islands = | cities = [[Gimli, Manitoba|Gimli]] | frozen = }} '''Winnipeg Talaab''' ek barraa aur kamti gahiraai ke, {{convert|24514|km2|sqmi|adj=on}}, talaab [[North America]] ke [[Canada]] ke, [[Manitoba]] Province me hae. Iske southern end [[Winnipeg]] city ke {{convert|55|km|mi}} north me hae. Lake Winnipeg, Canada ke 6th sab se barraa mitthaa paani waala<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.greatcanadianlakes.com/gc_lakes/Canada/index.htm |title=Great Canadian Lakes |access-date=11 January 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070124111150/http://www.greatcanadianlakes.com/gc_lakes/Canada/index.htm |archive-date=24 January 2007 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> aur tiisra sab se barraa mitthaa paani waala talaab hae jon puura Canada me hae, lekin kaafi kamtii gahiraa hae (mean depth {{convert|12|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=sqbr}})<ref>[http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/nam/nam-08.html International Lake Environment Committee] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070210173421/http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/nam/nam-08.html |date=10 February 2007 }},</ref> excluding ek patraa {{convert|36|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} gahira channel, northern aur southern basins ke biich me. Ii dunia ke 11th sab se barraa mitthaa paani waala talaab hae. Talaab ke east me pristine boreal jangal aur naddi hae jiske 2018 me ek UNESCO World Heritage Site banaawa gais rahaa. Ii talaab {{convert|416|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} north se south hae, jisme baalu waala sandy beaches hae, barraa limestone pahaarr, aur dher [[changaadur]] ke gufaa hae . [[Manitoba Hydro]] ii talaab ke dunia ke ek sab se barraa reservoir ke ruup me kaam me laae hae. Isme dher island hae jahan pe koi development mai karaa gais hae. {{DEFAULTSORT:Winnipeg, Lake}} [[vibhag:W]] [[vibhag:Canada ke talaab]] oy27snjj92bjucmm479aiibqmwuvaus 0 63374 323776 321692 2025-06-18T11:13:10Z Girmitya 41 323776 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox body of water | name = Nicaragua Talaab | image = Lake_Nicaragua.jpg | caption = Lake Nicaragua, June 2005 me | image_bathymetry = Lake Nicaragua 2.jpg | pushpin_map = Nicaragua | caption_bathymetry = | location = Southern [[Nicaragua]] | coords = {{coord|11|37|N|85|21|W|region:NI_type:waterbody_scale:1000000}} | lake_type = [[Rift lake]] | inflow = 40+ (including [[Tipitapa River]]) | outflow = [[San Juan River (Nicaragua)|San Juan River]] | catchment = {{convert|41600|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}<ref name=Montenegro2003>{{cite book|author=Salvador Montenegro-Guillén|title=Lake Cocibolca/Nicaragua|year=2003|conference=LBMI Regional Workshop for Europe, Central Asia and the Americas|book-title=Lake Basin Management Initiative: Experience and Lessons Learned Brief|location=Saint Michael's College, Colchester, Vermont|pages=1–29|url=http://www.worldlakes.org/uploads/cocibolca_30sep04.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050215234225/http://www.worldlakes.org/uploads/cocibolca_30sep04.pdf|url-status=usurped|archive-date=February 15, 2005|access-date=2014-01-01}}</ref> | basin_countries = [[Nicaragua]] | length = {{convert|161|km|mi|abbr=on}} | width = {{convert|71|km|mi|abbr=on}} | area = {{convert|8264|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} | depth = {{convert|13.3|m|ft|abbr=on}} | max-depth = {{convert|26|m|ft|abbr=on}} | volume = {{convert|110|km3|cumi|abbr=on}} | residence_time = | shore = | elevation = {{convert|32.7|m|ft|abbr=on}} | islands = 400+ (including [[Islets of Granada]], [[Ometepe]],<br/> [[Solentiname Islands]], and [[Zapatera]]) | cities = [[Altagracia]], [[Granada, Nicaragua|Granada]], [[Moyogalpa]],<br/> [[San Carlos, Río San Juan|San Carlos]], [[San Jorge, Rivas|San Jorge]] }} '''Nicaragua Talaab''', nai to ''' Cocibolca''' aur '''Granada''' ({{lang|es|Lago Cocibolca, Mar Dulce, Gran Lago, Gran Lago Dulce}}, nai to {{lang|es|Lago de Granada}}), [[Nicaragua]] me ek mitthaa paani waala talaab hae. Ii tectonic origin ke hae aur iske area {{convert|8264|km2|abbr=on}} hae, aur ii [[Central America]] ke sab se barraa mitthaa paani waala talaab hae,<ref name="LakeNet">{{cite web |url=http://www.worldlakes.org/lakedetails.asp?lakeid=8934 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030926043818/http://www.worldlakes.org/lakedetails.asp?lakeid=8934 |url-status=usurped |archive-date=September 26, 2003 |title=Cocibolca (Nicaragua) |publisher=LakeNet |access-date=2009-01-14}}</ref> [[dunia]] ke 19th sab se barraa talaab by area aur [[Americas]] ke 10th sab se barraa lake hae, jon [[Lake Titicaca]] se thorraa chhotaa hae. Ii samundar ke level se {{convert|32.7|m|ft}} uppar hae, aur iske sab se jaada gahiraai {{convert|26|m|ft}} hae.{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}} Jab [[Lake Managua]] mw paani bharaa rahe hae tab [[Tipitapa Naddi]] se Lake Nicaragua me paani jaae hae. Lake Cocibolca, ii duuno paani ke basin ke biich me hae , Lake Xolotlán uppar se aur San Juan River niche se. Ii sab body of waters Central America ke sab se barraa drainage basin hae.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lake Cocibulca/Nicaragua |url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=1ee2d3f57da9fdf331ede74955d13cb9f34da5e1 |website=Lake Cocibulca/Nicaragua}}</ref> {{DEFAULTSORT:Nicaragua, Lake}} [[vibhag:N]] [[vibhag:Nivaragua ke talaab]] qauvy1awwxs3zy09zyp9d2s4574j48g 0 63539 323759 323654 2025-06-18T07:33:26Z Ziv 35523 → File has been renamed on Commons ([[:c:GR]]) 323759 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox monarch|reign=450 BC|coronation=450 BC|spouse=Sorath|image=Murals of the folktales of Rai Dyach (Sorath Rai Diyach) on the left and Laila and Majnun on the right in the tomb of Rehan Khan Jamali in Sindh.jpg|caption=Murals of the folktales of Rai Dyach (Sorath Rai Diyach) on the left and Laila and Majnun on the right in the tomb of Rehan Khan Jamali in Sindh}} '''Dhaj''', jo '''Ror Kumar''' aur '''Rai Diyach''' ke naam se bhi jana jata hai, ek Sindhi shasak tha, aur ror rajvansh ka pehla shasak aur sansthapak tha. ==Reference== {{Reflist}} [[vibhag:Ror Empire]] cuvm9ogyxva2shvx5nrflj5ouow9tu5 0 63775 323768 323354 2025-06-18T11:02:17Z Girmitya 41 323768 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox island | name = Arctic Archipelago<br /><small>{{native name|fr-CA|Archipel arctique canadien}}</small> | image_name = arcticisl.png | image_caption = Polar projection map of the Arctic Archipelago | image_size = | map_image = Canadian Arctic Archipelago.svg | native_name = | native_name_link = | nickname = | location = [[Northern Canada]] | coordinates = {{Coord|75|N|90|W|type:isle_scale:10000000_region:CA}} | archipelago = | total_islands = 36,563 | major_islands = [[Baffin Island]], [[Victoria Island (Canada)|Victoria Island]],<br/> [[Ellesmere Island]] | area_km2 = | highest_mount = | elevation_m = | country = Canada | country_admin_divisions_title = [[Provinces and territories of Canada|Territories and province]] | country_admin_divisions = [[Nunavut]]<br />[[Northwest Territories]]<br />[[Yukon]]<br />[[Newfoundland and Labrador]] | country_largest_city = [[Iqaluit]], Nunavut | country_largest_city_population = 7,429 | country_leader_title = | country_leader_name = | population = 23,073 | population_as_of = 2021 | density_km2 = 0.0098 | ethnic_groups = | additional_info = }} '''Arctic Archipelago''', jiske '''Canadian Arctic Archipelago''' ke naam se bhi jaana jaae hae, ek [[archipelago]] hae jon [[Canada]] continental mainland ke north me hae, jisme [[Greenland]] (ek autonomous territory of [[Denmark]] ke, (jon apne se combined area of the archipelago se barraa hae) aur [[Iceland]] (ek ajaad des) Ii [[North America]] ke north me hae aur iske area {{cvt|1424500|km2}} hae. Ii island ke group me 36,563 islands hae, jon [[Arctic Ocean]] se ghiraa hae, me [[Northern Canada]], khaas kar ke [[Nunavut]] aur [[Northwest Territories]] hae.<ref>Marsh, James H., ed. 1988. "[https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/arctic-archipelago Arctic Archipelago]" ''[[Canadian Encyclopedia|The Canadian Encyclopedia]]''. Toronto: Hurtig Publishers.</ref> Ii archipelago me climate change ke asar ke sabuut hae,<ref>[http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/people/dezheng.sun/lectures/seaice/Rothrock-etal.1999-GRL.pdf Thinning of the Arctic Sea-Ice Cover]</ref><ref>[http://amper.ped.muni.cz/jenik/dirs/gw/dirs/diagnosis/fig_cz/.w/stroeve_sea_ice2007.pdf Arctic sea ice decline: Faster than forecast]</ref> jisme kuchh computer estimate me hian ke ice ke tagle se sea level {{cvt|3.5|cm}} uppar jaai, 2100 talak.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/348880/description/News_in_Brief_Canadas_ice_shrinking_rapidly|title=Canada's ice shrinking rapidly|first=Erin|last=Wayman|work= [[Science News]]}}</ref> [[vibhag:C]] [[vibhag:Canada ke island]] [[vibhag:Arctic Ocean ke island]] b9x4r9fel6ax7x711fo9fuvkof93ak5 3 64387 323745 2025-06-17T13:37:06Z New user message 12502 Adding [[Template:Welcome|welcome message]] to new user's talk page 323745 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Template:Welcome|realName=|name=Dl ff}} -- [[sadasya:New user message|New user message]] ([[sadasya ke baat:New user message|talk]]) 13:37, 17 Juun 2025 (UTC) gyfto1ctjb3paejvkex5tvbbh788v0k 3 64388 323746 2025-06-17T16:51:46Z New user message 12502 Adding [[Template:Welcome|welcome message]] to new user's talk page 323746 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Template:Welcome|realName=|name=GreenWolfyVillager}} -- [[sadasya:New user message|New user message]] ([[sadasya ke baat:New user message|talk]]) 16:51, 17 Juun 2025 (UTC) q0nnlxwlmvjou1v4yr409qtl2qgq27c 3 64389 323755 2025-06-18T02:31:22Z New user message 12502 Adding [[Template:Welcome|welcome message]] to new user's talk page 323755 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Template:Welcome|realName=|name=Ezhilarasan111093}} -- [[sadasya:New user message|New user message]] ([[sadasya ke baat:New user message|talk]]) 02:31, 18 Juun 2025 (UTC) 2i4x0ehermb5jh6tgnsvl9pxlzm5lcu 3 64390 323756 2025-06-18T04:06:48Z New user message 12502 Adding [[Template:Welcome|welcome message]] to new user's talk page 323756 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Template:Welcome|realName=|name=Clackamas1965}} -- [[sadasya:New user message|New user message]] ([[sadasya ke baat:New user message|talk]]) 04:06, 18 Juun 2025 (UTC) hkvvue91g9f1r3lnt871o2mitcrbgn2 3 64391 323757 2025-06-18T05:06:35Z New user message 12502 Adding [[Template:Welcome|welcome message]] to new user's talk page 323757 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Template:Welcome|realName=|name=A Prahalad Rao}} -- [[sadasya:New user message|New user message]] ([[sadasya ke baat:New user message|talk]]) 05:06, 18 Juun 2025 (UTC) h41rmlqwx8h4mzlch3xn3cfoo6pisrl 3 64392 323758 2025-06-18T05:24:50Z New user message 12502 Adding [[Template:Welcome|welcome message]] to new user's talk page 323758 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Template:Welcome|realName=|name=Ambar v007}} -- [[sadasya:New user message|New user message]] ([[sadasya ke baat:New user message|talk]]) 05:24, 18 Juun 2025 (UTC) 1ut0gkj3kk3vc0osyr794m4ye434gz9 3 64393 323760 2025-06-18T08:09:05Z New user message 12502 Adding [[Template:Welcome|welcome message]] to new user's talk page 323760 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Template:Welcome|realName=|name=Andi Fitriyanto}} -- [[sadasya:New user message|New user message]] ([[sadasya ke baat:New user message|talk]]) 08:09, 18 Juun 2025 (UTC) 89mhsuwzkom2vvhe0vgvdrqsmoju5yh 14 64394 323770 2025-06-18T11:06:39Z Girmitya 41 Panna jisme "[[vibhag:North America ke talaab]]" hae ke banae dewa gais hae. 323770 wikitext text/x-wiki [[vibhag:North America ke talaab]] d7x5yrorsm2mzroxca3b7esqvyxrwoh 323792 323770 2025-06-18T11:52:26Z Girmitya 41 323792 wikitext text/x-wiki [[vibhag:North America ke talaab]] [[vibhag:Canada]] dqnl06ix6bv8bzv3dfs6cl4hy5mn8q0 14 64395 323771 2025-06-18T11:07:09Z Girmitya 41 Panna jisme "[[vibhag:North America ke talaab]]" hae ke banae dewa gais hae. 323771 wikitext text/x-wiki [[vibhag:North America ke talaab]] d7x5yrorsm2mzroxca3b7esqvyxrwoh 14 64396 323777 2025-06-18T11:13:51Z Girmitya 41 Panna jisme "[[vibhag:North America ke talaab]]" hae ke banae dewa gais hae. 323777 wikitext text/x-wiki [[vibhag:North America ke talaab]] d7x5yrorsm2mzroxca3b7esqvyxrwoh 14 64397 323788 2025-06-18T11:45:32Z Girmitya 41 Panna jisme "[[vibhag:Canada]]" hae ke banae dewa gais hae. 323788 wikitext text/x-wiki [[vibhag:Canada]] 11q10445qmrfhh24c0bva05qlhrilqn 14 64398 323791 2025-06-18T11:50:01Z Girmitya 41 Panna jisme "[[vibhag:North America ke pahaarr]] [[vibhag:Canada]]" hae ke banae dewa gais hae. 323791 wikitext text/x-wiki [[vibhag:North America ke pahaarr]] [[vibhag:Canada]] j85ar2aceo3jdygkcn7a43ei7yqzqe8