Wikipedia hifwiki https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pahila_Panna MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.15 first-letter saadhan khaas baat sadasya sadasya ke baat Wikipedia Wikipedia baat file file ke baat MediaWiki MediaWiki ke baat Template Template ke baat madat madat ke baat vibhag voibhag ke baat TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 231 337349 325008 2026-08-15T11:56:00Z Girmitya 41 337349 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Year nav range|{{PAGENAME}}}} '''{{PAGENAME}}''' (MCMLXXX) ek leap saal rahaa, jon [[:wikt:mangar|mangar]] ke din suruu bhais rahaa. Ii [[2nd millennium]] ke 980th aur [[20th century]] 8oth saal rahaa, aur [[1980s]] dassak ke 1st saal rahaa. Ii saal Vikram Samvat (Hindu) ke 2036-2037, Shaka Samvat (Hindu) ke 1901-1902, Kali Yuga ke 5080-5081, Buddhist calendar ke 2524 Islamic calendar ke 1400-1401, aur Nanakshashi calendar ke 513 saal rahaa. == Ghatna == * [[Fiji]] me soccer ke '''[[National Football League (Fiji) 1980|4th National Football League]]''' ke [[Nadi Soccer Association|Nadi]] jiitis rahaa. * '''[[Lautoka Arya Samaj Primary School]]''' ke [[Fiji me Arya Samaj|Arya Samaj]] Drasa-Vitogo Housing Estate, [[Lautoka district, Fiji]] me banais rahaa. * [[August]] - Fiji me soccer ke '''[[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1980|43rd Inter-district Championship (IDC)]]''', [[Ba (town), Fiji|Ba]] me khela gais raha, jiske final me [[Ba Football Association|Ba]], Nadi ke 1-0 se harais. == Janam == == Maut == [[file:Peter_Sellers_at_home_in_Belgravia,_London,_1973.jpg|right|80px|thumb|Sellers]] * [[24 July]] - '''[[Peter Sellers]]''', [[Great Britain]] ke actor ke maut London, England me bhais rahaa. * [[31 July]] - '''[[Mohammed Rafi]]''', jon ki Hindi cinema ke ek famous singer, 1950s se 1970s talak rahaa, ke maut Mumbai, India me bhais rahaa. (janam: [[24 December]] [[1924]])<ref>[[w: Mohammed Rafi|Mohammed Rafi]]</ref> [[file:Mae_West_LAT.jpg|right|80px|thumb|West]] * [[22 November]] - '''[[Mae West]]''', [[America]]n actress, gaayak, hansaewaali, screenwriter aur playright ke maut [[Los Angeles]], [[California]] me bhais rahaa. == References == <references/> [[Vibhag:1]] [[Category:1980| ]] 9yydrfdoih45xzs3u3lfyh0xaxpxso7 0 232 337347 254918 2026-08-15T11:45:32Z Girmitya 41 337347 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Year nav range|{{PAGENAME}}}} '''{{PAGENAME}}''' (MCMLXXXI) ek sadhaaran saal rahaa, jon [[:wikt:bif|bif]] ke din suruu bhais rahaa. Ii [[2nd millennium]] ke 981st aur [[20th century]] 81st saal rahaa, aur [[1980s]] dassak ke 2nd saal rahaa. Ii saal Vikram Samvat (Hindu) ke 2037-2038, Shaka Samvat (Hindu) ke 1902-1903, Kali Yuga ke 5081-5082, Buddhist calendar ke 2525 Islamic calendar ke 1401-1402, aur Nanakshashi calendar ke 513 saal rahaa. == Ghatna == * '''[[Seaqaqa Soccer Association]]''', [[Kampta Prasad]] ke presidency ke niche, suruu karaa gais rahaa * [[Fiji]] me soccer ke '''[[National Football League (Fiji) 1981|5th National Football League]]''' ke [[Nadi Soccer Association|Nadi]] jiitis rahaa. * [[August]] - [[Fiji]] me soccer ke '''[[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1981|44th Inter-district Championship (IDC)]]''', [[Suva (city), Fiji|Suva]] me khela gais raha jiske final me [[Suva Soccer Association|Suva]], [[Ba Football Association|Ba]] ke extra time me 2-1 se harais. == Janam == [[File:Paris Hilton.jpg|thumb|160px|Paris Hilton]] [[File:KareenaKapoor.jpg|right|160px|thumb|Kareena Kapoor]] [[File:Britney Spears.jpg|thumb|160px|Britney Spears]] * [[17 February]] - '''[[Paris Hilton]]'''. * [[21 September]] - '''Kareena Kapoor''', [[Hindi]] film actress, ke janam Mumbai, [[India]] me bhais rahaa. <ref>[[w:Kareena Kapoor|Kareena Kapoor]] </ref> * [[2 December]] - '''[[Britney Spears]]'''. == Maut == * [[3 May]] - '''Nargis''', [[Hindi]] film actress, ke maut, [[Bombay]], [[India]] me bhais rahaa. (janam:[[1 June]] [[1929]])<ref>[[w:Nargis|Nargis]] </ref> == References == <references/> <br /> [[Vibhag:1]] [[Category:1981| ]] h3p01p4q1gpaj2wycesaplrz90pd8er 337348 337347 2026-08-15T11:47:09Z Girmitya 41 337348 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Year nav range|{{PAGENAME}}}} '''{{PAGENAME}}''' (MCMLXXXI) ek sadhaaran saal rahaa, jon [[:wikt:bif|bif]] ke din suruu bhais rahaa. Ii [[2nd millennium]] ke 981st aur [[20th century]] 81st saal rahaa, aur [[1980s]] dassak ke 2nd saal rahaa. Ii saal Vikram Samvat (Hindu) ke 2037-2038, Shaka Samvat (Hindu) ke 1902-1903, Kali Yuga ke 5081-5082, Buddhist calendar ke 2525 Islamic calendar ke 1401-1402, aur Nanakshashi calendar ke 513 saal rahaa. == Ghatna == * '''[[Seaqaqa Soccer Association]]''', [[Kampta Prasad]] ke presidency ke niche, suruu karaa gais rahaa * [[Fiji]] me soccer ke '''[[National Football League (Fiji) 1981|5th National Football League]]''' ke [[Nadi Soccer Association|Nadi]] jiitis rahaa. * [[August]] - [[Fiji]] me soccer ke '''[[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1981|44th Inter-district Championship (IDC)]]''', [[Suva (city), Fiji|Suva]] me khela gais raha jiske final me [[Suva Soccer Association|Suva]], [[Ba Football Association|Ba]] ke extra time me 2-1 se harais. == Janam == [[File:Paris Hilton.jpg|thumb|80px|Hilton]] [[File:KareenaKapoor.jpg|right|80px|thumb|Kapoor]] [[File:Britney Spears.jpg|thumb|80px|Spears]] * [[17 February]] - '''[[Paris Hilton]]'''. * [[21 September]] - '''Kareena Kapoor''', [[Hindi]] film actress, ke janam Mumbai, [[India]] me bhais rahaa. <ref>[[w:Kareena Kapoor|Kareena Kapoor]] </ref> * [[2 December]] - '''[[Britney Spears]]'''. == Maut == * [[3 May]] - '''Nargis''', [[Hindi]] film actress, ke maut, [[Bombay]], [[India]] me bhais rahaa. (janam:[[1 June]] [[1929]])<ref>[[w:Nargis|Nargis]] </ref> == References == <references/> <br /> [[Vibhag:1]] [[Category:1981| ]] tszgrbkwztwrqy14kn6kupj4he9vhii 0 233 337346 336774 2026-08-15T11:38:31Z Girmitya 41 337346 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Year nav range|{{PAGENAME}}}} '''{{PAGENAME}}''' (MCMLXXXII) ek sadhaaran saal rahaa, jon [[:wikt:suk|suk]] ke din suruu bhais rahaa. Ii [[2nd millennium]] ke 982nd aur [[20th century]] 82nd saal rahaa, aur [[1980s]] dassak ke 3rd saal rahaa. Ii saal Vikram Samvat (Hindu) ke 2038-2039, Shaka Samvat (Hindu) ke 1903-1904, Kali Yuga ke 5082-5083, Buddhist calendar ke 2526 Islamic calendar ke 1402-1403, aur Nanakshashi calendar ke 514 saal rahaa. == Ghatna == * [[Fiji]] me soccer ke '''[[National Football League (Fiji) 1982|6th National Football League]]''' ke [[Nadi Soccer Association|Nadi]] jiitis rahaa. * '''[[Vatukoula Arya Samaj Primary School]]''' ke [[Fiji me Arya Samaj|Arya Samaj]] Matanigata Hills, [[Tavua district, Fiji|Tavua]] me baais rahaa. * [[11 July]] - 12th '''[[FIFA World Cup]]''' ke [[Spain]] me khela gais rahaa jiske final me [[Italy]], [[Germany]] ke 3-1 se harais rahaa. * [[August]] - [[Fiji]] me soccer ke '''[[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1982|45th Inter-district Championship (IDC)]]''', [[Nadi (town), Fiji|Nadi]] me khela gais raha, jiske final me [[Ba Football Association|Ba]], [[Nadi Soccer Association|Nadi]] ke default se harais.. == Janam == * [[14 July]] - '''Katrina Kaif''', [[Hindi]] film actress, ke janam, Hong Kong me bhais rahaa. <ref>[[w:Katrina Kaif|Katrina Kaif]]</ref> * [[18 July]] - '''Priyanka Chopra''', [[Hindi]] film actress, ke janam, Jamshedpur, [[India]] me bhais rahaa. <ref>[[w:Priyanka Chopra|Priyanka Chopra]] </ref> * [[17 November]] - '''Yusuf Pathan''', Indian cricket ke khilaarri, ke janam, Baroda, [[Gujarat], [[India]], me bhais rahaa. == Maut == [[file:Henry_Fonda_in_Warlock.jpg||left|80px|thumb|Fonda]] * [[12 August]] - '''[[Henry Fonda]]''', [[America]]n actor ke janam [[California]] me bhais rahaa. [[file:Ingrid_Bergman,_Gaslight_1944.jpg|right|80px|thumb|Bergman]] * [[29 August]] - '''[[Ingrid Bergman]]''', [[Sweden|Swedish]] actress ke maut [[London]], England me bhais rahaa. [[file:Grace_Kelly30419.jpg|right|80px|thumb|Kelly]] * [[14 September]] - '''[[Grace Kelly]]''', [[America]]n actress ke maut [[Monaco]] me bhais rahaa. == References == <references/> <br /> [[Vibhag:1]] [[Category:1982| ]] srdx7d2xzqihiccsfjwtp98i7bkf99n 0 234 337345 324964 2026-08-15T11:32:04Z Girmitya 41 337345 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Year nav range|{{PAGENAME}}}} '''{{PAGENAME}}''' (MCMLXXXIII) ek sadhaaran saal rahaa, jon [[:wikt:sanichar|sanichar]] ke din suruu bhais rahaa. Ii [[2nd millennium]] ke 983rd aur [[20th century]] 83rd saal rahaa, aur [[1980s]] dassak ke 4th saal rahaa. Ii saal Vikram Samvat (Hindu) ke 2039-2040, Shaka Samvat (Hindu) ke 1904-1905, Kali Yuga ke 5083-5084, Buddhist calendar ke 2527 Islamic calendar ke 1403-1404, aur Nanakshashi calendar ke 515 saal rahaa. == Ghatna == * [[Fiji]] me soccer ke '''[[National Football League (Fiji) 1983|7th National Football League]]''' ke [[Nadi Soccer Association|Nadi]] jiitis rahaa. * [[August]] - [[Fiji]] me soccer ke '''[[Inter-District Championship (Fiji) 1983|46th Inter-district Championship (IDC)]]''', [[Suva (city), Fiji|Suva]] me khela gais raha, jiske final me [[Suva Soccer Association|Suva]], [[Ba Football Association|Ba]] ke 1-0 se harais. == Janam == * [[6 February]] - '''Sreesanth''', India ke cricketer, ke janam Kerala me bhais rahaa. <ref>[[w:Sreesanth|Sreesanth]]</ref> == Maut == [[file:Louis_de_Funès_1970.jpg|left|80px|thumb|Funes]] * [[27 January]] - '''[[Louis de Funès]]''', France ke actor, ke maut Nantes, France me bhais rahaa. [[file:Gloria_Swanson_1941.jpg|right|80px|thumb|Swanson]] * [[4 April]] - '''[[Gloria Swanson]]''', [[America]]n actress aur producer ke maut [[New York City]], [[New York]] me bhais rahaa. == References == <references/> <br /> [[Vibhag:1]] [[Category:1983| ]] h4jd4vb6ksy37lbaw5qco8uu0kdjcl9 0 2216 337334 322480 2026-08-15T06:38:16Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337334 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Country| fullcountryname= Republic of Indonesia<br /> Republik Indonesia | image_flag= Flag of Indonesia.svg | image_coa= Coat of Arms of Indonesia Garuda Pancasila.svg| image_location= LocationIndonesia.png | nationalmotto= Bhinneka Tunggal Ika (Unity in Diversity) | nationalsong= "Indonesia Raya" | nationalflower= n/a | nationalanimal= n/a | officiallanguages= [[Bahasa Indonesia]] | populationtotal= 265,973,879 | populationrank= 4 | abaadidensity= 126 | countrycapital= [[Jakarta]] | countrylargestcity= Jakarta | areatotal= 1,919,440 | arearank= 15 | areawater= n/a | areawaterpercent= 4.85 | establishedin= [[17 August]] [[1945]] | leadertitlename= President: Joko Widodo | currency= Rupiah (IDR) | utcoffset= +7 to +9 | dialingcode= +62 | internettld=.co.id }} '''Indonesia''', Southeast [[Asia]] ke ek des hae, jon ki [[Malay Archipelago]] me hae. Isme 18,108 islands hae jisme se 6,000 me admii log rahe hae. Indonesia ke kuchh khaas island hae [[Java]], [[Bali]], [[Borneo]], [[Sulawesi]], aur [[Sumatra]]. Indonesia ke capital [[Jakarta]], Java island me hae. Abhi ke president Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono hae. Modern Indonesia, 17 August 1945 ke 10 baje suru bhaes jab Ir. Sukarno Indonesia ke Declaration of Independence parrhis Indonesia, dunia ke chautha sb se jaada populous des hae, jiske abaadi 266,952,952 (2018 ke estimate) hae. Hain pe har ek square kilometer me 111 log rahe hae. Indonesia ke [[bhasa]], Bahasa Indonesia hae, lekin hian pe 737 aur bhasa me baat karaa jaae hae, khaas kar ke duur ke tribal jagha me. Duusra bhasa me hae Javanese], Balinese aur Sundanese. Iske sab se nachdik ke des hae [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Malaysia]], aur [[East Timor]] jon ki Indonesia se land border share kae hae. Aur parros ke des hae [[Australia]] south me, [[Singapore]] north-west me, aur [[Phillipines]] north-east me. Sambandh: Australia, India, Iran, South East Asia, South Asia Dharam/Mazhab: Islam, Buddhism Dusre Dharam: Hinduism, Christian ==Itihaas== Indonesia me 500,000 saal purana Homo erectus ke fossil paawa gais hae. Iske "Java Man" ke naam dewa gais hae.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pope|first=G.G.|title=Recent advances in far eastern paleoanthropology|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_annual-review-of-anthropology_1988_17/page/43|journal=Annual Review of Anthropology|volume=17|pages=43–77|year=1988|doi=10.1146/annurev.an.17.100188.000355}} cited in {{cite book|last1=Whitten|first1=T.|last2=Soeriaatmadja|first2=R.E.|last3=Suraya|first3=A.A.|title=The Ecology of Java and Bali|publisher=Periplus Editions|year=1996|location=Hong Kong|pages=309–412}}</ref> Homo sapiens Indonesia me 45,000 saal pahile aae rahin.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/human-migration.html|title=The Great Human Migration|last=Gugliotta|first=Guy|newspaper=Smithsonian Magazine|publisher=Smithsonian Maganize|date=July 2008|access-date=2011-08-21|archive-date=2013-12-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213000228/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/human-migration.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Austronesian log Indonesia me 4000 saal pahile Taiwan se aae rahin. Indonesia se outrigger boat East Africa aur Madagascar pahila century se jaae lage rahin.<ref>{{cite journal|title=A small cohort of Island Southeast Asian women founded Madagascar|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B|volume=279|issue=1739|pages=2761–2768|author1=Murray P. Cox|author2=Michael G. Nelson|author3=Meryanne K. Tumonggor|author4=François-X. Ricaut|author5=Herawati Sudoyo|date=2012-03-21|doi=10.1098/rspb.2012.0012|pmid=22438500|pmc=3367776}}</ref> Seventh century CE se [[Srivijaya]] rajya rahaa jisme trade ke kaaran Hindu aur Buddhist ke influence rahaa. Eighth aur tenth centuries CE ke biich me, the agricultural Buddhist [[Sailendra]] aur Hindu [[Mataram Kingdom|Mataram]] kingdom Java me rahaa. Hindu [[Majapahit]] kingdom ke eastern Java me 13th century me, [[Gajah Mada]] ke niche suruu karaa gais rahaa, aur iske asar Indonesia bhar rahaa. Ii jamaana ke Indonesia ke "Golden Age" bolaa jaae hae.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The next great empire|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_futures-uk_1982-02_14_1/page/47|last=Lewis|first=Peter|journal=Futures|volume=14|issue=1|year=1982|pages=47–61|doi=10.1016/0016-3287(82)90071-4}}</ref> 13th century se Indonesia me Islam faile lagaa. 1512 se Portuguese aur Dutch log Indonesia ke colonise kare lagin aur 20th century ke suruu talak lagbhag sab Indonesia Netherlands ke niche rahaa. [[World War II]] me Indonesia ke Japan aapan niche kar liis rahaa aur 1945 me larrai khlaas hoe ke time Sukarnojaise leader ke niche Indonesia aapan independence declare karis rahaa. Netherlands fir se aapan control Indonesia pe kare ke kosis karis lekin 1949 me Indonesia se nikal gais. ==Jagha== [[File:Bromo-Semeru-Batok-Widodaren.jpg|thumb|[[Semeru|Mount Semeru]] and [[Mount Bromo]] in [[East Java]]. Indonesia ke seismic aur volcanic activity dunia ke sab se jaada me se hae]] Indonesia, [[Asia]] ke des me se sab se south me hae. Ii des latitudes 11°S aur 6°N aur longitudes 95°E aur 141°E ke biich me hae. Ii dunia ke sab se barraa archipelago des hae jo duuni [[Souteast Asia]] aur [[Oceania]] me hae. Indonesia ke east se west talak 5,120 kilometres (3,181 miles) aur north se south talak 1,760 kilometres (1,094 miles) hae.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Frederick|first1=William H.|last2=Worden|first2=Robert L.|title=Indonesia: A Country Study|series=Area Handbook Series|volume=550|date=1993|page=98|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6dgmXWMgWcwC&pg=PA98|publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress|location=Washington, D.C.|language=en|isbn=978-0-8444-0790-6|access-date=9 November 2023|archive-date=2023-01-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230120071717/https://books.google.com/books?id=6dgmXWMgWcwC&pg=PA98|url-status=live}}</ref> Indonesia ke sarkar ke anusaar, des me 17,504 island hae lekin UN me khaali 16,056 registered hae.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2017/08/21/16000-indonesian-islands-registered-at-un.html|title=16,000 Indonesian islands registered at UN|newspaper=The Jakarta Post|date=2017-08-21|access-date=2018-12-03|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130202043/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2017/08/21/16000-indonesian-islands-registered-at-un.html|archive-date=2018-11-30}}</ref> Ii equator ke duuno taraf hae aur 6,000 islands me log rahe hae.<ref name="CIA">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/indonesia/|title=The World Factbook: Indonesia|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|date=2018-10-29|access-date=2018-11-11|archive-date=2021-04-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413004319/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/indonesia|url-status=live}}</ref> Sab se barraa island hae [[Sumatra]], [[Java]], [[Borneo]] (jiske Brunei aur Malaysia se share karaa jaae hae), [[Sulawesi]], and [[New Guinea]] (jiske Papua New Guinea se share karaa jaae hae).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.embassyofindonesia.org/index.php/basic-facts/|title=Facts & Figures|publisher=Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia, Washington, D.C.|access-date=2021-03-14|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606054934/https://www.embassyofindonesia.org/index.php/basic-facts/|archive-date=2017-06-06}}</ref> Indonesia land border ke [[Malaysia]] se Borneo me aur [[Sebatik Island|Sebatik]], [[Papua New Guinea]] se New Guinea me, [[East Timor]] se [[Timor Island]] me, aur maritime borders Singapore, Malaysia, Vietnam, the Philippines, Palau, aur Australia se. Indonesia ke sab se uunchaa pahaarr [[Puncak Jaya]] hae jon 4884 feet uunchaa hae. Des ke sab se barraa lake, Lake Toba Sumatra me hae aur iske area 1,142 square kilometres hae. Des ke kuchh barraa naddi hae; Kapuas Naddi, Barito Naddi, Mamberamo Naddi, Sepik Naddi aur Mahakam Naddi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761573214/Republic_of_Indonesia.html|title=Republic of Indonesia|publisher=Microsoft Encarta|date=2006|access-date=2009-11-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028130659/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761573214/Republic_of_Indonesia.html|archive-date=2009-10-28}}</ref> ==Mausam== [[File:Gunung Palung Jungle.jpg|thumb|left|Rainforest [[Mount Palung National Park]], [[West Kalimantan]] me]] Kaaheki [[equator]] Indonesia ke biich se jaae hae, hian ke mausam saal bhar ekke rakam rahe hae.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/binaries/content/assets/mohippo/pdf/8/f/indonesia.pdf|title=Climate: Observations, projections and impacts|publisher=Met Office Hadley Centre|access-date=2017-08-16|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816111123/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/binaries/content/assets/mohippo/pdf/8/f/indonesia.pdf|archive-date=2017-08-16}}</ref> Hian pe dui season rahe hae; jhuura ( May se October talak) aur bhiija (November se April talak) aur hian pe summer aur winter nai hae.<ref name="worldbank1">{{cite web|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/Environment/ClimateChange_Full_EN.pdf|title=Indonesia and Climate Change: Current Status and Policies|publisher=World Bank|access-date=2016-12-27|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227202326/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/Environment/ClimateChange_Full_EN.pdf|archive-date=2016-12-27}}</ref> Mausam tropical rainforest ke rakam hae, lekin pahaar pe kuchh thandaa rahe hae. <ref>{{Cite web|title=Indonesia's Climate and Precipitation|url=https://indonesia.mfa.gov.ir/en/generalcategoryservices/13009/indonesia.mfa.gov.ir|access-date=2024-03-29|website=indonesia.mfa.gov.ir|language=en}}{{Dead link|date=August 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> == Gallery == <center><gallery> Image:Indonesia DPR session.jpg|The parliament in session Image:Banda Aceh's Grand Mosque, Indonesia.jpg|The Great Mosque of Banda Aceh Image:Universidad Indonesia Edificio Administrativo.JPG|University of Indonesia Image:Kerbau Jawa.jpg|Plowing with water buffalo Image:Indonesia bike28.JPG|An amusement ride Image:Sasak1.jpg|Village children from Lombok Image:Papaya banana pineapple.JPG|Fruit of Indonesia- Papaya, banana and pineapple Image:Batak Toba House.jpg|A traditional Batak house of Sumatra Image:Sipisopiso waterfall North Sumatra Indonesia.jpg|The Sipisopiso Waterfall Image:Indonesian Sampan.jpg|A traditional sampan Image:Borobudur buddha.jpg|The Heritage Site at Borobudur Image:Gambia Bakau 0003.jpg|A shop selling batik [[textile]]s Image:FishingKarimun.jpg|Brightly painted fishing boats Image:South Sulawesi-Indonesia-Mountains.jpg|Mountains of Sulawesi Image:Bali panorama.jpg|Terraced fields in Bali </gallery></center> [[vibhag:Indonesia| ]] [[vibhag:ASEAN ke member]] [[vibhag:OPEC ke member]] o9obuscb5nlh2chl39zt456tjtd10qq 0 2470 337302 332707 2026-08-15T06:06:48Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 3 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337302 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Country | fullcountryname = Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia<br />የኢትዮጵያ ፌዴራላዊ <br /> ዲሞክራሲያዊ ሪፐብሊክ<br />Ītyōṗṗyā Fēdēralāwī Dīmōkrāsīyāwī Rīpeblīk | image_flag = Flag of Ethiopia.svg | image_coa = Coat of arms of Ethiopia.svg | image_location = Ethiopia in its region.svg | nationalmotto = <!-- ETHIOPIA HAS NO NATIONAL MOTTO --> | nationalsong = <span style="line-height:1.33em;">''Wodefit Gesgeshi, Widd Innat Ityopp'ya''<br /><small>"March Forward, Dear Mother Ethiopia"</small></span> | officiallanguages = Amharic | otherlanguages =Oromo, Somali, Tigray | abaaditotal = 73,500,000 | abaadirank = 123rd | abaadidensity = 181 | countrycapital = [[Addis Ababa]] | countrylargestcity = capital | areatotal = 1,104,300 | arearank = 27th | areawater = | areawaterpercent = 0.7 | establishedin = 980 BC | leadertitlename = President: Mulatu Teshome Wirtu<br /> Prime Minister: Haile Mariam Desalegn | currency = Birr | utcoffset = +3 | dialingcode = 251 | internettld = .et }} '''Ethiopia''', jiske sarkari naam '''Federal Democratic Republic of Ehiopia''' hae, East Africa ke Horn of Africa ilaaka ke ek des hae. [[Africa]] ke sab des me se iske itihass ke baare jaada jaana jaae hae. Aur sab Africa ke des ke rakam Ethiopia koi [[Europe]] ke des ke colony nai banaa. Ethiopia ke pahile Abyssinia ke naam se jaana jawat rahaa. "Ethiopia" sabd, Greek sabd Αἰθιοπία se aais hae. 2008 me Ethiopia ke per capita income $1370 rahaa. Ethiopia, Horn of Africa me hae aur iske north me [[Eritrea]], west me [[Sudan]], south me [[Kenya]], east me [[Somalia]] aur northeast me [[Djibouti]] hae. Iske area 1,100,000&nbsp;km² (426,400 square miles)<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 October 2024 |title=Ethiopia |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ethiopia/ |access-date=22 October 2024 |website=The World Factbook |archive-date=21 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421154941/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ethiopia/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> aur 2024 me iske abaadi 132,000,000 hae. Iske capital city [[Addis Ababa]] hae. == Itihaas == Ethiopia me sab se puraana [[hominid]] ke 1994 me paawa gais rahaa jon ki ek 4.2 million puraana [[Ardipithecus ramidus]] rahaa.<ref name="OldestHuman">{{cite news |last=Ansari |first=Azadeh |date=7 October 2009 |title=Oldest human skeleton offers new clues to evolution |url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/TECH/science/10/01/oldest.human.skeleton/index.html |access-date=2 March 2011 |newspaper=CNN.com/technology}}</ref> Sabse jaada jaane waala homonid ek [[Australopithecus afarensis]] rahaa jon 3.2 million saal puraana rahaa.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mother of man – 3.2&nbsp;million years ago |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/prehistoric_life/human/human_evolution/mother_of_man1.shtml |access-date=16 March 2009 |publisher=Bbc.co.uk}}</ref><ref name="Dinkinesh">{{cite book |last1=Johanson |first1=Donald C. |title=Lucy's Legacy: The Quest for Human Origins |last2=Wong |first2=Kate |date=2010 |publisher=Crown Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-307-39640-2 |pages=8–9}}</ref><ref name="iho1">{{cite web |date=15 June 2016 |title=Institute of Human Origins: Lucy's Story |url=https://iho.asu.edu/about/lucys-story |access-date=23 March 2017 |archive-date=12 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150312130802/https://iho.asu.edu/about/lucys-story |url-status=dead }}</ref> Ethiopia uu jagha hae jahaan pe sab se pahile [[Homo sapiens]] develop bhae rahin aur hian pe 200,000 saal puraana fossil paawa gais hae.<ref name="Mcdougall2005">{{Cite journal |last1=Mcdougall |first1=I. |last2=Brown |first2=H. |last3=Fleagle |first3=G. |date=Feb 2005 |title=Stratigraphic placement and age of modern humans from Kibish, Ethiopia |url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/15078/files/PAL_E2238.pdf |journal=Nature |volume=433 |issue=7027 |pages=733–36 |bibcode=2005Natur.433..733M |doi=10.1038/nature03258 |pmid=15716951 |s2cid=1454595}}</ref> Hian pe 160,000 saal puraana fossil paawa gais hae jiske [[insaan]] ke immediate ancestor maana jaae hae.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=White |first1=T.D. |last2=Asfaw |first2=B. |last3=Degusta |first3=D. |last4=Gilbert |first4=H. |last5=Richards |first5=G.D. |last6=Suwa |first6=G. |last7=Clark Howell |first7=F. |year=2003 |title=Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2003-06-12_423_6941/page/742 |journal=Nature |volume=423 |issue=6941 |pages=742–47 |bibcode=2003Natur.423..742W |doi=10.1038/nature01669 |pmid=12802332 |s2cid=4432091}}</ref> Bhasa ke adhyan kare waala log ii samjge hae ki pahila [[Afroasiatic bhasa]] baat kare waala log Ehiopia ke ilaaka me [[Neolithic]] jamaana me aae rahin.<ref name="Zarins">{{cite journal |last=Zarins |first=Juris |year=1990 |title=Early Pastoral Nomadism and the Settlement of Lower Mesopotamia |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_bulletin-of-the-american-schools-of-oriental-research_1990-11_280/page/n32 |journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research |volume=280 |issue=280 |pages=31–65 |doi=10.2307/1357309 |jstor=1357309 |s2cid=163491760}}</ref> Aaj-kal ke jaada vidwaan log ii propose karin hae ki [[Afroasiatic bhasa]] ke palwaar Ehiopia ke ilaaka me develop bhais rahaa.<ref name="Blench143144">{{cite book |last1=Blench |first1=R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=esFy3Po57A8C |title=Archaeology, Language, and the African Past |date=2006 |publisher=Rowman Altamira |isbn=978-0-7591-0466-2 |pages=143–44}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Güldemann |first=Tom |title=The Languages and Linguistics of Africa |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |year=2018 |isbn=978-3-11-042606-9 |page=311 |language=EN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=Historical Linguistics, Fourth Edition |publisher=The MIT Press |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-262-54218-0 |pages=399–400 |language=English}}</ref> 2019 me archeologists log ek 30,000 saal puraana patthar ke jhoprri ke paain, jon samundar se 3,469 metres uppar rahaa. Hian pe dher jaanwar ke haddi, kuchh sau patthar ke aujaar aur chulha ke paain.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Zimmer |first=Carl |date=8 August 2019 |title=In the Ethiopian Mountains, Ancient Humans Were Living the High Life |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/08/science/humans-high-altitude-ethiopia.html |access-date=16 August 2019 |work=[[The New York Times]] |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Katz |first=Brigit |title=Archaeologists Uncover Evidence of an Ancient High-Altitude Human Dwelling |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/found-earliest-evidence-high-altitude-home-humans-180972878/ |access-date=16 August 2019 |website=Smithsonian |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Smith |first=Kiona N. |date=9 August 2019 |title=The first people to live at high elevations snacked on giant mole rats |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2019/08/ethiopia-provides-the-earliest-evidence-of-people-living-at-altitude/ |access-date=16 August 2019 |website=Ars Technica |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author=Charles Q. Choi |date=9 August 2019 |title=Earliest Evidence of Human Mountaineers Found in Ethiopia |url=https://www.livescience.com/earliest-evidence-human-mountaineers.html |access-date=16 August 2019 |website=livescience.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Dvorsky |first=George |date=9 August 2019 |title=This Rock Shelter in Ethiopia May Be the Earliest Evidence of Humans Living in the Mountains |url=https://gizmodo.com/this-rock-shelter-in-ethiopia-may-be-the-earliest-evide-1837104167 |access-date=16 August 2019 |website=Gizmodo |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Earliest evidence of high-altitude living found in Ethiopia |url=https://www.upi.com/Science_News/2019/08/09/Earliest-evidence-of-high-altitude-living-found-in-Ethiopia/9561565318908/ |access-date=16 August 2019 |website=UPI |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Miehe |first1=Georg |last2=Opgenoorth |first2=Lars |last3=Zech |first3=Wolfgang |last4=Woldu |first4=Zerihun |last5=Vogelsang |first5=Ralf |last6=Veit |first6=Heinz |last7=Nemomissa |first7=Sileshi |last8=Negash |first8=Agazi |last9=Nauss |first9=Thomas |date=9 August 2019 |title=Middle Stone Age foragers resided in high elevations of the glaciated Bale Mountains, Ethiopia |url=https://archive.org/details/science_2019-08-09_365_6453/page/583 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=365 |issue=6453 |pages=583–587 |bibcode=2019Sci...365..583O |doi=10.1126/science.aaw8942 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=31395781 |s2cid=199505803}}</ref> 2013 me Ethiopia me sab se puraana hathiyaar jon ki 279,000 saal puraana rahaa, mila Ii hathiyaar patthaar se tipped javelin rahaa jon ki Homo sapien ke hathiyaar hae. <ref name="SahlePLOS1">{{Cite journal |last1=Sahle |first1=Y. |last2=Hutchings |first2=W. K. |last3=Braun |first3=D. R. |last4=Sealy |first4=J. C. |last5=Morgan |first5=L. E. |last6=Negash |first6=A. |last7=Atnafu |first7=B. |year=2013 |editor1-last=Petraglia |editor1-first=Michael D |title=Earliest Stone-Tipped Projectiles from the Ethiopian Rift Date to >279,000 Years Ago |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=e78092 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...878092S |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0078092 |pmc=3827237 |pmid=24236011 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Ethiopia me pahila kingdim, the Kingdom of Aksum rahaa, jon ki pahila century AD me suruu bhaes rahaa. Persia ke religious figure Mani, Aksum ke Rome, Persia, aur China uu time ke tagatwar des batais hae. 4th century se sruu me Syro-Greek castaway, Frumentius, ke court me lae jawa gais aur kuch din me King Ezana ke Isai banae diis, jon ki ii des ke state religion hoe gais. Iske khatir uske "Abba Selama" ke title milaa. Kuch din talak, jaada kar ke 6th century me, Axum, Yemen, jon ki Red Sea ke uu paar hae ke bhi rule karis hae. Axumite raja log ke line ke kuch dafe tuurra gais hae: pahila dafe, lagbhag 950 me, Jewish Queen Gudit se aur uske baad a Zagwe dynasty se. Lag bhag 1270 me, the Solomonid dynasty,'''Ethiopia''' ke control karis, ii bol ke ki uu logan Axum raja ke palwaar hae. Uu logan apne aap ke ''Neguse Negest'' ("King of Kings," nai to Emperor) bolat rahin, ii evidence pe ki uu loagn Solomon aur queen of Sheba ke descendent hoe ke claim karat rahin. Emperor Lebna Dengel ke raj ke time, Ethiopia, pahila European country, Portugal se contact karis. Ii uu logan khatir achchhaa rahaa kahe ki jab Empire ke wSomali General aur Imam, Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi attack karis tab, [[Portugal]] Lebna Dengel ke sahaetaa ke maang pe ek 400 men army bhej ke uske ek larrka, Gelawdewos ke al-Ghazi ke harae me madat karis. Jesuit missionaries logan Orthodox faith of the local Ethiopians ke gussae diin aur, mid-17th century me Emperor Fasilidos uu logan ke des se nikaal diis. Uu time pe Oromo log Ethiopian Christian authorities in the Abyssinian territories, ke question kare lagin aur aapn own dharam rakhe maangat rahin. 1700s me Ethiopia islated hoe gais, uske Emporer logan figureheads ban gain aur warlords jaise ki Ras Mikael Sehul of Tigray des pe raj kare lagin. Ethiopian ke isolationism, ek British mission of friendship se khalaas bhaes lekin jab Tewodros II raja banaa tab Ethiopia dunia ke matters me fir se bhaag le laga. == Chapa ke gallery == <div align="center"> <gallery> Image:Yeha Tigray Ethiopia.jpg|7th century mandir ke ruins Image:Bete Giyorgis Lalibela Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|Lalibelake rock se banaa church Image:Selassie restored.jpg|Pahila Emperor, Haile Selassie Image:Ethiopia regions numbered.png|Ehiopia ke regions Image:EthiopianWolf1.jpg|Ethiopian Wolf Image:Bole Road.jpg|Addis Abeba ke Street scene file:Mosque in Harar, Ethiopia.jpg|Harar ke ek masjid Image:Alicha 1.jpg|Khana </gallery> </div> [[Category:Ethiopia| ]] [[Category:African Union ke member]] [[Category:Dunia ke des]] a714vx13rhxuvccq8u6bk6ypn07m5hc 0 2678 337310 332573 2026-08-15T06:12:56Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337310 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Country | fullcountryname = Republic of Iraq<br /> {{Nq|الجمهورية العراقية}} (Al-Jumhuriyah Al-Iraqiyah) | image_flag = Flag of Iraq.svg | image_coa = Iraq-COA.png | image_location = Iraq in its region.svg | nationalmotto = الله أكبر translation: "God is Great" | nationalsong = Mautinii | officiallanguages = [[Arbii bhasa|Arabic]] | secondary language = [[English bhasa|English]] | abaaditotal = 25,374,691 | abaadirank = 44 | abaadidensity = 59 | countrycapital = [[Baghdad]] | countrylargestcity = [[Baghdad]] | areatotal = 437,072 | arearank = 57 | areawater = ? | areawaterpercent = 1.1 | establishedin = October 1, 1919 from the Ottoman Empire.<br />October 3, 1932 from the British | leadertitlename = President Jalal El-Talabani, Prime Minister Noori El-Malikki | currency = Iraqi dinar (IQD) | utcoffset = +3 | dialingcode = 964 | internettld = IQ }} '''Republic of Iraq''' southwestern [[Asia]] ke ek Middle Eastern des hae. Iske border south me [[Saudi Arabia]] aur [[Kuwait]], north me [[Turkey]], north-west me [[Syria]], west me [[Jordan]] aur east me [[Iran]] hae. Iraq ke capital [[Baghdad]] hae. == Politics == [[1968]] se [[2003]] talak, Iraq me Ba'ath Party raaj karta rahaa. Saddam Hussein, 1979 se President rahaa ja talak Ba'ath Party ke khatam nai kar dewa gais. Ii time pe uu dher log ke jaan se marwae diis jiske uu like nai karat rahaa. Uu Iran ke bhi invade karis rahaa. 1990, Iraq, Kuwait ke invade kar ke aapan niche kar liis. Dher des jisme [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Pakistan]] larrai kar ke Kuwait ke ajaad karin. March 2003, me United States, British, Australian, Danish aur Polish forces log Iraq ke invade kar ke Ba'ath Party ke surrender karwae diin. Uppar se invade kare ke kaaran rahaa ki United Nations ike nspectors log nuclear, biological, aur chemical weapons ke khoje sake. Pahile, Iraq chemical weapons se Kurdish log ke maris rahaa. Suruu me des ke tiin zone me baata gais rahaa, American zone, British zone, aur Polish zone jaise ki Germany ke 1945 me baata gais rahaa. Ek nawaa temporary government ke [[28 June]], [[2004]] me form karaa gais rahaa, lekin abhi talak coalition forces des me hae. Ghazi A. El-Yawer ii temporary government ke President hae. Ii des ke dharmik gut jisme Shia, Sunni]] Muslim aur Christian log bhi hae, ke kaaran des me dher instability hae aur ii kaaran se kuch log bole hae ki des me civil war hae. ==Itihaas== Abhi jahaan pe Iraq hae, huan pe puraana jamaana me [[Mesopotamia]] rahaa, aur ii jagha ke civilization ke sruwaat waala jagha maana jaae hae.<ref name="Kandela-2000">{{Cite journal |last=Kandela |first=Peter |date=July 2000 |title=The history and ancient civilisations of Iraq |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_the-lancet_2000-07-08_356_9224/page/171 |journal=The Lancet |volume=356 |issue=9224 |page=171 |doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(00)02460-0 |issn=0140-6736}}</ref> Mesopotamia ke itihaas isse pahile lower paleolithic jamaana talak jaae hae aur hian pe dher pragrati bhais hae 7th century AD talak jab hian pe [[Caliphate]] rahaa. ===Bronze aur Iron Jamaana=== [[File:Shanidar Cave - overview.jpg|thumb|left|Shanidar Gufaa, uu jagha hae jahaan pe aath barraa jan aur dui larrkan [[Neanderthal|Neanderthals]] ke remains ke paawa gais rahaa, jon lagbhag 65,000–35,000 saal puraana rahaa. <ref>{{Cite book |last=Murray |first=Tim |title=Milestones in Archaeology: A Chronological Encyclopedia |publisher=Abc-Clio |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-57607-186-1 |page=454}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Edwards |first=Owen |title="The Skeletons of Shanidar Cave" |publisher=Smithsonian |year=2010}}</ref>]] [[File:Neo-Babylonian Empire under Nabonidus map.png|thumb|left|The [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]], [[Nabonidus]] ke niche ({{reign|556 BC|539 BC}}), jab iske niche sab se jaada ilaaka rahaa.]] Iske border ke bhitta, puraana jagha, [[Suner]] rahaa, jon 6000 aur 5000 BC ke time, Neolithic Ubaid paerion me suruu bhais rahaa. <ref name="Kandela-2000" /> Sumer ke [[dunia]] ke sab se puraana civilization maana jaae hae, jahaan pe log town me rahe ke suruu kare rahin, bhasa ke likha jaae suruu bhais rahaa aur monuments banaawa gais rahaa.<ref name="Kandela-2000" /> Iraq waala ilaaka me Akkadian, Neo-Assyrian aur Neo Babylonian empire rahaa jon Mesopotamia aur puraana Near East ke Bronze aur Iron Age ke time dominate karis rahaa.<ref name="Kandela-2000" /> Puraana jamaana ke Iraq ek jagha rahaa jahaan pe nawaa chij suruu karaa gais rahaa, jisme likhaai, [[astronomy]], [[mathematics]], [[law]] aur [[philosophy]] rahaa. Ii raaj 539 BC me khalaas bhais, jab Neo-Babylonian Empire ke [[Achaemenid Empire]], [[Cyrus the Great]] ke niche, capture kar liis aur apne ke "Babylon ke Raja" batais. [Babylon]] city , jon Babylon ke capital rahaa, Achaemenid Empire ke ek khaas capital bhi rahaa. Mesopotamia pahila jagha rahaa jahaan pe Israel se baahar [[Jews]] log jaae ke rahe lage rahin. Baad ke century me Iraq ke ilaaka dher empire ke niche aais, jisme [[Greece}Greek]], Parthian aur [[Roman Empire]] rahaa. 3rd century me Persian Sasanian Empire ii jagha ke aapan niche kar liis rahaa. ===Biich ke jamaana (Middle Ages)=== [[File:Abbasid Caliphate 850AD.png|thumb|[[Abbasid Caliphate]] with capitals in Baghdad and [[Abbasid Samarra|Samarra]] c. 850]] [[Arbii bhasa]] me ''al-ʿIrāq'' saait ii time suruu bhais rahaa. Sasanian Empire ke 636 me Rashidun Caliphate conquer kar lii rahaa aur Iraq Muslim raaj ke niche aae gais. Kufa city ke iske baad suruu karaa gais rahaa, jon Rashidun dynasty ke capital rahaa 680 talak jab [[Shia Islam]] ii jagha pe suruu bhais. 8th century me [[Abbasid Caliphate]] ke influence ke jaada hoe se [[Baghdad]], jiske 7762 me suruu karaa gais rahaa, Islamic rule ke centre hoe gais. Baghdad Islamic Golden Age ke time ek sanskriti, [[vigyan]] aur gyaan ke centre hoe gais rahaa. Ii city ke prosperity kamtii hoe lagaa Buwayhid Seljuk aur 1258 me Mongol invasion ke kaaran. 16th century me Iraq [[Ottoman Empire]] ke niche aais. 1747 se 1831 talak Iraq ke Mamluk dynasty, jon Georgian origin ke rahaa, ke niche aais, jiske kaaran ii jagha me Ottoman control kamtii hoe gais. 1831 me Ottoman Empire fir se Iraq ke aapan niche kar liis. ===Abhi ke Iraq=== [[File:Nouri_Al-Saeed,_1950s.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Nuri al-Said|Nuri Pasha al-Said]] (1888–1958) aath dafe Iraq ke [[Prime Minister of Iraq|prime minister]] rahaa [[Mandatory Iraq]] aur [[Kingdom of Iraq|Hashemite Kingdom]] ke time]] Iraq ke modern history [[World War I]] ke suruwaat se suruu hoe hae, jab ii ilaaka Ottoman Empire ke raaj se niklaa.<ref name="TK" /> Arbii sipaahi log Turks ke virod me larre rahin jab uu log ke ajaadi ke waada karaa gais rahaa. Lekin larrai ke baad [[Britain]] aur [[France]] ii waada ke puura nai karin aur ii ilaada ke, chaahe directly, nai to indirectly, aapan control ke niche rakkhin. Iraq ke Raaja,jon British control ke niche rahaa, des ke different provinces aur og ek ek des me baandhe ke kosis karis. 1930 me ek treaty ke baad Iraq ke aur ajaadi dewa gais, lekin Britain huan pe aapan military rakhis aur oil ke control karis. 1932 me Iraq ke puuraa ajaadi mila aur [[League of Nations]] ke member banaa. 1933 me Iraq ke raja ke maut ke baad uske larrka, Ghazi, raja banaa, Ghazi ke time Iraq me dher dafe coup kare ke kosis karaa gais rahaa. 1939 me, ek motar ke accident me Ghazi ke maut hoe gais aur uske larrkaa, jon khaali tiin saal ke rahaa. Ii kaaran se uske uncle, Abdullah regent banaa. 1941 me ek coup ke baad, Iraq me pro-German aur pro-Italian sarkar banaa. Ii kaaran se Britain Iraq ke invade karis, kaaheki ki uu ii sochat rahaa ke Britain ke oil ke supply ke rok dewa jaai. 1953 me Faisal II ke regency suruu bhais. UU des ke different log ke unite nai kare paais, kaaheki ruler log Sunni rahin jab Iraq ke jaada abaadi Shia rahin. 1958 me ek military coup Faisal ke raaj ke khalaas kar diis. === Republic aur Ba'athist Iraq === [[File:Saddam_Hussein_1980.jpg|right|thumb|Saddam Hussein, 1980 me]] 1958 ke coup me Qasim power me aais. Uske socialist ideology rahaa. 1959 Qasim ke virod me ek coup ke kosis karaa gais rahaa lekin asafal rahaa. 1961 me jab [[Kuwait]] ke ajaadi dewa gais rahaa tab uu iske virod karis rahaa. 1963 me Ba'ath Party ke coup me Colonel Abdul Salam Arif power me aais. Ii nawaa sarkar, Kuwait ke ajaadi ke recognise karis. 1966 me Arif ke maut ke baad, uske bhaiyaa, Abdul Rahman Arif power me aais. 1967 me, uske niche Irag Six Day War me hissa liis rahaa. 1968 me ek coup ke baad Iraqi Ba'ath PArty power me aais aur Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr, President banaa.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hirst |first=David |date=18 July 1968 |title=Ba'athists now put Iraq first |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/1968/jul/18/iraq.davidhirst |access-date=17 April 2025 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Dhire-dhire, Iraq ke vice-President, [[Saddam Hussein]] aapan taagat ke barrhais. Saddam Hussein Irag ke different ethnic group ke saathe laae ke kosis karis aur 1970 ke ek treaty me Iraqi-Kurdish war khalaas hoe gais.<ref>{{Cite news |date=15 March 2020 |title=From the Archives (March 16, 1970): Kurds of Iraq |url=https://www.thehindu.com/archives/from-the-archives-march-16-1970-kurds-of-iraq/article31075651.ece |access-date=17 April 2025 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> [[1970s]] me Iraq ke leadership Assyrian log ke saathe peace kare ke kosis karis aur exile bhais Jews ke fir se laute ke encourage karis.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Twelfth periodic reports of States parties due in 1993 : Iraq. 14/06/96, Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (the Iraqi government's point of view) |url=http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(Symbol)/CERD.C.240.Add.3.En?OpenDocument |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206092250/http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(Symbol)/CERD.C.240.Add.3.En?OpenDocument |archive-date=6 February 2012 |access-date=8 April 2014}}</ref><ref>Petrosian (2006), Pg 122–123</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Times |first=Bernard Gwertzman Special to The New York |date=12 December 1975 |title=Iraqi Offer to Let Jews Return Fails to Stir Much Enthusiasm |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1975/12/12/archives/iraqi-offer-to-let-jews-return-fails-to-stir-much-enthusiasm.html |access-date=17 April 2025 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Sarkar muft healthcare aur education ke suruu karis, oil industry ke nationalise kaaris, aurat loagn ke rights ke promote karis aur infrastructure ke develop karis. <ref>{{Cite news |title=For most ordinary Iraqis life was better under Saddam Hussein |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/it-was-better-to-live-in-iraq-under-saddam-9532742.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231211041618/https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/it-was-better-to-live-in-iraq-under-saddam-9532742.html |archive-date=11 December 2023 |access-date=17 April 2025 |work=The Independent |language=en-GB |url-status=live }}</ref> == Geography == [[File:Iraqi Governorates (numbered).png|left|thumb|Iraq ke province]] Ii des dui naddi, [[Euphrates]] aur [[Tigris]], ke biich me hae aur ii kaaran se iske purana time me Mesopotamia bola jawat rahaa. Iraq ke lage ek chhota coastline Persian Gulf se hae. Hian ke mausam bahut garam aur jhuura hae. = Iraq ke18 provinces (''muhafazah'') me baata gais hae. {| align="center" |----- | # Baghdād (بغداد) # Salāh ad-Dīn (صلاح الدين) # Diyālā (ديالى) # Wāsit (واسط) # Maysān (ميسان) # Al-Basrah (البصرة) # Dhī Qār (ذي قار) # Al-Muthannā (المثنى) # Al-Qādisiyyah (القادسية) | <ol start=10> <li>Bābil (بابل) <li>Al-Karbalā' (كربلاء) <li>An-Najaf (النجف) <li>Al-Anbar (الأنبار) <li>Nīnawā (نينوى) <li>Dahūk (دهوك) <li>Arbīl (أربيل) <li>Kirkuk (كركوك) <li>As-Sulaymāniyyah (السليمانية) </ol> |} == Economy == Iraq me dher tel hae aur hian pe dunia ke chutha sab se barraa petroleum deposit hae. Pahile Irag dher des ke tel bechat rahaa. 1990 me jab Irag, Kuwait ke invade karis tab [[United Nations]] Iraq se tel ke import pe ban lagae diis. Baad me United Nations Iraq ke tel bech ke food, kaprraa, aur dawai karide ke allow karis aur iske "Oil-for-Food" program bola jawat rahaa. Chapa ke gallery <div align="center"> <gallery> File:Fields of corn-Euphrates-Iraq.jpg|Euphrates Naddi ke lage File:Children living next to Daurra Oil Refinery in Iraq.jpg|Iraqi larrkan File:Jalal Talabani.jpg|President Talabani File:BaghdadSign.jpg|Saddam Hussein ke monument </gallery> </div> {{commons|Iraq}} [[Category:Iraq| ]] [[Category:Arab League ke member]] [[Category:OPEC ke member]] [[Category:Arbii bhasa waala des]] bje28ecgzse70q8zr0wtwg6ndi6shr5 0 2704 337322 328107 2026-08-15T06:24:35Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337322 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Country| fullcountryname=Kingdom of the Netherlands | image_flag=Flag of the Netherlands.svg | image_coa=Royal Coat of Arms of the Netherlands.svg | image_location=Europe location NED.png | nationalmotto="I will maintain" | nationalsong=Wilhelmus| nationalflower=n/a | nationalanimal=[[lion]] | officiallanguages=[[Dutch language|Dutch]]. Kuchh log North Netherlands me [[Frisian bhasa|Frisian]] me baat kare hae. | abaaditotal=16,318,199 | abaadirank=59 | abaadidensity=393 | countrycapital=[[Amsterdam]]. Lekin Raani aur [[parliament]], [[The Hague]] me hae. | countrylargestcity=[[Amsterdam]] | areatotal=41,526 | arearank=131 | areawater=n/a | areawaterpercent=18.41 | establishedin=[[Union of Utrecht]] ([[1579]])<br />[[Oath of Abjuration]] ( [[1581]]) | leadertitlename=[[King of the Netherlands|Queen]] [[Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands|Beatrix]]<br />[[Prime Minister of the Netherlands|Prime Minister]] [[Jan Peter Balkenende]] | currency=[[Euro]] (€) | utcoffset=+01:00 | dialingcode=31 | internettld=.NL }} '''Netherlands''', [[Europe]] ke ek [[des]] hae, jiske abaadi 17 million hae. Netherlands ke north aur west me [[North Sea]] hae, east me [[Germany]] aur south me [[Belgium]] hae. Netherlands, [[European Union]] ke suruu kare waala ek des hae. Netherlands me rahe waala log ke Dutch bolaa jaae hae. Netherlands ke bhasa ke bhi Dutch bhasa bolaa jaae hae. == Naam == "Netherlands" ke matlab "the low lands" hae. Hian ke jamiin flat hae aur samundar se khaali kuch uuncha hae. Des ke one third bhaag samundar le level se niche hae. == Geography == [[File:2012-NL-prov-relief-3000.jpg|thumb|European Netherlands ke map]] Netherlands ke Europe ke hissa ke area {{convert|41543|km2|abbr=on}} hae agar isme paani se bharaa ilaaka ke jorra jaae tab, aur khaali jamiin ke area {{convert|41543|km2|abbr=on}} hae. Caribbean Netherlands ke puura area {{convert|328|km2|abbr=on}} hae.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Central Bureau of Statistics |title=Land – en tuinbouwcijfers |publisher=Government of the Netherlands, Department of Publication and Information|url=https://www.cbs.nl/-/media/imported/documents/2009/36/2009-j29-pub.pdf |issn=1386-9566 |language=nl |year=2009 |page=14 |access-date=6 January 2018}}</ref> Ii latitudes [[50th parallel north|50°]] aur [[54th parallel north|54° N]], aur longitudes [[3rd meridian east|3°]] aur [[8th meridian east|8° E]] ke biich me hae. Netherlands kaafi niche ke des hae agar iske samundar ke level se compare karaa jaae. Iske 26% area samundar ke level se niche hae.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Schiermeier |first1=Quirin |title=Few fishy facts found in climate report |journal=Nature |date=5 July 2010 |volume=466 |issue=170 |pages=170 |doi=10.1038/466170a |pmid=20613812 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and 21% of its population<ref name=milrek>{{cite web |title=Milieurekeningen 2008 |publisher=[[Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek]] |url=http://www.cbs.nl/NR/rdonlyres/D2CE63F9-D210-4006-B68B-98BE079EA9B6/0/2008c167pub.pdf |access-date=4 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100215002601/http://www.cbs.nl/NR/rdonlyres/D2CE63F9-D210-4006-B68B-98BE079EA9B6/0/2008c167pub.pdf |archive-date=15 February 2010 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Des ke European hissa jaada kar ke samthar hae, southwest ke foothills ke chhorr ke jon {{Convert|322|m|ft|abbr=on}} se kmati uunchaa hae. Samundar se niche waala ilaaka jaada kar ke reclaimed jamiin hae. 16th century se drainage system, diles, canals aur pumping station banaawa jaae hae. Des ke jaada hissa uu jagha pe banaa hae jahaan pe tiin barraa Europe ke naddi, [[Rhine]], [[Meuse]] aur [[Scheldt]] samundar se mile hae. Netherlans ke south-western hissa ii tiin naddi ke delta hae. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=de Haas |first1=Tjalling |last2=van der Valk |first2=Lambertus |last3=Cohen |first3=Kim M. |last4=Pierik |first4=Harm Jan |last5=Weisscher |first5=Steven A. H. |last6=Hijma |first6=Marc P. |last7=van der Spek |first7=Ad J. F. |last8=Kleinhans |first8=Maarten G. |date=February 2019 |title=Long-term evolution of the Old Rhine estuary: Unravelling effects of changing boundary conditions and inherited landscape |journal=The Depositional Record |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=84–108 |doi=10.1002/dep2.56 |issn=2055-4877 |pmc=6743690 |pmid=31543980|bibcode=2019DepRe...5...84D }}</ref> [[File:Nijlânnermolen Workum.jpg|thumb|Landscape at [[Workum]], [[Friesland]]]] Rhine naddi, European Netherlands ke north aur south hissa me baate hae. Iske kaaran duuno hissa ke log ke bhaasa me kuchh khaas antar hae. Iske rakam des ke northeast me Rhine ke ek aur branch log ke dui linguistic group me divide kare hae.<ref name="international2000">Welschen, Ad: Course ''Dutch Society and Culture'', International School for Humanities and Social Studies ISHSS, Universiteit van Amsterdam, 2000–2005.</ref> ==Itihaas== ===800 BC se pahile=== {{multiple image |perrow=2|total_width=350|caption_align=center | title = | image1 = 5500vc ex leg.jpg|caption1=Netherlands 5500 BC me | image2 = BronzAgeElp.png|caption2=Netherlands ke Bronze Age culture }} Netherlands me 250,000 saal puraana, [[Neanderthal]] ke rahe ke sabuut milaa hae. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Roebroeks|first1=Wil|last2=Sier|first2=Mark J.|last3=Nielsen|first3=Trine Kellberg|last4=Loecker|first4=Dimitri De|last5=Parés|first5=Josep Maria|last6=Arps|first6=Charles E. S.|last7=Mücher|first7=Herman J.|title=Use of red ochre by early Neandertals|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_2012-02-07_109_6/page/1889|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=109|issue=6 |pages=1889–1894 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1112261109 |pmid=22308348|date=7 February 2012 |pmc=3277516 |bibcode=2012PNAS..109.1889R|doi-access=free| issn=0027-8424 }}</ref> 13,000 se 10,000 BC ke biich me hian pe moto (spear) se reindeer ke maare waala log rahat rahin. 11,200 aur 9,500 ke biich me dhanus aur baan (bow and arrow) ke kaam me laae ke jaanwasr ke maara jaae rahaa. 8000 BC ke canoe bhi hian pe paawa gais hae.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Van Zeist |first1=W. |title=De steentijd van Nederland |journal=Nieuwe Drentse Volksalmanak |volume=75 |pages=4–11 |year=1957}}</ref> 5600 BC me hian ke sanskriti southern Scandinavia ke rakam rahaa, jisme naddi aur samundar ke kaam me laawa jaawat rahaa.<ref name="Kooijmans1998">Louwe Kooijmans, L.P., "[https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/1108/171_060.pdf?sequence=1 Trijntje van de Betuweroute, Jachtkampen uit de Steentijd te Hardinxveld-Giessendam]", 1998, ''Spiegel Historiael'' 33, pp. 423–428</ref> 4,800 aur 4,500 BC ke biich me Netherlands ke paas ke log ke pottery culture aur jaanwar ke paale ke system ke apnae lagin. 4,300 aur 4,000 BC ke biich me kisaani suruu bhais rahaa.<ref>Volkskrant 24 August 2007 "[http://www.volkskrant.nl/wetenschap/article455140.ece/Prehistorische_akker_gevonden_bij_Swifterbant Prehistoric agricultural field found in Swifterbant, 4300–4000 BC] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090919141403/http://www.volkskrant.nl/wetenschap/article455140.ece/Prehistorische_akker_gevonden_bij_Swifterbant |date=19 September 2009}}"</ref> 4,300 aur 2,800 ke biich me hian pe grave monuments ke banaawa gais rahaa. Baad ke "Bell Beaker Culture" (2,700 - 2,100 BC) <ref>{{cite book |editor-first=Harry |editor-last=Fokkens |editor-first2=Franco |editor-last2=Nicolis |title=Background to beakers : inquiries in regional cultural backgrounds to the Bell Beaker complex|date=2012|publisher=Sidestone|location=Leiden|isbn=978-90-8890-084-6|page=131}}</ref> metal, jaise ke copper, sonaa aur baad me bronze ke kaam me laawat rahin aur duusre se trade karat rahin. Hian pe kuchh rare bronze chij paawa gais hae, ii imply kare hae ki ii jagha ek trading centre rahaa. "Bell Beaker Culture" locally develop bhais rahaa aur baad me "Barbed-Wire Culture" (2100 - 1800 BC) me hoe gais rahaa, aur iske baad "Elp culture" (1800 - 800 BC) me. <ref>{{cite web|last1=Fokkens|first1=Harry|title=The Periodisation of the Dutch Bronze Age: a Critical Review|url=https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/19822/Fokkens_2001_The%20periodisation%20of%20the%20Dutch%20Bronze%20Age%20a%20critical%20review[1]_Redacted.pdf?sequence=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010141442/https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/19822/Fokkens_2001_The%20periodisation%20of%20the%20Dutch%20Bronze%20Age%20a%20critical%20review%5b1%5d_Redacted.pdf?sequence=1|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 October 2017|website=Open Access Leiden University|publisher=Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden|access-date=7 July 2017}}</ref> ===Celts, Germanic tribes aur Romans (800 BC–410 AD)=== 800 BC ke baad loha ke jaada kaam me laawa jaae lagaa aur isse log ke living standard aur achchhaa hoe gais. Blacksmith ke kaam barr gais rahaa. Scandinavia ke mausam kharaa hoe ke kaaran saait hian ke log 850 - 650 BC me aae ke Netherlands me bas gae rahin. Jab ii migration khalaas bhais tab (25oBC talak) ek nawaa bhasa aur cultur hian pe develop hoe gais rahaa. <ref>''The New Encyclopædia Britannica'', 15th edition, 22:641–642</ref><ref name="Verhaal">de Vries, Jan W., Roland Willemyns and Peter Burger, ''Het verhaal van een taal'', Amsterdam: Prometheus, 2003, pp. 12, 21–27</ref> North Sea Germanic log des ke north me rahin aur ii baad me develop hoe ke Saxon culture me develop bhais. [[File:Germania 70.svg|thumb|The Rhine frontier lagbhag 70 AD]] Ii time jaada log ke maut paani se bhais rahaa aur kamtii duusre admi ke haanth se. <ref>{{cite web |last1=Lendering |first1=Jona |title=The Edges of the Earth (3) – Livius |url=https://www.livius.org/articles/concept/the-edges-of-the-earth-1/the-edges-of-the-earth-3/ |website=livius.org |access-date=28 February 2019 |archive-date=8 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808110001/https://www.livius.org/articles/concept/the-edges-of-the-earth-1/the-edges-of-the-earth-3/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> 57 BC aur 53 BC ke biich me ii ilaaka Rome aapan niche kar liis. Julius Caeser hian ke Celtic tribe ke describe karis hae == Chapa ke gallery == <div align=center> <gallery> file:WilliamOfOrange1580.jpg|William the silent file:Jan Steen - Adolf en Catharina Croeser aan de Oude Delft 1655.jpg|Dutch golden age ke time file:Rotterdam, Laurenskerk, na bombardement van mei 1940.jpg|Rotterdam 1940 me file:Vuurtorenschiermonnikoog.jpg|National Park file:Cow female black white.jpg|Frisian gaiya file:Den Haag Binnenhof.jpg|Binnenhof file:Domtower Utrecht.jpg|Dom Tower file:Kinderdijk Active Windmill.jpg|Dutch windmill file:Cityscape of The Hague, viewed from Het Plein (The Square).jpg|Hague file:Amsterdam airphoto.jpg </gallery> </div> ==References== {{reflist}} [[vibhag:N]] [[Category:Netherlands| ]] [[Category:European Union ke member]] [[Category:NATO ke member]] [[vibhag:N]] cfgf660ebwhq50gh5kuc19ojvcinamb 0 2705 337305 315457 2026-08-15T06:08:42Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337305 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Country| fullcountryname=Nigeria | image_flag=Flag of Nigeria.svg | image_coa= Coat of arms of Nigeria.svg | image_location=Nigeria (orthographic projection).svg | nationalmotto=Unity and Faith, Peace and Progress" | nationalsong=Arise, O Compatriots| nationalflower=n/a | nationalanimal= | officiallanguages=English | abaaditotal=154,729,000 | abaadirank=8 | abaadidensity=167.5 | countrycapital=[[Abuja]] | countrylargestcity=[[Lagos]] | areatotal=923,768 | arearank=32 | areawater=| areawaterpercent=1.4 | establishedin= 1 October 1960| leadertitlename= | currency= | utcoffset= | dialingcode=234 | internettld=.NG }} [[File:locationNigeria.png|right|]] '''Nigeria''', jiske sarkari naam '''Federal Republic of Nigeria''' hae, west [[Africa]] ke ek [[des]] hae.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Nigeria |url=https://nigeriaembassygermany.org/about-nigeria.htm |access-date=8 September 2023 |website=nigeriaembassygermany.org |archive-date=15 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231015033706/https://nigeriaembassygermany.org/about-nigeria.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Iske north me [[Sahel]] ilaaka hae aur south e [[Gulf of Guinea]] hae. Iske area 923,769 square kilometres (356,669square miles) hae. Ii Africa ke sab se jaada abaadi waala des hae, aur [[dunia]] ke 6th sab se jaada abaadi waala des hae. Nigeria ke north me [[Niger]], northeast me [[Chad]], east me [[Cameroon]] aur west me [[Benin]] hae. Nigeria ek federal republic hae, jisme 36 state aur ek Federal Capital Territory hae jisme ke capital [[Abuja]] hae. Nigeria ke sab se barraa city [[Lagos]] hae jiske metropolitan ilaaka [[Africa]] ke sab se barraa hae. 2000 BC se Nigeria me dher states aur kingdoms rahaa aur 15th century ke Nok civilization des ke unify karis rahaa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nigeria - Colonialism, Independence, Civil War |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria/History |access-date=8 September 2023 |website=Britannica |language=en |archive-date=2 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002112646/https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria/History |url-status=live }}</ref> British colonisation ke baas Southern Nigeria Protectorate aur Northern Nigeria Protectorate banaawa gais rahaa jon 1914 me jorr ke Nigeria banaa.Britain ke raj me des ke traditional chiefs se control karaa jaawat rahaa.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Achebe|first=Nwando|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/707092916|title=The female king of colonial Nigeria : Ahebi Ugbabe|isbn=978-0-253-00507-6|location=Bloomington|oclc=707092916|access-date=15 December 2020|archive-date=5 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305145344/https://www.worldcat.org/title/female-king-of-colonial-nigeria-ahebi-ugbabe/oclc/707092916|url-status=live}}</ref> Nigeria 1 October 1960 me azaa bhais lenin 1967 se 1970 talak hian pe civil war bhais. Iske baad dher military dictator log hian pe raj karin, 1999 ke presidential election talak. Nigeria ek multinational stste hae, jiske matlab hae ki hian 250 ethnic group hae jon 500 bhasa me baat kare hae aur dher culture hae.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethnicity in Nigeria|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/africa-jan-june07-ethnic_04-05/|date=5 April 2007|publisher=PBS|access-date=9 May 2015|archive-date=6 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171006235712/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/africa-jan-june07-ethnic_04-05/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Nigeria|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/NG|website=Ethnologue|access-date=4 July 2019|archive-date=27 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227084603/https://www.ethnologue.com/country/NG|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Linguistic diversity in Africa and Europe – Languages Of The World|url=http://www.languagesoftheworld.info/geolinguistics/linguistic-diversity-in-africa-and-europe.html|date=16 June 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515155945/http://www.languagesoftheworld.info/geolinguistics/linguistic-diversity-in-africa-and-europe.html|archive-date=15 May 2012|access-date=4 July 2019|last=Pereltsvaig|first=Asya}}</ref> Tiin sab se barraa ethnic group hae [[Hausa]], des ke north me, [[Yoruba]] des ke west me aur [[Igbo]] des ke east me, aur ii tiino ke milare ke des ke 60% abaadi hae.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/attachments/summaries/NI-summary.pdf|title=Nigeria – CIA World Factbook 2019|access-date=25 May 2020|archive-date=23 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923163518/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/attachments/summaries/NI-summary.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Des ke sarkari bhasa [[English]] hae.<ref>{{cite web|last=Mann|first=Charles C.|date=1990|title=Choosing an Indigenous Official Language for Nigeria|url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED397681.pdf|access-date=10 July 2020|archive-date=2 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202033702/https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED397681.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Des ke constitution ke niche hian pe koi bhi dharam ke practice kare ke ajaadi hae<ref>{{cite web|title=Nigerian Constitution|url=http://www.nigeria-law.org/ConstitutionOfTheFederalRepublicOfNigeria.htm#Powers_of_Federal_Republic_of_Nigeria|work=Nigeria Law|access-date=17 July 2015|archive-date=25 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160525192058/http://www.nigeria-law.org/ConstitutionOfTheFederalRepublicOfNigeria.htm#Powers_of_Federal_Republic_of_Nigeria|url-status=live}}</ref> aur hian pe dunia ke ek sab se jaada [[Muslim]] aur [[Christian]] population hae.<ref>{{cite web|title=The countries with the 10 largest Christian populations and the 10 largest Muslim populations|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/04/01/the-countries-with-the-10-largest-christian-populations-and-the-10-largest-muslim-populations/|website=Pew Research Center|date=April 2019 |language=en-US|access-date=25 May 2020|archive-date=18 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118120245/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/04/01/the-countries-with-the-10-largest-christian-populations-and-the-10-largest-muslim-populations/|url-status=live}}</ref> Nigeria ke north me Muslims hae aur south me Cristians hae aur kuch log indegenous dharam ke bhi maane hae.<ref name="USEN">{{cite web|title=Nigeria Fact Sheet|url=https://photos.state.gov/libraries/nigeria/487468/pdfs/Nigeria%20overview%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf|publisher=United States Embassy in Nigeria|access-date=23 September 2018|archive-date=18 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201018101915/https://photos.state.gov/libraries/nigeria/487468/pdfs/Nigeria%20overview%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Nigeria ke Africa me ek regional power, aur dunia me ek middle power maana jaae hae. Nigeria ke economy Africa me 4th sab se barraa hae aur dunia me 27th sab se barraa hae, Iske barraa abaadi aur economy ke kaaran iske Africa ke Giant maana jaae hae.<ref>{{cite journal|year=1959|title=Nigeria: The African giant|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_round-table_1959-12_50_197/page/55|journal=[[The Round Table (journal)|The Round Table]]|volume=50|issue=197|pages=55–63|doi=10.1080/00358535908452221|issn=0035-8533 }}</ref> Nigeria [[African Union]] ke founding member hae aur dher international organisation ke member hae, jaise ki [[United Nations]], [[Commonwealth of Nations]], Non-Aligned Movement]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nti.org/education-center/treaties-and-regimes/non-aligned-movement-nam |title=Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) - The Nuclear Threat Initiative |access-date=19 October 2021 |archive-date=19 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019023811/https://www.nti.org/education-center/treaties-and-regimes/non-aligned-movement-nam/ |url-status=live }}</ref>, [[Economic Community of West African States]], [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation aur [[OPEC]]. Nigeria ke naam [[Niger River]] se aae hae jon des me se jaae hae. Ii naam ke 8 January 1897 me ek British journalist banais rahaa. II naam ke Tuareg logan uulog ke saait diin hae kaahe ki jon naddi ke biich waala ilaaka me rahat rahin ke ''egerew <u>n-iger</u>ewen'' bola jaat rahaa.<ref>The Arabic name ''nahr al-anhur'' is a direct translation of the Tuareg.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Niger |title=''Online Etymological Dictionary'' |publisher=Etymonline.com |access-date=28 July 2014 |archive-date=2 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702152902/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Niger |url-status=live }}</ref> 1500s se 1800s talak, Nigeria ke dher log ke slaves banae ke Americas lae jaawa gais rahaa. [[1901]] se 1960 talak, [[United Kingdom]] Nigeria pe raaj karis. 1960 me ii des ajaad bhaes lekin kuch din talak iske dictator logan control karat rahin. [[1999]] me Nigeria democracy hoe gais aur Olusegun Obasanjo ek Yoruba ke Christian President banaa. 2007 me Umaru Yar'Adua ek Hausa ke [[Muslim]], President banaa. Nigeria me equal number ke Muslims aur Christians hae . Christians log jaada kar ke live south, aur Muslim log north me rahe hae. Nigeria dher tel produce kare hae. Nigeria me duuno grasslands aaur rainforests hae lekin hian pe bahut garam rahe hae, kahe ki ii [[Equator]] ke bahut nachdik hae. == Chapa ke gallery == <gallery> File:Queen Mother Pendant Mask- Iyoba MET DP231460.jpg|Royal Bini mask File:Ancient Benin city.JPG|Purana Benin city File:Nigerian troops with US C130.jpg|Nigerian troops, part of the embarking on a US Aircraft File:OAU Palm farm.jpg|Obafemi Awolowo University Palm farm, [[Ile-Ife]], Nigeria. File:Bevölkerungsdichte Nigerischer Bundesstaaten english.PNG|Population density in Nigeria File:Nigeria Benin Cameroon languages.png|Linguistic map of Nigeria, Cameroon, and Benin File:Things Fall Apart books 02.jpg|''[[Things Fall Apart]]'' by [[Chinua Achebe]] is Nigeria's most popular and best selling literary piece ever File:AbujaNationalMosque.jpg|Abuja National Mosque File:Christ_Apostolic_Church,_Hackney.jpg|A Nigerian Church in [[London]] File:Nigerian vs Ghana football.jpg|Nigerian fans at a football match between Nigeria and Cote d'Ivoire File:Nigeria students.jpg|Children at school in Ile-Ife, Nigeria </gallery> == References == * [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ni.html CIA website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329081848/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ni.html |date=2019-03-29 }} [[Category:Nigeria| ]] [[Category:English bhasa waala des]] [[Category:OPEC ke member]] [[Category:African Union ke member]] [[Category:Commonwealth ke member]] [[Category:Dunia ke des]] f6he9ogv6okgczpw52vyshzif72p6pi 0 2739 337325 332716 2026-08-15T06:26:22Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337325 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = United Republic of Tanzania | common_name = Tanzania | native_name = {{native name|sw|Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania}} | image_flag = Flag of Tanzania.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Tanzania.svg | national_motto = "Uhuru na Umoja" | englishmotto = "Freedom and Unity" | national_anthem = "Mungu ibariki Afrika"<br />"God bless Africa"<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nationalanthems.info/znz.htm |access-date=29 January 2015 |date=2014 |title=Zanzibar |first=David |last=Kendall |work=nationalanthems.info |archive-date=4 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191004074956/http://www.nationalanthems.info/znz.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>{{center|[[File:National Anthem of Tanzania by US Navy Band.ogg]]}} | image_map = {{Switcher|[[File: Tanzania (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Location Tanzania AU Africa.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Africa|default=1}} | capital = [[Dodoma]] | coordinates = {{Coord|6|10|S|35|44|E|type:city|display=inline}} | largest_city = [[Dar es Salaam]]<br />{{Coord|06|48|S|39|16|E|region:TZ-02_type:city(6,400,000)|display=inline}} | official_languages = {{hlist|[[Swahili language|Swahili]]|[[English language|English]]{{efn|[[Swahili language|Swahili]] and [[English language|English]] serve as de facto official languages.<ref name=Mugoti>{{cite book |title=Africa (a-z) |author=Godfrey Mugoti |page=152 |publisher= Godfrey books |date=12 June 2009 |isbn=9781435728905 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Plvuddy_4NYC&pg=PA512}}</ref><ref name=expogr>{{cite web|url=https://www.expogr.com/tanzania_country_information.php|title=Tanzania Country Information – All about Tanzania|website=expogr.com|access-date=26 April 2020}}</ref>}}}} | languages_type = [[National language]] | languages = | languages2_type = Other languages | languages2 = 100 se jaada bhasa, jisme hae (1m+): {{hlist |style=line-break:anywhere|[[Shambala bhasa|Shambala]]|[[Sukuma bhasa|Sukuma]]|[[Nyamwezi bhasa|Nyamwezi]]<br/>|[[Chaga bhasa|Chagga]]|[[Ha bhasa|Ha]]|[[Bena bhasa|Bena]]|[[Gogo bhasa|Gogo]]|[[Haya bhasa|Haya]]<br/>|[[Dholuo]]|[[Iraqw bhasa|Iraqw]]|[[Makonde bhasa|Makonde]]|[[Nyaturu bhasa|Nyaturu]]<br/>|[[Maasai bhasa|Maasai]]|[[Jita bhasa|Jita]]|[[Pare bhasa|Pare]]}} | religion_year = 2020 | religion_ref = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/tanzania#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020&region_name=All+Countries&restrictions_year=2016|title=Religions in Tanzania &#124; PEW-GRF|website=www.globalreligiousfutures.org|access-date=8 November 2021|archive-date=4 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304033104/http://globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/tanzania#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020&region_name=All+Countries&restrictions_year=2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> | religion = {{ublist |item_style=white-space:nowrap; |63.1% [[Christianity]] |34.1% [[Islam]] |1.5% Koi dharam nai |1.2% Traditional dharam |0.1% duusra dharam }} | demonym = [[Tanzania]]n | government_type = Unitary dominant-party<br/> [[Presidential system|presidential republic]] | leader_title1 = [[President of Tanzania|President]] | leader_name1 = [[Samia Suluhu Hassan]] | leader_title2 = [[Vice-President of Tanzania|Vice-President]] | leader_name2 = [[Emmanuel Nchimbi]] | leader_title3 = [[Prime Minister of Tanzania|Prime Minister]] | leader_name3 = [[Mwigulu Nchemba]] | leader_title4 = [[Speaker of the National Assembly of Tanzania|Speaker]] | leader_name4 = [[Mussa Zungu]] | leader_title5 = [[Chief Justice of Tanzania|Chief Justice]] | leader_name5 = [[George Mcheche Masaju]] | legislature = [[National Assembly (Tanzania)|National Assembly]] | sovereignty_type = Independence {{nobold|from the [[United Kingdom]]}} | established_event1 = [[Tanganyika (1961–1964)|Tanganyika]] | established_date1 = 9 December 1961 | established_event2 = {{nowrap|[[People's Republic of Zanzibar|Zanzibar]]}} | established_date2 = 10 December 1963 | established_event3 = Unification of Tanganyika and Zanzibar | established_date3 = 26 April 1964 | established_event4 = Current constitution | established_date4 = 25 April 1977 | area_km2 = | area_rank = | area_sq_mi = | percent_water = 6.4<ref name="BFF"/> | population_estimate = 67,462,121<ref name=CIA2024>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Tanzania|access-date=3 June 2024|year=2024}}</ref> | population_estimate_year = 2024 | population_census = 61,741,120<ref>{{cite web |url=https://sensa.nbs.go.tz/ |title=Population Size in Tanzania |publisher=Tanzania Sensa |access-date=14 July 2023 |archive-date=31 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031164518/https://sensa.nbs.go.tz/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> | population_census_year = 2022 | population_estimate_rank = 23rd | population_density_km2 = 65.2 | population_density_sq_mi = | population_density_rank = 147th | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $293.59 billion<ref name=weodb>{{cite web |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2025 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2025/april |language=en}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_rank = 69th | GDP_PPP_year = 2025 | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $4,370<ref name=weodb/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 158th | GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $88.980 billion<ref name=weodb/> | GDP_nominal_rank = 80th | GDP_nominal_year = 2025 | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $1,280<ref name=weodb/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 162th | Gini = 40.5 | Gini_year = 2017 | Gini_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison|title=Gini Index coefficient|publisher=CIA Factbook|access-date=16 July 2021|archive-date=30 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210630032239/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison/|url-status=dead}}</ref> | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.555<!--number only, between 0 and 1--> | HDI_year = 2023<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">[https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/country-insights#/ranks Human Development Insights] Human Development Reports</ref> | HDI_rank = 165th | currency = [[Tanzanian shilling]] | currency_code = TZS | time_zone = [[East Africa Time]] | utc_offset = +3 | utc_offset_DST = | time_zone_DST = | drives_on = left | calling_code = [[+255]]{{efn|+007 from Kenya and Uganda}} | cctld = [[.tz]] }} '''Tanzania''', [[Africa]] me ek des hae jiske official bhasa Kiswahili aur [[English bhasa|English]] hae. Ii Africa ke sab se barraa talao, Lake Victoria, ke bagal me hae. 1997 me 29,646,752 log Tanzania me rahat rahin. Ii logan 120 tribes ke hae; aur koi tribe me 10% se jaada population nai hae. Tanzania ek multicultural society hae jisme dher culture ke log rahe hae. Tanzania me dher dharam hae jisme se khaas hae [[Christianity]] aur [[Islam]]. Tanzania ke sab se bhaarii export machhri hae, jiske roj [[Europe]] aur[[America]] bheja jaawe hae. Tanzania ke jaada log kheti me kaam kare hae aur [[coffee]], [[cotton]], [[sisal]], [[tea]], [[tobacco]], aur [[cashew]] nuts paida kare hae. United Republic of Tanzania ke President Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete hae. Tanzania, [[United Nations]], UNIDO, the [[World Bank]], the [[International Monetary Fund]], the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], SADC, PTA, aur the ADB ke member hae. Ii Lome Convention ke bhi sign karis hae. Mainland Tanzania (jike pahile Tanganyika ke naam se jaana jawat rahaa) December 1961 me ajaad bhaes, jab ki [[Zanzibar]] January 1964 me ajaadi ek revolutionse paais. April 1964 me ii duuno des ek hoe ke United Republic of Tanzania banais . July 1992 talak, Tanzania ek-party state rahaa. Ek Presidential Commission ke baad, ii des multi-party political system suruu karis aur 1995 aur 200 me hian pe election bhaes rahaa. ==Naam== Tanzania ke naam dui des ke naam jisse ii jorr ke banaa hae kae naam ke jorr ke banaawa gais hae : [[Tanganyika (1961–1964)|Tanganyika]] aur [[People's Republic of Zanzibar|Zanzibar]].<ref>{{OEtymD|tanzania}}</ref> Jab Zanzibar aur Tanganyika ek howat rahin tab, national newspaper ''The Standard'' ek nawaa naam ke khaatir ek contest ke run karis rahaa, jiske jiite waala Mohammed Iqbal Dar rahaa. Iqbal ii batais ki uu nawaa naam ke banae ke khaatir "Tan" aur "zan" ke uniting states me se liis hae, "i" uske aapan naam se, aur "a" [[Ahmadiyya]] ke reference kare hae.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mazimu |first=Yusuph |date=4 March 2025 |title=Mohammed Iqbal Dar: Mjue mbunifu wa jina 'Tanzania' aliyeaga dunia |url=https://www.bbc.com/swahili/articles/crrdq0v420ko |access-date=24 March 2025 |work=BBC News Swahili}}</ref> Tanganyika naam [[Swahili bhasa|Swahili]] ke sabd ''tanga'' "sail" aur ''nyika'' "uninhabited plain, wilderness" se aais hae, jisse phrase "sail in the wilderness" bane hae. Kabhi-kabhi ii sanjhaa jaawe hae ki ii [[Lake Tanganyika]] ke reference kare hae.<ref>[http://home.frognet.net/~jaknouse/gaz-af.html John Knouse: A Political World Gazetteer: Africa] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610213113/http://home.frognet.net/~jaknouse/gaz-af.html |date=10 June 2011}} website accessed 1 May 2007.</ref> [[Zanzibar]] ke naam ''[[Zanj]]'' se aawe hae, jon huan ke local lig ke naam hae, aur [[Arbii bhasa|Arbii]] ''barr'' "coast" nai to "shore" se aais hae.<ref>{{OEtymD|zanzibar}}. </ref> Zanj , Al-Zanjia , East African coast ke Arbii naam hae, jon [[Azania]], Greek naam (possibly derived from a [[Sabaic]] name) se related hae wahii coast ke khaatir, jiske ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'', ek book jiske first-century CE me likha gais rahaa, me mentioned hae. Azania ke describe karaa gais hae ki ii Mapharitis - ek jaati ke log jon uu time, abhi ke southwest Yemen me rahat rahin, raaj karat rahaa. ==Itihaas== {{main|Tanzania ke itihaas|Zanzibar ke itihaas}} [[File:Olduvai stone chopping tool (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|right|Ek 1.8-million-saal-puraana paththar ke chopping tool jiske [[Olduvai Gorge]] me paawa gais rahaa aur abhi [[British Museum]] me hae]] ===Puraana=== Tanzania, [[dunia]] ke uu sab jagha me se ek hae jon sab din se rahe waala jagha me sab se puraana hae. [[Olduvai Gorge]], jon [[Ngorongoro Conservation Area]] me hae, ek [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]], jisme ek collection hae jisme Aujaar ke remnants hae jon development and use of transitional [[technology]] ke document kare hae. Eastern Africa ke aadiwaasi log ke [[Hadza bhasa|linguistically isolated]] [[Hadza log|Hadza]] aur [[Sandawe log|Sandawe]] hunter-gatherers Tanzania ke socha jaawe hae.<ref name="Genetics">{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1172257 |title=The Genetic Structure and History of Africans and African Americans |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2009-05-22_324_5930/page/1035 |journal=Science |volume=324 |issue=5930 |pages=1035–44 |year=2009 |pmid=19407144 |pmc=2947357 |last1=Tishkoff |first1=S. A. |last2=Reed |first2=F. A. |last3=Friedlaender |first3=F. R.| last4=Ehret |first4=C. |last5=Ranciaro |first5=A. |last6=Froment |first6=A. |last7=Hirbo |first7=J. B. |last8=Awomoyi |first8=A. A. |last9=Bodo |first9=J. M. |last10=Doumbo |first10=O. |last11=Ibrahim |first11= M. |last12=Juma |first12=A. T. |last13=Kotze |first13=M. J. |last14=Lema |first14=G. |last15=Moore |first15=J. H. |last16=Mortensen |first16=H. |last17=Nyambo |first17=T. B. |last18=Omar |first18= S. A. |last19=Powell |first19=K. |last20=Pretorius |first20=G. S. |last21=Smith |first21=M. W. |last22=Thera |first22=M. A. |last23=Wambebe |first23=C. |last24=Weber |first24=J. L. |last25=Williams |first25=S. M.| bibcode=2009Sci...324.1035T |issn=0036-8075 }}</ref> Migration ke pahila wave [[South Cushitic bhasa|Southern Cushitic]] bhasa me baat kare waala log ke rahaa jon [[Ethiopia]] aur[[Somalia]] se south Tanzania me gay rahin. Ii log [[Iraqw bhasa|Iraqw]], [[Gorowa bhasa|Gorowa]], aur [[Burunge bhasa|Burunge]] ke ancestors rahin.<ref name="Genetics"/> Bhasa ke sabuut se ii jaana jaawe hae ki, Tanzania me Eastern Cushitic log ke dui migration rahaa lagbhag 4,000 aur 2,000 saal pahile, jon [[Lake Turkana]] ke north se originate bhais rahaa.<ref name="Genetics"/> [[Category:Tanzania| ]] [[Category:English bhasa waala des]] [[Category:Swahili bhasa waala des]] [[Category:African Union ke member]] [[Category:Commonwealth ke member]] [[Category:Dunia ke des]] suz5s0q8t47pg5bbolueur0rrp1yt1k 0 4319 337326 335776 2026-08-15T06:27:25Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337326 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Country| fullcountryname= Republic of the Philippines<br /> Repúbliká ng̃ Pilipinas | image_flag= Flag of the Philippines.svg | image_coa= | image_location= LocationPhilippines.png | nationalmotto= Maka-Diyos, Makatao, Makakalikasan, at Makabansa (English: God, People, Nature, and Country) | nationalsong= "Lupang Hinirang" (Chosen Land) | nationalflower= n/a | nationalanimal= n/a | officiallanguages= Filipino (Tagalog), [[English bhasa|English]], [[Spanish bhasa|Spanish]] | populationtotal= 87,857,473 | populationrank= 12 | populationdensity= 276 | countrycapital= [[Manila]] | countrylargestcity= Quezon City | areatotal= 300,000 | arearank= 71 | areawater= n/a | areawaterpercent= 0.6 | establishedin= [[12 June]], [[1898]] | leadertitlename= President: Rodrigo Duterte<br />Vice President: Leni Robredo | currency= Philippine peso (piso) (PHP) | utcoffset= +8 | dialingcode= +63 | internettld= .ph }} Philippines ek 7,000 se jaada [[island]] waala [[des]] hae. Ii [[Pacific Ocean]] me [[Asia]] se 100 kilometers southeast me hae. [[Spain]] ([[1521]]-[[1898]]) aur [[United States]] ([[1898]]-[[1946]]), ii des pe raaj karin rahaa. Philippines, [[South Korea]], aur [[East Timor]], East Asia ke uu des hae jahan pe jaada log [[Isai dharam|Isai]] hae. Philippine Islands ke east me [[Pacific Ocean]], west me [[South China Sea]], aur south me [[Celebes Sea]] hae . == Naam == [[Spain]] ke explorer [[Ruy López de Villalobos]], aapan 1542 ke expedition me, [[Leyte]] aur [[Samar]] ke naam "{{lang|es|Felipinas}}" diis rahaa, [[Prince of Asturias]], baad me [[Philip&nbsp;II of Castile]] ke baad. Dhire-dhire "{{lang|es|Las Islas Filipinas}}" ke naam se ii archipelago ke Spanish possession ke bola jaae lagaa.<ref name="Scott-1994" /> Duusra naam, jaise "{{lang|es|Islas del Poniente}}" (Western Islands), "{{lang|pt|Islas del Oriente}}" (Eastern Islands), [[Ferdinand Magellan]] ke naam aur "{{lang|es|San Lázaro}}" (Islands of St. Lazarus), ke kaam me laae ke Spanish log ii islands ke refer karat rahin, jabtak ii ilaaka me Spanish raj established nai rahaa.<ref>{{cite book |last=Malcolm |first=George A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tpEz7_tzzJoC |title=The Government of the Philippine Islands: Its Development and Fundamentals |series=Philippine Law Collection |date=1916 |publisher=[[Lawyers Co-operative Publishing Company]] |isbn=<!-- ISBN unspecified --> |location=Rochester, N.Y. |page=[https://archive.org/details/cu31924051298937/page/2/mode/2up 3] |language=en |author-link=George A. Malcolm |oclc=578245510 |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144209/https://books.google.com/books?id=tpEz7_tzzJoC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Spate |first=Oskar H.K. |title=The Spanish Lake |date=November 2004 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-0-7099-0049-8 |series=The Pacific since Magellan |volume=I |location=London, England |page=97 |chapter=Chapter 4. Magellan's Successors: Loaysa to Urdaneta. Two failures: Grijalva and Villalobos |doi=10.22459/SL.11.2004 |author-link=Oskar Spate |access-date=July 6, 2020 |orig-date=1979 |chapter-url=http://epress.anu.edu.au/spanish_lake/mobile_devices/ch04s05.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080805022835/http://epress.anu.edu.au/spanish_lake/mobile_devices/ch04s05.html |archive-date=August 5, 2008 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GIz4CDTCOwcC |title=The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia |date=1999 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-66370-0 |editor-last=Tarling |editor-first=Nicholas |volume=2: From c. 1500 to c. 1800 |location=Cambridge, England |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GIz4CDTCOwcC&pg=PA12 12] |language=en |author-link=Nicholas Tarling |access-date=April 2, 2023 |archive-date=April 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402114137/https://books.google.com/books?id=GIz4CDTCOwcC |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Philippine Revolution]] ke time, [[Malolos Congress]] {{lang|es|República Filipina}} (the [[First Philippine Republic|Philippine Republic]]) ke elaan karis.<ref>{{cite web|title=The 1899 Malolos Constitution |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-1899-malolos-constitution/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170605215334/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-1899-malolos-constitution/ |archive-date=June 5, 2017 |access-date=February 11, 2023 |website=[[Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines]] |at=Título I – De la República; Articulo 1 |language=es, en}}</ref> America ke colonial authorities ii des ke Philippine Islands (a translation of the Spanish name) bolat rahin.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Constantino |first=Renato |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1ZxAAAAMAAJ |title=The Philippines: A Past Revisited |date=1975 |publisher=Tala Pub. Services |isbn=978-971-8958-00-1 |location=Quezon City, Philippines |author-link=Renato Constantino |access-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203072918/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1ZxAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> [[United States]], dhire-chire naam ke "the Philippine Islands" se badal ke "the Philippines" kar diin, Philippine Autonomy Act aur [[Jones Law (Philippines)|Jones Law]] se.<ref>{{cite web|date=August 29, 1916 |title=The Jones Law of 1916 |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-jones-law-of-1916/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808093938/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-jones-law-of-1916/ |archive-date=August 8, 2017 |access-date=March 12, 2021 |website=[[Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines]] |at=Section 1.―The Philippines}}</ref> 1935 ke constitution me, sarkari naam "Republic of the Philippines" rakkhaa gais rahaa, jon aage ke ajaad des ke naam rahii,<ref>{{cite web|title=The 1935 Constitution |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-1935-constitution/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170625234400/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-1935-constitution/ |archive-date=June 25, 2017 |access-date=February 11, 2023 |website=[[Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines]] |at=Article XVII, Section 1}}</ref> aur baad ke sab constitutional ke badlao me ii naam rakkha gais hae.<ref>{{cite web|date=January 17, 1973 |title=1973 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1973-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines-2/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170625191553/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1973-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines-2/ |archive-date=June 25, 2017 |access-date=March 14, 2021 |website=[[Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=February 11, 1987 |title=The Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1987-constitution/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170607182503/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1987-constitution/ |archive-date=June 7, 2017 |access-date=March 14, 2021 |website=[[Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines]]}}</ref> == Itihaas == === Puraana itihaas (900 se pahile) === [[File:Manunggul Jar.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Manunggul Jar|Manunggul burial jar]], dher burial jar me se ek, jiske gifaa me paawa gais rahaa|alt=A burial jar with its lid decorated with two people on a boat|left]] Iske sabuut hae ki puraana jamaana ke [[hominins]], jon jagha abi Philippines hae, me 709,000 saal pahile rahat rahin.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ingicco |first1=T. |last2=van den Bergh |first2=G. D. |last3=Jago-on |first3=C. |last4=Bahain |first4=J. |last5=Chacón |first5=M. G. |last6=Amano |first6=N. |last7=Forestier |first7=H. |last8=King |first8=C. |last9=Manalo |first9=K. |last10=Nomade |first10=S. |last11=Pereira |first11=A. |last12=Reyes |first12=M. C. |last13=Sémah |first13=A. |last14=Shao |first14=Q. |last15=Voinchet |first15=P. |date=May 1, 2018 |title=Earliest known hominin activity in the Philippines by 709&nbsp;thousand years ago |url=https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6441&context=smhpapers |journal=Nature |publisher=[[University of Wollongong]] |volume=557 |issue=7704 |pages=233–237 |bibcode=2018Natur.557..233I |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0072-8 |pmid=29720661 |s2cid=256771231 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190429133325/https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6441&context=smhpapers |archive-date=April 29, 2019 |first16=C. |last16=Falguères |first17=P.C.H. |last17=Albers |first18=M. |last18=Lising |first19=G. |last19=Lyras |first20=D. |last20=Yurnaldi |first21=P. |last21=Rochette |first22=A. |last22=Bautista |first23=J. |last23=de Vos |issn=0028-0836}}</ref> [[Callao Cave]] me paawa gais haddi, saait ek nawaa species, ''[[Homo luzonensis]]'' ke hae, jon 50,000 se 67,000 saal pahile rahat rahin.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Greshko |first1=Michael |last2=Wei-Haas |first2=Maya |date=April 10, 2019 |title=New species of ancient human discovered in the Philippines |work=[[National Geographic]] |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2019/04/new-species-ancient-human-discovered-luzon-philippines-homo-luzonensis/ |access-date=October 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410173110/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2019/04/new-species-ancient-human-discovered-luzon-philippines-homo-luzonensis/ |archive-date=April 10, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Rincon |first1=Paul |date=April 10, 2019 |title=New human species found in Philippines |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-47873072 |access-date=October 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410192730/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-47873072 |archive-date=April 10, 2019 |author-link1=Paul Rincon}}</ref> Sab se puraana [[modern human]] ke remain ii islands ke [[Palawan]] ke [[Tabon Caves]] me paawa gais hae, jiske [[U/Th-dated]] hae 47,000 ± 11–10,000 saal pahile.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Détroit |first1=Florent |last2=Dizon |first2=Eusebio |last3=Falguères |first3=Christophe |last4=Hameau |first4=Sébastien |last5=Ronquillo |first5=Wilfredo |last6=Sémah |first6=François |date=2004 |title=Upper Pleistocene ''Homo sapiens'' from the Tabon cave (Palawan, The Philippines): description and dating of new discoveries |url=http://fdetroit.free.fr/IMG/pdf/Detroit_etal_04_Tabon2.pdf |journal=Human Palaeontology and Prehistory |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |volume=3 |issue=2004 |pages=705–712 |bibcode=2004CRPal...3..705D |doi=10.1016/j.crpv.2004.06.004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218164554/http://fdetroit.free.fr/IMG/pdf/Detroit_etal_04_Tabon2.pdf |archive-date=February 18, 2015 |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Tabon Man]] ke [[Negrito]] maana jaae hae, jon ii islands me rahe waala pahila log rahin, Africa se coastal route lae ke, along [[South Asia|southern Asia]] se abhi duubaa waala [[Sundaland]] aur [[Sahul]] se ii islands me aae rahin.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jett |first=Stephen C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgOUDgAAQBAJ |title=Ancient Ocean Crossings: Reconsidering the Case for Contacts with the Pre-Columbian Americas |date=2017 |publisher=[[University of Alabama Press]] |isbn=978-0-8173-1939-7 |location=Tuscaloosa, Ala. |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=EgOUDgAAQBAJ&pg=168 168–171] |access-date=May 23, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203072920/https://books.google.com/books?id=EgOUDgAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> Philippines pahunche waala pahila Austronesians , Taiwan se, lagbhag 2200 BC me aae rahin, [[Batanes]] Islands (where they built stone fortresses known as ''[[ijang]]s'') me aae ke base rahin<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2005-006.pdf |title=The Protected Landscape Approach: Linking Nature, Culture and Community |date=2005 |publisher=[[International Union for Conservation of Nature|IUCN]] |isbn=978-2-8317-0797-6 |editor-last=Brown |editor-first=Jessica |location=Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, England |pages=101–102 |language=en |access-date=March 19, 2023 |editor-last2=Mitchell |editor-first2=Nora J. |editor-last3=Beresford |editor-first3=Michael |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180408232535/https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2005-006.pdf |archive-date=April 8, 2018}}</ref> aur northern [[Luzon]] me bhi. [[Philippine jade culture|Jade artifacts]] ke 2000 BC ke date karaa gais hae,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Scott |first=William Henry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FSlwAAAAMAAJ |title=Prehispanic Source Materials for the Study of Philippine History |publisher=New Day Publishers |year=1984 |isbn=978-971-10-0227-5 |location=Quezon City, Philippines |page=17 |author-link=William Henry Scott (historian) |access-date=April 20, 2023 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203072920/https://books.google.com/books?id=FSlwAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ness |first=Immanuel |editor-last1=Bellwood |editor-first1=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2HMTBwAAQBAJ |title=The Global Prehistory of Human Migration |date=2014 |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |isbn=978-1-118-97059-1 |location=Chichester, West Sussex, England |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2HMTBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA289 289] |author-link1=Immanuel Ness |editor-link1=Peter Bellwood |access-date=September 2, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203072922/https://books.google.com/books?id=2HMTBwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> jisme [[lingling-o]] Luzon ke jade ke banaa chij ke Taiwan ke raw material se banaawa gais rahaa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hung |first1=Hsiao-Chun |last2=Iizuka |first2=Yoshiyuki |last3=Bellwood |first3=Peter |last4=Nguyen |first4=Kim Dung |last5=Bellina |first5=Bérénice |last6=Silapanth |first6=Praon |last7=Dizon |first7=Eusebio |last8=Santiago |first8=Rey |last9=Datan |first9=Ipoi |last10=Manton |first10=Jonathan H. |date=December 11, 2007 |title=Ancient jades map 3,000 years of prehistoric exchange in Southeast Asia |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_2007-12-11_104_50/page/19745 |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |publisher=[[National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=104 |issue=50 |pages=19745–19750 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0707304104 |pmc=2148369 |pmid=18048347 |doi-access=free}}</ref> 1000 BC talak, ii islands ke log chaar society me develop hoe gay rahin : [[hunter-gatherer]] tribes, warrior societies, highland [[plutocracies]], aur port principalities.<ref name="Legarda-2001">{{Cite journal |last=Legarda |first=Benito Jr. |author-link=Benito J. Legarda |year=2001 |title=Cultural Landmarks and their Interactions with Economic Factors in the Second Millennium in the Philippines |journal=Kinaadman (Wisdom): A Journal of the Southern Philippines |publisher=[[Xavier University – Ateneo de Cagayan]] |volume=23 |page=40}}</ref> === Pahila states (900–1565) === [[File:Naturales 4.png|thumb| 1590's ke early Spanish colonial jamaana ke ek native praani jon sona pahinin hae.]] Philippines ke sab se pahila likha gias record, 900 AD ke [[Laguna Copperplate Inscription]] hae, jiske [[Old Malay]] bhasa me, [[Kawi alphabet|Kawi]] script me likha gais hae.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Postma |first=Antoon |author-link=Antoon Postma |date=1992 |title=The Laguna Copper-Plate Inscription: Text and Commentary |url=http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/1033/1018 |journal=[[Philippine Studies (journal)|Philippine Studies]] |location=Quezon City, Philippines |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University]] |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=182–203 |issn=0031-7837 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208053836/http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/1033/1018 |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |access-date=June 19, 2025 |archivedate=December 8, 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208053836/http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/1033/1018 }}</ref> 14th century talak, dher barraa-barraa coastal settlements trading centers ban ke [[Cultural achievements of pre-colonial Philippines|societal changes]] ke kaaran ban gais.<ref name="deGraaf-1977">{{Cite book |last1=de Graaf |first1=Hermanus Johannes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RYQeAAAAIAAJ |title=Geschichte: Lieferung 2 |last2=Kennedy |first2=Joseph |last3=Scott |first3=William Henry |date=1977 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |isbn=978-90-04-04859-1 |location=Leiden, Switzerland |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RYQeAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA198 198] |language=en |author-link3=William Henry Scott (historian) |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306102637/https://books.google.com/books?id=RYQeAAAAIAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> Kuchh basti ke log, Asia ke duusra state se chij ke trade karat rahin. <ref name="Junker-1999">{{Cite book |last=Junker |first=Laura Lee |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yO2yG0nxTtsC |title=Raiding, Trading, and Feasting: The Political Economy of Philippine Chiefdoms |date=1999 |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |isbn=978-0-8248-2035-0 |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |access-date=August 22, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203072919/https://books.google.com/books?id=yO2yG0nxTtsC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Nadeau |first=Kathleen M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kAINJWo4IJ4C |title=Liberation Theology in the Philippines: Faith in a Revolution |date=2002 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-275-97198-4 |location=Westport, Conn. |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kAINJWo4IJ4C&pg=PA8 8] |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317084801/https://books.google.com/books?id=kAINJWo4IJ4C |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Tang dynasty]] ke time, China se trade suruu bhais,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationalmuseum.gov.ph/2022/09/20/the-9th-to-10th-century-archaeological-evidence-of-maritime-relations-between-the-philippines-and-the-islands-of-southeast-asia/|title=The 9th to 10th century archaeological evidence of maritime relations between the Philippines and the islands of Southeast Asia|publisher=[[National Museum of the Philippines]]|access-date=December 4, 2023|date=n.d.}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Fox |first=Robert B. |author-link=Robert Bradford Fox |title=More Tsinoy Than We Admit: Chinese-Filipino Interactions Over the Centuries |publisher=Vibal Foundation, Inc. |year=2015 |isbn=9789719706823 |editor-last=Chu |editor-first=Richard T. |location=Quezon City |pages=10–13 |chapter=The Archaeological Record of Chinese Influences in the Philippines}}</ref> aur [[Song dynasty]] ke time aur barrha.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6kDm5d3cMIYC |title=Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to History |date=2004 |publisher=[[RoutledgeCurzon]] |isbn=978-0-415-29777-6 |editor-last=Glover |editor-first=Ian |location=London, England |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6kDm5d3cMIYC&pg=PA267 267] |author-link2=Peter Bellwood |editor-last2=Bellwood |editor-first2=Peter}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Pre-colonial Manila|url=http://malacanang.gov.ph/75832-pre-colonial-manila/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724010336/http://malacanang.gov.ph/75832-pre-colonial-manila/|archive-date=July 24, 2015|access-date=December 26, 2020|website=Malacañan Palace: Presidential Museum And Library}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Second millennium AD bhar, kuch basti [[China]] ke niche rahin.<ref name="Scott-1994">{{Cite book |last=Scott |first=William Henry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=15KZU-yMuisC |title=Barangay: Sixteenth-century Philippine Culture and Society |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University Press]] |year=1994 |isbn=978-971-550-135-4 |location=Quezon City, Philippines |author-link=William Henry Scott (historian) |access-date=October 18, 2015 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203072920/https://books.google.com/books?id=15KZU-yMuisC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Junker-1999" /> Jaada trade aur diplomacy ke kaaran, [[Northern and southern China|Southern]] [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] merchants aur migrants [[Southern Fujian]] se,<ref>{{Cite book |last=San Buena Ventura |first=Fr. Pedro de |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A8QxAQAAMAAJ |title=Vocabulario de lengua tagala: El romance castellano puesto primero |publisher=La Noble Villa de Pila |year=1613 |editor-last=de Silva |editor-first=Juan (Don.) |page=545 |language=[[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] & [[Early Modern Spanish]] |quote=Sangley) Langlang (pc) anſi llamauan los viejos deſtos [a los] ſangleyes cuando venian [a tratar] con ellos |trans-quote=Sangley) Langlang (pc) this is what the elderlies called [the] Sangleyes when they came [to deal] with them}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=San Buena Ventura |first=Fr. Pedro de |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A8QxAQAAMAAJ |title=Vocabulario de lengua tagala: El romance castellano puesto primero |publisher=La Noble Villa de Pila |year=1613 |editor-last=de Silva |editor-first=Juan (Don.) |page=170 |language=[[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] & [[Early Modern Spanish]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/metsnav/common/navigate.do?pn=1&size=large&oid=VAB8326 |title=Boxer Codex (Manila Manuscript) |others=[[Boxer Codex]], once kept by Sir [[C. R. Boxer]] |year=1590s |location=Manila |pages=415 [PDF] / 204 [As Written] |language=[[Early Modern Spanish]] & [[Philippine Hokkien|Early Manila Hokkien]] |via=[[Indiana University]] Digital Library, as digitized from the [[Lilly Library]] |access-date=March 24, 2024 |archive-date=March 24, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324113344/https://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/metsnav/common/navigate.do?pn=1&size=large&oid=VAB8326 |url-status=live}}</ref> aae ke ii islands me rahe lagin, aur ii log natives log ke saathe mix hoe lagin.. Indian ke sankriti, jaise ki bhasa aur dharam ke influence Philippines me 14th century me faela, Indianized Hindu [[Majapahit|Majapahit Empire]] se.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Philippines |encyclopedia=Concise Encyclopedia of World History |publisher=[[Atlantic Books|Atlantic Publishers & Distributors]] |location=New Delhi, India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gGKsS-9h4BYC |last=Ramirez-Faria |first=Carlos |date=2007 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gGKsS-9h4BYC&pg=PA560 560] |isbn=978-81-269-0775-5 |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=January 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117131629/https://books.google.com/books?id=gGKsS-9h4BYC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Evangelista |first=Alfredo E. |date=1965 |title=Identifying Some Intrusive Archaeological Materials Found in Philippine Proto-historic Sites |url=https://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-03-01-1965/Evangelista.pdf |journal=Asian Studies: Journal of Critical Perspectives on Asia |publisher=[[University of the Philippines Asian Center|Asian Center]], [[University of the Philippines]] |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=87–88 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230429072742/https://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-03-01-1965/Evangelista.pdf |archive-date=April 29, 2023 |access-date=April 29, 2023}}</ref> 15th century talak Islam [[Sulu Archipelago]] me aapan adda jamae ke huan se aur bagal faela.<ref name="deGraaf-1977" /> 10th aur 16th centuries ke biich me bane waala basti me [[Maynila (historical polity)|Maynila]],<ref name="Ring-1996">{{Cite book |last1=Ring |first1=Trudy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vWLRxJEU49EC |title=International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania |last2=Salkin |first2=Robert M. |last3=La Boda |first3=Sharon |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-884964-04-6 |location=Chicago, Ill. |pages=565–569 |name-list-style=amp |access-date=August 22, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203072922/https://books.google.com/books?id=vWLRxJEU49EC |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Tondo (historical polity)|Tondo]], [[Namayan]], [[Pangasinan (historical polity)|Pangasinan]], [[Caboloan]], [[Cebu (historical state)|Cebu]], [[Butuan (historical polity)|Butuan]], [[Sultanate of Maguindanao|Maguindanao]], [[Confederate States of Lanao|Lanao]], [[Sultanate of Sulu|Sulu]], aur [[Ma-i]] rahaa.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/historical-atlas-of-the-republic/page/n65/mode/2up |title=Historical Atlas of the Republic |date=2016 |publisher=[[Presidential Communications Group|Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office]] |isbn=978-971-95551-6-2 |editor-last=Quezon |editor-first=Manuel L. III |editor-link=Manolo Quezon |location=Manila, Philippines |page=64 |editor-last2=Goitia |editor-first2=Pocholo}}</ref> Suruu ke basti me tiin -tier ke social structure rahaa: nobility, freemen, aur dependent debtor-bondsmen.<ref name="Junker-1999" /><ref name="Wernstedt-1967">{{cite book |last1=Wernstedt |first1=Frederick L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Pn0Pfh1Cl0C |title=The Philippine Island World: A Physical, Cultural, and Regional Geography |last2=Spencer |first2=Joseph Earle |date=January 1967 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |location=Berkeley, Calif. |isbn=978-0-520-03513-3 |access-date=August 22, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203072939/https://books.google.com/books?id=6Pn0Pfh1Cl0C |url-status=live}}</ref> Raj kare waala log me neta rahin jaise [[datu]]s, jon groups ([[Barangay state|barangays]] or dulohan) pe raj karat rahin.<ref>{{cite book |last=Arcilla |first=José S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uxEYobbU-D8C |title=An Introduction to Philippine History |date=1998 |edition=Fourth enlarged |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University Press]] |location=Quezon City, Philippines |isbn=978-971-550-261-0 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uxEYobbU-D8C&pg=PA15 15]}}</ref> Jab barangays saathe hoe ke barraa basti banaawat rahin ,<ref name="Junker-1999" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Decasa |first=George C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hYNqz-1ayssC |title=The Qur'anic Concept of Umma and Its Function in Philippine Muslim Society |series=Interreligious and Intercultural Investigations |volume=1 |date=1999 |publisher=[[Pontificia Università Gregoriana]] |location=Rome, Italy |isbn=978-88-7652-812-5 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hYNqz-1ayssC&pg=PA328 328] |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203074637/https://books.google.com/books?id=hYNqz-1ayssC |url-status=live}}</ref> tab uske neta ke "[[Paramount rulers in early Philippine history|paramount datu]]" maana jaawat rahaa,<ref name="Newson">{{cite book |last=Newson |first=Linda A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ |title=Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines |date=April 16, 2009 |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |isbn=978-0-8248-6197-1 |access-date=February 5, 2021 |archive-date=March 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308195926/https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Legarda-2001" /> [[rajah]] or [[sultan]],<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Carley |editor-first1=Michael |editor-last2=Jenkins |editor-first2=Paul |editor-last3=Smith |editor-first3=Harry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ycT9AQAAQBAJ |title=Urban Development and Civil Society: The Role of Communities in Sustainable Cities |year=2013 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=Sterling, Va. |isbn=978-1-134-20050-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ycT9AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA108 108] |chapter=Chapter 7 |orig-date=2001 |access-date=September 28, 2020 |archive-date=March 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317140423/https://books.google.com/books?id=ycT9AQAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> aur janata pe raj karat rahaa .<ref>{{cite book |last=Tan |first=Samuel K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pw5FWmdNmj8C |title=A History of the Philippines |date=2008 |publisher=[[University of the Philippines Press]] |location=Quezon City, Philippines |isbn=978-971-542-568-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pw5FWmdNmj8C&pg=PA37 37] |author-link1=Samuel K. Tan}}</ref> 15th aur 16th century ii islands ke population density bahut kamti rahaa<ref name="Newson" /> jiske kaaran rahaa [[Typhoon#Frequency|frequency of typhoons]] aur Philippines ke location, Pacific [[Ring of Fire]] me.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bankoff |first1=Greg |editor-last1=Boomgaard |editor-first1=Peter |title=A World of Water: Rain, Rivers and Seas in Southeast Asian Histories |series=Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde |volume=240 |publisher=[[KITLV Press]] |location=Leiden, Netherlands |isbn=978-90-04-25401-5 |date=January 1, 2007 |pages=153–184 |chapter=Storms of history: Water, hazard and society in the Philippines: 1565-1930 |jstor=10.1163/j.ctt1w76vd0.9 |jstor-access=free}}</ref> Portuguese explorer [[Ferdinand Magellan]] 1521 me aais aur ii islands ke Spain ke khaatir claim karis, lekin uske [[Lapulapu]]'s log [[Battle of Mactan]] me maar de rahin.<ref name="Woods-2006">{{cite book |last=Woods |first=Damon L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Z-n_kDTxf0C |title=The Philippines: A Global Studies Handbook |date=2006 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-85109-675-6 |language=en |author-link1=Damon Woods |access-date=December 6, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073501/https://books.google.com/books?id=2Z-n_kDTxf0C |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Guillermo-2012">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Guillermo |first=Artemio R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmgX9M_yETIC |title=Historical Dictionary of the Philippines |edition=Third |series=Historical Dictionaries of Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East |date=2012 |publisher=[[The Scarecrow Press]] |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=978-0-8108-7246-2 |access-date=September 28, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073356/https://books.google.com/books?id=wmgX9M_yETIC |url-status=live}}</ref> === Spain aur America ke colonial raj (1565–1934) === [[File:Vista del Puente de Manila (1847).png|alt=See caption|thumb|[[Manila]], 1847]] Philippines ke unification aur colonization uu time suruu bhais jab Spanish explorer [[Miguel López de Legazpi]], [[New Spain]] se 1565 me aais.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wing |first=J.T. |title=Roots of Empire: Forests and State Power in Early Modern Spain, c.1500–1750 |publisher=Brill |series=Brill's Series in the History of the Environment |year=2015 |isbn=978-90-04-26137-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7dQuBgAAQBAJ |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7dQuBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 109] |quote=At the time of Miguel López de Legazpi's voyage in 1564-5, the Philippines were not a unified polity or nation. |access-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-date=January 28, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240128213911/https://books.google.com/books?id=7dQuBgAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Carson |first1=Arthur L. |title=Higher Education in the Philippines |series=Bulletin |date=1961 |issue=29 |url=http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED544128.pdf |publisher=[[Office of Education]], [[United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare]] |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=<!-- ISBN unspecified --> |oclc=755650 |page=7 |access-date=April 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150413085104/http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED544128.pdf |archive-date=April 13, 2015}}</ref><ref name="deBorja-2005">{{cite book |last=de Borja |first=Marciano R. |url=https://b-ok.cc/book/2577458/ffb6ff |title=Basques In The Philippines |series=The Basque Series |date=2005 |publisher=[[University of Nevada Press]] |location=Reno, Nev. |isbn=978-0-87417-590-5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326224340/https://b-ok.cc/book/2577458/ffb6ff |archive-date=March 26, 2022 |access-date=April 25, 2023 }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326224340/https://b-ok.cc/book/2577458/ffb6ff |date=March 26, 2022 }}</ref> Dher [[Filipinos]] ke New Spain me force kar ke boat me kaam kar ke laawa gais rahaa,<ref>{{cite book |last=Seijas |first=Tatiana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YCWjAwAAQBAJ |title=Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico: From Chinos to Indians |series=Cambridge Latin American Studies |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2014 |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-1-107-06312-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YCWjAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 36] |chapter=The Diversity and Reach of the Manila Slave Market |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YCWjAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32 |access-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-date=February 13, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213113750/https://books.google.com/books?id=YCWjAwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> jab dher [[Latin American Asian|Latin Americans]] ke Philippines sipahi aur colonists ke ruup me laawa gais rahaa.<ref>[https://pares.mcu.es/ParesBusquedas20/catalogo/description/431623 "Orden de enviar hombres a Filipinas desde México" (Consejo de Indias España)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250104042736/https://pares.mcu.es/ParesBusquedas20/catalogo/description/431623 |date=2025-01-04 }}(English Translation from Spanish original: "Royal Decree to the Count of Coruña, Viceroy of New Spain, informing him that, according to information from Captain Gabriel de Rivera who came from the Philippines, on a journey made by Governor Gonzalo Ronquillo to the Cagayan River some Spaniards were lost, and that to make up for this lack and populate these islands it was necessary to take up to two hundred men to them. The viceroy is ordered to attend to this request and send them from New Spain, in addition to another two hundred that were entrusted to him from Lisbon."</ref> Philippines, Latin American ke asia me khaali ek district rahaa.<ref>{{Cite web |title=West Coast of the Island Of Luzon {{pipe}} Tourist Attractions |url=http://www.livinginthephilippines.com/travel-guides/getting-to-philippines/979-tourist-attraction-city-of-manila |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161206200644/http://www.livinginthephilippines.com/travel-guides/getting-to-philippines/979-tourist-attraction-city-of-manila |archive-date=December 6, 2016 |access-date=December 6, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Colonial Latin Asia? The case for incorporating the Philippines and the Spanish Pacific into colonial Latin American studies|first=Kristie|last=Patricia Flannery|date=April 3, 2023|journal=Colonial Latin American Review|volume=32|issue=2|pages=235–242|doi=10.1080/10609164.2023.2205233|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Intramuros|Spanish Manila]], [[Captaincy General of the Philippines]] aur [[Spanish East Indies]] ke capital 1571 me banaa,<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Beaule |editor-first1=Christine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1cfcDwAAQBAJ |title=The Global Spanish Empire: Five Hundred Years of Place Making and Pluralism |editor-last2=Douglass |editor-first2=John G. |date=April 21, 2020 |publisher=[[University of Arizona Press]] |location=Tucson, Ariz. |isbn=978-0-8165-4084-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1cfcDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA204 204] |language=en |access-date=March 21, 2023 |archive-date=March 21, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321081230/https://books.google.com/books?id=1cfcDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Santiago |first=Fernando A. Jr. |year=2006 |title=Isang Maikling Kasaysayan ng Pandacan, Maynila 1589–1898 |trans-title=A Short History of Pandacan, Manila 1589–1898 |url=https://ejournals.ph/article.php?id=7887 |url-status=live |journal=Malay |language=fil |publisher=[[De La Salle University]] |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=70–87 |issn=2243-7851 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200821002744/https://ejournals.ph/article.php?id=7887 |archive-date=August 21, 2020 |access-date=July 18, 2008 |via=Philippine E-Journals}}</ref> <ref>{{cite book |last=Andrade |first=Tonio |url=http://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/ |title=How Taiwan Became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish and Han colonialization in the Seventeenth Century |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-231-12855-1 |year=2005 |chapter=Chapter 4: La Isla Hermosa: The Rise of the Spanish Colony in Northern Taiwan |author-link=Tonio Andrade |chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/andrade04.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071121160327/http://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/andrade04.html |archive-date=November 21, 2007 |via=Gutenberg-e}}</ref> Spanish log local states ke [[divide and rule|divide and conquer]] principle kae kaam me laae ke, invade kare rahin ,<ref name="Guillermo-2012" /> aur ii rakam se , jon abhi ke Philippines hae ke ek unified administration ke niche kar liin.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Giráldez |first1=Arturo |title=The Age of Trade: The Manila Galleons and the Dawn of the Global Economy |date=March 19, 2015 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=978-1-4422-4352-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6mCGBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6mCGBwAAQBAJ |language=en |access-date=April 2, 2023 |archive-date=April 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402112011/https://books.google.com/books?id=6mCGBwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Acabado |first=Stephen |date=March 1, 2017 |title=The Archaeology of Pericolonialism: Responses of the "Unconquered" to Spanish Conquest and Colonialism in Ifugao, Philippines |url=https://escholarship.org/content/qt3tp1p8m3/qt3tp1p8m3.pdf?t=qa7wdn |journal=[[International Journal of Historical Archaeology]] |publisher=[[Springer New York]] |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.1007/s10761-016-0342-9 |s2cid=254541436 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106150313/https://escholarship.org/content/qt3tp1p8m3/qt3tp1p8m3.pdf?t=qa7wdn |archive-date=November 6, 2020 |via=Springer Link}}</ref> Alag-alag barangay ke jaan ke ek town me karaa gais rahaa , jahaan pe Catholic missionaries sahaj me log ke [[Isai dharam]] me convert kare sake,<ref name="Abinales-2005">{{cite book |last1=Abinales |first1=Patricio N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC |title=State and Society in the Philippines |last2=Amoroso |first2=Donna J. |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location=Lanham, Md. |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7425-1024-1 |access-date=September 28, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073346/https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Constantino |first1=Renato |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kdhWCgAAQBAJ |title=A History of the Philippines: From the Spanish Colonization to the Second World War |last2=Constantino |first2=Letizia R. |publisher=[[Monthly Review Press]] |location=New York, N.Y. |year=1975 |isbn=978-0-85345-394-9 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kdhWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA58 58–59] |author-link1=Renato Constantino |access-date=January 19, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073504/https://books.google.com/books?id=kdhWCgAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schumacher |first1=John N. |title=Syncretism in Philippine Catholicism: Its Historical Causes |journal=[[Philippine Studies (journal)|Philippine Studies]] |volume=32 |issue=3 |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University Press]] |location=Quezon City, Philippines |date=1984 |page=254 |url=http://philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/view/3833/4054 |issn=2244-1093 |oclc=6015358201 |jstor=42632710 |author-link1=John N. Schumacher |access-date=October 5, 2023 |archive-date=October 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231006144446/http://philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/view/3833/4054 |url-status=live |archivedate=October 6, 2023 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20231006144446/http://philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/view/3833/4054 }}</ref> [[Christianization]], Spanish friars se, jaada kar ke basaa gais lowlands me bhais. 1565 se 1821 talak, Philippines ke [[Mexico City]] ke ek territory ke ruup me govern karaa jaawat rahaa- jon New Spain ke vice royality rahaa; lekin [[Mexican War of Independence]] ke baad iske directly [[Madrid]] se administer karaa gais rahaa .<ref name="Halili-2004">{{cite book |last=Halili |first=Maria Christine N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC |title=Philippine History |publisher=[[REX Book Store, Inc.]] |location=Manila, Philippines |year=2004 |edition=First |isbn=978-971-23-3934-9 |access-date=May 23, 2020 |archive-date=December 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230123021/https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC |url-status=live}}</ref>Manila [[Spanish treasure fleet|trans-Pacific trade]] ke western hub ban gais rahaa<ref>{{cite book |last=Kane |first=Herb Kawainui |title=Hawaiʻ Chronicles: Island History from the Pages of Honolulu Magazine |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8248-1829-6 |editor-last=Bob Dye |volume=I |pages=25–32 |chapter=The Manila Galleons |author-link=Herb Kawainui Kane}}</ref> <ref>{{cite report |type=Conference proceeding |last=Bolunia |first=Mary Jane Louise A. |chapter=Astilleros: the Spanish shipyards of Sorsogon |chapter-url=http://www.themua.org/collections/files/original/34a74c76efdb951655b9bde1213812dc.pdf |title=Proceedings of the 2014 Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Conference; Session 5: Early Modern Colonialism in the Asia-Pacific Region |url=http://www.themua.org/collections/collections/show/13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150413233643/http://www.themua.org/collections/files/original/34a74c76efdb951655b9bde1213812dc.pdf |archive-date=April 13, 2015 |access-date=October 26, 2015 |publisher=Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Planning Committee |page=1 |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |oclc=892536655 |via=The Museum of Underwater Archaeology}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=McCarthy |first=William J. |date=December 1, 1995 |title=The Yards at Cavite: Shipbuilding in the Early Colonial Philippines |url=https://archive.org/details/international-journal-of-maritime-history_1995-12_7_2/page/149 |journal=[[International Journal of Maritime History]] |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=149–162 |doi=10.1177/084387149500700208 |s2cid=163709949}}</ref> == Duusra websites == === Official websites === * [http://www.gov.ph www.gov.ph] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120101105754/http://www.gov.ph/ |date=2012-01-01 }} - Government portal * [http://www.op.gov.ph www.op.gov.ph] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609185330/http://www.op.gov.ph/ |date=2007-06-09 }} - Office of the President * [http://www.senate.gov.ph www.senate.gov.ph] - Senate * [http://www.congress.gov.ph www.congress.gov.ph] - House of Representatives * [http://www.supremecourt.gov.ph www.supremecourt.gov.ph] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512084154/http://www.supremecourt.gov.ph/ |date=2008-05-12 }} - Supreme Court * [http://www.comelec.gov.ph www.comelec.gov.ph] - Commission on Elections === News websites === * [http://www.inq7.net Philippine Daily Inquirer and GMA News] * [http://www.abs-cbnnews.com ABS-CBN News] * [http://www.philstar.com Philippine Star] * [http://www.mb.com.ph The Manila Bulletin Online] * [http://www.manilatimes.net The Manila Times Online] * [http://www.sunstar.com.ph Sun Star Network Online] * [http://www.tribune.net.ph The Daily Tribune Online] * [http://www.malaya.com.ph Malaya Online] * [http://www.today.net.ph Today Online] * [http://www.kabayanonline.com Kabayan Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191018220647/http://www.kabayanonline.com/ |date=2019-10-18 }} === Aurr === * [http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/Philippines/ Open Directory Project] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040819050600/http://dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/Philippines/ |date=2004-08-19 }} * [http://www.filipinotvchannel.com The Filipino Channel] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090712052253/http://www.filipinotvchannel.com/ |date=2009-07-12 }} - Satellite TV from the Philippines [[vibhag:Philippines| ]] [[vibhag:ASEAN ke member]] [[vibhag:English bhasa waala des]] 6v8npvdq5rr4url8gq6ljzovtvey9uo 0 4505 337317 328267 2026-08-15T06:20:08Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337317 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Bees | image = European_honey_bee_extracts_nectar.jpg | image_caption = A honey bee | regnum = Animalia | phylum = Arthropoda | classis = Insecta | ordo = Hymenoptera | superfamilia = Apoidea | familia = '''Andrenidae''' <br /> '''Apidae''' <br /> '''Colletidae''' <br /> '''Halictidae''' <br /> '''Megachilidae''' <br /> '''Melittidae''' <br /> '''Stenotritidae''' }} ''' Madhmakkhi''' urre waala kirwaa hae jon [[monophyly|monophyletic]] [[clade]] '''Anthophila''' ke bane hae <!--[[Superfamily (taxonomy)|-->superfamily<!--]]--> [[Apoidea]], [[order (biology)|order]] [[Hymenoptera]] ke,<ref>Engel, M. S. (2005) Family-group names for bees (Hymenoptera, Apoidea). ''American Museum Novitates'' 3476.</ref> aur jisme 20,000 jaana gais [[species]] saath jaana jaawe waala [[family (biology)|families]] me hae.<ref name="Danforthetal2006">{{cite journal |author1=Danforth, B. N. |author2=Sipes, S. |author3=Fang, J. |author4=Brady, S. G. |title=The history of early bee diversification based on five genes plus morphology |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_2006-10-10_103_41/page/15118 |journal=PNAS |volume=103 |issue=41 |pages=15118–15123 |date=October 2006 |pmid=17015826 |pmc=1586180 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0604033103|bibcode=2006PNAS..10315118D |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Almeida |first1=Eduardo A.B. |last2=Bossert |first2=Silas |last3=Danforth |first3=Bryan N. |last4=Porto |first4=Diego S. |last5=Freitas |first5=Felipe V. |last6=Davis |first6=Charles C. |last7=Murray |first7=Elizabeth A. |last8=Blaimer |first8=Bonnie B. |last9=Spasojevic |first9=Tamara |last10=Ströher |first10=Patrícia R. |last11=Orr |first11=Michael C. |last12=Packer |first12=Laurence |last13=Brady |first13=Seán G. |last14=Kuhlmann |first14=Michael |last15=Branstetter |first15=Michael G. |last16=Pie |first16=Marcio R. |display-authors=5 |title=The evolutionary history of bees in time and space |journal=[[Current Biology]] |date=2023 |volume=33 |issue=16 |pages=3409–3422.e6 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2023.07.005 |doi-access=free|pmid=37506702 |bibcode=2023CBio...33E3409A }}</ref> Kuchh species{{snd}}jisme [[honey bee]]s, [[bumblebee]]s, aur [[stingless bee]]s hae{{snd}} [[social insect]]s hae jon ek jaada hierarchical [[colony (biology)|colonies]] me rahe hae, jab dher species (>90%){{snd}}jisme [[mason bee]]s, [[carpenter bee]]s, [[Megachile|leafcutter bees]], aur [[Halictidae|sweat bees]] hae{{snd}} [[solitary animal|solitary]] hae. Sab se jaada jaane waala [[genus]], ''[[Apis (genus)|Apis]]'' (i.e. honey bees), ke baare me ii jaana jaawe hae ki ii [[honeycomb|hexagonally celled]] [[beeswax|wax]]y [[nest]]s called [[beehive|hive]]s ke banae hae. Jab madhmakkhi ke nagiich ke palwaar [[barre]] aur [[chuunti]], [[carnivorous]]/[[omnivorous]] hae, madhmakkhi [[herbivore]]s hae jon khaali [[nectar]] ([[nectarivory]]) aur [[pollen]] ([[palynivory]]) khaawe hae, nector se [[carbohydrate]] jon metabolic energy ke source hae, aur pollen [[protein]] ke khaatir aur duusra [[nutrient]]s aapan [[larva]]e ke khaatir. Madhmakkhi ke dunia ke sab continent me, [[Antarctica]] ke chhorr ke paawa jaawe hae, aur ii [[dunia]] ke sab jagha hae jahaan pe paudha jisme [[entomophily|insect-pollinated]] [[flowering plant]]s hae. [[Northern Hemisphere]] ke sab se jaada bee [[Halictidae]], nai to sweat madmakkhi hae, lekin ii chhotaa hae aur iske barre aur makkhi se mistake karaa jaawe hae. Madmakki ke size chhotaa stingless madmakkhi ke species, jiske majuur {{convert|2|mm|inch|2|sp=us}} lambaa se kamti rahe hae,<ref name=":0">{{cite book |publisher=Springer New York |date=2020 |isbn=978-3-030-60089-1 |first=Christoph |last=Grüter |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-60090-7 |title=Stingless Bees: Their Behaviour, Ecology and Evolution |series=Fascinating Life Sciences |s2cid=227250633 |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-030-60090-7#toc |url-access=limited}}</ref> se lae ke leafcutter madmakkhi ''[[Megachile pluto]]'' talak, jon sab se barraa madmakkhi ke species hae, jiske females ke lambaai {{convert|39|mm|inch|2|sp=us}} talak rahe hae. Madmakkhi ke khaae waala [[jaanwar]] me [[primates]] aur [[chirriya]] jaise [[bee-eater]]s ; insect predators jaise [[beewolf|beewolves]] aur [[dragonfly|dragonflies]] hae. Madmakkhi ke [[insaan]] uske ecological roles [[pollinator]] ke ruup me aur, sab se jaada jaane waala species ke case me , the [[western honey bee]], [[madh]] banae ke khaatir, ek [[regurgitation (digestion)|regurgitated]] aur [[food drying|dehydrated]] viscous mixture jon thorra digested [[monosaccharide]] ke madhmakkhi colony ke khaatir khaana ke godaam ke ruup me hae. [[Pollination management]] madhmakkhi ke kaam me laae ke important hae duuno ecologically aur agriculturally, au janglee madhmakkhi ke abaadi kamti hoe ke kaaran [[domesticated]] [[pollination]] by commercially managed hives of madhmakkhi ke demand barr gais hae. 1980 se 2013 talak 353 janglii madhmakkhi ke analysis me paawa gais hae ki ek chauthaai species extinct hoe gais hae. <ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/mar/26/widespread-losses-of-pollinating-insects-revealed-across-britain |title=Widespread losses of pollinating insects revealed across Britain |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=26 March 2019}}</ref> Insaan se [[beekeeping]] nai to [[apiculture]] ([[meliponiculture]] for stingless bees) ke hajaaro saal se karaa jaawe hae , kamti se kamti [[Ancient Egypt]] aur [[Ancient Greece]] me. Madhmakkhi mythology aur folklore me bhi aais hae. [[vibhag:M]] [[Category:Kirwa]] skjsdq15t175dnbtpo16hlhw6yf0pyx 0 4794 337301 322749 2026-08-15T06:05:01Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337301 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Nobelprize|Physics}}{{Infobox scientist |box_width = 290px |name = Albert Einstein |image = Einstein1921 by F Schmutzer 4.jpg |caption = Albert Einstein, 1921 |birth_date = {{birth date|1879|3|14}} |birth_place = Ulm, Kingdom of Württemberg, German Empire |death_date = {{death date and age|1955|4|18|1879|3|14}} |death_place = Princeton, New Jersey, [[United States|USA]] |spouse = Mileva Marić &nbsp;(1903–1919)<br />Elsa Löwenthal, née Einstein, (1923-1936) |residence = [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Switzerland]], [[United States|USA]] |citizenship = {{nowrap|Württemberg/Germany&nbsp;(1879–96)}}<br />Stateless&nbsp;(1896-1901)<br />[[Switzerland]]&nbsp;(1901–55)<br />[[Austria]]&nbsp;(1911–12)<br />[[Germany]]&nbsp;(1914–33)<br />[[United States]]&nbsp;(1940–55)<ref name="misc">{{cite web |url=http://www.einstein-website.de/z_information/variousthings.html |title=Various things about Albert Einstein |last=Hans-Josef |first=Küpper |date=2000 |publisher=einstein-website.de |accessdate=2009-07-18 |archive-date=2011-07-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722183129/http://www.einstein-website.de/z_information/variousthings.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> |fields = Physics |workplaces = [[Switzerland|Swiss]] Patent Office (Bern)<br />University of Zurich<br />Charles University in Prague<br />ETH Zurich<br />Prussian Academy of Sciences<br />Kaiser Wilhelm Institute<br />University of Leiden<br />Institute for Advanced Study |alma_mater = ETH Zurich<br />University of Zurich |doctoral_advisor = Alfred Kleiner |academic_advisors = Heinrich Friedrich Weber |doctoral_students = <!--Hans Tanner was his PhD student, but wait until he gets a wiki bio--> |notable_students = Ernst G. Straus<br />Nathan Rosen |known_for = General relativity<br />Special relativity<br />Photoelectric effect<br />Brownian motion<br />Mass-energy equivalence<br />Einstein field equations<br />Unified Field Theory<br />Bose–Einstein statistics |awards = Nobel Prize in Physics (1921)<br />Copley Medal&nbsp;(1925)<br />Max Planck Medal&nbsp;(1929)<br />''Time'' Person of the Century |ethnicity = Jewish |religion = See Main article |signature = Albert Einstein signature.svg |footnotes = <!--For any footnotes needed to clarify entries above--> }} '''Albert Einstein''' ([[14 March]] [[1879]] - [[18 April]] [[1955]]) ek [[Germany]] me paida hoe waala, theoretical [[bhautik vigyan|bhautik vigyanik]] (physicist) rahaa, jiske [[theory of relativity]] ke banaae ke khaatir jaana jaae hae. famous scientist rahaa jiske [[1921]] me Physics ke khatir [[Nobel Prize]] mila rahaa. Einstein, [[quantum mechanics]] me bhi khaas yogdaan diis hae.<ref name="frs"/><ref name="YangHamilton2010"/> Uske [[mass–energy equivalence]] formula {{math|1=[[Mass–energy equivalence#Mass–velocity relationship|''E'' = ''mc''²]]}}, jon [[special relativity]] se aae hae, ke "the world's most famous equation" bataawa gais hae.<ref name="LnLVo"/> 1921 me uske bhautik vigyan me [[Nobel Prize]] milaa, uske theoretical bhautik vigyan, khaas kar ke [[photoelectric effect]] ke niyam ke paae ke khaatir.<ref name="Nobel Prize"/> 1905, Einsten ke "miracle saal" maana jaae hae, jab uu chaar khaas paper ke publish karis rahaa.{{sfnp|Galison|2000|p=377}} Isme uu photoelectric effect ke theory, [[Brownian motion]], theory of reativity aur mass and enery equivalence ke baare me samjhaais. 1915 me uu [[general theory of relativity]] ke propose karis aur aapan system of mechanics me [[gravitation]] ke bhi saamil karis. 1916 me ek paper me uu general relativity ke ke [[universe]] ke structure aur evolution ke baare me likhis. <ref name="Nobel"/><ref name="NYT-20151124"/> 1917 me, Einstein ek paper likhis jisme uu "concept of spontaneaous" aur "simulated emission" ke introduce karis jon [[laser]] aur [[maser]] ke banae ke possible karis aur isme uu sab jaankari rahaa jiske baad me quantum electrodynamics aur quantum optics me kaam me aais.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kleppner |first=Daniel |author-link=Daniel Kleppner |date=1 February 2005 |title=Rereading Einstein on Radiation |url=https://pubs.aip.org/physicstoday/article/58/2/30/904451/Rereading-Einstein-on-RadiationThe-concepts-of |journal=Physics Today |language=en |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=30–33 |bibcode=2005PhT....58b..30K |doi=10.1063/1.1897520 |issn=0031-9228}}</ref> Uske kaam ke biich waala hissa me uu [[statistical mechanics]] aur quantum theory me khaas yogdaan diis rahaa. Uske ek important kaam "quantum physics of radiation" me rahaa, jisme light particles jiske baad me [[photon]] bola gais rahaa, rahaa. Uu India ke bhautik vigyanis, [[Satyendra Nath Bose]] ke saathe [[Bose-Einstein statistics]] ke groungwork ke lay karis. Uu aapan academic life ke aakhri phase me pahile "fundamental randomness" ke science me introduce kare ke virod karis<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-05004-4 |title=Did Einstein really say that? |last=Robinson |first=Andrew |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |date=30 April 2018 |volume=557 |number=30 |page=30 |doi=10.1038/d41586-018-05004-4 |bibcode=2018Natur.557...30R |s2cid=14013938 |access-date=21 February 2021 |archive-date=9 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109033021/https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-05004-4 |url-status=live |issn=0028-0836}}</ref> aur duusra uu ek "unified field thoery" ke banae ke kosis karis, jisse uu mainstream modern physics se duur hoe gais rahaa. == Uske jindagi aur kaam == ===Bachpan aur parrhaai=== [[File:Albert Einstein at the age of three (1882).jpg|thumb|upright|left|alt=A young boy with short hair and a round face, wearing a white collar and large bow, with vest, coat, skirt, and high boots. He is leaning against an ornate chair.|Einstein in 1882, age{{nbs}}3]] Einstein ke janam Ulm<ref name="Bio" /> , Württemberg, [[Germany]] me 14 March 1879 me bhais rahaa. Uske palwaar Jewish rahin lekin bahut dharmic nai rahin. 1880 me uske palwaar [[Munich]] me jaae ke rahe lagin jahaan pe uske pitaji aur chaacha ek company ke suruu karis jon direct current ke kaam me llwat rahaa. Albert jab tiin saal ke rahaa tab baat kare ke suruu karis rahaa. Jab Albert lagbhag chaar saal ke rahaa tab uske pitaji uske ek magnetic compass diis rahaa. Uu ii jaane mangat rahaa ki uu kon invisible chij hai jon ki compass ke needle ke ghumae hae aur uske interest science aur Maths me aur jaada hoe gais. Jab uu paanch saal ke rahaa tab uu ek [[Catholic]] school me parrhai suruu karis. Aath saal ke umar me uu duusra school gais jahaan pe uu aapan promary aur secondary parhai karis rahaa. {{multiple image | width = 145 | image1 = Hermann einstein.jpg | alt1 = | image2 = Pauline Koch edit.jpg | alt2 = | footer = Einstein's parents, [[Hermann Einstein|Hermann]] and [[Pauline Einstein|Pauline]] }} [[File:Albert Einstein as a child.jpg|thumb|upright=.9|left|alt=Studio photo of a boy seated in a relaxed posture and wearing a suit, posed in front of a backdrop of scenery.|Einstein in 1893, age{{nbs}}14]] Jab uu aur barra bhais tab uu [[Switzerland]] me ek school me gais. Graduate hoe ke baad uu ek patent office me kaaam kare lagaa. Ii kaam kare ke time uu papers likhis jisse uu ek famous scientist banaa. [[World War I]] se kuchh din pahile uu Germany laut gais aur ek school ke director ban gais. Uu, ja talak Nazi government power me nai aais, [[Berlin]] me rahat rahaa. Nazi logan Einstein ke "Jewish physics," khatir acuse karis aur German physicists uske theory ke disprove kare ke kisis karis Einstein [[United States]] chal diis aur Princeton, New Jersey me rahat rahaa aur [[1940]] me United States [[citizen]] ban gais. [[World War II]] ke time , Einstein aur Leó Szilárd U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt ke lage likh ke ii maang karis ki US , Germany se pahile nucklear bomb banae. Einsteinke maut [[18 April]] [[1955]] , heart disease ke kaaran hoe gais. == Vigyan ke kaam == [[file:Einstein patentoffice.jpg|alt=Head and shoulders shot of a young, moustached man with dark, curly hair wearing a plaid suit and vest, striped shirt, and a dark tie.|thumb|upright|Albert Einstein in 1904]] [[file:Photoelectric effect in a solid - diagram.svg|thumb|upright|The photoelectric effect. Incoming photons on the left strike a metal plate (bottom), and eject electrons, depicted as flying off to the right.]] Einstein, aapan jindagi bhar, dher sau books aur article publish karis rahaa.<ref name="Paul Arthur Schilpp, editor 1951 730–746"/><ref name="Bio"/> Uu aapan akkele kaam ke saathe, duusra scientist logan ke saaathe bhi dher kaam karis rahaa, jisme Bose–Einstein statistics bhi hae, aur [[Einstein refrigerator]].<ref name="Instituut-Lorentz">"[http://www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/Einstein_archive/ Einstein archive at the Instituut-Lorentz]". ''Instituut-Lorentz.'' 2005. Retrieved on 21 November 2005.</ref> 1895 me Einstein [[Switzerland]] me jaae ke rahe lagaa, aur 1896 me aapan German citizenship ke tyaag diis.<ref name=GEcitizen group="note"/> 1897 me, jab uske umar 17 saal rahaa, tab uu Zurich ke federal polytechnic school me bharti hoe ke mathematics aur physics teaching diploma ke parrhai suruu karis aur 1900 me graduate bhais. 1901 me uu Switzerland ke citizenship liis, jiske uu jindagi bhar rakkhis rahaa, aur Bern ke Swiss Patent Office me kaam kare ke suruu karis. 1905 me uu University of Zurich se PhD karis. 1914 me uu [[Berlin]] me jaae ke rahe lagaa aur University of Berlin ke Kaiser Wilhem Institute me bhautik vigyan ke director banaa. 1917 me uu fir se German citizen banaa.<ref name=GEcitizen group="note"/> 1933 me, jab Einstein, United States me rahaa, tab Germany me [[Adolf Hitler]] power me aais. [[Nazi]] log ke Jews ke prosecution ke dekh ke uu America me rahe ke decide karis aur 1940 me uske American citizenship dewa gais rahaa.<ref name="BoyerDubofsky2001"/> [[World War II]] ke surru hoe ke time uu America ke President ke lage ek chitthii likhis jisme uu Germany ke nuclear program ke baare me chetauni diis aur ii sifaris karis ki America bhi nuclear research kae. == Duusra websites == {{commons|Albert Einstein|Albert Einstein}} {{wikiquote}};kl[ ol * [http://www.cartesio-episteme.net/fis/mueller.htm G.O.Mueller] == References == {{reflist|refs= <ref name="Bio">{{cite web |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-bio.html |title=Albert Einstein{{nbs}}– Biography |access-date=7 March 2007 |publisher=[[Nobel Foundation]]| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070306133522/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-bio.html| archive-date= 6 March 2007 | url-status=live}}</ref> <ref name="frs">{{cite journal |last1=Whittaker |first1=E. |author-link=E. T. Whittaker| doi=10.1098/rsbm.1955.0005 |title=Albert Einstein. 1879–1955 |journal=[[Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society]] |volume=1 |pages=37–67 |date=1 November 1955| jstor=769242| doi-access=free}}</ref> <ref name="YangHamilton2010">{{cite book|first1=Fujia|last1=Yang|first2=Joseph H.|last2=Hamilton|title=Modern Atomic and Nuclear Physics|date=2010|publisher=World Scientific|isbn=978-981-4277-16-7|page=274}}</ref> <ref name="Nobel">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2011/advanced-physicsprize2011.pdf|title=Scientific Background on the Nobel Prize in Physics 2011. The accelerating universe|publisher=Nobel Media AB|page=2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120516052710/https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2011/advanced-physicsprize2011.pdf|archive-date=16 May 2012|access-date=4 January 2015}}</ref> <ref name="NYT-20151124">{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |author-link=Dennis Overbye |title=A Century Ago, Einstein's Theory of Relativity Changed Everything |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/24/science/a-century-ago-einsteins-theory-of-relativity-changed-everything.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/24/science/a-century-ago-einsteins-theory-of-relativity-changed-everything.html |archive-date=1 January 2022 |url-access=limited |date=24 November 2015 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=24 November 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref> <ref name="BoyerDubofsky2001">{{cite book|author1=Paul S. Boyer|author2=Melvyn Dubofsky|title=The Oxford Companion to United States History|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00paul_0|url-access=registration |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-508209-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00paul_0/page/218 218]}}</ref> <ref name="Paul Arthur Schilpp, editor 1951 730–746">{{Cite book |editor=Paul Arthur Schilpp |date=1951 |title=Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist |volume=II |publisher=Harper and Brothers Publishers (Harper Torchbook edition) |location=New York |pages=730–746}}. His non-scientific works include: ''About Zionism: Speeches and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein'' (1930), "Why War?" (1933, co-authored by [[Sigmund Freud]]), ''The World As I See It'' (1934), ''Out of My Later Years'' (1950), and a book on science for the general reader, ''[[The Evolution of Physics]]'' (1938, co-authored by [[Leopold Infeld]]).</ref> <ref name="wordnetweb.princeton.edu">{{Cite web |url=http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=Einstein |title=Result of WordNet Search for Einstein |version=3.1 |publisher=The Trustees of Princeton University |access-date=4 January 2015 |archive-date=28 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150828054753/http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=Einstein |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="Robinson2015a">{{cite book|last=Robinson|first=Andrew|author-link=Walter Isaacson|title=Einstein: A Hundred Years of Relativity|url={{GBurl|id=Px4_CQAAQBAJ|p=144}}|year=2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-16989-7|pages=143–145|access-date=19 July 2016}}</ref> <!--<ref name="Kleinknecht2015">{{cite book|last=Kleinknecht|first=Konrad|title=Einstein and Heisenberg|publisher=Springer Nature|date=2019|page=143}}</ref>--> <ref name="IGEFAQ">{{cite web |title=FAQ about Einstein and the Institute |url=https://www.ige.ch/en/about-us/the-history-of-the-ipi/einstein/faq |publisher=Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property, IGE/IPI |location=Berne, Switzerland |date=27 May 2014 |type=official website |access-date=27 March 2015 |archive-date=12 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210612105555/https://www.ige.ch/en/about-us/the-history-of-the-ipi/einstein/faq |url-status=live }}</ref> <ref name="NYTimes_19191125">{{cite news |title=A New Physics, Based on Einstein |url=https://newspaperarchive.com/new-york-times-nov-25-1919-p-17/ |work=The New York Times |date=25 November 1919 |page=17 |access-date=8 June 2019 |archive-date=8 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608033600/https://newspaperarchive.com/new-york-times-nov-25-1919-p-17/ |url-status=live |url-access=subscription}}</ref> <ref name="Eddington">{{cite journal |last=Andrzej |first=Stasiak |year=2003 |title=Myths in science |journal=EMBO Reports |volume=4 |issue=3 |page=236 |doi=10.1038/sj.embor.embor779 |doi-access=free |pmc=1315907}}</ref> <ref name="Jerome">{{cite book|author1=Fred Jerome|author2=Rodger Taylor|title=Einstein on Race and Racism|url={{GBurl|id=4d79VQdOfFUC|pg=PR10}}|year=2006|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=978-0-8135-3952-2|page=10|access-date=18 June 2015}}</ref> <ref name="Gilbert">Gilbert, Martin. ''Churchill and the Jews'', Henry Holt and Company, N.Y. (2007) pp. 101, 176</ref> <ref name="AP">"Denunciation of German Policy is a Stirring Event", Associated Press, 27 July 1933</ref> <ref name="Guardian">"Stateless Jews: The Exiles from Germany, Nationality Plan", ''The Guardian'' (UK) 27 July 1933</ref> <ref name="Arntzenius2011">{{cite book|first=Linda G.|last=Arntzenius|title=Institute for Advanced Study|url={{GBurl|id=zHHguITir80C|p=19}}|date=2011|publisher=Arcadia Publishing|isbn=978-0-7385-7409-7|page=19|access-date=18 June 2015}}</ref> <ref name="Jerome_Isis">{{cite journal|last1=Jerome|first1=Fred|title=Einstein, Race, and the Myth of the Cultural Icon|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_isis_2004-12_95_4/page/627|journal=Isis|date=December 2004|volume=95|issue=4|pages=627–639 |doi=10.1086/430653 |pmid=16011298 |jstor=10.1086/430653 |bibcode=2004Isis...95..627J |s2cid=24738716}}</ref> <ref name="civil">{{cite web| url = http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2007/04/albert-einstein-civil-rights-activist/| title = Albert Einstein, Civil Rights activist| date = 12 April 2007| access-date = 8 June 2014| archive-date = 2 March 2018| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180302182248/https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2007/04/albert-einstein-civil-rights-activist/| url-status = live}}, ''Harvard Gazette'', 12 April 2007</ref> {{BD|1879|1955|Einstein, Albert}} [[vibhag:Germany ke log]] [[vibhag:Scientists]] sold4l8gmjg8jz9v4vyb9c5tx4d7140 0 4880 337303 324516 2026-08-15T06:07:50Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337303 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox scientist | honorific_prefix = [[Sir]] | name = Isaac Newton | honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRS}} | image = Portrait of Sir Isaac Newton, 1689 (brightened).jpg | alt = Portrait of Newton, a white man with white hair and a brown robe, sitting with his hands folded | caption = Newton ke portrait, 1689 | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1643|01|04}} | birth_place = Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, Lincolnshire, England | death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1727|03|31|1643|01|04}} | death_place = Kensington, Middlesex, England | resting_place = [[Westminster Abbey]] | fields = {{hlist|[[Physics]]|[[natural philosophy]]|[[alchemy]]|[[theology]]|[[mathematics]]|[[astronomy]]|[[economics]]}} | workplaces = {{hlist|[[University of Cambridge]]|[[Royal Society]]|[[Royal Mint]]}} | education = [[Trinity College, Cambridge]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]], 1665; [[Master of Arts|MA]], 1668)<ref>Kevin C. Knox, Richard Noakes (eds.), ''From Newton to Hawking: A History of Cambridge University's Lucasian Professors of Mathematics'', Cambridge University Press, 2003, p. 61.</ref> | academic_advisors = {{unbulleted list | [[Isaac Barrow]]<ref>Feingold, Mordechai. [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/1541 Barrow, Isaac (1630–1677)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130129154554/http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/1541 |date=29 January 2013 }}, ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', [[Oxford University Press]], September 2004; online edn, May 2007. Retrieved 24 February 2009; explained further in {{cite journal |last=Feingold |first=Mordechai |date=1993 |title=Newton, Leibniz, and Barrow Too: An Attempt at a Reinterpretation |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_isis_1993-06_84_2/page/310 |journal=Isis |volume=84 |issue=2 |pages=310–338 |bibcode=1993Isis...84..310F |doi=10.1086/356464 |jstor=236236 |s2cid=144019197 |issn=0021-1753}}</ref> | [[Benjamin Pulleyn]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Dictionary of Scientific Biography |url=http://www.chlt.org/sandbox/lhl/dsb/page.50.a.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050225223812/http://www.chlt.org/sandbox/lhl/dsb/page.50.a.php |archive-date=25 February 2005 |at=Notes, No. 4}}</ref>}} | notable_students = {{unbulleted list| [[Roger Cotes]]|[[William Whiston]]}} | awards = {{unbulleted list | [[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]]&nbsp;(1672)<ref name="frs">{{cite web |title=Fellows of the Royal Society |url=https://royalsociety.org/about-us/fellowship/fellows |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316060617/https://royalsociety.org/about-us/fellowship/fellows |archive-date=16 March 2015 |publisher=Royal Society |location=London}}</ref> | [[Knight Bachelor]]&nbsp;(1705)}} | known_for = {{collapsible list|[[Classical mechanics|Newtonian mechanics]]| [[universal gravitation]]| [[calculus]]| [[Newton's laws of motion]]| [[optics]]| [[binomial series]]| ''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia]]''| [[Newton's method]] | [[Newton's law of cooling]]| [[Newton's identities]]| [[Newton's metal]]| [[Newton line]]| [[Newton–Gauss line]]| [[Newtonian fluid]]| [[Newton's rings]]|''[[Standing on the shoulders of giants]]'' |[[List of things named after Isaac Newton|List of all other works and concepts]]|}} | signature = Isaac Newton signature ws.svg | signature_alt = Signature written in ink in a flowing script | party = [[Whigs (British political party)|Whig]] | module = {{Infobox officeholder| embed = yes | office = [[Parliament of England|Member of Parliament]]<br />for [[Cambridge University (UK Parliament constituency)|the University of Cambridge]] | term_start = 1689 | term_end = 1690 | predecessor = [[Robert Brady (writer)|Robert Brady]] | successor = [[Edward Finch (composer)|Edward Finch]] | term_start1 = 1701 | term_end1 = 1702 | predecessor1 = [[Anthony Hammond (politician)|Anthony Hammond]] | successor1 = [[Arthur Annesley, 5th Earl of Anglesey]] | office2 = President of the Royal Society | order2 = 12th | term_start2 = 1703 | term_end2 = 1727 | predecessor2 = [[John Somers, 1st Baron Somers|John Somers]] | successor2 = [[Hans Sloane]] | office3 = [[Master of the Mint]] | term_start3 = 1699 | term_end3 = 1727 | predecessor3 = [[Thomas Neale]] | successor3 = [[John Conduitt]] | suboffice3 = [[Warden of the Mint]] | subterm3 = 1696–1699 | office4 = Lucasian Professor of Mathematics | order4 = 2nd | term_start4 = 1669 | term_end4 = 1702 | predecessor4 = [[Isaac Barrow]] | successor4 = [[William Whiston]] }} }} Sir '''Isaac Newton''' ([[4 January]] [[1643]] – [[31 March]] [[1727]]) ek [[England|English]] [[physicis]]t aur [[mathematics|mathematician]] rahaa. Uu [[motion (physics)|motion]], [[optics]], [[gravity]], aur [[calculus]] me kaam kare khatir jaana jaawe hae. Uske janam Lincolnshire, England me bhais rahaa. Uu aapan parrhai The King's School, Grantham me suruu karis rahaa. Kuchh saal ke baad uske maiya uske ghare balae ke khet me kaam me lagae diis. Lekin uske teacher uske school laute ke chirauri karis aur uu ek saal baad school laut gais. Baad me uu ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]'' likhis jon ki kaafi famous bhaes. ==Bachpan ke din== Isaac Newton ke janam Woolsthorpe Manor, Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, Lincolnshire me 4 January 1643 me bhais rahaa.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hatch |first=Robert&nbsp;A. |date=1988 |title=Sir Isaac Newton |url=http://users.clas.ufl.edu//ufhatch/pages/01-courses/current-courses/08sr-newton.htm |access-date=13 June 2023 |archive-date=5 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221105011958/http://users.clas.ufl.edu/ufhatch/pages/01-Courses/current-courses/08sr-newton.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Uske pitaji, jiske naam bhi Isaac Newton rahaa ke maut Newton ke janam se tiin mahina pahile hoe gais rahaa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Storr |first=Anthony |author-link=Anthony Storr |date=December 1985 |title=Isaac Newton |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_british-medical-journal_december-21-28-1985_291_6511/page/1779 |journal=British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Edition) |volume=291 |issue=6511 |pages=1779–84 |doi=10.1136/bmj.291.6511.1779 |jstor=29521701 |pmc=1419183 |pmid=3936583}}</ref> Jab Newton tiin saal ke rahaa tab uske maiyaa fir se saadi kar liis, Reverend Barnabas Smith se, aur Newton ke aapan miyaa ke lage chhorr ke uu aapan nawaa admi ke lage rahe lagii. Newton aapan step-pitaji ke pasand nai karat rahaa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Keynes |first=Milo |date=20 September 2008 |title=Balancing Newton's Mind: His Singular Behaviour and His Madness of 1692–93 |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=289–300 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.2007.0025 |jstor=20462679 |pmid=19244857 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Newton ke maiyaa ke tiin aur larrkan uske duusra saadi se bhais rahaa. {{sfn|Westfall|1980|p=55}} ===The King's School=== 12 saal ke umar se, 17 saal ke umar talak, Newton ke parrhai, Grantham me The King's Schoo me bhais rahaa, jahaan pe uu [[Latin]], puraana [[Greek bhasa]] aur mathematics parrhis rahaa.<ref>"Newton the Mathematician" Z. Bechler, ed., Contemporary Newtonian Research(Dordrecht 1982) pp. 110–111</ref> Uske maiyaa, uske ii school se nikaal ke, October 1659 me, Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth me fir se karis. Uske maiyaa, jiske duusra admii bhi mar gais rahaa, Newton ke ek kisan banae ke kosis karis rahaa, jiske Newton pasand nai karat rahaa.{{sfn|Westfall|1994|pp=16–19}} The King's School ke master, Henry Stokes aur Newton ke Uncle uske maiyaa ke , Newton ke fir se school bheje ke, persuade karis.{{sfn|Westfall|1994|pp=64}} School ke bully se badlaa le ke khaatir, Newton aapan claas ke top karis,{{sfn|White|1997|p=22}} aur ek sundial aur windmill ke model bhi banais.{{sfn|Westfall|1980|pp=60–62}} === University of Cambridge === June 1661 me, Newton University of Cambridge me bharti bhais. University me uu aapan fees valet duty kar ke bharis, jab talak, 1664 me, uske scholarship nai milaa. Ii scholarship uske university ke kharchaa ke chaar aur saal talak cover karis, jabtak uske Master of Arts ke degree nai milaa.{{sfn|Westfall|1980|pp=71, 103}} Uu time Cotleambridge ke parrhai, [[Aristotle]] pe based rahaa, jiske Newton parrhis, aur modern philosopher, jaise [[René Descartes]] aur [[astronomer]]s jaise [[Galileo Galilei]] aur [[Thomas Street (astronomer)|Thomas Street]] ke bhi parrhis rahaa. 1665 me Newton [[binomial theorem]] ke paais aur ek mathematical theory ke develop karis jon baad me [[calculus]] hoe gais. Cabridge me BA ke parrhai ke kuchh din baad University ke band kar dewa gais rahaa, [[Grest Plague]] ke kaaran. Jab ki Newton ke parrhai, Cambridge me bahut acchhaa nai rahaa, uske aapan parrhai, uske Bachelors degree ke baad ke, "the richest and most productive ever experienced by a scientist" bataawa gais hae.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Connor |first=Elizabeth |date=1942-01-01 |title=Sir Isaac Newton, the Pioneer of Astrophysics |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1942ASPL....4...55C/abstract |journal=Leaflet of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific |volume=4 |issue=158 |pages=55 |bibcode=1942ASPL....4...55C |issn=0004-6272}}</ref> Agle dui saal me uu calculus ke theories,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Newton |first=Isaac |title=Waste Book |url=http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-ADD-04004 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108205159/http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-ADD-04004/ |archive-date=8 January 2012 |access-date=10 January 2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Digital Library}}</ref> [[optics]] aur [[law of gravitation] ke develop karis rahaa, aapan ghare Woolsthorpe me. Physicist, Louis T. More ii bolis rahaa ki, "itihaas me achievement ke aur koi namuuna nai hae jon Newton se ii dui saal me achievement se compare kare sake.<ref>{{Cite book |last=More |first=Louis Trenchard |url=https://archive.org/details/b29977800/page/41 |title=Isaac Newton: A Biography |publisher=[[Charles Scribner's Sons]] |year=1934 |pages=41}}</ref> April 1667 me, Newton laut ke University of Cambridge gais, aur October me uske fellow of Trinity chuna gais rahaa.<ref>{{Cite book |last=More |first=Louis Trenchard |url=https://archive.org/details/b29977800/page/41 |title=Isaac Newton: A Biography |publisher=[[Charles Scribner's Sons]] |year=1934 |pages=41}}</ref> Fellows ke "holy orders" le ke parrat rahaa aur [[Anglican]] padri ordain karat rahaa, lekin iske [[Stuart Restoration]] ke time enforce nai karaa jaawat rahaa aur khaai ii bole ke ki uu [[Church of England]] ke hae sufficient rahaa. Ii time talak Newton dharam ke baare me bahut nai sochis rahaa aur dui dafe "Thirty-nine Articles" ke agreement, jon Church of England ke doctrine ke basus rahaa, ke sign karis rahaa. 1675 talak ii isse ke bagal nai karaa jaae sakaa aur uke "unconvwntional" view uske tarrakki ke rasta me rahaa. {{sfn|Westfall|1980|pp=330–331}} ==References== {{reflist}} {{Commons|Isaac Newton}} {{BD|1643|1727|Newton, Isaac}} [[Category:England ke log]] [[Category:Mathematicians]] [[Category:Physicists]] fcr8xl0d0uvjdapjbyw54hpxvzkyfm7 0 5194 337304 329066 2026-08-15T06:08:24Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337304 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox philosopher | name = Ludwig Wittgenstein | image = Ludwig Wittgenstein 1929.jpg | caption = Wittgenstein in 1929 | birth_name = Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein | birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1889|04|26}} | birth_place = [[Schloss Neuwaldegg|Neuwaldegg]], Vienna, Austria-Hungary | death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1951|04|29|1889|04|26}} | death_place = [[Cambridge]], England | burial_place = [[Ascension Parish Burial Ground]], Cambridge, England | citizenship = {{plainlist| * Austria (until 1939) * United Kingdom (from 1939)}} | education = {{unbulleted list|item_style=|[[Technische Universität Berlin]] ([[Diplom#Germany|Diplom]], 1908)|[[Victoria University of Manchester]]|[[Trinity College, Cambridge]] ([[PhD]], 1929)}} | thesis_title = Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus | thesis_url = https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus | thesis_year = 1929 | doctoral_advisor = [[Bertrand Russell]], [[G. E. Moore]] | notable_students = {{nowraplinks|[[G. E. M. Anscombe]], [[Rush Rhees]], [[Casimir Lewy]],<ref>[[P. M. S. Hacker]], ''Wittgenstein's Place in Twentieth-Century Analytic Philosophy'' (1996), pp. 77 and 138.</ref> [[Reuben Goodstein]],<ref>Nuno Venturinha, ''The Textual Genesis of Wittgenstein's Philosophical Investigations'', Routledge, 2013, p. 39.</ref> [[Norman Malcolm]], [[Alice Ambrose]], [[Stephan Körner]], [[Maurice O'Connor Drury]], [[Margaret MacDonald (philosopher)|Margaret MacDonald]], [[Alan Turing]], [[Friedrich Waismann]], [[John Wisdom]], [[Morris Lazerowitz]], [[Yorick Smythies]]}} | notable_works = {{unbulleted list|item_style={{longitem}}|''[[Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus]]''|''[[Philosophical Investigations]]''}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Wittgenstein |first=Ludwig |title=Philosophical Investigations |orig-date=1953 |date=1958 |publisher=MacMillan |location=New York |translator=G. E. M. Anscombe |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophicalinvestigations_201911/page/n8/mode/1up?view=theater |access-date=14 November 2023}}</ref> | signature = [[File:Ludwig Wittgenstein signature.svg|125px]] | era = [[20th-century philosophy]] | region = [[Western philosophy]] | school_tradition = {{unbulleted list|[[Analytic philosophy]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Glock|first=Hans-Johann|title=Was Wittgenstein an Analytic Philosopher? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_metaphilosophy_2004-07_35_4/page/419|year=2004|journal=Metaphilosophy|volume=35|issue=4|pages=419–444|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9973.2004.00329.x |jstor=24439710 |issn=0026-1068}}</ref>|[[Anti-foundationalism]]<ref>{{Cite SEP|last=Rodych|first=Victor|title=Wittgenstein's Philosophy of Mathematics|edition=Spring 2018|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|url-id=wittgenstein-mathematics}}</ref>|[[Anti-essentialism]]|[[Therapeutic approach]]|[[Linguistic turn]]|[[Logical atomism]] (early period)}} | institutions = [[University of Cambridge]] | main_interests = {{cslist|[[Logic]]|[[metaphysics]]|[[philosophy of language]]|[[philosophy of mathematics]]|[[philosophy of mind]]|[[epistemology]]|[[aesthetics]]|[[philosophy of religion]]|[[philosophy of perception]]}} | notable_ideas = {{collapsible list|title={{nobold|''See list''}}|{{ubl|item_style={{longitem}}| [[Elementary propositions]]|[[Family resemblance]]|[[Forms of life]]|[[Analytic philosophy#Ideal language analysis|Ideal language analysis]]|[[Language game (philosophy)|Language games]]|[[Logical necessity]]|[[Ordinary language philosophy]]|[[Nonsense#Wittgenstein|Nonsense]]|[[Picture theory of language]]|[[Private language argument]]|[[Quietism (philosophy)|Quietism]]|[[Rule-following]]|[[States of affairs]]|[[Truth function]]s|[[Truth table]]|[[Meaning as use]]|[[Wittgenstein's ladder]]|[[Wittgenstein's philosophy of mathematics]]|[[Wittgenstein's rod]]|[[Fideism#Wittgenstein and fideism|Wittgensteinian fideism]]|Aspect blindness}} }} | module = {{Infobox military person | embed = yes | allegiance = [[Austria-Hungary]] | branch = [[Austro-Hungarian Army]] | serviceyears = 1914–1918 | rank = Lieutenant | unit = [[7th Army (Austria-Hungary)|Austrian 7th Army]] | battles = [[World War I]] | awards = {{unbulleted list|item_style={{longitem}}|[[Military Merit Medal (Austria-Hungary)|Military Merit Medal]] with Swords on the Ribbon|[[Medal for Bravery (Austria-Hungary)|Silver Medal for Valour]], First Class|Band of the Military Service Medal with Swords}} }} |relatives={{flatlist|* [[Karl Wittgenstein]] (father)<br/> * [[Margaret Stonborough-Wittgenstein]] (sister)<br/> * [[Paul Wittgenstein]] (brother)<br/> * [[Friedrich Hayek]] (cousin)}}}} '''Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein''' (IPA: luːtvɪç ˈjoːzɛf ˈjoːhan ˈvɪtgənʃtaɪn German bhasa me) ([[26 April]] [[1889]] – [[29 April]] [[1951]]) ek [[Austria]]n [[philosopher]] rahaa. Uu jaada kar ke kaam basics of [[logic]], philosophy of [[mathematics]], philosophy of mind, aur the philosophy of language me karis hae.<ref name="Time">{{cite web | title=Time 100: Scientists and Thinkers | work=Time Magazine Online | url=http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/ | accessmonthday=April 29 | accessyear=2006 | access-date=2009-09-21 | archive-date=2009-05-08 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090508122642/http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/ | url-status=dead }}</ref> Uske twentieth century ke philospher logan me se ek khaas philosopher maana jaawe hae. 62 saal ke umar me uske maut se pahile,<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CE5D7143DF933A05751C1A966958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=print Give Him Genius or Give Him Death]. Article by Anthony Kenny, [[New York Times]]</ref> khaali ek buk jon ki Wittgenstein publiss karis rahaa the ''Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus'' rahaa. Uske duusar buk, ''Philosophical Investigations'' ke uske maut ke baad chapa gais rahaa. Ii duuno buk ke analytic philosophy me khaas buk maana jaawe hae.<ref>[http://www.philosophynow.org/archive/articles/33cain.htm Wittgenstein’s Significance] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820160951/http://www.philosophynow.org/archive/articles/33cain.htm |date=2008-08-20 }}, article by Mark J. Cain, ''Philosophy Now'' 2001</ref> == Jindagi == Ludwig Wittgenstein ke janam [[Vienna]] me [[26 April]] [[1889]]me, Karl aur Leopoldine Wittgenstein se bhaes rahaa. Uu aath larrkan me se ek rahaa aur [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian empire]] ke ek sab se dhani palwaar me paida bhaes rahaa. Uske pitaji ke mai-baap, Hermann Christian aur Fanny Wittgenstein, ek [[Jew]]ish palwaar me paeda bhaen rahaa lekin [[Protestantism]] me concert hoe gain rahaa, aur 1850s me [[Saxony]] se Vienna jaae ke baab Viennese [[Protestant]] professional classes me mil gae rahin. Ludwig ke pitaji, Karl Wittgenstein, ek industrialist ban ke iron and steel me dher paisa banais. Ludwig ke maiya Leopoldine, jiske janam ke naam Kalmus rahaa, Nobel Prize laureate [[Friedrich von Hayek]] ke aunty rahii. Karl ke Protestant bane ke bawajuut,aur uske baap ke Jewish hoe ke bawajuut bhi, Wittgenstein ke larrkan ke [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholics]] [[baptism|baptized]] karaa gais rahaa — jon ki uske naani ke dharam rahaar — Ludwig ke mare ke baad uske Roman Catholic burial dewa gais rahaa.<ref>[http://www.iep.utm.edu/w/wittgens.htm Ludwig Wittgenstein] at the ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''</ref> == Notes and references == <references/> == Bibliography == === Kaam === ==== Khaas buk ==== * ''Logisch-Philosophische Abhandlung'', Annalen der Naturphilosophie, 14 (1921) ** ''[[Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus]]'', translated by C.K. Ogden (1922) * ''Philosophische Untersuchungen'' (1953) ** ''Philosophical Investigations'', translated by G.E.M. Anscombe (1953) == Duusra websites == * [http://www.wittgen-cam.ac.uk/ Cambridge Wittgenstein Archive] - German and English, includes pictures, biography, searchable database of manuscripts. * [http://wab.aksis.uib.no/index.page Wittgenstein's works are edited in an electronic edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724185904/http://wab.aksis.uib.no/index.page |date=2011-07-24 }} (and sold on CDROM) at the University of Bergen in [[Norway]]. * [http://www.wittgenstein-portal.com/ The Wittgenstein Portal] * [http://rabbit.trin.cam.ac.uk/~stewart/Msscolls/Wittgenstein.html A collection of Ludwig Wittgenstein's manuscripts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060925033900/http://rabbit.trin.cam.ac.uk/~stewart/Msscolls/Wittgenstein.html |date=2006-09-25 }} is held by Trinity College, Cambridge, [[England]]. * [http://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~brianwc/ludwig/index.html Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951)] is a comprehensive but old resource of Wittgensteinian material. * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20031204.shtml Wittgenstein] program from ''In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)''. * [http://www.helsinki.fi/~tuschano/lw/links/ T.P. Uschanov's page Wittgenstein links] {{wikisource author}} {{wikiquote-en}} {{BD|1889|1951|Wittgenstein, Ludwig Josef Johann}} [[vibhag:Philosophers]] [[vibhag:Austria ke log]] db2m9o40t0hkwbot2ilc9e2pf8ott00 0 6136 337319 323851 2026-08-15T06:21:39Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337319 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Ming_Empire_cca_1580_(en).svg|right|200px|thumb|Ming dynasty 1580 me]] '''Míng Dynasty''', jiske sarkari naam '''Great Ming''' rahaa, [[1368]] se [[1644]] talak [[China]] pe raj karis. Ii dynasty [[Yuan dynasty]] ke baad rahaa. Ming dynasty akri dynasty rahaa jisme Han Chinese log raj kare rahin. Jab ki ii dynasty ke capital, [[Beijing]], ek rebellion me haar dewa gais, fir bhi Ming palwaar ke dher chotaa chotaa raj bachaa rahaa, 1662 talak khaas kar ke south China me.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Southern Ming, 1644–1662. By Lynn A. Struve |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-asian-studies_1985-08_44_4/page/824 |first=Jerry P. |last=Dennerline |journal = The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=44 |issue=4 |year=1985 |pages=824–825 |doi=10.2307/2056469 |jstor=2056469 |s2cid=162510092 }}</ref> [[File:A_Seated_Portrait_of_Ming_Emperor_Taizu.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Hongwu Emperor]] Ming dynasty ke suruu kare waala Emperor [[Hongwu]] (1368 - 1398) rahaa, jon ii rakam ke raj banae ke kosis karis jisme uske puura contro rahe aur jisme se uske barra army banae sake. ii time ke army 1 million se jaada rahaa aur uske navy [[dunia]] ke sab se barraa rahaa aur [[Nanjing]] me based rahaa. You court ke enuch log ke taagat kamti kare ke bhi kosis karis rahaa.<ref>* {{cite journal |last=Chen |first=Gilbert |title=Castration and Connection: Kinship Organization among Ming Eunuchs |journal=Ming Studies |date=2 July 2016 |volume=2016 |issue=74 |pages=27–47 |doi=10.1080/0147037X.2016.1179552 |s2cid=152169027 }}</ref> 1402 me uske jawaan sucessor ek upadrao karis aur emporer ban gais . Uske naam Yongle emporer rahaa. Uu Yan ke duusra capital banais aur iske naam ke badal ke Beijing rakkhis, [[Forbidden City]] ke banais, [[Grand Canal]] ke repair karis aur sarkaris kaam khaatir exams kre suruu karis.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Elman |first=Benjamin A. |title=Political, Social, and Cultural Reproduction via Civil Service Examinations in Late Imperial China |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |date=1991 |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=7–28 |doi=10.2307/2057472 |jstor=2057472 |s2cid=154406547 |url=https://www.princeton.edu/~elman/documents/Civil_Service_Examinations.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221010/https://www.princeton.edu/~elman/documents/Civil_Service_Examinations.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-10 |url-status=live |oclc=2057472}}</ref> Uske time China ke navy ssat dafe [[Indian Ocean]], [[Arabia]] aur [[Africa]] ke east coadt me voyage karis rahaa. Ii time China me dher factions hoe hay rahin aur 1449 me jab Emporer Yingzong ke capture kar lewa gais tab central rule khalaa hoe gais. Iske baad navy khalaas hoe gais aur [[Great Wall]] ke repair kare ke khaatir forced labour ke kaam me laawa gais rahaa. ii time China me census lewa gais rahaa aur ii anumaan lagaawa jaae hae ki late Ming period me hian ke abaadi 160 - 200 million rahaa.<ref>{{cite book |last=Elman |first=Benjamin A. |author-mask=3 |title=A Cultural History of Civil Examinations in Late Imperial China |date=2000 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-92147-4 }}</ref> [[File:Ming_coinage_14th_17th_century.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Ming dynasty ke paisa]] 16th century me [[Europe]] se trade barrhaa aur dher rakam ke nawaa paudha ke China me introduce karaa gais jaise ki mirchaa, aalu, aur makai. Isse China ke abaadi aur jor se barrhaa. Ii time [[South America]] se [[Silver]] bhi introduce karaa gais jon ki hian ke currency hoe gais. Ii dynasty 1644 me callapse bhais jab Li Zicheng ke rebel army Beijing me ghusis. Li [[Shun dynasty]] ke suruu karis, lekin ii kuchh saal baad [[Qing dynasty]] se aapan taagat ke khoe diis.<ref>{{citation |surname = Hucker |given = Charles O. |title = Governmental Organization of The Ming Dynasty |journal = Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies |volume = 21 |year = 1958 |pages = 1–66 |postscript = . |doi=10.2307/2718619|jstor = 2718619 }}</ref> ===Ming dynasty ke maharaja (1368–1644)=== {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center; width:100%;" ! scope="col"|Chhaapa ! scope="col"|Maharaja<br />{{Small|(birth–death)}} ! scope="col"|Naam ! scope="col"|Raj ! scope="col"|Yug ke naam ! scope="col"|Mare ke baad ke naam ! scope="col"|Mandir ke naam |- ! scope="row"| [[File:明太祖画像.jpg|110px|alt=Hongwu Emperor]] | '''[[Hongwu Emperor]]'''<br />{{Small|(21 October 1328<br />– 24 June 1398)}}<br /> | Zhu Yuanzhang<br /> | 23 January 1368<br />– 24 June 1398 | [[Hongwu]]<br />23 January 1368<br />– 5 February 1399 | Emperor Gao<br /> | Taizu<br /> |- ! scope="row"| [[File:Jianwen Emperor.jpg|110px|alt=Jianwen Emperor]] | '''[[Jianwen Emperor]]'''<br/>{{Small|(5 December 1377<br />– 13 July 1402)}}<br /> | Zhu Yunwen<br /> | 30 June 1398<br />– 13 July 1402 | [[Jianwen (era)|Jianwen]]<br />6 February 1399<br />– 13 July 1402 | Emperor Hui<br /> | Huizong{{efn|Mandir ke naam, Huizong ke Jianwen Emperor ke dewa gais rahaa, uske raaj ke baut din baad. 1644 me ii de waala rahaa Zhu Yousong, jon Fu ke rajkumar rahaa |- ! scope="row"| [[File:太宗文皇帝.jpg|110px|alt=Yongle Emperor]] | '''[[Yongle Emperor]]'''<br />{{Small|(2 May 1360<br />– 12 August 1424)}}<br /> | Zhu Di<br /> | 17 July 1402<br />– 12 August 1424 | [[Yongle]]<br />23 January 1403<br />– 19 January 1425 | Emperor Wen<br /> | Chengzu |- ! scope="row"| [[File:仁宗昭皇帝.jpg|110px|alt=Hongxi Emperor]] | '''[[Hongxi Emperor]]'''<br />{{zhi|c=洪熙帝}}<br />{{Small|(16 August 1378<br />– 29 May 1425)}}<br /> | Zhu Gaochi<br /> | 12 August 1424<br />– 29 May 1425 | [[Hongxi]]<br />20 January 1425<br />– 7 February 1426 | Emperor Zhao<br /> | Renzong<br /> |- ! scope="row"| [[File:明宣宗画像.jpg|110px|alt=Xuande Emperor]] | '''[[Xuande Emperor]]'''<br />{{Small|(16 March 1399<br />– 31 January 1435)}}<br /> | Zhu Zhanji<br /> | 29 May 1425<br />– 31 January 1435 | [[Xuande]]<br />8 February 1426<br />– 17 January 1436 | Emperor Zhang<br /> | Xuanzong<br /> |- ! rowspan="2" scope="row"|[[File:英宗睿皇帝.jpg|110px|alt=Emperor Yingzong of Ming]] | rowspan="2"|'''[[Emperor Yingzong of Ming|Emperor Yingzong]]'''<br />{{Small|(29 November 1427<br />– 23 February 1464)}}<br /> | rowspan="2" |Zhu Qizhen<br /> | 31 January 1435<br />– 22 September 1449 | [[Zhengtong (era)|Zhengtong]]<br />18 January 1436<br />– 13 January 1450 | rowspan="2"|Emperor Rui<br /> | rowspan="2"|Yingzong<br /> |- | 11 February 1457<br />– 23 February 1464 | [[Tianshun (Ming dynasty)|Tianshun]] |- ! scope="row"| [[File:Jingtai.jpg|110px|alt=Jingtai Emperor]] | '''[[Jingtai Emperor]]'''<br />{{Small|(21 September 1428<br />– 14 March 1457)}}<br /> | Zhu Qiyu<br /> | 22 September 1449<br />– 11 February 1457 | [[Jingtai (era)|Jingtai]]<br />14 January 1450<br />– 11 February 1457 | Emperor Jing<br /> | Daizong<br /> |- ! scope="row"| [[File:明宪宗像.jpg|110px|alt=Portrait of the Jingtai Emperor]] | '''[[Chenghua Emperor]]'''<br />{{Small|(9 December 1447<br />– 9 September 1487)}}<br /> | Zhu Jianru<br /> | 23 February 1464<br />– 9 September 1487 | [[Chenghua (era)|Chenghua]]<br />27 January 1465<br />– 13 January 1488 | Emperor Chun<br /> | Xianzong<br /> |- ! scope="row"| [[File:明孝宗像.jpg|110px|alt=Hongzhi Emperor]] | '''[[Hongzhi Emperor]]'''<br />{{Small|(30 July 1470<br />– 8 June 1505)}}<br /> | Zhu Youcheng<br /> | 9 September 1487<br />– 8 June 1505 | [[Hongzhi (era)|Hongzhi]]<br />14 January 1488<br />– 23 January 1506 | Emperor Jing<br /> | Xiaozong<br /> |- ! scope="row"| [[File:Portrait de l'empereur Ming Wuzong.jpg|110px|alt=Zhengde Emperor]] | '''[[Zhengde Emperor]]'''<br />{{Small|(26 October 1491<br />– 20 April 1521)}}<br /> | Zhu Houzhao<br /> | 8 June 1505<br />– 20 April 1521 | [[Zhengde]]<br />27 January 1522<br />– 27 January 1522 | Emperor Yi<br /> | Wuzong<br /> |- ! scope="row"| [[File:明世宗像.jpg|110px|alt=Jiajing Emperor]] | '''[[Jiajing Emperor]]'''<br />{{Small|(16 September 1507<br />– 23 January 1567)}}<br /> | Zhu Houcong<br /> | 27 May 1521<br />– 23 January 1567 | [[Jiajing]]<br />28 January 1522<br />– 8 February 1567 | Emperor Su<br /> | Shizong<br /> |- ! scope="row"| [[File:明穆宗画像.jpg|110px|alt=Longqing Emperor]] | '''[[Longqing Emperor]]'''<br />{{Small|(4 March 1537<br />– 5 July 1572)}}<br /> | Zhu Zaiji<br /> | 23 January 1567<br />– 5 July 1572 | [[Longqing]]<br />9 February 1567<br />– 1 February 1573 | Emperor Zhuang<br /> | Muzong<br /> |- ! scope="row"| [[File:Ming Shenzong.jpg|110px|alt=Wanli Emperor]] | '''[[Wanli Emperor]]'''<br />{{Small|(4 September 1563<br />– 18 August 1620)}}<br /> | Zhu Yijun<br /> | 5 July 1572<br />– 18 August 1620 | [[Wanli Era|Wanli]]<br /><br />2 February 1573<br />– 27 August 1620 | Emperor Xian<br /> | Shenzong<br /> |- ! scope="row"| [[File:明光宗皇帝.jpg|110px|alt=Taichang Emperor]] | '''[[Taichang Emperor]]'''<br />{{Small|(28 August 1582<br />– 26 September 1620)}}<br /> | Zhu Changluo<br /> | 28 August<br />– 26 September 1620 | [[Taichang (era)|Taichang]]<br />{{zhi|c=泰昌}}<br />28 August 1620<br />– 21 January 1621 | Emperor Zhen<br /> | Guangzong<br /> |- ! scope="row"| [[File:熹宗悊皇帝.jpg|110px|alt=Tianqi Emperor]] | '''[[Tianqi Emperor]]'''<br />{{Small|(23 December 1605<br />– 30 September 1627)}}<br /> | Zhu Youjiao<br /> | 26 September 1620<br />– 30 September 1627 | [[Tianqi (era)|Tianqi]]<br />22 January 1621<br />– 4 February 1628 | Emperor Zhe<br /> | Xizong<br /> |- ! scope="row"| | '''[[Chongzhen Emperor]]'''<br />{{Small|(6 February 1611<br />– 25 April 1644)}}<br /> | Zhu Youjian<br /> | 2 October 1627<br />– 25 April 1644 | [[Chongzhen]]<br />5 February 1628<br />– 25 April 1644 | Emperor Min<br /> | Sizong<br /> |} ==Ming dynasty ke painting== <gallery> File:Chen_Hongshou,_leaf_album_painting.jpg|Patti ke chaapa jisme fuul, titli aur patthar ke sculpture dekhae hae File:Dai_Jin_-_The_Hermit_Xu_You_Resting_by_a_Stream_-_1974.45_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tiff|Ek painting Dai Jin se jon Zhe school of painting ke suruu karis rahaa File:T'ang_Yin_003.jpg|Tan Yin (1523) ke painting ek machhua ke autmn me dekhae hae File:Pien_Wen-chi_001.jpg|Bian Wenjin (1413) ke chirriya ke painting File:明_佚名_鳥販圖_軸-Bird_peddler_MET_DT271148.jpg|Chirriya beche waala ke painting (15th-16th century) File:Peach_Festival_of_the_Queen_Mother_of_the_West,_17th_century.jpg|Peach Festival ke painting (17th century) File:SesshuToyo.jpg|Sesshu ke Autmn lanscape painting Japan ke unfluence ke dekhae hae </gallery> [[vibhag:M]] [[Category:China ke itihaas]] eod2513yaokmaqyikl5u9nz1cdis9t6 0 6339 337338 336947 2026-08-15T06:41:38Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337338 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Unemployed marching to see Mitchell, 1931.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Many became [[unemployment|unemployed]] in the Great Depression.]] '''Great Depression''' uu time rahaa jab dunia bhar ke des ke economy bahut kharaam hoe gais rahaa. Ii 1929 ke Wall Street Crash se suruu bhais rahaa. [[24 October]] [[1929]] se lae ke [[29 October]] [[1929]] talak wall street me share ke daam bahut jaada giraa. Dher jan ke kaam se nikal dewa gais rahaa. Ii log bahut garib hoe gain aur kuchh log ke rahe khatir ghar bhi nai rahaa. == Overview == {{Multiple image | image1 = US Unemployment from 1910-1960.svg | image2 = 1929 wall street crash graph.svg | caption1 = U. S. ke unemployment rate 1910 se 1960 tak, jisme Great Depression (1929–39) ke saal ke highlight karaa gais hae | caption2 = Dow Jones Industrial Average, 1928–1930 | align = right }} === Crisis ke suruu ke economic picture === [[Wall Street crash of 1929]] ke baad, jab [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]] 381 se 198 jiraa rahaa, dui mahina me , lekin log optimistik rahin kuchh din talak. 1930 ke suruwaat me, stock market uppar gais, aur April 1930 me Dow 294 talak pahunch gais (pre-depression levels), lekin iske baad ii niche gire lagaa, aur 1932 me 41 talak gir gais rahaa.<ref>{{cite web|title=1998/99 Prognosis Based Upon 1929 Market Autopsy|url=https://www.gold-eagle.com/editorials_98/vronsky060698.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517075810/https://www.gold-eagle.com/editorials_98/vronsky060698.html|archive-date=17 May 2008|access-date=22 May 2008|publisher=Gold Eagle}}</ref> Suruu me, sarkar aur businesses 1930 ke pahila aadha hissa me jaada kharchaa karin , pahile waala saal ke mukaable me. Lekin kharide waale, jisme se dher log [[1930s]] me stock market me dher paisa lose kare rahin, aapan kharchaa ke 10% se kaat de rahin. Iske saathe, mid-1930s se, ek kharaab jhuura ke kaaran U. S. ke kheti waala jgha ke barbaad kar diis rahaa. <ref>{{cite web|title=Drought: A Paleo Perspective&nbsp;– 20th Century Drought|url=https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/drought/drght_history.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090330022940/http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/drought/drght_history.html|archive-date=30 March 2009|access-date=5 April 2009|publisher=[[National Climatic Data Center]]}}</ref> Interest rates , mid-1930 talak ekdam kamti hoe gais rahaa, lekin [[deflation]] aur log ke paisa kharchaa kare aur udhaar le pe hichkichaana ke kaaran consumer spending aur investment kamti rahaa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hamilton|first=James|year=1987|title=Monetary Factors in the Great Depression|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-monetary-economics_1987-03_19_2/page/145|journal=Journal of Monetary Economics|volume=19|issue=2|pages=145–69|doi=10.1016/0304-3932(87)90045-6|issn=0304-3932}}</ref> May 1930 talak, motar ke [[wikt:bikri|bikri]] 1928 ke level se kamti hoe gais rahaa. Jaada chij ke daam gire lagaa, lekin [[wikt:talab|talab]] 1930 me nai gira rahaa. 1931 me ek [[deflationary spiral]] suruu bhais rahaa. Kisan log ke prathithi aur kharaa rahaak; fasal ke girte daam aur Great Plains me jhuura uu log economic outlook ke naas kar diis rahaa. Great Depression ke choti pe Great Plains le lagbhag 10% khet ke bejaa gais rahaa, federal sarkar ke sahaeta ke bawajuut. <ref>{{Cite web|title=The Great Depression|url=https://drought.unl.edu/DroughtBasics/DustBowl/TheGreatDepression.aspx|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329184059/http://drought.unl.edu/DroughtBasics/DustBowl/TheGreatDepression.aspx|archive-date=29 March 2018|access-date=29 March 2018|website=drought.unl.edu|language=en-US}}</ref> === United States se bahaar === Suruu me, [[U.S. economy]] ke [[wikt:utpaadan|utpaadan]] kamti hona, khaali ek kaaran rahaa, jisse aur des me bhi utpaadan giaa rahaa, trade, capital movement, aur global business confidence kamti bhais rahaa. Iske baad, har ek des ke bhitri kamjori nai to taagat, haalat ke aur kharaab nai to achchhaa karis rahaa. Jaise, U.K. ke economy, jon ek economic downturn me rahaa late [[1920s]] bhar, me depression ke kamti asar rahaa, U.S. ke mukable me, Iske jagha, German economyke industrial output U.S. ke rakam gira rahaa.<ref name=cpk>{{Cite book|last=Kindleberger|first=Charles P.|title=The world in depression, 1929–1939|date=1986|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-05591-9|edition=Rev. and enl.|series=History of the world economy in the twentieth century|location=Berkeley}}</ref> Kuchh economic historians rates of recovery and relative severity of the economic decline ke antar ke attribute kare hae ki uu des effectively aapan currency ke devaluate kare paais rahaa ki nai. Iske support mile hae ki kaise ii crisis progress bhais rahaa in, e.g., Britain, Argentina, aur Brazil me, jon sab aapan currency ke jaldi devalue kar de rahin aur normal patterns of growth pe aur jaldi laut gay rahin, uu des ke mukable me jon [[gold standard]] ke kaam me laate rahin, jaise [[France]] aur [[Belgium]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kindleberger|first=Charles Poor|title=The world in depression, 1929–1939|date=1973|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-05592-6|edition=Rev. and enl. ed., 11. [print.]|series=History of the world economy in the twentieth century|location=Berkeley, Calif.}}</ref> Ek-ek des ke kosis aapan des ke shore kare ke [[protectionist]] policies se—jaise 1930 me U.S. [[Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act]] aur retaliatory tariffs duusra des me, ke kaaran dunia ke trade gir gais rahaa, jisse depression aur kharaab hoe gais rahaa.<ref>{{cite book|title=Historic Events for Students: The Great Depression|date=July 2002|publisher=Gale|isbn=978-0-7876-5701-7|editor-last1=Richard|editor-first1=Clay Hanes|edition=Volume I}}</ref> 1933 talak, economic decline ke kaaran dunia ke trade, chaar saal pahile ke one-third rahaa.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tignor|first=Robert L.|title=Worlds together, worlds apart: a history of the world from the beginnings of humankind to the present|date=28 October 2013|isbn=978-0-393-92207-3|edition=Fourth|location=New York|oclc=854609153|publisher=W. W. Norton}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" style="width: 50%;text-align: right;" |+ conomic indicators 1929–1932 ke badlao<ref>[[Jerome Blum]], [[Rondo Cameron]], [[Thomas G. Barnes]], ''The European world: a history,'' (2nd ed 1970), 885 pp.</ref> |- ! scope="col" style="width:36%;"| ! scope="col" style="width:16%; text-align:center;"| United States ! scope="col" style="width:16%; text-align:center;"| United Kingdom ! scope="col" style="width:16%; text-align:center;"| France ! scope="col" style="width:16%; text-align:center;"| Germany |- | style="text-align: left;"| Industrial production | −46% | −23% | −24% | −41% |- | style="text-align: left;"| Wholesale prices | −32% | −33% | −34% | −29% |- | style="text-align: left;"| Foreign trade | −70% | −60% | −54% | −61% |- | style="text-align: left;"| Unemployment | +607% | +129% | +214% | +232% |} == Course == [[File:Crowd outside nyse.jpg|thumb|upright=.9|Ek jhund [[Wall Street]] aur Broad Street ke intersection pe ekkathaa hoe hae Wall Street crash of 1929 ke baad]] === Origins === Jab ki Great Depression ke kaaran ke dispute karaa jaae hae aur iske duuno global aur national phenomena pe trace karaa jaae sake hae, iske immediate kaaran ke U.S. economy ke context me examine karaa jaawe hae, jahaan se ii crises dunia ke baaki des me faela rahaa.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Patel |first=Kiran Klaus |title=The New Deal: A Global History |date=2016 |publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=1–45 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt1h4mhhp |jstor=j.ctt1h4mhhp |isbn=978-0-691-14912-7 }}</ref> [[World War I]] ke baad, [[Roaring Twenties]] United States aur Western Europe me dher prosperity laais rahaa.<ref name="Soule-1947">George H. Soule, ''Prosperity Decade: From War to Depression: 1917–1929,'' (1947).</ref> Suruu me, 1929 ke saal suruu bhais jisme achchhaa economic prospects rahaa: 25 March 1929 me ek chhotaa crash ke bawajuut, market September talak barrte rahaa. Stock prices September me gire lagaa aur mahina ke ant me volatile rahaa.<ref name="pbsstock2">{{cite web|title=Timeline: A selected Wall Street chronology|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/crash/timeline/timeline2.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080923040829/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/crash/timeline/timeline2.html|archive-date=23 September 2008|access-date=30 September 2008|publisher=PBS}}</ref> Stocks ke ek barra bikri October ke biich me suruu bhais rahaa. Aakhri me, 24 October ke din, [[Wall Street crash of 1929|Black Thursday]] bhais, American stock 11% gira rahaa, opening bell pe. Market ke stabilize kare ke kosis asafal rahaa, aur 28 October, Black Monday ke din, market aur 12% giraa rahaa. Agle din, Black Tuesday ke roj, market ek aur 11% gira.<ref name=":02">{{Cite news|last1=Post|first1=Special to Financial|date=24 October 2011|title=The Great Crash of 1929, some key dates|language=en-CA|website=Financial Post|url=https://financialpost.com/personal-finance/the-great-crash-of-1929-some-key-dates|access-date=22 July 2020}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{cite web|author=<!--ET Bureau-->|date=22 October 2017|title=Market crash of 1929: Some facts of the economic downturn|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/miscellaneous/market-crash-of-1929-some-facts-of-the-economic-downturn/articleshow/61166918.cms|access-date=16 February 2019|work=The Economic Times|publisher=Times Inernet}}</ref> Hajaaro investors barbaad hoe gay rahin, aur billions of dollars khalaas hoe gais rahaa; dher stocks ke koi daam me bhi nai beja jaae sakat rahaa, koi bhi daam me.<ref name=":4" /> Budh ke din, market 12% uppar gais, lekin ii time talak dher barbaadi hoe gais rahaa. Jab ki market 14 November se 17 April 1930 talak recovery me rahaa, jaada kar ke ii ek lambaa slump rahaa. F September 1929 se 8 July 1932 talak, market 85% gira rahaa .<ref>Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Economic Data website ke anusaar, jon monthly timeseries 1929 September – 1932 June pe based hae, Dow Jones Industrial Average 87.1% giraa, jab Cowles Commission aur S&P's ke stock index 85.0% gira rahaa: https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=qj2m , https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?g=qj2l.</ref> Crash ke bawajuut, crisis ke sab se kharaab effect dunia bhar me 1929 ke baad faela rahaa. December 1930 me crisis fir se panic level pahunch gais rahaa, jisme ek [[bank run]] [[Bank of United States]] pe, pahile ke a privately run bank jiske U.S. government (not to be confused with the [[Federal Reserve]]) se koi sambandh nai rahaa. Kaaheki ii bank aapan creditors ke bhare nai paais rahaa, ii fail hoe gais rahaa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gordon|first=John Steele|date=November–December 2018|title=The Bank of United States|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/2160290916|journal=ABA Banking Journal|volume=110|issue=6|pages=58|id={{ProQuest|2160290916}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Calomiris|first=Charles W.|date=November 2007|title=Bank Failures in Theory and History: The Great Depression and Other "Contagious" Events|url=https://www.nber.org/papers/w13597|journal=National Bureau of Economic Research|series=Working Paper Series|doi=10.3386/w13597|s2cid=154123748|doi-access=free}}</ref> 608 American banks jon November aur December 1930 me band bhay rahin, Bank of United States ke $550&nbsp;million deposits lost deposit ke one-third rahaa, aur iske band hoe ke kaaran closure, bank failures ek critical mass me paunch gais rahaa.<ref>{{Citation|last=Ferguson|first=Niall|title=The Ascent of Money|date=October 2009|pages=163|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-986-173-584-9}}</ref> ==References== {{reflist}} <!-- interwiki --> [[Category:G]] [[Category:Itihaas]] n48opg7b8aurknki6vczltz14v6nm1f 0 7695 337320 319525 2026-08-15T06:22:47Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337320 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:La Liberté guidant le peuple - Eugène Delacroix - Musée du Louvre Peintures RF 129 - après restauration 2024.jpg|right|thumb|200px|En rastryawaad art]] '''Rastryawaad (Nationalism)''' ek rakam ke bichar hae jisme ii socha jaawe hae ki sab log apne pe raj kare sake hae. Isme ii bhi biswas karaa jaae hae ki ek ek des ke ekke identity hae jon ki [[sanskriti]], rahe ke jagha, [[bhasa]] nai to [[dharam]] ke uppar nirbhar hae aur ii bhi biswas kare hae ki sab ke ekke itihaas hae.<ref name = Triandafyllidou>{{cite journal | last1 = Triandafyllidou | first1 = Anna | year = 1998 | title = National Identity and the Other | url = https://archive.org/details/ethnic-and-racial-studies_1998-07_21_4/page/593 | journal = Ethnic and Racial Studies | volume = 21 | issue = 4 | pages = 593–612 | doi=10.1080/014198798329784}}</ref> ==References== <references/> {{stub}} [[vibhag:R]] [[Category:Countries]] [[Category:Politics]] [[Category:Rajniti]] tl8r1jbzzxqizi60apias3ty5j3lxg7 0 8608 337318 334792 2026-08-15T06:20:57Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337318 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox planetary system|background=#efefef | title = Saur Mandal | image = {{Switcher|[[File:Solar System true color.jpg|upright=1.3|frameless]]|without captions|[[File:Solar System true color (title and caption).jpg|upright=1.3|frameless]]|with captions|default=1}} | image_alt = A true-color image of the Solar System with sizes, but not distances, to scale. The order of the planets are from right to left. | image_size = 400px | caption = {{Longitem|[[Suraj]], [[Grah]]<br />(true color, size to scale, distances not to scale)|style=padding:2px 0 4px 0;}} | age = 4.568&nbsp;billion years | location = {{Longitem|{{unbulleted list |{{nowrap|[[Local Interstellar Cloud]]}} |[[Local Bubble]]<ref name="JPL interstellar">{{cite web |url=http://interstellar.jpl.nasa.gov/interstellar/probe/introduction/neighborhood.html |title=Our Local Galactic Neighborhood | website= interstellar.jpl.nasa.gov |publisher=NASA |series=Interstellar Probe Project |year= 2000 |access-date=8 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131121061128/http://interstellar.jpl.nasa.gov/interstellar/probe/introduction/neighborhood.html |archive-date=21 November 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> |[[Orion–Cygnus Arm]] |[[Aakaashganga]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hurt |first=R. |date=8 November 2017 |title=The Milky Way Galaxy |url=https://science.nasa.gov/resource/the-milky-way-galaxy/ |access-date=19 April 2024 |website=science.nasa.gov |language=en-US}}</ref>}}}} | neareststar = {{Longitem|{{Ublist |[[Proxima Centauri]] |&nbsp;(4.2465&nbsp;[[Light-year|ly]])<ref name="lurie2014" group="D">{{cite journal |last1=Lurie |first1=John C. |last2=Henry |first2=Todd J. |last3=Jao |first3=Wei-Chun |last4=Quinn |first4=Samuel N. |last5=Winters |first5= Jennifer G. |last6=Ianna |first6=Philip A. |last7=Koerner |first7=David W. |last8= Riedel |first8=Adric R. |last9=Subasavage |first9=John P. | display-authors = 3| year= 2014 |title=The Solar neighborhood. XXXIV. A search for planets orbiting nearby M dwarfs using astrometry |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=148 |issue= 5 |pages=91 |arxiv=1407.4820 |bibcode= 2014AJ....148...91L |doi= 10.1088/0004-6256/148/5/91 |s2cid= 118492541 |issn = 0004-6256}}</ref> |[[Alpha Centauri]] |&nbsp;(4.36&nbsp;ly)<ref name="RECONS" group="D">{{cite web|work= astro.gsu.edu| publisher= Research Consortium On Nearby Stars, Georgia State University|date=7 September 2007|title=The One Hundred Nearest Star Systems |url=http://www.astro.gsu.edu/RECONS/TOP100.posted.htm|access-date=2 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071112173559/http://www.chara.gsu.edu/RECONS/TOP100.posted.htm|archive-date=12 November 2007| url-status=live}}</ref>}}}} | frostline = {{val|5|u=AU|p=~}}<ref name="Mumma">{{Cite journal |last1=Mumma |first1=M. J. |last2=Disanti |first2=M. A. |last3=Dello Russo |first3=N. |last4=Magee-Sauer |first4=K. |last5=Gibb |first5=E. |last6=Novak |first6=R. |display-authors = 3| year= 2003 |title=Remote infrared observations of parent volatiles in comets: A window on the early solar system |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_advances-in-space-research_2003-06_31_12/page/2563 |journal=Advances in Space Research |volume=31 |issue=12 |pages=2563–2575 |bibcode= 2003AdSpR..31.2563M |citeseerx= 10.1.1.575.5091 |doi=10.1016/S0273-1177(03)00578-7}}</ref> | outerplanetname = [[Neptune]] | semimajoraxis = 30.07 AU<ref>{{cite web |first=Donald K. |last=Yeomans |url=https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons_batch.cgi?batch=1&COMMAND=%278%27&TABLE_TYPE=%27ELEMENTS%27&START_TIME=%272000-01-01%27&STOP_TIME=%272000-01-02%27&STEP_SIZE=%27200%20years%27&CENTER=%27@0%27&OUT_UNITS=%27AU-D%27 |title=HORIZONS Web-Interface for Neptune Barycenter (Major Body=8) |publisher=[[JPL Horizons On-Line Ephemeris System]] | website= jpl.nasa.gov|access-date=18 July 2014 |archive-date=7 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907055935/https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons_batch.cgi?batch=1&COMMAND=%278%27&TABLE_TYPE=%27ELEMENTS%27&START_TIME=%272000-01-01%27&STOP_TIME=%272000-01-02%27&STEP_SIZE=%27200%20years%27&CENTER=%27%400%27&OUT_UNITS=%27AU-D%27 |url-status=live }}—Select "Ephemeris Type: Orbital Elements", "Time Span: 2000-01-01 12:00 to 2000-01-02". ("Target Body: Neptune Barycenter" and "Center: Solar System Barycenter (@0)".)</ref> | Kuiper_cliff = 50–70 AU<ref name="twotino">{{cite journal | first1= E. I.| last1= Chiang |title=Resonance Occupation in the Kuiper Belt: Case Examples of the 5:2 and Trojan Resonances | url= https://archive.org/details/sim_astronomical-journal_2003-07_126_1/page/430|journal=[[The Astronomical Journal]] |volume=126 |issue=1 |pages=430–443 |date=2003 |doi=10.1086/375207 |last2=Jordan |first2=A. B. |last3=Millis |first3=R. L. |last4=Buie |first4=M. W. |last5=Wasserman |first5=L. H. |last6=Elliot |first6=J. L. |last7=Kern |first7=S. D. |last8=Trilling |first8=D. E. |last9=Meech |first9=K. J. | display-authors = 3| bibcode= 2003AJ....126..430C |arxiv=astro-ph/0301458 |s2cid=54079935}}</ref><ref name= "KuiperGap">{{cite journal |first1=C. | last1=de la Fuente Marcos |first2=R. | last2= de la Fuente Marcos |title=Past the outer rim, into the unknown: structures beyond the Kuiper Cliff |journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Letters]] |volume=527 |issue=1 |pages= L110–L114 |url=https://academic.oup.com/mnrasl/article-abstract/527/1/L110/7280408 |publication-date=20 September 2023 |date=January 2024 |access-date=28 September 2023 |bibcode=2024MNRAS.527L.110D |arxiv=2309.03885 |doi=10.1093/mnrasl/slad132 | doi-access=free |s2cid= |archive-date=28 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231028132004/https://academic.oup.com/mnrasl/article-abstract/527/1/L110/7280408 |url-status=live}}</ref> | heliopause = detected at 120 AU<ref name="heliopause">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/voyager/voyager20130912.html#.UjJLPZKR86s|title=NASA Spacecraft Embarks on Historic Journey Into Interstellar Space|first=Tony|last=Greicius| website= nasa.gov| date=5 May 2015|access-date=19 April 2024|archive-date=11 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611233345/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/voyager/voyager20130912.html#.UjJLPZKR86s|url-status=dead}}</ref> | hillsphere = 1.1 pc (230,000 AU)<ref name="Chebotarev">{{cite journal |last1=Chebotarev |first1=G. A. |title=Gravitational Spheres of the Major Planets, Moon and Sun |journal=Astronomicheskii Zhurnal |date=1 January 1963 |volume=40 |pages=812 |bibcode=1964SvA.....7..618C |url=https://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1964SvA.....7..618C |issn=0004-6299 |access-date=6 May 2024 |archive-date=7 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240507030847/https://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1964SvA.....7..618C |url-status=live }}</ref><br/> – 0.865 pc (178,419 AU)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Souami |first1=D |last2= Cresson |first2=J |last3=Biernacki |first3=C |last4=Pierret |first4=F |title=On the local and global properties of gravitational spheres of influence |journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]] |date=21 August 2020 |volume= 496 |issue=4 |pages= 4287–4297 |doi= 10.1093/mnras/staa1520|doi-access=free | arxiv= 2005.13059 }}</ref> | noknown_stars = yes | noknown_planets = yes | stars = [[Suraj]] | planets = {{Longitem|{{Plainlist|*[[Budhgrah]] *[[Sukhgrah]] *[[Dunia]] *[[Mangalgrah]] *[[Brahaspati]] *[[Sanigrah]] *[[Arungrah]] *[[Varungrah]]}}}} | dwarfplanets = {{Longitem|{{Plainlist| *Ceres *Orcus *[[Pluto]] *[[Haumea]] *Quaoar *[[Makemake]] *Gonggong *[[Eris]] *Sedna }}}} | satellites = 758<ref>{{Cite web |title=Solar System Objects |url=https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210707142304/https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov |archive-date=7 July 2021 |access-date=14 August 2023 |publisher=NASA/JPL Solar System Dynamics}}</ref> | minorplanets = 1,368,528<ref>{{Cite web |title=Latest Published Data |url=https://minorplanetcenter.net/mpc/summary |access-date=27 May 2024 |website=The International Astronomical Union Minor Planet Center |archive-date=5 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190305034947/https://minorplanetcenter.net/mpc/summary |url-status=live }}</ref> | comets = 4,591 | inclination = ~60°, to the ecliptic<!-- If anyone can find a cited value for the inclination of the Solar System's invariable plane to the galactic plane, please replace this value --> | galacticcenter = {{longitem|24,000–28,000 ly}}<ref name="francis14">{{cite journal |first1=Charles |last1=Francis |first2=Erik |last2=Anderson |s2cid= 119235554 |title=Two estimates of the distance to the Galactic Centre |journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]] |date=June 2014 |volume=441 |issue=2 |pages=1105–1114 |doi=10.1093/mnras/stu631 |doi-access=free |bibcode= 2014MNRAS.441.1105F |arxiv=1309.2629}}</ref> | orbitalspeed = {{longitem|720,000&nbsp;km/h (450,000&nbsp;mi/h)<ref name="roughfactsofthesun" />}} | orbitalperiod = ~230 [[million year]]s<ref name="roughfactsofthesun">{{Cite web |title=Sun: Facts |url=https://science.nasa.gov/sun/facts/ |access-date=19 April 2024 |website=science.nasa.gov |language=en-US |archive-date=19 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240419151126/https://science.nasa.gov/sun/facts/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | spectral = [[G-type main-sequence star|G2V]] }} '''Saur mandal (Solar system)''' me me [[Suraj]] aur uu grah hae jon ki iske gravity se bandha hae aur iske round jaawe hae. Suraj ke parikrama kare waala [[grah]] (planets), asteroids, comets aur duusra chij bhi hae. Saur mandal lagbhag 4.568 billion saal puraana hae. Suraj ek barraa [[molecular cloud]] me [[gravity]] se banaa hae. Ii jaada kar ke [[hydrogen]] hae, jon [[nuclear fusion]] se [[helium]] ban jaawe hae. Grah, ek flattened parkramaa kare waala disk me hae. Ii disk uu bachaa cloud se banaa hae jon ki surak ke bane ke time bach gais rahaa. Baad me disk ke gardaa aur gas saathe aae ke grah ban gais. Suraj ek [[taara]] hae aur saur mandal ke 99.9% wajan isme hae. Iske matlab hae ki suraj ke graviry kaafi tagrraa hae aur iske kaaran aur sab grah ke ii khiich ke aapan aound ornit me kar liis hae. Saur mandal me aath grah hae:[[Budhgrah]] (Mercury), [[Sukhrgrah]] (Venus), [[Dunia]] (Earth), [[Mangalgrah]] (Mars), [[Brahaspati]] (Jupiter), [[Sanigrah]] (Saturn), [[Arungrah]] (Uranus) aur [[Varungrah]] (Neptune). Pahila chaar grah patthar aur [[dhaatu]] (metal) se banaa hae aur baaki chaar grah gas se banaa hae. Chhe grah aur chhe sab se barraa "dwarf planet" ke [[chandarma]] parkramaa kare hae. Saur mandal me 200 se jaada chandarma hae. Mercury aur Venus ke koi chandarma nai hae. Jupiter aur Saturn ke lage sab se jaada chandarma hae. Jupita ke chandarma, [[Gandymede]] sab se barraa chandarma hae. Saturn ke ek chandarma, [[Titan]] khaali ek chaand hae jiske [[atmosphere]] hae, jon ki [[nitrogen]] hae. Mars aur Jupiter ke biich me [[asteroid belt]] hae. Neptune se duur KUiper belt aur "scattered disc" hae. Isme dwarf planet hae, jaise ki [[Pluto]], Makemake, Haumea, Ceres aur eris. Ii jagha pe dher dher chhota chij, [[comet]], centaur aur dust hae. {{Solar System}} [[vibhag:S]] [[Category:Taara vigyan]] <references /> m370cmnzhntvzr1c3w3u0opl90zzpc3 0 8657 337311 313578 2026-08-15T06:13:49Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337311 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Bob-marley-wailers-crystal-palace.jpg|thumb|220px|Bob Marley and the Wailers, 1980 ]] '''Reggae''' ek rakam ke [[music]] hae jon ki [[Jamaica]] me [[1960s]] me suruu bhais rahaa. "Reggae" sabd ke bahut log sab modern Jamaican music ke naam de hae.<ref>Stephen Davis. "Reggae." ''Grove Music Online''. ''Oxford Music Online''. Oxford University Press. Web.16 Feb 2016.</ref> 1958 ke ek gaana, "Do the Reggar" pahila gaana rahaa jisme "reggae" sabd ke kaam me laawa gais hae, aur yahii naam sab ii rakam ke music ke dewa gais hae.<ref>{{cite web |title=Frederick "Toots" Hibbert Biography |url=http://www.biography.com/people/frederick-toots-hibbert-10673303#acclaimed-musician |url-status= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160809204903/http://www.biography.com/people/frederick-toots-hibbert-10673303#acclaimed-musician |archive-date=9 August 2016 |access-date=2 July 2016 |website=Biography.com}}</ref> Reggae, traditional Jamaican ''Kumina, Pukkumina, Revival Zion, Nyabinghi'' aur burru drumming se aawe hae. Isse pahile aur rakam ke mucic rahaa jon ki reggae ke rakam rahaa, jaise ki ''mento, ska'' aur ''rocksteady''.<ref name="Return of Reggae">{{cite news |author=Nettleford |first=Rex |date=Spring 1994 |title=Rex Nettleford: A Voice From the Caribbean |url=https://www.caribbean-beat.com/issue-9/rex-nettleford-voice-caribbean#axzz8bWmj5QLA |url-status=live |archive-url= |access-date= |newspaper=[[Caribbean Beat]] |pages=1}}</ref> Reggae jaada kar ke samachaar, samaajik gapsap aur politics ke baare me rahe hae.<ref>"Reggae." ''The Oxford Dictionary of Music'', 2nd ed. rev. Ed. Michael Kennedy. ''Oxford Music Online''.Oxford University Press. Web. 16 February 2016.</ref> Reggae ke style me kuchh "rhythm and blues", jazz, mento<ref name="Grove Music Online">{{cite book|author=Stephen Davis |title=Reggae |publisher=The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz |edition= second }}</ref>, calypso<ref>Anderson, Rick. "Reggae Music: A History and Selective Discography”. ''Notes'' 61.1 (2004): 206–214.</ref> aur Africa ke cultural rythm hae. Reggae ke uske "offbeat rythm" se pahchaana jaae hae. Reggae ke tempo duuno ska aur rocksteady se dhire rahe hae.<ref name="All About Jazz">{{cite web |author=May |first=Chris |date=2009-10-01 |title=Various Artists &#124; Rocksteady: The Roots Of Reggae |url=http://www.allaboutjazz.com/php/article.php?id=34239 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120202181642/http://www.allaboutjazz.com/php/article.php?id=34239 |archive-date=2012-02-02 |access-date=2012-05-29 |website=[[All About Jazz]]}}</ref> Reggae music me drum aur bass lead kare hae.<ref>{{cite web |last=Cooper |first=Carolyn J. |title=Reggae – music |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/reggae |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180318144350/https://www.britannica.com/art/reggae |archive-date=18 March 2018 |access-date=9 May 2018 |website=Britannica}}</ref> [[File:Bob-Marley.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Reggae gayak, Bob Marley]] Reggae ke [[Rastafari]], ek African background ke log ke dharam jon [[1930s]] me Jamaica me suruu bhais rahaa, se khaas sanbandh hae.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Warner |first=Keith Q. |date=1988 |title=Calypso, reggae, and Rastafarianism: Authentic Caribbean voices |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_popular-music-and-society_spring-1988_12_1/page/53 |journal=Popular Music and Society |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=53–62 |doi=10.1080/03007768808591306 |issn=0300-7766}}</ref> Jab rastafari [[dunia]] me faila tab log uske reggae music se associate kare lagin, aur ii rastafari ke parchaar ke aur barrhais.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Davis |first=Stephen |url=https://archive.org/details/reggaebloodlines00davi |title=Reggae bloodlines : in search of the music and culture of Jamaica |date=1992 |publisher=Da Capo Press |isbn=978-0306804960 |edition=1st Da Capo Press |location=New York |oclc=26014673 |url-access=registration}}</ref> Reggae dher des me faila hae, jahaan pe uu lical music se milae ke badla hae. Spanish reggae, Spanish me baat kare waala central America ke des, [[Panama]] se South America faila hae. Reggae United Kingdom me huaan ke Carribean diaspora se faila hae. Jab [[Bob MArley]] 1980 Africa ke tour karis thab reggae huan pe bhi faila. ==References== <references/> [[vibhag:R]] [[Category:Music]] f4nwj94lqkbjz47boocq0g6ytryxi1s 0 8719 337327 328115 2026-08-15T06:29:43Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 5 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337327 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Water droplet blue bg05.jpg|right|thumb|Impact from a water drop causes an upward "rebound" jet surrounded by circular capillary waves.]] '''Paani''' ek [[inorganic compound]] hae, jiske [[chemical formula]] H₂O hae. Paani jhillarr (transparent), besawaad, bina gandh ke, aur berang [[chemical substance]] hae. Ii [[dunia]] ke [[hydrosphere]] ke main constituent hae aur ii sab jinda chij me rahe hae. Kaaheki paani ek polar [[molecule]] hae, ii tagrraa intermolecular hydrogen bond banae hae, jon iske physical aur chemical properties ke khaas kaaran hae. <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |title=Water Q&A: Why is water the "universal solvent"? |date=20 June 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=15 January 2021 |archive-date=6 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206061114/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/water-qa-why-water-universal-solvent?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects |url-status=live }}</ref> Ii sab rakam ke jiu khaatir jaruri hae, lekin ii khaana waala taagat nai de hae. Kaaheki ii sab jiu me hae, chemically stable hae, ii dunia bhar me paawa jaawe hae, iske tagrraa polarity hae, paani ke "universal solvent" bola jaawe hae. <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Pacific_Union_College/Quantum_Chemistry/10%3A_Bonding_in_Polyatomic_Molecules/10.02%3A_Hybrid_Orbitals_in_Water |title=10.2: Hybrid Orbitals in Water |date=18 March 2020 |website=Chemistry LibreTexts |access-date=11 April 2021 |language=English |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730092130/https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Pacific_Union_College/Quantum_Chemistry/10%3A_Bonding_in_Polyatomic_Molecules/10.02%3A_Hybrid_Orbitals_in_Water |url-status=live }}</ref> Kaaheki dunia ke waatawaran, paani ke [[triple point]] ke nagiich hae, dunia me paani tiino solid, a liquid, aur gas ke ruup me rahe hae.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Butler |first1=John |title=The Earth – Introduction – Weathering |url=https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |publisher=University of Houston |access-date=30 January 2023 |quote=Note that the Earth environment is close to the triple point and that water, steam and ice can all exist at the surface. |archive-date=30 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130051934/https://uh.edu/~jbutler/physical/chapter6notes.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Paani se barsaat aur fog hoe hae. Baadal me paani aur ice ke chhota-chhota droplet rahe hae. Jab ice ke aur chhota karaa jaawe hae tab ii snow ban jaawe hae. Paani ke gas ke state bharf hae. Paani, dunia ke 71.0% surface ke cover kare hae, aur samundar aur mahaasaagar me iske lagbhag 96.5%nvolume hae.<ref name="WSS">{{cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |title=How Much Water is There on Earth? |date=13 November 2019 |website=Water Science School |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]], [[U.S. Department of the Interior]] |access-date=8 June 2022 |archive-date=9 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609050627/https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth |url-status=live }}</ref> Thhorraa paani jamiin ke niche rahe hae (1.7%), [[glaciers]] aur [[Antarctica]] aur Greenland ke icecap (1.7%), hawaa me bharf ke ruup me , baadal , aur barsaat (0.001%).<ref name="b1">{{cite book |title=Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Freshwater Resources |editor=Gleick, P.H. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1993 |page=13, Table 2.1 "Water reserves on the earth" |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408091921/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/EarthSciences/Oceanography/?view=usa&ci=9780195076288 |archive-date=8 April 2013 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html Water Vapor in the Climate System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070320034158/http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/mockler.html |date=20 March 2007 }}, Special Report, [AGU], December 1995 (linked 4/2007). [http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ Vital Water] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220070111/http://www.unep.org/dewa/assessments/ecosystems/water/vitalwater/ |date=20 February 2008 }} [[UNEP]].</ref> Paani sab samay [[water cycle]], jisme [[evaporation]], [[transpiration]] ([[evapotranspiration]]), [[condensation]], [[precipitation]], aur runoff hae, me rahe hae. Paani, dunia ke economy me ek khaas role play kare hae. Insaan ke kaam me laae waala paani ke 70% ke khet ke siche ke khaatir kaam me laawa jaawe hae. <ref name=Baroni2007>{{cite journal |author=Baroni, L. |author2=Cenci, L. |author3=Tettamanti, M. |author4=Berati, M. |year=2007 |title=Evaluating the environmental impact of various dietary patterns combined with different food production systems |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_european-journal-of-clinical-nutrition_2007-02_61_2/page/279 |journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=61 |pages=279–286 |doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602522 |pmid=17035955 |issue=2|doi-access=free | issn=0954-3007 }}</ref> Khaara paani aur mitthaa paani me machhri maarna dunia ke dher hissa me khaana ke ek important source hae, jisse dunia ke 6.5% of protein mile hae.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Troell |first1=Max |last2=Naylor |first2=Rosamond L. |last3=Metian |first3=Marc |last4=Beveridge |first4=Malcolm |last5=Tyedmers |first5=Peter H. |last6=Folke |first6=Carl |last7=Arrow |first7=Kenneth J. |last8=Barrett |first8=Scott |last9=Crépin |first9=Anne-Sophie |last10=Ehrlich |first10=Paul R. |last11=Gren |first11=Åsa |date=16 September 2014 |title=Does aquaculture add resilience to the global food system? |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=111 |issue=37 |pages=13257–13263 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1404067111 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4169979 |pmid=25136111|bibcode=2014PNAS..11113257T |doi-access=free }}</ref> Jaada, tradeboat se, jon samundar, naddi, talaab aur khaarri me se jaawe hae, se karaa jaawe hae. Industry aur ghar ke garmaae aur thandaa kare ke khaatir dher paani ke kaam me laawa jaawe hae. Paani, dher chij ke khaatir solvent ke ruup me kaam me laawa jaawe hae, aur ii kaaran se iske dher industrial processes jaise khaana pakaana aur dhoe ke khaatir kaam me laawa jaawe hae. Paani, ice, aur snow ke dher khel-kuud, jaise pahurrnaa, nao chalaana, [[boat racing]], [[surfing]], [[Recreational fishing|sport fishing]], [[Diving (sport)|diving]], [[ice skating]], [[snowboarding]], aur [[skiing]] ke khaatir kaam me laawa jaawe hae. ==Itihaas== ===Dunia pe=== Ek chij jon jon ii anumaan lagae me ki dunia me kab pahile paani aais, ke hard kare hae ki paani ke sab time space se khiy dewa jaawe hae. Atmosphere me H₂O [[molecule]] [[photosynthesis]] se tuute hae aur jon [[hydrogen]] [[atom]] bane hae kabhi-kabhi dunia ke gravitational pull se baaha rchal de hae. Jab dunia chhotaa rahaa aur kamtii garrhu rahaa tab paani ke space me aur sahaj se khoe dewa jaawat rahaa. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Luger |first1=R. |last2=Barnes |first2=R. |date=February 2015 |title=Extreme Water Loss and Abiotic O2 Buildup on Planets Throughout the Habitable Zones of M Dwarfs |journal=Astrobiology |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=119–143 |doi=10.1089/ast.2014.1231 |issn=1531-1074 |pmc=4323125 |pmid=25629240|arxiv=1411.7412 |bibcode=2015AsBio..15..119L }}</ref> Halluk [[element]] jaise hydrogen aur [[helium]] ke expect karaa jaawe hae ki ii atmosphere se sab time leak karii, lekin aur garrhu [[noble gas]]es jon atmosphere me hae ii suggest kare hae ki aur garrhu pahile ke elements in atmosphere me se space me herae jaaweat rahaa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Pepin|first=Robert O.|date=July 1991|title=On the origin and early evolution of terrestrial planet atmospheres and meteoritic volatiles|url=https://archive.org/details/icarus_1991-07_92_1/page/2|journal=Icarus|volume=92|issue=1|pages=2–79|doi=10.1016/0019-1035(91)90036-s|issn=0019-1035|bibcode=1991Icar...92....2P}}</ref> [[Xenon]] khaas kar ke paani ke space me khoe ke calculation me important hae. Ii khaali ek nai hae noble gas (aur atmosphere se chemical reactions se nai nikaala jaawe hae ), lekin iske nau stable isotope ketna maatra me hae ke compare kar ke ii paawa jaawe hae ki dunia kamti-sekamti ek ocean bhar ke paani ke aapan puraana itihaas me khois hae. Ii jaada likely hae ki [[Hadean]] aur [[Archean]] eons ke biich me, koi cataclysmic events jaise [[chandarma]] ke bane ke impact, ketime bhais rahaa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zahnle|first1=Kevin J.|last2=Gacesa|first2=Marko|last3=Catling|first3=David C.|date=January 2019|title=Strange messenger: A new history of hydrogen on Earth, as told by Xenon|journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta|volume=244|pages=56–85|doi=10.1016/j.gca.2018.09.017|issn=0016-7037|arxiv=1809.06960|bibcode=2019GeCoA.244...56Z|s2cid=119079927}}</ref> Dunia me koi bhi paani accretion ke duusra bhaag me [[Giant impact hypothesis|Moon-forming impact]] (~4.5 billion years ago), jon likely Earth ke crust aur [[upper mantle (Earth)|upper mantle]] ke vaporise kar dewa gaus rahaa hoi.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Canup|first1=Robin M.|author1-link=Robin Canup|last2=Asphaug|first2=Erik|date=August 2001|title=Origin of the Moon in a giant impact near the end of the Earth's formation|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_nature-uk_2001-08-16_412_6848/page/708|journal=Nature|volume=412|issue=6848|pages=708–712|doi=10.1038/35089010|pmid=11507633|issn=0028-0836|bibcode=2001Natur.412..708C|s2cid=4413525}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cuk|first1=M.|last2=Stewart|first2=S. T.|date=2012-10-17|title=Making the Moon from a Fast-Spinning Earth: A Giant Impact Followed by Resonant Despinning|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2012-11-23_338_6110/page/1047|journal=Science|volume=338|issue=6110|pages=1047–1052|doi=10.1126/science.1225542|pmid=23076099|issn=0036-8075|bibcode=2012Sci...338.1047C|s2cid=6909122|doi-access=free}}</ref> Ii patthar ke vapor dui hazaar saal me paani ban gae rahaa hoi, aapan pichhe garam volatileschhorr ke jiske kaaran jaada [[carbon dioxide]] waala atmosphere jisme hydrogen aur [[bhaap]] rahaa, banaa rahaa.. Baad me , liquid paani waala sagar rahaa hoi surface temperature of {{Convert|230|C|}} rahe par bhi jaada atmospheric pressure CO₂ atmosphere ke kaaran.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ding |first1=Chao |last2=He |first2=Yaping |last3=Yin |first3=Jiusheng |last4=Yao |first4=Wei |last5=Zhou |first5=Dechuang |last6=Wang |first6=Jian |date=2015-02-18 |title=Study on the Pressure Dependence of Boiling Point, Flashpoint, and Lower Flammability Limit at Low Ambient Pressure |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/ie503383a |journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research |volume=54 |issue=6 |pages=1899–1907 |doi=10.1021/ie503383a |issn=0888-5885}}</ref> Jaise jaise dunia thandaa bhais jaada CO₂ atmosphere se [[subduction]] ke kaaran hatae dewa gais rahaa aur ocean ke paani me dissolve hoe e kaaran, lekin ii level uppar niche jaate rahaajaise nawaa new surface aur [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] suruu bhais.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1073/pnas.071045698|pmid=11259665|title=Initiation of clement surface conditions on the earliest Earth|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-national-academy-of-sciences-usa_2001-03-27_98_7/page/3666|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=98|issue=7|pages=3666–3672|year=2001|last1=Sleep|first1=N. H.|last2=Zahnle|first2=K.|last3=Neuhoff|first3=P. S.|pmc=31109|bibcode=2001PNAS...98.3666S|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[File:Pillow_basalt_crop_l.jpg|thumb|This pillow basalt on the seafloor near Hawaii was formed when magma extruded underwater. Other, much older pillow basalt formations provide evidence for large bodies of water long ago in Earth's history.]] == References == {{Reflist|1}} [[vibhag:P]] [[Category:Natural resources]] 95ve4b9qwsoj0vj3ytj1ns6wxphbzpn 0 8785 337339 323767 2026-08-15T06:42:26Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337339 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Egyptian A'h-mosè or Rhind Papyrus (1065x1330).png|right|200px|thumb|Ii papyrus rhind se puraana Egypt me mathematics ke jaankari mile hae]] '''Mathematics''' (jiske chhota kar ke "maths" nai to "math" bola jaae hae), [[ginti]] (number), [[dhaancha]] (shape) aur [[wikt:namuuna|namuuna]] (pattern) ke adhyan hae. Ii sabd [[Greek bhasa|Greek]] ''μάθημα'' (máthema) se aais hae, jiske matlab [[vigyan]], [[gyaan]], nai to [[sikhnaa]] hae. Mathematics me adhyan karaa jaae hae: * Ginti: jisme chij ke kaise gina jaae, bhi hae. * Dhaancha (structure):chij ke kaise [[wikt:bandobast|bandobast]] (organize) karaa gais hae, lekin ii bhi ki ii kaise rahaa hoi. Iske jaada kar ke [[algebra]] bola jaae hae. * Place: jahaan chij hae, ii kaise arrange karaa gais, jisme iske dhaancha ke arrangement bhi hae. Iske jaada kar ke [[geometry]] bola jaae hae. * Change: kaise chij ke biich me [[wikt:antar|antar]] (difference) hae. Iske jaada kae ke [[Mathematical analysis]] bola jaae hae. [[Applied math]], asli [[dunia]] me problem ke solve kare me [[wikt:kaamil|kaamil]] (useful) hae. Jon log [[business]], [[vigyan]], [[engineering]] aur [[construction]] me kaam kare hae, mathematics ke kaam me laae hae.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.siam.org/Students-Education/Programs-Initiatives/Thinking-of-a-Career-in-Applied-Mathematics|title=Thinking of a Career in Applied Mathematics? {{!}} SIAM|website=www.siam.org|language=en-US|access-date=2018-07-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wigner|first=Eugene|date=February 1960|title=The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences|url=https://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html|journal=Communications in Pure and Applied Mathematics|volume=13|issue=1|pages=1–14|doi=10.1002/cpa.3160130102|bibcode=1960CPAM...13....1W|s2cid=6112252|via=|access-date=2018-08-07|archive-date=2018-08-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810073503/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html|url-status=dead|archivedate=2018-08-10|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810073503/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~matc/MathDrama/reading/Wigner.html}}</ref> ==Mathematics me samasya ke suljhaana (problem solving)== Mathematics, [[logic]] ke kaam me laae ke samasya ke sulghae hae.Ek khaas aujaar jiske mathematician log kaam me laae hae, [[Deductive reasoning|deduction]]. Deduction me puraana sachchaai ke kaam me laae ke nawaa sachchaai ke khoja jaae hae. Deduction ke kaam me laana, uu chij hae jon mathematics ke duusra rakam ke vigyanik soch (scientific thinking) se different hae, kaaheki usme [[experiment]] nai to [[interview]] pe nirbhar rahaa jaae hae.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://undsci.berkeley.edu/article/mathematics|title=The science checklist applied: Mathematics|website=undsci.berkeley.edu|access-date=2018-08-05}}</ref> [[Mathematician]] log logic aur reasoning ke kaam me laae ke general [[niyam]] (rule) banae hae, jon mathematics ke khaatir jaruri hae. Ii niyam uu [[jaankari]] ke nikaal de hai jon jaruri nai hae, tab ek niyam dher haalaat me kaam me laawa jaae sake hae. General niyam ke paae se, mathematicians dher samasya ke suljhaae sake hae, kaaheki ii niyam duusra samaya me bhi kaam me laawa jaae sake hae.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://blogs.ams.org/mathgradblog/2016/08/21/role-generalization-advanced-mathematical-thinking/|title=The Role of Generalization in the Advanced Mathematical Thinking|date=2016-08-21|work=AMS Grad Blog|access-date=2018-08-07|language=en-US}}</ref> Ii niyam ke [[theorem]] bola jaae hae (agar iske saabit kar dewa gais hae), nai to [[conjecture]] bola jaae hae.<ref>{{Cite book|title=How to Think Like a Mathematician|url=https://archive.org/details/howtothinklikema00hous_005|last=Houston|first=Kevin|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|page=[https://archive.org/details/howtothinklikema00hous_005/page/n112 99]|isbn=978-0-521-71978-0}}</ref> Jaada mathematicians non-logical aur creative reasoning ke kaam me laae ke logical proof ke paae hae.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thurston|first=William|date=April 1994|title=On proof and progress in mathematics|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-mathematical-society-bulletin-new-series_1994-04_30_2/page/161|journal=Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society|volume=30|issue=2|pages=161–177|doi=10.1090/S0273-0979-1994-00502-6|arxiv=math/9404236|bibcode=1994math......4236T}}</ref> == Areas of study in mathematics == === Ginti === :Mathematics me ginti aur quantities ke adhyan karaa jaae hae. Ii vigyan ke ek hissa hae jisme logic of shape, quantity, aur arrangement hae. Niche dewa gais areas ke mathematics ke dher field me adhyan karaa jaae hae, jisme [[set theory]] aur [[mathematical logic]] hae. [[Number theory]] ke adhyan jaada kar ke integer ke structure aur behavior ke adhyan kare hae . :{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="20" | <math>1,2,3,\ldots</math> || <math>\ldots,-1,0,1,\ldots</math> || <math>\frac12,\frac23,0.125,\ldots</math> || <math>\pi,\tau,e,\sqrt2,\ldots</math> || <math>1+i,2e^{i\pi/3},\ldots</math> |- | [[Natural number]]s || [[Integer]]s || [[Rational number]]s || [[Real number]]s || [[Complex number]]s |- || <math>0,1,\ldots,\omega,\omega+1,\ldots,2\omega,\ldots</math> || <math>\aleph_0,\aleph_1,\ldots</math> || <math>+,-,\times,/</math> || <math><,\le,=,\ge,></math> || <math>f(x)=\sqrt x</math> |- || [[Ordinal number]]s || [[Cardinal number]]s || [[Arithmetic|Arithmetic operations]] || [[Arithmetic|Arithmetic relations]] || [[Function (mathematics)|Functions]], see also [[special functions]] |} === Structure === : Structural mathematics objects' and constructions' ke shape aur integrity ke adhyan kare hae. Isme [[algebra]] aur [[calculus]] hae. :{| style="border:3px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="30" | [[File:Elliptic curve simple.svg|96px]] || [[File:Free module.png|96px]] || [[File:Eigenvectoren.pdf|96px]] ||[[File:Lattice of the divisibility of 60.svg|96px]] || [[File:6n-graf.svg|128px]] |- | [[Number theory]] || [[Abstract algebra]] || [[Linear algebra]] || [[Order theory]] || [[Graph theory]] |} === Shape === :Mathematics ke kuchh hussa chij ke dhaancha ke adhyan kare hae, Ii sab jaada kar ke [[geometry]] ke adhuan ke hissa hae. :{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="20" | [[File:Torus.jpg|128px]] || [[File:Pythagorean.svg|128px]] || [[File:Sin.svg|160px]] || [[File:Osculating circle.svg|128px]] || [[File:Koch curve.svg|128px]] |- | [[Topology]] || [[Geometry]] || [[Trigonometry]] || [[Differential geometry]] || [[Fractal geometry]] |} === Change === :Some areas of mathematics study the way things change. Most of these areas are part of the study of [[Mathematical analysis|analysis]]. :{| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="40" | [[File:Integral as region under curve.svg|128px]] || [[File:Vector field.svg|128px]] || [[File:LimSup.png|128px]] |- | [[Calculus]] || [[Vector calculus]] || [[Mathematical analysis|Analysis]] |- || [[File:Damping 1.svg|128px]] || [[File:Limitcycle.svg|128px]] || [[File:LorenzAttractor.png|128px]] |- || [[Differential equation]]s || [[Dynamical systems theory|Dynamical systems]] || [[Chaos theory]] |} ==Mathematics ke itihaas== ===Puraana itihaas=== ==Babylonian=== ===Egyptian=== ===Greek=== ===Roman=== ===Chinese=== ===Indian=== [[File:Bakhshali numerals 2.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Jon akchhar ke gine ke khaatir [[Bakhshali manuscript]] me kaam me laawa gais rahaa. Ii 2nd century BC aur 2nd century AD ke biich ke hae.]] {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | width = 330 | image1 = 1911 sketch of numerals script history ancient India, mathematical symbols shapes.jpg | alt1 = Numerals evolution in India | caption1 = Indian numerals ke patthar aur [[tamba]] (copper) me ke inscriptions<ref name=britnanaghat>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/numeral#ref797082 Development Of Modern Numerals And Numeral Systems: The Hindu-Arabic system], Encyclopaedia Britannica, Quote: "1, 4, aur 6 ke Ashoka inscriptions me paawa gais hae (3rd century BC); 2, 4, 6, 7, aur 9 ke Nana Ghat inscriptions me paawa gais hae lagbhag ek century baad me; aur 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, aur 9 Nasik gufaa me paawa gais hae, 1st nai to 2nd century AD ke – ii sab dekhe me abhi ke 2 aur 3 ke rakam dekhe me lage hae jon puraana = aur ≡ se aais hae."</ref> | image2 = Indian numerals 100AD.svg | alt2 = Brahmi numerals | caption2 = Puraana Brahmi numerals, India ke ek hissa me }} Indian subcontinent ke sab se puraana civilization [[Indus Valley civilization]] hae (mature second phase: 2600 to 1900 BC) jon [[Indus Naddi]] ke basin me rahaa. Iske city geometric shape me banaa rahaa, lekin ii civilization ke koi mathematical document abhi talak nai bachaa hae.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 206}}</ref> India ke sab se puraana mathematical records, jon abhi talak bachaa hae, [[Sulba Sutras]] hae (jiske 8th century BC se 2nd century AD talak ke bataawa jaae hae),<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207">{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 207}}</ref> Ii time, dharmik kitaab me murti ke kaise banaawa jaae sake ke niyam me dher shape, jaise squares, rectangles, parallelograms hae.<ref>{{Cite book |first=T.K. |last=Puttaswamy |chapter=The Accomplishments of Ancient Indian Mathematicians |pages=411–12 |title=Mathematics Across Cultures: The History of Non-western Mathematics |editor1-first=Helaine |editor1-last=Selin |editor1-link=Helaine Selin |editor2-first=Ubiratan |editor2-last=D'Ambrosio |editor2-link=Ubiratan D'Ambrosio |year=2000 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |isbn=978-1-4020-0260-1 }}</ref> Egypt ke rakam, mandir banae me jaada dhyan dena, ii dekhae hae ki mathematics, dharmik ritual se suruu bhais hae.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207"/> Sulba Sutras ii batae hae ki ek circle, jiske area ek square ke baraabar hae, ke kaise banaawa jaae sake hae, jon π ke dher approxinations dekhae hae. <ref>{{cite journal |first=R.P. |last=Kulkarni |url=http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005af9_32.pdf |title=The Value of π known to Śulbasūtras |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206150545/http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005af9_32.pdf |archive-date=2012-02-06 |journal=Indian Journal of History of Science |volume=13 |issue=1 |date=1978 |pages=32–41}}</ref><ref name="Indian_sulbasutras">{{cite web |first1=J.J. |last1=Connor |first2=E.F. |last2=Robertson |title=The Indian Sulbasutras |publisher=Univ. of St. Andrew, Scotland |url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Indian_sulbasutras.html}}</ref> π ke approximate hae 4 x (13/15)² (3.0044...), 25/8 (3.125), 900/289 (3.11418685...), 1156/361 (3.202216...), aur 339/108 (3.1389). Iske alaawa, uu log 2 ke [[square root]] ke decimal places talak work our kare rahin, Pythagorean triples ke suchi banae rahin, aur [[Pythagorean theorem]] ke bhi batae rahin.<ref name="Indian_sulbasutras"/> Ii sab chij Babylonian mathematics me bhi hae, aur ii Mesopotamian influence dekhae hae.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207"/> Ii nai jaana jaae hae ki Sulba Sutra ke ketnaa asar baad ke Indian mathematicians pe rahaa. China ke rakam, Indian mathematics ke development contunuous nai rahaa; kabhi-kabhi sher pragati ke baad dher din talak koi nawaa chij nai bhais rahaa.<ref name="Boyer 1991 loc=China and India p. 207"/> [[Panini]] (c. 5th century BC) me [[Sanskrit grammar]] ke niyam banais rahaa.<ref>{{Cite journal | last=Bronkhorst | first=Johannes | author-link= Johannes Bronkhorst | title=Panini and Euclid: Reflections on Indian Geometry | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-indian-philosophy_2001-04_29_1-2/page/43 | journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy |volume=29 |issue=1–2 | year=2001 | pages=43–80 | doi=10.1023/A:1017506118885 | s2cid=115779583 }}</ref> Uske notation, modern mathematical notation ke rakam rahaa, aur metarules, [[Transformation (geometry)|transformations]], aur [[recursion]] ke kaam me laais rahaa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kadvany|first=John|date=2008-02-08|title=Positional Value and Linguistic Recursion|journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy|language=en|volume=35|issue=5–6|pages=487–520|doi=10.1007/s10781-007-9025-5|issn=0022-1791|citeseerx=10.1.1.565.2083|s2cid=52885600}}</ref> [[Pingala]] (lagbhag 3rd–1st centuries BC) aapan thesis [[Prosody (poetry)|prosody]] me ek aujaar ke kaam me laais rahaa jon [[binary numeral system]] ke rakam rahaa.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sanchez |first1=Julio |last2=Canton |first2=Maria P. |title=Microcontroller programming : the microchip PIC |year=2007 |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, Florida |isbn=978-0-8493-7189-9 |page=37 }}</ref><ref>Anglin, W. S. and J. Lambek (1995). ''The Heritage of Thales'', Springer, {{ISBN|0-387-94544-X}}</ref> Uske [[combinatorics]] of [[Metre (music)|meters]], sangeet me, [[binomial theorem]] ke rakam rahaa. Pingala ke kaam me [[Fibonacci number]] (jiske ''mātrāmeru'' bola gais rahaa) ke basic ideas of hae.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hall | first1 = Rachel W. | year = 2008 | title = Math for poets and drummers | url = http://people.sju.edu/~rhall/mathforpoets.pdf | journal = Math Horizons | volume = 15 | issue = 3| pages = 10–11 | doi = 10.1080/10724117.2008.11974752 | s2cid = 3637061 }}</ref> India ke aglaa khaas mathematical document ''Sulba Sutras'' hae, jon ''Siddhantas'' hae, jisme astronomical treatises 4th aur 5th centuries AD ([[Gupta period]]) ke hae jon [[Greece]] ke asar dekhae hae.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 208}}</ref> Isme trigonometric relations hae jon half-chord pe based hae, jaise modern trigonometry me, aur full chord nai, jaise Ptolemaic trigonometry me rahaa.<ref name=autogenerated2>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 209}}</ref> Kuchh ranslation me galti ke kaaran, sabd "sine" aur "cosine" [[Sanskrit]] "jiya" aur "kojiya" se aae hae.<ref name=autogenerated2 /> [[Image:Yuktibhasa.svg|upright|left|thumb|''[[Yuktibhāṣā]]'' me [[sine rule]] ke niyam]] Lagbhag 500 AD me, [[Aryabhata]] ''[[Aryabhatiya]]'' likhis rahaa, ek patraa volume, jon verse me loha gias rahaa, jiske astronomy aur mathematical mensuration ke rules ke samjhae ke khaatir likha gis rahaa.<ref>{{Harv|Boyer|1991|loc="China and India" p. 210}}</ref> ''Aryabhatiya'' me decimal place-value system ke pahila dafe dekha jaae hae. 7th century me, [[Brahmagupta]], [[Brahmagupta theorem]] banais, josme uu [[Brahmagupta's identity]] aur [[Brahmagupta's formula]] ke diis, aur pahila dafe ''[[Brahmasphutasiddhanta|Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta]]'' me, uu [[0 (number)|zero]]ke , as both a placeholder aur [[decimal digit]] ke ruup me samjhais, aur [[Hindu–Arabic numeral system]] ke bhi sanjhais.<ref name="Boyer Siddhanta">{{cite book|last=Boyer|ref=none|author-link=Carl Benjamin Boyer|title=History of Mathematics|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye|url-access=registration|year=1991|chapter=The Arabic Hegemony|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye/page/226 226]|publisher=Wiley |isbn=9780471543978|quote=By 766 we learn that an astronomical-mathematical work, known to the Arabs as the ''Sindhind'', was brought to Baghdad from India. It is generally thought that this was the ''Brahmasphuta Siddhanta'', although it may have been the ''Surya Siddhanata''. A few years later, perhaps about 775, this ''Siddhanata'' was translated into Arabic, and it was not long afterwards (ca. 780) that Ptolemy's astrological ''[[Tetrabiblos]]'' was translated into Arabic from the Greek.}}</ref> Ii text ke translation ke (c. 770) se Islamic mathematicians ke numeral system introduce karaa gais rahaa, jon iske [[Arabic numerals]] ke ruup me apnae liin. Islamic scholars, number system ke ii gyan ke Europe me 12th century me pahunchain, aur iske puraana munber system ke jagha kaam me laae jaae lagaa gais. Jab ki ii number system ke dher rakam likha jaae hae, ii sab [[Brahmi numeral]] se aais hae. India ke ek darjan script ke aapan number likhe ke dhang hae. 10th century me, jab [[Halayudha]] , [[Pingala]] ke kaam ke baare me likhis tab isme [[Fibonacci sequence]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Singh |first=Parmanand |date=1985-08-01 |title=The so-called fibonacci numbers in ancient and medieval India |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0315-0860%2885%2990021-7 |journal=Historia Mathematica |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=229–244 |doi=10.1016/0315-0860(85)90021-7 |issn=0315-0860}}</ref> aur [[Pascal's triangle]] bhi rahaa,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ramasubramanian |first=K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AEe9DwAAQBAJ&dq=Selected+Works+of+Radha+Charan+Gupta+on+History+of+Mathematics+pascal&pg=PA289 |title=Gaṇitānanda: Selected Works of Radha Charan Gupta on History of Mathematics |date=2019-11-08 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-981-13-1229-8 |language=en}}</ref> aur ii [[matrix (mathematics)|matrix]] kaise bane hae ke bhi samjhais rahaa. 12th century me, [[Bhāskara II]],<ref>Plofker 2009 182–207</ref> jon south India me rahat raha, jaana jaae waala mathematics ke branches ke baare me dher chij likhis rahaa. Uske kaam me mathematical objects equivalent or approximately equivalent to infinitesimals, [[Mean value theorem|the mean value theorem]] aur sine function ke derivative hae.<ref>{{cite book |first=Roger |last=Cooke |title=The History of Mathematics: A Brief Course |publisher=Wiley-Interscience |year=1997 |chapter=The Mathematics of the Hindus |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema0000cook/page/213 213–215] |isbn=0-471-18082-3 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema0000cook/page/213}}</ref><ref>Plofker 2009 pp. 197–98; George Gheverghese Joseph, ''The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics'', Penguin Books, London, 1991 pp. 298–300; Takao Hayashi, "Indian Mathematics", pp. 118–30 in ''Companion History of the History and Philosophy of the Mathematical Sciences'', ed. I. Grattan. Guinness, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London, 1994, p. 126.</ref> 14th century me, [[Narayana Pandita (mathematician)|Narayana Pandita]] ''[[Ganita Kaumudi]]'' ke likh ke khalaas karis.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Narayana - Biography |url=https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Narayana/ |access-date=2022-10-03 |website=Maths History |language=en}}</ref> 14th century bhi, [[Madhava of Sangamagrama]], jon [[Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics|Kerala School of Mathematics]] ke suruu karis rahaa, [[Leibniz formula for pi|Madhava–Leibniz series]] ke banais jiske uu [[Approximations of π#Middle Ages|transformed series]] se suruu karis rahaa, jiske pahila 21 terms ke kaam me laae ke π ke value 3.14159265359 paawa gais hae. Madhava [[Gregory's series|the Madhava-Gregory series]] ke bhi paais jiske uu kaam me laae ke arctangent ke calculate karis, Madhava-Newton [[power series]] ke kaam me laae ke sine aur cosine aur [[Taylor series|the Taylor approximation]] sine aur cosine functions ke calculate karis.<ref>Plofker 2009 pp. 217–53.</ref> 16th century me, [[Jyesthadeva]] Kerala School ke banaawa gais theorem ke ''Yukti-bhāṣā'' me likhis.<ref name="rajujournal"> {{cite journal| author1=Raju, C. K. | title=Computers, mathematics education, and the alternative epistemology of the calculus in the Yuktibhāṣā |url=http://ckraju.net/papers/Hawaii.pdf | journal=Philosophy East & West | volume=51 | issue=3 | date=2001 | pages=325–362 | doi=10.1353/pew.2001.0045 | s2cid=170341845 | access-date=2020-02-11 }} </ref><ref>Divakaran, P. P. (2007). "The first textbook of calculus: Yukti-bhāṣā", ''Journal of Indian Philosophy'' 35, pp. 417–33.</ref> Ii bhi arue karaa gais hae ki kuchh calculus ke idea, jaise infinite series aur taylor series aur kuchh trigonometry functions, ke Europe talak 16th century me<ref name=":2" /> [[Jesuit]] missionaries aur traders log pahunchaain jon puraana [[Muziris]] port me uu time me rahin aur ii rakam se European me analysis aur calculus ke development me madat karin.<ref name=almeida>{{cite journal |author = Almeida, D. F.; J. K. John and A. Zadorozhnyy |title = Keralese mathematics: its possible transmission to Europe and the consequential educational implications | journal = Journal of Natural Geometry |volume= 20 |year =2001 |pages=77–104 |issue=1 }}</ref> ==References== {{reflist}} [[vibhag:M]] [[vibhag:Mathematics| ]] 8ap2nqkq2xlnkvwij582qaltuzs0495 0 8799 337324 327998 2026-08-15T06:25:53Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337324 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Sri Mariamman Temple 3, Dec 05.JPG|thumb|Dua na Hindu ni valetabu e [[Singapore]].]] '''Hinduism''' ('''सनातन धर्म'''; ''Sanātana Dharma'', jiske matlab Endless Religion hae) dunia ke sab se purana [[dharam]] hae. Hinduism ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɪ|n|d|u|ˌ|ɪ|z|əm}})<ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|Hinduism |access-date=19 April 2021}}</ref> ek chhaata sanghatan (umbrella term){{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002a}}{{sfn|Flood|2022|p=339}} jiske kaam me laae ke dher Indian dharmik aur sampradaya {{refn|group=note|name="definition"}} hae, jon sab concept of ''[[dharma]]'' sabd ek me biswas kare hae, ek cosmic order maintained by its followers through rituals and righteous living, jaise [[Vedas]] me likha hae. ''Hindu'' is an upnaam (exonym) hae,{{refn|group=note|name="Hindu_term"}} aur jab Hinduism ke [[dunia]] ke sab se puraana dharam maana jaawe hae, iske aur modern naam ''[[Sanātana Dharma]]'' se bhi jaana jaawe hae. .{{refn|group=note|name="Knott_sanatana dharma"}} ''Vaidika Dharma'' aur ''[[Arya]] dharma'', Hinduism ke itihaasik ekke naam hae. Hinduism dher rakam ke bichar ke ke protsahan kare hae, dher rakam se Bhagwaan, dewtaa aur scripture ke baare me baat karaa jaawe hae.{{sfn|Michaels|2004}} Hindi dharmik pustak ke dui hissa me baata jaawe hae: Sruti - jiske suna jaawe hae aur smrti - jiske yaad karaa jaawe hae. Khaas Hindi dharmik pustak me hae [[Vedas]], [[Upanishads]], [[Puranas]], ''[[Mahabharata]]'' (jisme ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' hae), ''[[Ramayana]]'', aur [[Agama (Hinduism)|Agamas]].{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|pp=46–52, 76–77}}{{sfn|Zaehner|1992|pp=1–7}} Hindu biswas me hae ''[[karma]]'' (action, intent and consequences),{{sfn|Klostermaier|2007|pp=46–52, 76–77}}{{sfn|Brodd|2003}} [[Saṃsāra#In Hinduism|''saṃsāra'']] (maut aur fir se janam ke cycle) aur chaar [[Puruṣārtha]], thiik manzil, jon hae: ''[[dharma]]'' (ethics/duties), ''[[artha]]'' (prosperity/work), ''[[kama]]'' (desires/passions) aur ''[[moksha]]'' (liberation/emancipation from passions and ultimately ''saṃsāra'').{{sfn|Bilimoria|Prabhu|Sharma|2007}}{{sfn|Koller|1968}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=7}} Hindu dharam me (''[[bhakti]]''), worship ([[Puja (Hinduism)|''puja'']]), sacrificial rites (''[[yajna]]''), aur meditation ([[Dhyana in Hinduism|''dhyana'']]) aur [[yoga]] hae.<ref name="ellinger70" /> Hindu dharam me koi central authority nai hae aur jaada Hindi log koi denomination me nai hae.{{sfn|Werner|2005|pp=13, 45}} Lekin Hinduism ke adhyan kare waala lig chaar khaas denominations ke identify kare hae: [[Shaivism]], [[Shaktism]], [[Smartism]], aur [[Vaishnavism]].{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=113, 134, 155–161, 167–168}}{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=377, 398}} Chhe [[Āstika aur nāstika|Āstika]] [[Hindu philosophy]] ke school jon Vedas ke authority ke recognise kare hae : [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]], [[Nyaya]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Mīmāṃsā]], aur[[Vedanta]].{{sfn|Holberg|2000|p=316}}{{sfn|Nicholson|2013|p=2–5}} Hinduism, [[dunia]] ke tiisra sab se barraa dharam hae, jisme lagbhag 1.20 billion log biswas kare hae, jon dunia ke abaadi ke lagbhag 15% hae. <ref group="web" name="pewforum_Hinduism" /><ref name="gordonconwell.edu" group="web" /> Hindi lig jaada kar ke [[India]],{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|p=3}} [[Nepal]], [[Mauritius]], aur [[Bali]], [[Indonesia]] me rahe hae.{{sfnm|1a1=Gonda|1y=1975|1p=|2a1=Bakker|2y=1997|2p=|3a1=Howe|3y=2001|3p=|4a1=Stuart-Fox|4y=2002|4p=}} Dher Hindu samaj ke [[South Asia]] ke des, [[Southeast Asia]], [[Caribbean]], [[Middle East]], [[North America]], [[Europe]], [[Oceania]] aur [[Africa]] me hae.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vertovec |first=Steven |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FRVTAQAAQBAJ |title=The Hindu Diaspora: Comparative Patterns |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-136-36705-2 |pages=1–4, 7–8, 63–64, 87–88, 141–143 |access-date=18 July 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328155539/https://books.google.com/books?id=FRVTAQAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=18 December 2012|title=Hindus|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-hindu/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209012719/https://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-hindu/|archive-date=9 February 2020|access-date=14 February 2015|publisher=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=18 December 2012|title=Table: Religious Composition by Country, in Numbers (2010)|url=http://features.pewforum.org/grl/population-number.php?sort=numberHindu|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130201224548/http://features.pewforum.org/grl/population-number.php?sort=numberHindu|archive-date=1 February 2013|access-date=14 February 2015|publisher=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project}}</ref> == Naam == ''Hindū'' sabd ke gaer-Hindu log kaam me laawe hae,<ref>{{harvnb|Siemens|Roodt|2009|p=546}}; {{harvnb|Leaf|2014|p=36}}</ref> aur ii [[Sanskrit]] sabd ''Sindhu'' se aais hae,<ref>{{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=6}}; {{harvnb|Parpola|2015|loc="Chapter 1"}}</ref> jon [[Indus Naddi]] ke naam hae aur ii naam lower Indus basin ([[Sindh]]) ke bhi rahaa.<ref>{{harvnb|Singh|2008|p=433}}; {{harvnb|Flood|1996|p=6}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Eggermont |first=Pierre Herman Leonard |title=Alexander's Campaigns in Sind and Baluchistan and the Siege of the Brahmin Town of Harmatelia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nG0_xoDS3hUC&pg=PA145 |year=1975 |publisher=Peeters Publishers |isbn=978-90-6186-037-2 |page=145 |quote=''Sindhu'' means a stream, a river, and in particular the Indus river, but likewise it denotes the territory of the lower Indus valley, or modern Sind... It denotes a geographical unit to which different tribes may belong. |access-date=25 December 2024 |archive-date=23 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221123010456/https://books.google.com/books?id=nG0_xoDS3hUC&pg=PA145 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{refn |group=note |The Indo-Aryan word ''Sindhu'' means "river", "ocean".{{sfn|Flood|2003|p=3}} It is frequently being used in the [[Rigveda]]. The Sindhu-area is part of [[Āryāvarta]], "the land of the Aryans".}} [[Proto-Iranian language|Proto-Iranian]] me awaaj ''*s'' > ''h'' hae gais rahaa 850 aur 600 BCE ke biich me.<ref>{{harvp|Parpola|2015|loc="Chapter 9"}}: "In Iranian languages, Proto-Iranian *s became h before a following vowel at a relatively late period, perhaps around 850–600 BCE."</ref> "Hindu" sabd [[Avesta]] me ''heptahindu'' likha gais hae, jon Rigvedic ''sapta sindhu'' ke baraabar hae.<ref name="Thapar p.38">{{Cite book |last=Thapar |first=Romila |title=Early India: From the Origins to A.D. 1300 |url=https://archive.org/details/earlyindiafromor00thap |publisher=University of California Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-520-24225-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/earlyindiafromor00thap/page/38 38]}}</ref> 6th-century BCE ke [[Darius I]] ke ek inscription [[Hindush]] (referring to Sindh) ke baare me charcha kare hae, ki ii uske ek praant hae.{{sfn|Sharma|2002}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|loc=p. 6: "The actual term ''Hindu'' first occurs as a [[Persian language|Persian]] geographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit: ''Sindhu'')."}} ''Hindustan'' (jiske "''hndstn''" spell karaa jaawe hae) ke 3rd century CE ke [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] inscription me paawa gais hae .<ref name="Thapar p.38" /> Ii sab puraana record ke ''Hindu'' sabd ek jagha ke naam hae aur ii koi dharam ke naam nai rahaa.{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=6}} [[Arbii bhasa]] waala putak me "Hind", Persian "Hindu" se aais hae, aur iske uu jagha ke bola jaawat rahaa jon jagha Indus ke uu paar rahaa<ref>{{harvnb|Thapar|2004|p=38}}: "...in Arab sources, ''al-Hind'' (the land beyond the Indus)."</ref> aur ii kaaran se ii jagha ke sab log ke "Hindus" bola jaawat rahaa, itihasik [[Romila Thapar]] ke anusaar.<ref>{{harvnb|Thapar|1989|p=222}}: "Al-Hind was therefore a geographical identity and the Hindus were all the people who lived on this land." {{harvnb|Thapar|1993|p=77}}</ref> 13th century talak, ''[[Hindustan]]'' [[India]] ke naam ban gais rahaa.{{sfn|Thompson Platts|1884}} Sab se puraana likha gais chij jisme 'Hindu' ke dharam khaatir kaam me laawa gais rahaa, 7th-century CE Chinese text ''Record of the Western Regions'' by [[Xuanzang]] rahaa.{{sfn|Sharma|2002}} 14th century me, 'Hindu' sabd ke dher Persian, Sanskrit aur Prakrit lekh me India me kaam me laawa gais rahaa, aur baad me India ke kuchh matr bhasa me, jaada kar ke log ke Muslims nai to "Turks" se differentiate kare ke khaatir. Iske kuchh namuuna hae 14th-century Persian pustak ''Futuhu's-salatin'' jiske 'Abd al-Malik [[Isami (historian)|Isami]] likhis rahaa,{{refn|group=note|name="Hindu_term"}} Jain putak jaise ''[[Vividha Tirtha Kalpa]]'' aur ''Vidyatilaka'',{{sfn|Truschke|2023|pp=251–252}} lagbhag 1400 [[Apabhramsa]] pustak ''Kīrttilatā'' by [[Vidyapati]] me,{{sfn|Truschke|2023|pp=253–254}} 16–18th century [[Bengali language|Bengali]] [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnava]] pustak,<ref name="O'Connell">{{Cite journal |last=O'Conell |first=Joseph T. |year=1973 |title=The Word 'Hindu' in Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava Texts |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-the-american-oriental-society_july-september-1973_93_3/page/n87 |volume=93 |pages=340–344 |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |issue=3 |doi=10.2307/599467 |jstor=599467| issn=0003-0279 }}</ref> etc. India me ii rakam ke "Hindu" sabd ke istemaal Persian se aais hae, aur ii sab time dharam ke baare me nai rahaa.<ref>{{harvnb|Truschke|2023|p=252}}: "Christine Chojnacki has argued that ''hinduka'' and related terms mark a combination of religious, linguistic, and cultural affinities in early Jain sources." {{harvnb|Truschke|2023|p=253}}: "Writing for the Bahmani court in the Deccan in 1350, Isami paired ''hindū'' and ''musalmān'', elsewhere using ''hindī'' to mean Indian." {{harvnb|Truschke|2023|p=254}}: "[Vidyapati] equates Hindu and Muslim religious and cultural practices, positing comparable differences between their respective ''dhamme'' (Sanskrit ''dharma'')." {{harvnb|Truschke|2023|p=260}}: "Most passages identified a mix of religious and cultural norms. For instance, the texts refer to the “Hindu god” (''hindura īśvara'') and “Hindu treatise” (''hindu-śāstre''), on the one hand, and to “hindu clothes” (''hindu-beśa''), on the other."</ref> Indian putak me, ''Hindu dharma'' ("Hindu religion") ke aaj-kal Hinduism ke refer karaa jaawe hae.<ref name="O'Connell" />{{sfn|Truschke|2023|pp=254}} == Hindu dharm ke paanch pramukh devata == Hindu dharam me paanch khaas devata kee pooja hae. Ii ek ishwar ke vibhinn roop aur shaktiyaan hae. *[[Suraj]] - svaasthy, pratishtha aur saphalata. *[[Vishn|Vishnu]] - shaanti aur vaibhav. *[[Shiv]] - gyaan aur vidya. *[[Shakti]] - shakti aur suraksha. *[[Ganesh]] - buddhi aur [[gyaan]]. [[File:Diwali Ganesh Laxmi Puja 001.jpg|thumb|Ganesh aur Laxmi Ji]] == References == * [http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=402241 Rigveda. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia] * [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555715/Hinduism.html "Hinduism" on Microsoft Encarta Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050228222350/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555715/Hinduism.html |date=2005-02-28 }} * Sâdhus, Going beyond the dreadlocks, by Patrick Levy, published by Prakash Books, Delhi, 2010. http://patricklevy.livres.free.fr/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720224826/http://site.patricklevy.free.fr/ |date=2011-07-20 }} == Duusra websites == * [http://www.hinduwiki.com Wiki based encyclopedia about Hindusim] * [http://ompage.net/Text/hindutimeline.htm Hindu Timeline] * [http://www.hinduism-today.com/archives/2003/10-12/44-49_four_sects.shtml http://www.hinduism-today.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108063824/http://www.hinduism-today.com/archives/2003/10-12/44-49_four_sects.shtml |date=2009-01-08 }} <!-- interwiki --> [[vibhag:H]] [[vibhag:Hinduism| ]] 58t37ta0kzxm5y9c8405ea4ic4ybnlt 0 9373 337306 318440 2026-08-15T06:09:31Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337306 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox religion | name = Zoroastrianism | native_name = | native_name_lang = ae | image = Zoroastrian Fire Temple, Yazd 02.jpg | imagewidth = 250px | caption = The [[Fire Temple of Yazd]] in Iran | type = [[Ethnic religion]] | main_classification = [[Iranian religions|Iranian]] | scripture = [[Avesta]] | theology = [[Dualism in cosmology|Dualistic]]<ref name="Boyd-1979">{{cite journal |last1=Boyd |first1=James W. |first2=Donald A. |last2=Crosby |title=Is Zoroastrianism Dualistic or Monotheistic? |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-academy-of-religion-journal_1979-12_47_4/page/557 |journal=Journal of the American Academy of Religion |volume=47 |number=4 |date=1979 |pages=557–88 |doi=10.1093/jaarel/XLVII.4.557 |jstor=1462275 |issn=0002-7189 }}</ref><ref name="Skjærvø 2005">{{harvnb|Skjærvø|2005|pp=14–15}}: </ref> | area = [[Greater Iran]] (historically) | language = [[Avestan]] | founder = [[Zoroaster]] (traditional) | founded_date = {{c.|2nd millennium BCE}} | founded_place = [[Iranian Plateau]] | separated_from = [[Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism|Proto-Indo-Iranian religion]] | number_of_followers = 100,000–200,000 ([[List of countries by Zoroastrian population|Zoroastrians]]) }} '''Zoroastrianism''' ek [[dharam]] hae. Iske suruu kare waala [[Zoroaster]] rahaa, jon ki [[Iran]] me lagbhag 1000 BC me rahat rahaa. == References == {{Reflist}} == Bibliography == * Kulke, Eckehard: ''The Parsees in India: a minority as agent of social change.'' München: Weltforum-Verlag (= Studien zur Entwicklung und Politik 3), ISBN 3-8039-00700-0 * Ervad Sheriarji Dadabhae Bharucha: A Brief sketch of the Zoroastrian Religion and Customs * Dastur Khurshed S. Dabu: A Handbook on Information on Zoroastrianism * Dastur Khurshed S. Dabu: Zarathustra an his Teachings A Manual for Young Students * Jivanji Jamshedji Modi: The Religious System of the Parsis * R. P. Masani: The religion of the good life Zoroastrianism * P. P. Balsara: Highlights of Parsi History * Maneckji Nusservanji Dhalla: History of Zoroastrianism; dritte Auflage 1994, 525 p, K. R. Cama, Oriental Institute, Bombay * Dr. Ervad Dr. Ramiyar Parvez Karanjia: Zoroastrian Religion & Ancient Iranian Art * Adil F. Rangoonwalla: Five Niyaeshes, 2004, 341 p. * Aspandyar Sohrab Gotla: Guide to Zarthostrian Historical Places in Iran * J. C. Tavadia: The Zoroastrian Religion in the Avesta, 1999 * S. J. Bulsara: The Laws of the Ancient Persians as found in the "Matikan E Hazar Datastan" or "The Digest of a Thousand Points of Law", 1999 * M. N. Dhalla: Zoroastrian Civilization 2000 * Marazban J. Giara: Global Directory of Zoroastrian Fire Temples, 2. Auflage, 2002, 240 p, 1 * D. F. Karaka: History of The Parsis including their manners, customs, religion and present position, 350 p, illus. * Piloo Nanavatty: The Gathas of Zarathushtra, 1999, 73 p, (illus.) * Roshan Rivetna: The Legacy of Zarathushtra, 96 p, (illus.) * Dr. Sir Jivanji J. Modi: The Religious Ceremonies and Customs of The Parsees, 550 Seiten * Mani Kamerkar, Soonu Dhunjisha: From the Iranian Plateau to the Shores of Gujarat, 2002, 220 p * I.J.S. Taraporewala: The Religion of Zarathushtra, 357 p * Jivanji Jamshedji Modi: A Few Events in The Early History of the Parsis and Their Dates, 2004, 114 p * Dr. Irach J. S.Taraporewala: Zoroastrian Daily Prayers, 250 p * Rustom C Chothia: Zoroastrian Religion Most Frequently Asked Questions, 2002, 44 p * [http://www.unescoparzor.com/ UNESCO Parsi Zoroastrian Project] * http://parsiana.com/ {{commonscat|Zoroastrianism}} {{Classic World Religions}} {{stub}} <!-- interwiki --> [[Category:Z]] [[Category:Zoroastrianism| ]] gals00iputrr7t6gjokmq20148h71e1 0 9588 337316 335778 2026-08-15T06:19:41Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337316 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox | title = Suraj | image = [[File:The Sun in white light.jpg|300px|frameless|alt=White glowing ball with black sunspots]] | caption = Suraj ke clear solar filter se dekha jaae hae<!--no need to add more, for consistency with other planets and minor planets infobox--> | labelstyle = background: inherit; | label1 = Naam | data1 = Suraj, [[Sol (Roman mythology)|Sol]], [[Sól (Germanic mythology)|Sól]], [[Helios]] | label2 = Adjectives | data2 = Solar | label3 = Chinh | data3 = [[File:Sun symbol (bold).svg|24px|alt=Circle with dot in the middle|class=skin-invert]] | header4 = Observation data | label5 = Dunia se duuri | data5 = {{val|1|ul=AU}}<br />149,600,000 km<br />8&nbsp;min 19&nbsp;s, [[speed of light|light speed]]<ref name="Pitjeva2009">{{Cite journal |last1=Pitjeva |first1=E. V. |last2=Standish |first2=E. M. |year=2009 |title=Proposals for the masses of the three largest asteroids, the Moon–Earth mass ratio and the Astronomical Unit |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1000691 |url-status=live |journal=[[Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy]] |volume=103 |issue=4 |pages=365–372 |bibcode=2009CeMDA.103..365P |doi=10.1007/s10569-009-9203-8 |issn=1572-9478 |s2cid=121374703 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190709062657/https://zenodo.org/record/1000691 |archive-date=9 July 2019 |access-date=13 July 2019}}</ref> | label6 = {{longitem|[[Apparent magnitude|Visual brightness]]}} | data6 = −26.74 (''V'')<ref name="nssdc">{{Cite web |last=Williams |first=D. R. |date=1 July 2013 |title=Sun Fact Sheet |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/sunfact.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100715200549/http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/sunfact.html |archive-date=15 July 2010 |access-date=12 August 2013 |publisher=[[NASA Goddard Space Flight Center]]}}</ref> | label7 = {{longitem|[[Absolute magnitude]]}} | data7 = 4.83<ref name="nssdc" /> | label8 = {{longitem|[[Stellar classification|Spectral classification]]}} | data8 = G2V<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zombeck |first=Martin V. |url=http://ads.harvard.edu/books/hsaa/ |title=Handbook of Space Astronomy and Astrophysics 2nd edition |year=1990 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |access-date=13 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203012304/http://ads.harvard.edu/books/hsaa/ |archive-date=3 February 2021 |url-status=live }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203012304/http://ads.harvard.edu/books/hsaa/ |date=3 February 2021 }}</ref> | label9 = [[Metallicity]] | data9 = ''Z'' = 0.0122<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Asplund |first1=M. |last2=Grevesse |first2=N. |last3=Sauval |first3=A. J. |year=2006 |title=The new solar abundances – Part I: the observations |journal=Communications in Asteroseismology |volume=147 |pages=76–79 |bibcode=2006CoAst.147...76A |doi=10.1553/cia147s76 |s2cid=123824232 |doi-access=free| issn = 1021-2043}}</ref> | label10 = [[Angular size]] | data10 = 0.527–0.545°<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eclipse 99: Frequently Asked Questions |url=http://education.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/pages/faq.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527142627/http://education.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/pages/faq.html |archive-date=27 May 2010 |access-date=24 October 2010 |publisher=NASA}}</ref> | header11 = Orbital characteristics | label12 = {{longitem|Mean distance from [[Milky Way]] core}} | data12 = 24,000 to 28,000 [[light-year]]s<ref name="francis14">{{cite journal |last1=Francis |first1=Charles |last2=Anderson |first2=Erik |date=June 2014 |title=Two estimates of the distance to the Galactic Centre |journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]] |volume=441 |issue=2 |pages=1105–1114 |arxiv=1309.2629 |bibcode=2014MNRAS.441.1105F |doi=10.1093/mnras/stu631 |doi-access=free |s2cid=119235554}}</ref> | label13 = [[Galactic year|Galactic period]] | data13 = 225–250 million [[julian year (astronomy)|years]] | label14 = [[Velocity]] | data14 = {{indented plainlist| <!-- -->*251 km/s<br />orbit [[Galactic Center]] <!-- -->*20 km/s<br />to stellar neighborhood <!-- -->*370 km/s<br />to [[cosmic microwave background]]<ref>{{Cite journal | display-authors=5 | last1=Hinshaw | first1=G. | last2=Weiland | first2=J. L. | last3=Hill | first3=R. S. | last4=Odegard | first4=N. | last5=Larson | first5=D. | last6=Bennett | first6=C. L. | last7=Dunkley | first7=J. | last8=Gold | first8=B. | last9=Greason | first9=M. R. | last10=Jarosik | first10=N. | last11=Komatsu | first11=E. | last12=Nolta | first12=M. R. | last13=Page | first13=L. | last14=Spergel | first14=D. N. | last15=Wollack | first15=E. | last16=Halpern | first16=M. | last17=Kogut | first17=A. | last18=Limon | first18=M. | last19=Meyer | first19=S. S. | last20=Tucker | first20=G. S. | last21=Wright | first21=E. L. |year=2009 |title=Five-year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe observations: data processing, sky maps, and basic results |journal=[[The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series]] |volume=180 |issue=2 |pages=225–245 |arxiv=0803.0732 |bibcode=2009ApJS..180..225H |doi=10.1088/0067-0049/180/2/225 |s2cid=3629998}}</ref> }} | label15 = [[Axial tilt|Obliquity]] | data15 = {{unbulleted list| |7.25° ([[ecliptic]])<ref name=nssdc /> |67.23° ([[galactic plane]]) }} | label16 = {{longitem|[[Right ascension]] North pole}} | data16 = 286.13° (286° 7′ 48″)<ref name="nssdc" /> | label17 = {{longitem|[[Declination]] of North pole}} | data17 = +63.87° (63° 52′ 12"N)<ref name="nssdc" /> | label18 = {{longitem|Sidereal [[Solar rotation|rotation period]]}} | data18 = {{unbulleted list |25.05 days (equator) |34.4 days (poles)<ref name=nssdc /><!-- derived from T = ( 14.37 − 2.33 sin^2 L − 1.56 sin^4 L ) °/day, L = 90° --> }} | label19 = {{longitem|Equatorial rotation velocity}} | data19 = {{val|1.997|u=km/s}}<ref name="sse">{{Cite web |title=Solar System Exploration: Planets: Sun: Facts & Figures |url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Sun&Display=Facts&System=Metric |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080102034758/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Sun&Display=Facts&System=Metric |archive-date=2 January 2008 |publisher=NASA}}</ref><!-- Derived from NASA source: equatorial circumference of 4,379,000 kilometers divided by sidereal rotation period of 609.12 hours; maybe this kind of basic calculation could be done in some generic template code? --> | header20 = Physical characteristics | label21 = {{longitem|Equatorial [[radius]]}} | data21 = {{val|6.957|e=8|u=m}}<ref name="IAU2015resB3">{{Cite journal |last1=Prša |first1=Andrej |last2=Harmanec |first2=Petr |last3=Torres |first3=Guillermo |last4=Mamajek |first4=Eric |last5=Asplund |first5=Martin |last6=Capitaine |first6=Nicole |last7=Christensen-Dalsgaard |first7=Jørgen |last8=Depagne |first8=Éric |last9=Haberreiter |first9=Margit |last10=Hekker |first10=Saskia |last11=Hilton |first11=James |last12=Kopp |first12=Greg |last13=Kostov |first13=Veselin |last14=Kurtz |first14=Donald W. |last15=Laskar |first15=Jacques |display-authors=3 |date=2016-08-01 |title=NOMINAL VALUES FOR SELECTED SOLAR AND PLANETARY QUANTITIES: IAU 2015 RESOLUTION B3 * † |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=152 |issue=2 |pages=41 |doi=10.3847/0004-6256/152/2/41 |issn=0004-6256 |arxiv=1510.07674 |last16=Laskar |first16=J. |last17=Mason |first17=B. D. |last18=Milone |first18=E. F. |last19=Montgomery |first19=M. M. |last20=Richards |first20=M. T. |last21=Schou |first21=J. |last22=Stewart |first22=S. G.|doi-access=free }}</ref><br />{{val|109|u=× [[Earth radius|Earth radii]]}}<ref name=sse /> | label23 = [[Flattening]] | data23 = 0.00005<ref name="nssdc" /> | label24 = [[Surface area]] | data24 = {{val|6.09|e=12|u=km2}}<br />{{nowrap|{{val|fmt=commas|12000}}}} × Earth<ref name=sse /> | label25 = [[Volume]] | data25 = {{unbulleted list |{{val|1.412|e=18|u=km3}} |{{val|fmt=commas|1300000}} × Earth }} | label26 = [[Mass]] | data26 = {{unbulleted list |{{val|1.9885|e=30|u=kg}}<ref name="nssdc" /> |{{val|fmt=commas|332950|u=[[Earth mass|Earths]]}}<ref name=nssdc /><!-- NASA Sun Fact Sheet states 333,000, a figure coherent with data already present in en.wiki --> }} | label27 = Average [[density]] | data27 = {{val|1.408|u=g/cm3}}<br />{{val|0.255}} × Earth<ref name=nssdc /><ref name=sse /> | label28 = Age | data28 = 4.6 billion years<ref name="Bonanno">{{Cite journal |last1=Bonanno |first1=A. |last2=Schlattl |first2=H. |last3=Paternò |first3=L. |year=2002 |title=The age of the Sun and the relativistic corrections in the EOS |journal=[[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] |volume=390 |issue=3 |pages=1115–1118 |arxiv=astro-ph/0204331 |bibcode=2002A&A...390.1115B |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20020749 |s2cid=119436299}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Connelly |first1=J. N. |last2=Bizzarro |first2=M. |last3=Krot |first3=A. N. |last4=Nordlund |first4=Å. |last5=Wielandt |first5=D. |last6=Ivanova |first6=M. A. |date=2 November 2012 |title=The Absolute Chronology and Thermal Processing of Solids in the Solar Protoplanetary Disk |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2012-11-02_338_6107/page/651 |journal=Science |volume=338 |issue=6107 |pages=651–655 |bibcode=2012Sci...338..651C |doi=10.1126/science.1226919 |pmid=23118187 |s2cid=21965292}}{{Registration required}}</ref> | label29 = {{longitem|Equatorial [[surface gravity]]}} | data29 = {{val|274|u=m/s2}}<ref name=nssdc /><br />{{cvt|274|m/s2|g0|disp=out|lk=out}}<ref name=sse /> | label30 = {{longitem|[[Moment of inertia factor]]}} | data30 = ≈{{val|0.070}}<ref name=nssdc /> | label31 = {{longitem|Surface [[escape velocity]]}} | data31 = {{val|617.7|u=km/s}}<br />55 × Earth<ref name=sse /> | label32 = Temperature | data32 = {{unbulleted list| |15,700,000 [[Kelvin|K]] (center)<ref name=nssdc /> |5,772 K ([[photosphere]])<ref name="IAU2015resB3"/> |5,000,000 K ([[Solar corona|corona]]) }} | label33 = [[Luminosity]] | data33 = {{unbulleted list| |{{val|3.828|e=26|ul=W}}<ref name=nssdc /> |{{val|3.75|e=28|u=[[lumen (unit)|lm]]}} |{{val|98|u=lm/W}} [[Luminous efficacy|efficacy]] }} | label34 = [[Color index|Color]] (B-V) | data34 = 0.656<ref>{{cite journal | first=David F. | last=Gray | title=The Inferred Color Index of the Sun | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astronomical-society-of-the-pacific-publications_1992-11_104_681/page/1035 | journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific | volume=104 | issue=681 | pages=1035–1038 | date=November 1992 | doi=10.1086/133086 | bibcode=1992PASP..104.1035G }}</ref> | label35 = Mean [[radiance]] | data35 = {{val|2.009|e=7|u=W·m⁻²·sr⁻¹}} | label37 = {{longitem|[[Photosphere]] composition by mass}} | data37 = {{unbulleted list| | 73.46% [[hydrogen]] | 24.85% [[helium]] | 0.77% [[oxygen]] | 0.29% [[carbon]] | 0.16% [[iron]] | 0.12% [[neon]] | 0.09% [[nitrogen]] | 0.07% [[silicon]] | 0.05% [[magnesium]] | 0.04% [[sulfur]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Sun's Vital Statistics |url=http://solar-center.stanford.edu/vitalstats.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6BOkQXma3?url=http://solar-center.stanford.edu/vitalstats.html |archive-date=14 October 2012 |access-date=29 July 2008 |publisher=Stanford Solar Center}} Citing {{cite book |last=Eddy |first=J. |date=1979 |title=A New Sun: The Solar Results From Skylab |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-402/contents.htm |page=37 |publisher=NASA |id=NASA SP-402 |access-date=12 July 2017 |archive-date=30 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210730024856/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-402/contents.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> }} }} [[File:India Goa Fort Chapora Chapora River.jpg|thumb|The Sun as it is seen from [[Earth]].]] '''Suraj''' (pratiik: [[File:Sun symbol (fixed width).svg|16px|☉]]) ek [[tara]] hae aur [[saur mandal]] (solar system) me sab se baraa chij hae. Isme solar system ke 99.86% wajan hae. Sab se barraa [[grah]], [[Brahaspati|Jupiter]], Suaraj ke saamne bahut chhota hae. Solar system ke grah Suraj ke round chakkar maare hae. Ham log ke Suraj din bhar [[aasmaan]] me dekhae hae. Ii ek barraa piyar ball ke rakam dekhe me lage hae. Suraj asliyat me ek barraa taara hae jisme plasma sab time bubble hoe hae. Ii explosion se etna energy nikle hae ki Suraj ke 1 second ke power [[United States]] ke 9 million saal talak power kare sake hae. Jab ki Suraj, dunia se 93 million miles (150 million km) duur hae, iske taagat ke ham log feel karta hae. {{Solar System}} [[vibhag:S]] [[vibhag:1000 khaas Fiji Hindi sabd]] [[vibhag:Suraj| ]] 7pbddom7xc7rw8ub6xf6tovbxwab493 0 54787 337332 326168 2026-08-15T06:36:27Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 7 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337332 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|System of phonetic notation}} {{For|the international (civil) aviation organization (ICAO) spelling alphabet|NATO phonetic alphabet}} {{Self reference|For an introductory guide on IPA symbols with audio, see [[:Help:IPA]]. For the usage of the IPA on Wikipedia, see [[:Help:IPA/Introduction]] and [[:Help:IPA/English]].}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}} {{Infobox writing system |name = International Phonetic Alphabet |type = Alphabet |typedesc = – partially [[Featural alphabet|featural]] |languages = Used for [[Phonetics|phonetic]] and [[Phoneme|phonemic]] transcription of any language |time = 1888 to present |fam1 = [[Palaeotype alphabet]], [[English Phonotypic Alphabet]] |fam2 = [[Romic alphabet]] |sample = IPA in IPA.svg |imagesize = 200px |note = none |unicode = |iso15924 = |caption = "IPA" in IPA ({{IPA|[aɪ pʰiː eɪ]}}) }} {{SpecialChars | special = [[phonetics|phonetic]] [[symbol]]s | fix = Help:Special characters | characters = phonetic symbols }} [[File:IPA chart 2020.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|The official chart of the IPA, revised in 2020]] The '''International Phonetic Alphabet''' ('''IPA''') is an [[alphabet]]ic system of [[phonetic transcription|phonetic notation]] based primarily on the [[Latin script]]. It was devised by the [[International Phonetic Association]] in the late 19th century as a standardized representation of [[speech sound]]s in written form.<ref name="IPA 1999">International Phonetic Association (IPA), ''Handbook''.</ref> The IPA is used by [[lexicography|lexicographers]], [[foreign language]] students and teachers, [[linguistics|linguists]], [[speech–language pathology|speech–language pathologists]], singers, actors, [[constructed language]] creators, and translators.<ref name="world">{{Cite book|last=MacMahon|first=Michael K. C.|chapter=Phonetic Notation|editor=P. T. Daniels|editor2=W. Bright|title=The World's Writing Systems|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/821 821–846]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=1996|location=New York|isbn=0-19-507993-0|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195079937/page/821}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|first=Joan |last=Wall |title=International Phonetic Alphabet for Singers: A Manual for English and Foreign Language Diction |publisher=Pst |year=1989 |isbn=1-877761-50-8 }}</ref> The IPA is designed to represent those qualities of speech that are part of [[wiktionary:lexical|lexical]] (and, to a limited extent, [[prosodic]]) sounds in [[oral language]]: [[phone (phonetics)|phones]], [[phoneme]]s, [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]], and the separation of [[word]]s and [[syllable]]s.<ref name="IPA 1999" /> To represent additional qualities of speech—such as tooth [[wiktionary:gnash|gnashing]], [[lisp]]ing, and sounds made with a [[cleft lip and cleft palate]]—an [[extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet|extended set of symbols]] may be used.<ref name="world" /> Segments are transcribed by one or more IPA symbols of two basic types: [[letter (alphabet)|letters]] and [[diacritic]]s. For example, the sound of the [[English language|English]] letter {{angbr|t}} may be transcribed in IPA with a single letter: {{IPA|[t]}}, or with a letter plus diacritics: {{IPA|[t̺ʰ]}}, depending on how precise one wishes to be. Slashes are used to signal [[phonemic transcription]]; therefore, {{IPA|/t/}} is more abstract than either {{IPA|[t̺ʰ]}} or {{IPA|[t]}} and might refer to either, depending on the context and language.<ref group=note>The inverted bridge under the {{angbr|t̺ʰ}} specifies it as [[apical consonant|apical]] (pronounced with the tip of the tongue), and the superscript ''h'' shows that it is [[aspirated consonant|aspirated]] (breathy). Both these qualities cause the English {{IPA|/t/}} to sound different from the French or Spanish {{IPA|/t/}}, which is a [[laminal consonant|laminal]] (pronounced with the blade of the tongue) and unaspirated {{IPA|[t̻]}}. {{IPA|[t̺ʰ]}} and {{IPA|[t̻]}} are thus two different, though similar, sounds.</ref> Occasionally, letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/ipachart.html |title=IPA: Alphabet |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010121927/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/ipachart.html |archive-date=10 October 2012 }}</ref> there are 107 segmental letters, an indefinitely large number of suprasegmental letters, 44 diacritics (not counting composites), and four extra-lexical [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosodic]] marks in the IPA. Most<!--the majority of tone letters are not shown; not all the components are even found in the IPA Handbook--> of these are shown in the current [[International Phonetic Alphabet chart|IPA chart]], posted below in this article and at the website of the IPA.<ref>{{cite web|title=Full IPA Chart|url=https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/content/full-ipa-chart|website=International Phonetic Association|access-date=24 April 2017}}</ref> ==History== {{Main|History of the International Phonetic Alphabet}} In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist [[Paul Passy]], formed what would be known from 1897 onwards as the [[International Phonetic Association]] (in French, {{lang|fr|l'Association phonétique internationale}}).<ref name="IPA194-196">International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp.&nbsp;194–196</ref> Their original alphabet was based on a [[spelling reform]] for English known as the [[Romic alphabet]], but to make it usable for other languages the values of the symbols were allowed to vary from language to language.<ref group=note>"Originally, the aim was to make available a set of phonetic symbols which would be given ''different'' articulatory values, if necessary, in different languages." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp.&nbsp;195–196)</ref> For example, the sound {{IPAblink|ʃ}} (the ''sh'' in ''shoe'') was originally represented with the letter {{angbr|c}} in English, but with the digraph {{angbr|{{lang|fr|ch}}}} in French.<ref name="IPA194-196"/> In 1888, the alphabet was revised to be uniform across languages, thus providing the base for all future revisions.<ref name="IPA194-196"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Passy |first=Paul |year=1888 |title=Our revised alphabet |journal=[[The Phonetic Teacher]] |pages=57–60}}</ref> The idea of making the IPA was first suggested by [[Otto Jespersen]] in a letter to Passy. It was developed by [[Alexander John Ellis]], [[Henry Sweet]], [[Daniel Jones (phonetician)|Daniel Jones]], and Passy.<ref>IPA in the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]</ref> Since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After revisions and expansions from the 1890s to the 1940s, the IPA remained primarily unchanged until the [[Kiel Convention]] in 1989. A minor revision took place in 1993 with the addition of four letters for [[mid central vowel]]s<ref name="world" /> and the removal of letters for [[implosive consonant#Voiceless implosives|voiceless implosives]].<ref name="Pullum">Pullum and Ladusaw, ''[[Phonetic Symbol Guide]]'', pp.&nbsp;152, 209</ref> The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a [[labiodental flap]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Nicolaidis |first=Katerina |title=Approval of New IPA Sound: The Labiodental Flap |url=http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/flap.htm |date=September 2005 |publisher=International Phonetic Association |access-date=17 September 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060902212308/http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/ipa/flap.htm |archive-date=2 September 2006}}</ref> Apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely of renaming symbols and categories and in modifying [[Typeface|typefaces]].<ref name="world" /> [[Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet]] for [[speech pathology]] (extIPA) were created in 1990 and were officially adopted by the [[International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association]] in 1994.<ref>International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;186</ref> ==Description== The general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound ([[segment (linguistics)|speech segment]]).<ref group=note>"From its earliest days [...] the International Phonetic Association has aimed to provide 'a separate sign for each distinctive sound; that is, for each sound which, being used instead of another, in the same language, can change the meaning of a word'." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;27)</ref> This means that: * It does not normally use [[multigraph (orthography)|combinations of letters]] to represent single sounds, the way English does with {{angbr|sh}}, {{angbr|th}} and {{angbr|ng}}, or single letters to represent multiple sounds, the way {{angbr|x}} represents {{IPA|/ks/}} or {{IPA|/ɡz/}} in English. * There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values, the way [[hard and soft C|{{angbr|c}}]] and [[hard and soft G|{{angbr|g}}]] in several European languages have a "hard" or "soft" pronunciation. * The IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, a property known as "selectiveness".<ref name="world"/><ref group=note> For instance, [[flap consonant|flaps and taps]] are two different kinds of [[Manner of articulation|articulation]], but since no language has (yet) been found to make a distinction between, say, an [[alveolar tap|alveolar flap]] and an alveolar tap, the IPA does not provide such sounds with dedicated letters. Instead, it provides a single letter (in this case,&nbsp;{{IPA|[ɾ]}}) for both. Strictly speaking, this makes the IPA a partially [[phonemic|phon''em''ic]] alphabet, not a purely [[phonetic|phon''et''ic]] one.</ref> However, if a large number of phonemically distinct letters can be derived with a diacritic, that may be used instead.<ref group=note>This exception to the rules was made primarily to explain why the IPA does not make a dental–alveolar distinction, despite one being phonemic in hundreds of languages, including most of the continent of Australia. [[Americanist Phonetic Notation]] makes (or at least made) a distinction between apical {{angbr|t d s z n l}} and laminal {{angbr|τ δ ς ζ ν λ}}, which is easily applicable to alveolar vs dental (when a language distinguishes apical alveolar from laminal dental, as in Australia), but despite several proposals to the Council, the IPA never voted to accept such a distinction.</ref> The alphabet is designed for transcribing sounds (phones), not [[phoneme]]s, though it is used for phonemic transcription as well. A few letters that did not indicate specific sounds have been retired ({{angbr IPA|ˇ}}, once used for the "compound" tone of Swedish and Norwegian, and {{angbr IPA|ƞ}}, once used for the [[moraic]] nasal of Japanese), though one remains: {{angbr IPA|ɧ}}, used for the [[sj-sound]] of Swedish. When the IPA is used for phonemic transcription, the letter–sound correspondence can be rather loose. For example, {{angbr IPA|c}} and {{angbr IPA|ɟ}} are used in the IPA ''Handbook'' for {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} and {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}}. Among the symbols of the IPA, 107 letters represent [[consonant]]s and [[vowel]]s, 31 [[diacritic]]s are used to modify these, and 17 additional signs indicate [[Segment (linguistics)|suprasegmental]] qualities such as [[length (phonetics)|length]], [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]], [[Stress (linguistics)|stress]], and [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]].<ref group=note> There are three<!--dbl acute and grave are compounds--> basic tone diacritics and five basic tone letters, both sets of which may be compounded. </ref> These are organized into a chart; the chart displayed here is the official chart as posted at the website of the IPA. ===Letter forms=== [[File:LowercaseG.svg|right|thumb|Loop-tail {{angbr IPA|g}} and open-tail {{angbr IPA|ɡ}} are graphic variants. Open-tail {{angbr IPA|ɡ}} was the original IPA symbol, but both are now considered correct. See [[history of the IPA]] for details.]] The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the [[Latin alphabet]].<ref group=note> "The non-roman letters of the International Phonetic Alphabet have been designed as far as possible to harmonize well with the roman letters. The Association does not recognize makeshift letters; It recognizes only letters which have been carefully cut so as to be in harmony with the other letters." (IPA 1949) </ref> For this reason, most letters are either [[Latin script|Latin]] or [[Greek alphabet|Greek]], or modifications thereof. Some letters are neither: for example, the letter denoting the [[glottal stop]], {{angbr IPA|ʔ}}, originally had the form of a dotless [[question mark]], and derives from an [[apostrophe]]. A few letters, such as that of the voiced [[pharyngeal consonant|pharyngeal fricative]], {{angbr IPA|ʕ}}, were inspired by other writing systems (in this case, the [[Arabic script|Arabic]] letter ⟨{{lang|ar|[[Ayin|ﻉ]]}}⟩, ''{{transliteration|ar|ʿayn}}'', via the reversed apostrophe).<ref name=Pullum/> <!--clearly, ʔ and ʕ are not of independent origin and reflect the transliteration of alif vs. ayin in Semitic philology. Source needed--> Some letter forms derive from existing letters: * The right-swinging tail, as in {{angbr IPA|ʈ ɖ ɳ ɽ ʂ ʐ ɻ ɭ&thinsp;}}, indicates [[retroflex consonant|retroflex]] articulation. It originates from the hook of an ''r''. * The top hook, as in {{angbr IPA|ɠ ɗ ɓ}}, indicates [[glottalic ingressive|implosion]]. * Several [[Nasal consonant|nasal consonants]] are based on the form {{angbr IPA|n}}: {{angbr IPA|n ɲ ɳ ŋ}}. {{angbr IPA|ɲ}} and {{angbr IPA|ŋ}} derive from [[Typographic ligature|ligatures]] of ''gn'' and ''ng,'' and {{angbr IPA|ɱ}} is an ''ad hoc'' imitation of {{angbr IPA|ŋ}}. * Letters turned 180 degrees for suggestive shapes, such as {{angbr IPA|ɐ ɔ ə ɟ ɓ ɥ ɾ ɯ ɹ ʇ ʊ ʌ ʍ ʎ}} from {{angbr IPA|a c e f ɡ h ᴊ<!--per Ellis, Pullum, etc.--> m r t <small>Ω</small> v w y}}.<ref group=note>Originally, {{IPA|[ʊ]}} was written as a small capital U. However, this was not easy to read, and so it was replaced with a turned small capital omega. In modern typefaces, it often has its own design, called a 'horseshoe'.</ref> Either the original letter may be reminiscent of the target sound (e.g., {{angbr IPA|ɐ ə ɹ ʇ ʍ}}) or the turned one (e.g., {{angbr IPA|ɔ ɟ ɓ ɥ ɾ ɯ ʌ ʎ<!--like both y and lambda-->}}). Rotation was popular in the era of [[Hot metal typesetting|mechanical typesetting]], as it had the advantage of not requiring the casting of special type for IPA symbols, much as the sorts had traditionally often pulled double duty for {{angbr|b}} and {{angbr|q}}, {{angbr|d}} and {{angbr|p}}, {{angbr|n}} and {{angbr|u}}, {{angbr|6}} and {{angbr|9}} to reduce cost. *:[[File:Turned small cap omega as a vowel.svg|thumb|An example of a font that uses turned small-capital omega, {{angbr|ꭥ}}, for the vowel {{angbr|ʊ}}. The symbol had originally been a small-capital {{angbr|ᴜ}}.]] * Among consonant letters, the [[Small caps|small capital]] letters {{angbr IPA|ɢ ʜ ʟ ɴ ʀ ʁ}}, and also {{angbr IPA|ꞯ}} in [[extIPA]], indicate more [[guttural]] sounds than their base letters. ({{angbr IPA|ʙ}}<!--for the bilabial trill--> is a late exception.) Among vowel letters, small capitals indicate [[lax vowel|"lax"]] vowels. Most of the original small-cap vowel letters have been modified into more distinctive shapes (e.g. {{angbr IPA|ʊ ɤ ɛ ʌ}} from {{sc|U Ɐ E A}}), with only {{angbr IPA|ɪ ʏ}} remaining as small capitals. ===Typography and iconicity=== The International Phonetic Alphabet is based on the [[Latin script]], and uses as few non-Latin letters as possible.<ref name = IPA194-196 /> The Association created the IPA so that the sound values of most letters would correspond to "international usage" (approximately [[Classical Latin]]).<ref name=IPA194-196/> Hence, the consonant letters {{angbr IPA|b}}, {{angbr IPA|d}}, {{angbr IPA|f}}, ([[hard G|hard]]) {{angbr IPA|ɡ}}, (non-silent) {{angbr IPA|h}}, (unaspirated) {{angbr IPA|k}}, {{angbr IPA|l}}, {{angbr IPA|m}}, {{angbr IPA|n}}, (unaspirated) {{angbr IPA|p}}, (voiceless) {{angbr IPA|s}}, (unaspirated) {{angbr IPA|t}}, {{angbr IPA|v}}, {{angbr IPA|w}}, and {{angbr IPA|z}} have more or less the values found in English; and the vowel letters {{angbr IPA|a}}, {{angbr IPA|e}}, {{angbr IPA|i}}, {{angbr IPA|o}}, {{angbr IPA|u}} correspond to the (long) sound values of Latin: {{IPA|[i]}} is like the vowel in ''mach{{strong|i}}ne'', {{IPA|[u]}} is as in ''r{{strong|u}}le'', etc. Other Latin letters, particularly {{angbr IPA|j}}, {{angbr IPA|r}} and {{angbr IPA|y}}, differ from English, but have their IPA values in Latin or other European languages. This basic Latin inventory was extended by adding small-capital and cursive forms, diacritics and rotation. The sound values of these letters are related to those of the original letters, and their derivation may be iconic.<ref>{{Citation | quote = The new letters should be suggestive of the sounds they represent, by their resemblance to the old ones. | publisher = International Phonetic Association | title = Handbook | page = 196}}.</ref> For example, letters with a rightward-facing hook at the bottom represent [[retroflex consonant|retroflex]] equivalents of the source letters, and small capital letters usually represent [[uvular consonant|uvular]] equivalents of their source letters. There are also several letters from the Greek alphabet, though their sound values may differ from Greek. The most extreme difference is {{angbr IPA|ʋ}}, which is a vowel in Greek but a consonant in the IPA. For most Greek letters, subtly different [[glyph]] shapes have been devised for the IPA, specifically {{angbr IPA|ɑ}}, {{angbr IPA|ꞵ}}, {{angbr IPA|ɣ}}, {{angbr IPA|ɛ}}, {{angbr IPA|ɸ}}, {{angbr IPA|ꭓ}} and {{angbr IPA|ʋ}}, which are encoded in [[Unicode]] separately from their parent Greek letters. One, however – {{angbr IPA|θ}} – has only its Greek form, while for {{angbr IPA|ꞵ ~ β}} and {{angbr IPA|ꭓ ~ χ}}, both Greek and Latin forms are in common use.<ref>Cf. the notes at the [[Unicode]] [http://unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0250.pdf#3 IPA EXTENSIONS code chart] as well as blogs by [http://evertype.com/blog/blog/category/unicode/ Michael Everson] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010200655/http://evertype.com/blog/blog/category/unicode/|date=10 October 2017}} and John Wells [http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2010/07/disunification-1.html here] and [http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2010/07/disunification-2.html here].</ref> The [[tone letter#IPA|tone letters]] are not derived from an alphabet, but from a [[pitch trace]] on a [[Scale (music)|musical scale]]. Beyond the letters themselves, there are a variety of secondary symbols which aid in transcription. [[Diacritic]] marks can be combined with IPA letters to add phonetic detail such as tone and [[secondary articulation]]s. There are also special symbols for prosodic features such as stress and intonation. ===Brackets and transcription delimiters=== There are two principal types of [[bracket]]s used to set off (delimit) IPA transcriptions: {| class="wikitable" ! | Symbol !! Use |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|[&nbsp;...&nbsp;]}} || [[Square brackets]] are used with [[phonetic]] notation, whether broad or narrow<ref name=IPA175>IPA ''Handbook'' p. 175</ref> – that is, for actual pronunciation, possibly including details of the pronunciation that may not be used for distinguishing words in the language being transcribed, which the author nonetheless wishes to document. Such phonetic notation is the primary function of the IPA. |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|/&nbsp;...&nbsp;/}} || [[Slash (punctuation)|Slashes]]<ref group="note">[[Merriam-Webster]] dictionaries use [[backslash]]es {{IPA|\&nbsp;...&nbsp;\}} to demarcate their in-house transcription system. This distinguishes their IPA-influenced system<!--the IPA influence is rather minimal, limited to the IPA stress marks and schwa, but the pronunciation data collected for MW's Third New International was in IPA and the IPA was seriously considered for its published transcription system.--> from true IPA, which is used between forward slashes in the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''.</ref> are used for abstract [[phonemic]] notation,<ref name=IPA175/> which note only features that are distinctive in the language, without any extraneous detail. For example, while the 'p' sounds of English ''pin'' and ''spin'' are pronounced differently (and this difference would be meaningful in some languages), the difference is not meaningful in English. Thus, ''phonemically'' the words are usually<!--could also be analyzed /pin/ and /sbin/--> analyzed as {{IPA|/ˈpɪn/}} and {{IPA|/ˈspɪn/}}, with the same phoneme {{IPA|/p/}}. To capture the difference between them (the [[allophone]]s of {{IPA|/p/}}), they can be transcribed phonetically as {{IPA|[pʰɪn]}} and {{IPA|[spɪn]}}. Phonemic notation commonly uses IPA symbols that are rather close to the default pronunciation of a phoneme, but for legibility or other reasons can use symbols that diverge from their designated values, such as {{IPA|/c, ɟ/}} for affricates typically pronounced {{IPA|[t͜ʃ, d͜ʒ]}}, as found in the ''Handbook'', or {{IPA|/r/}}, which in phonetic notation is a trill, for English ''r'' even when pronounced {{IPA|[ɹʷ]}}. |} Other conventions are less commonly seen: {| class="wikitable" ! | Symbol !! Use |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|&#x007B;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&#x007D;}} || [[Bracket#Curly brackets|Braces]] ("curly brackets") are used for [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosodic]] notation.<ref name=IPA176>IPA ''Handbook'' p. 176</ref> See [[Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet]] for examples in this system. |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|(&nbsp;...&nbsp;)}} || [[Parentheses]] are used for indistinguishable<ref name=IPA175/> or unidentified utterances. They are also seen for silent articulation (mouthing),<ref name=IPA191>IPA ''Handbook'' p. 191</ref> where the expected phonetic transcription is derived from lip-reading, and with periods to indicate silent pauses, for example {{IPA|(…)}} or {{IPA|(2 sec)}}. The latter usage is made official in the [[extIPA]], with unidentified segments circled.<ref>IPA (1999) ''Handbook'', p 188, 192</ref> |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|⸨&nbsp;...&nbsp;⸩}} || [[Parenthesis|Double parentheses]] indicate either a transcription of obscured speech or a description of the obscuring noise. The IPA specifies that they mark the obscured sound,<ref name=IPA176/> as in {{IPA|⸨2σ⸩}}, two audible syllables obscured by another sound. The current extIPA specifications prescribe double parentheses for the extraneous noise, such as ⸨cough⸩ or ⸨knock⸩ for a knock on a door, but the IPA ''Handbook'' identifies IPA and extIPA usage as equivalent.<ref>IPA (1999) ''Handbook'', p 176, 192</ref> Early publications of the extIPA explain double parentheses as marking "uncertainty because of noise which obscures the recording," and that within them "may be indicated as much detail as the transcriber can detect."<ref>Duckworth et al. (1990) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232077905_Extensions_to_the_International_Phonetic_Alphabet_for_the_transcription_of_atypical_speech Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for the transcription of atypical speech.] ''[[Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics]]'' 4: 4: 278.</ref> |} All three of the above are provided by the IPA ''Handbook''. The following are not, but may be seen in IPA transcription or in associated material (especially angle brackets): {| class="wikitable" ! | Symbol !! Use |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|⟦&nbsp;...&nbsp;⟧}} || [[Square bracket|Double square brackets]] are used for extra-precise (especially narrow) transcription. This is consistent with the IPA convention of doubling a symbol to indicate greater degree. Double brackets may indicate that a letter has its cardinal IPA value. For example, {{IPA|⟦a⟧}} is an open front vowel, rather than the perhaps slightly different value (such as open central) that "{{IPA|[a]}}" may be used to transcribe in a particular language. Thus, two vowels transcribed for easy legibility as {{angbr IPA|[e]}} and {{angbr IPA|[ɛ]}} may be clarified as actually being {{IPA|⟦e̝⟧}} and {{IPA|⟦e⟧}}; {{angbr IPA|[ð]}} may be more precisely {{IPA|⟦ð̠̞ˠ⟧}}.<ref>Basbøll (2005) ''The Phonology of Danish'' pp. 45, 59</ref> Double brackets may also be used for a specific token or speaker; for example, the pronunciation of a child as opposed to the adult phonetic pronunciation that is their target.<ref>Karlsson & Sullivan (2005) ''/sP/ consonant clusters in Swedish: Acoustic measurements of phonological development''</ref> |- | style="text-align: center; | {{IPA|⫽&nbsp;...&nbsp;⫽<br>&#x007C;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&#x007C;<br>‖&nbsp;...&nbsp;‖<br>&#x007B;&nbsp;...&nbsp;&#x007D;}} || [[Slash (punctuation)|Double slashes]] are used for [[morphophonemic]] transcription. This is also consistent with the IPA convention of doubling a symbol to indicate greater degree (in this case, more abstract than phonemic transcription). Other symbols sometimes seen for morphophonemic transcription are [[vertical bar|pipes]] and double pipes, from [[Americanist phonetic notation]]; and ''braces'' from [[set theory]], especially when enclosing the set of phonemes that constitute the morphophoneme, e.g. {{IPA|&#x007B;t d&#x007D;}} or {{IPA|&#x007B;t&#x007C;d&#x007D;}} or {{IPA|&#x007B;/t/, /d/&#x007D;}}. Only double slashes are unambiguous: both pipes and braces conflict with IPA prosodic transcription.<ref group=note>For example, the single and double pipe symbols are used for minor and major prosodic breaks. Although the ''Handbook'' specifies the prosodic symbols as "thick" vertical lines, which would be distinct from simple ASCII pipes (and similar to [[Dania transcription|Dania]] transcription), this is optional and was intended to keep them distinct from the pipes used as [[click letter]]s (''JIPA'' 19.2, p. 75). The ''Handbook'' (p. 174) assigns them the Unicode encodings U+007C, which is the simple ASCII pipe symbol, and U+2016.</ref> See [[morphophonology]] for examples. |- | style="text-align: center; | {{angbr IPA|&nbsp;...&nbsp;}}<br>{{IPA|⟪&nbsp;...&nbsp;⟫}} || [[Angle bracket]]s<ref group="note">The proper angle brackets in Unicode are the mathematical symbols (U+27E8 and U+27E9). Chevrons ‹...› (U+2039, U+203A) are sometimes substituted, as in Americanist phonetic notation, as are the less-than and greater-than signs <...> (U+003C, U+003E) found on ASCII keyboards.</ref> are used to mark both original Latin orthography and [[transliteration]] from another script<!--including e.g. Arabic and Chinese characters used to transcribe Latin script-->; they are also used to identify individual [[grapheme]]s of any script.<ref>Richard Sproat (2000) ''A Computational Theory of Writing Systems''. Cambridge University Press. Page 26.</ref><ref>Barry Heselwood (2013) ''Phonetic Transcription in Theory and Practice''. Edinburgh University Press. Page 8 ff, 29 ff.</ref> Within the IPA, they are used to indicate the IPA letters themselves rather than the sound values that they carry. Double angle brackets may occasionally be useful to distinguish original orthography from transliteration, or the idiosyncratic spelling of a manuscript from the normalized orthography of the language. For example, {{angbr IPA|cot}} would be used for the orthography of the English word ''cot'', as opposed to its pronunciation {{IPA|/ˈkɒt/}}. Italics are usual when words are written as themselves (as with ''cot'' in the previous sentence) rather than to specifically note their orthography. However, italic markup is not evident to sight-impaired readers who rely on [[screen reader]] technology. |} Some examples of contrasting brackets in the literature: {{block quote|In some English accents, the phoneme {{IPA|/l/}}, which is usually spelled as {{angbr|l}} or {{angbr|ll}}, is articulated as two distinct allophones: the clear {{IPA|[l]}} occurs before vowels and the consonant {{IPA|/j/}}, whereas the dark {{IPA|[ɫ]}}/{{IPA|[lˠ]}} occurs before consonants, except {{IPA|/j/}}, and at the end of words.<ref>Paul Tench (2011) ''Transcribing the Sound of English''. Cambridge University Press. Page 61.</ref>}} {{block quote|the alternations {{IPA|/f/}} &ndash; {{IPA|/v/}} in plural formation in one class of nouns, as in ''knife'' {{IPA|/naɪf/}} &ndash; ''knives'' {{IPA|/naɪvz/}}, which can be represented morphophonemically as {{IPA|{naɪV}}} &ndash; {{IPA|{naɪV+z}}}. The morphophoneme {{IPA|{V}}} stands for the phoneme set {{IPA|{/f/, /v/}}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Gibbon |first1= Dafydd |last2= Moore |first2= Roger |last3= Winski |first3= Richard |title= Handbook of Standards and Resources for Spoken Language Systems: Spoken language characterisation |date= 1998 |publisher= Walter de Gruyter |location= Berlin; New York |isbn= 9783110157345 |pages=61 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=8cxtWcsAk5MC&pg=PA61 |language= en}}</ref>}} {{block quote|{{IPA|[ˈf\faɪnəlz ˈhɛld ɪn (.) ⸨knock on door⸩ bɑɹsə{_𝑝ˈloʊnə and ˈmədɹɪd_𝑝}]}} &mdash; ''f-finals held in Barcelona and Madrid.''<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ball |first1=Martin J. |last2=Lowry |first2=Orla M. |author1-link=Martin J. Ball |title=Methods in Clinical Phonetics |date=2001 |publisher=Whurr |location=London |isbn=9781861561848 |pages=80 |chapter=Transcribing Disordered Speech |doi=10.1002/9780470777879.ch3|s2cid=58518097 }}</ref>}} ===Other representations=== {{main|Cursive forms of the International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA Braille}} IPA letters have [[cursive]] forms designed for use in manuscripts and when taking field notes, but the 1999 ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association'' recommended against their use, as cursive IPA is "harder for most people to decipher."{{sfn|International Phonetic Association|1999|p=31}} A [[braille]] representation of the IPA for blind or visually impaired professionals and students has also been developed.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Englebretson |first=Robert |date=2009 |title=An overview of IPA Braille: an updated tactile representation of the International Phonetic Alphabet |url=http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~reng/englebretson2009.pdf |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=39 |issue=1 |page=67 |access-date=5 April 2014 |doi=10.1017/s0025100308003691|citeseerx=10.1.1.501.366 |s2cid=36426880 }}</ref> =={{anchor|chart}}Modifying the IPA chart== [[File:Extended IPA chart 2005.png|thumb|upright=1.25|The authors of textbooks or similar publications often create revised versions of the IPA chart to express their own preferences or needs. The image displays one such version. All pulmonic consonants are moved to the consonant chart. Only the black symbols are on the official IPA chart; additional symbols are in grey. The grey fricatives are part of the [[extIPA]], and the grey retroflex letters are mentioned or implicit<!--'implicit' is the description used in the Unicode request for support for the missing retroflex letters--> in the ''Handbook''. The grey click is a retired IPA letter that is still in use.]] The International Phonetic Alphabet is occasionally modified by the Association. After each modification, the Association provides an updated simplified presentation of the alphabet in the form of a chart. (See [[History of the International Phonetic Alphabet|History of the IPA]].) Not all aspects of the alphabet can be accommodated in a chart of the size published by the IPA. The [[alveolo-palatal consonant|alveolo-palatal]] and [[epiglottal consonant|epiglottal]] consonants, for example, are not included in the consonant chart for reasons of space rather than of theory (two additional columns would be required, one between the retroflex and palatal columns and the other between the pharyngeal and glottal columns), and the [[lateral flap]] would require an additional row for that single consonant, so they are listed instead under the catchall block of "other symbols".<ref>{{cite book|last=Esling|first=John H.|author-link=John Esling|year=2010|chapter=Phonetic Notation|editor1-last=Hardcastle|editor1-first=William J.|editor2-last=Laver|editor2-first=John|editor3-last=Gibbon|editor3-first=Fiona E.|title=The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences|edition=2nd|pages=678–702|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|doi=10.1002/9781444317251.ch18|isbn=978-1-4051-4590-9}} pp.&nbsp;688, 693.</ref> The indefinitely large number of [[Chao tone letter|tone letters]] would make a full accounting impractical even on a larger page, and only a few examples are shown, and even the tone diacritics are not complete; the reversed tone letters are not illustrated at all. The procedure for modifying the alphabet or the chart is to propose the change in the ''[[Journal of the International Phonetic Association|Journal of the IPA]].'' (See, for example, August 2008 on an [[open central unrounded vowel]] and August 2011 on central approximants.)<ref name="cambridge1">{{cite journal|author1=Martin J. Ball |author2=Joan Rahilly |title=The symbolization of central approximants in the IPA |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=231–237 |publisher=Cambridge Journals Online |date=August 2011 |doi=10.1017/s0025100311000107|s2cid=144408497 }}<!-- Author, title, pages are unknown because the url is simply a link to the issue TOC. The same inadequate citation applies to the next reference. --></ref> Reactions to the proposal may be published in the same or subsequent issues of the Journal (as in August 2009 on the open central vowel).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayIssue?decade=2000&jid=IPA&volumeId=39&issueId=02&iid=5907924 |title=Cambridge Journals Online – Journal of the International Phonetic Association Vol. 39 Iss. 02 |publisher=Journals.cambridge.org |date=23 October 2012 |access-date=20 November 2012}}</ref> A formal proposal is then put to the Council of the IPA<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/about.html |title=IPA: About us |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010121905/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/about.html |archive-date=10 October 2012}}</ref> – which is elected by the membership<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/statutes.html |title=IPA: Statutes |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010121941/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/statutes.html |archive-date=10 October 2012}}</ref> – for further discussion and a formal vote.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/news/news200509.html |title=IPA: News |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111181340/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/news/news200509.html |archive-date=11 November 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/news/news201112.html |title=IPA: News |publisher=Langsci.ucl.ac.uk |access-date=20 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111181349/http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/news/news201112.html |archive-date=11 November 2012}}</ref> Nonetheless, many users of the alphabet, including the leadership of the Association itself, deviate from this norm.<ref group=note>See "Illustrations of the IPA" in the ''IPA Handbook'' (1999) for individual languages which for example may use {{angbr|/c/}} as a phonemic symbol for what is phonetically realized as {{IPA|[tʃ]}}, or superscript variants of IPA letters that are not officially defined.</ref> The ''Journal of the IPA'' finds it acceptable to mix IPA and [[extIPA]] symbols in consonant charts in their articles. (For instance, including the extIPA letter [[voiceless palatal lateral fricative|{{angbr IPA|𝼆}}]], rather than {{angbr IPA|ʎ̝̊}}, in an illustration of the IPA.)<ref name=pulmonic/> ==Usage== {{further|Phonetic transcription}} Of more than 160 IPA symbols, relatively few will be used to transcribe speech in any one language, with various levels of precision. A precise phonetic transcription, in which sounds are specified in detail, is known as a ''narrow transcription''. A coarser transcription with less detail is called a ''broad transcription.'' Both are relative terms, and both are generally enclosed in square brackets.<ref name="IPA 1999"/> Broad phonetic transcriptions may restrict themselves to easily heard details, or only to details that are relevant to the discussion at hand, and may differ little if at all from phonemic transcriptions, but they make no theoretical claim that all the distinctions transcribed are necessarily meaningful in the language. [[File:RPGA international.svg|200px|thumb|Phonetic transcriptions of the word ''international'' in two English dialects]] For example, the English word ''little'' may be transcribed broadly as {{IPA|[ˈlɪtəl]}}, approximately describing many pronunciations. A narrower transcription may focus on individual or dialectical details: {{IPA|[ˈɫɪɾɫ]}} in [[General American]], {{IPA|[ˈlɪʔo]}} in [[Cockney]], or {{IPA|[ˈɫɪːɫ]}} in [[Southern American English|Southern US English]]. Phonemic transcriptions, which express the conceptual counterparts of spoken sounds, are usually enclosed in slashes (/ /) and tend to use simpler letters with few diacritics. The choice of IPA letters may reflect theoretical claims of how speakers conceptualize sounds as phonemes or they may be merely a convenience for typesetting. Phonemic approximations between slashes do not have absolute sound values. For instance, in English, either the vowel of ''pick'' or the vowel of ''peak'' may be transcribed as {{IPA|/i/}}, so that ''pick'', ''peak'' would be transcribed as {{IPA|/ˈpik, ˈpiːk/}} or as {{IPA|/ˈpɪk, ˈpik/}}; and neither is identical to the vowel of the French ''{{lang|fr|pique}}'' which would also be transcribed {{IPA|/pik/}}. By contrast, a narrow phonetic transcription of ''pick'', ''peak'', ''pique'' could be: {{IPA|[pʰɪk]}}, {{IPA|[pʰiːk]}}, {{IPA|[pikʲ]}}. ===Linguists=== IPA is popular for transcription by linguists. Some American linguists, however, use a mix of IPA with [[Americanist phonetic notation]] or use some [[Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet|nonstandard symbols]] for various reasons.<ref name="thomason">{{cite web|url=http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/005287.html |title=Why I Don't Love the International Phonetic Alphabet |author=Sally Thomason |date=2 January 2008 |work=Language Log }}</ref> Authors who employ such nonstandard use are encouraged to include a chart or other explanation of their choices, which is good practice in general, as linguists differ in their understanding of the exact meaning of IPA symbols and common conventions change over time. ===Dictionaries=== ====English==== Many British dictionaries, including the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] and some [[Monolingual learner's dictionary|learner's dictionaries]] such as the ''[[Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary]]'' and the ''[[Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary]]'', now use [[Pronunciation respelling for English#International Phonetic Alphabet|the International Phonetic Alphabet]] to represent the pronunciation of words.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dictionary.cambridge.org/help/phonetics.htm |title=Phonetics |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge Dictionaries Online |access-date=11 March 2007 |archive-date=17 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110817233308/http://dictionary.cambridge.org/help/phonetics.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, most American (and some British) volumes use one of a variety of [[Pronunciation respelling for English|pronunciation respelling]] systems, intended to be more comfortable for readers of English and to be more acceptable across dialects, without the implication of a preferred pronunciation that the IPA might convey. For example, the respelling systems in many American dictionaries (such as ''[[Merriam-Webster Dictionary|Merriam-Webster]]'') use {{angbr|y}} for IPA {{IPA|[&thinsp;j]}} and {{angbr|sh}} for IPA {{IPA|[&thinsp;ʃ&thinsp;]}}, reflecting the usual spelling of those sounds in English.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/help/pronunciation-key |title=Merriam-Webster Online Pronunciation Symbols |access-date=4 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070601152219/http://mw1.merriam-webster.com/pronsymbols.html |archive-date=1 June 2007 |url-status=dead}}<br />{{Cite book|first=Michael|last=Agnes|title=Webster's New World College Dictionary|year=1999|publisher=Macmillan|location=New York|isbn=0-02-863119-6|page=xxiii|no-pp=true|url=https://archive.org/details/webstersnewworld00agne_0|url-access=registration}}<br />''[[Pronunciation respelling for English]]'' has detailed comparisons.</ref> (In IPA, {{IPA|[y]}} represents the sound of the French {{angbr|u}}, as in ''{{lang|fr|tu}}'', and {{IPA|[sh]}} represents the sequence of consonants in ''gra{{strong|ssh}}opper''.) ====Other languages==== The IPA is also not universal among dictionaries in languages other than English. Monolingual dictionaries of languages with [[phonemic orthography|phonemic orthographies]] generally do not bother with indicating the pronunciation of most words, and tend to use respelling systems for words with unexpected pronunciations. Dictionaries produced in Israel use the IPA rarely and sometimes use the [[Hebrew alphabet]] for transcription of foreign words.<ref group=note>Monolingual Hebrew dictionaries use pronunciation respelling for words with unusual spelling; for example, the ''[[Even-Shoshan Dictionary]]'' respells {{Script/Hebrew|תָּכְנִית}} as {{angbr|{{Script/Hebrew|תּוֹכְנִית}}}} because the word uses the ''[[kamatz]] katan''.</ref> Bilingual dictionaries that translate from foreign languages into Russian usually employ the IPA, but monolingual Russian dictionaries occasionally use pronunciation respelling for foreign words.<ref group=note>For example, [[Sergey Ozhegov]]'s dictionary adds [нэ́] in brackets to the French loan-word ''пенсне'' (''{{lang|fr|[[pince-nez]]}}'') to indicate that the final {{angbr|[[е]]}} does not [[Iotation|iotate]] the preceding {{angbr|[[н]]}}. </ref> The IPA is more common in bilingual dictionaries, but there are exceptions here too. Mass-market bilingual Czech dictionaries, for instance, tend to use the IPA only for sounds not found in [[Czech language|Czech]].<ref>{{in lang|cs}} {{Cite book|last=Fronek|first=J.|title=Velký anglicko-český slovník|year=2006|publisher=Leda|location=Praha|language=cs|isbn=80-7335-022-X|quote=In accordance with long-established Czech lexicographical tradition, a modified version of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is adopted in which letters of the Czech alphabet are employed.}}</ref> ===Standard orthographies and case variants=== {{main|Case variants of IPA letters}} IPA letters have been incorporated into the alphabets of various languages, notably via the [[Africa Alphabet]] in many sub-Saharan languages such as [[Hausa language|Hausa]], [[Fula language|Fula]], [[Akan language|Akan]], [[Gbe languages]], [[Manding languages]], [[Lingala language|Lingala]], etc. Capital case variants have been created for use in these languages. For example, [[Kabiyé language|Kabiyè]] of northern [[Togo]] has [[African D|Ɖ ɖ]], [[Eng (letter)|Ŋ ŋ]], [[Latin gamma|Ɣ ɣ]], [[Open O|Ɔ ɔ]], [[Latin epsilon|Ɛ ɛ]], [[Ʋ|Ʋ ʋ]]. These, and others, are supported by [[Unicode]], but appear in Latin ranges other than the [[IPA Extensions (Unicode block)|IPA extensions]]. In the IPA itself, however, only lower-case letters are used. The 1949 edition of the IPA handbook indicated that an asterisk {{angbr|*}} might be prefixed to indicate that a word was a proper name,<ref>''Principles of the International Phonetic Association,'' 1949:17.</ref> but this convention was not included in the 1999 ''Handbook'', which notes the contrary use of the asterisk as a placeholder for a sound or feature that does not have a symbol. ===Classical singing=== The IPA has widespread use among classical singers during preparation as they are frequently required to sing in a variety of foreign languages. They are also taught by vocal coaches to perfect diction and improve tone quality and tuning.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Severens|first=Sara E.|year=2017|title=The Effects of the International Phonetic Alphabet in Singing|journal=Student Scholar Showcase|url=https://digitalshowcase.lynchburg.edu/studentshowcase/2017/presentations/53/|language=en}}</ref> Opera [[libretto]]s are authoritatively transcribed in IPA, such as [[Nico Castel]]'s volumes<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.castelopera.com/libretti.htm | title=Nico Castel's Complete Libretti Series | publisher=Castel Opera Arts | access-date=29 September 2008 | archive-date=24 July 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724211024/http://www.castelopera.com/libretti.htm | url-status=dead }}</ref> and Timothy Cheek's book ''Singing in Czech''.<ref>{{Cite book | url=http://scarecrowpress.com/Catalog/SingleBook.shtml?command=Search&db=%5EDB/CATALOG.db&eqSKUdata=0810840030 | last=Cheek | first=Timothy | title=Singing in Czech | year=2001 | page=392 | isbn=978-0-8108-4003-4 | publisher=The Scarecrow Press | access-date=25 January 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007052429/http://scarecrowpress.com/Catalog/SingleBook.shtml?command=Search&db=%5EDB%2FCATALOG.db&eqSKUdata=0810840030 | archive-date=7 October 2011 | url-status=dead }} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007052429/http://scarecrowpress.com/Catalog/SingleBook.shtml?command=Search&db=%5EDB%2FCATALOG.db&eqSKUdata=0810840030 |date=7 October 2011 }}</ref> Opera singers' ability to read IPA was used by the site ''Visual Thesaurus'', which employed several opera singers "to make recordings for the 150,000 words and phrases in VT's lexical database&nbsp;... for their vocal stamina, attention to the details of enunciation, and most of all, knowledge of IPA".<ref>{{cite web| url=http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=155 | title=Operatic IPA and the Visual Thesaurus | last=Zimmer | first=Benjamin | author-link=Benjamin Zimmer | work=[[Language Log]] | publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania]] | access-date=29 September 2009 | date=14 May 2008}}</ref> ==Letters== {{See also|International Phonetic Alphabet chart}} The International Phonetic Association organizes the letters of the IPA into three categories: [[pulmonic sounds|pulmonic]] consonants, non-pulmonic consonants, and vowels.<ref>"Segments can usefully be divided into two major categories, consonants and vowels." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;3)</ref><ref>International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;6.</ref> Pulmonic consonant letters are arranged singly or in pairs of voiceless ([[tenuis consonant|tenuis]]) and voiced sounds, with these then grouped in columns from front (labial) sounds on the left to back (glottal) sounds on the right. In official publications by the IPA, two columns are omitted to save space, with the letters listed among 'other symbols' even though theoretically they belong in the main chart,<ref group=note>They were moved "for presentational convenience [...] because of [their] rarity and the small number of types of sounds which are found there." (IPA ''Handbook'', p 18)</ref> and with the remaining consonants arranged in rows from full closure (occlusives: stops and nasals), to brief closure (vibrants: trills and taps), to partial closure (fricatives) and minimal closure (approximants), again with a row left out to save space. In the table below, a slightly different arrangement is made: All pulmonic consonants are included in the pulmonic-consonant table, and the vibrants and laterals are separated out so that the rows reflect the common [[lenition]] pathway of ''stop → fricative → approximant,'' as well as the fact that several letters pull double duty as both fricative and approximant; [[affricate]]s may be created by joining stops and fricatives from adjacent cells. Shaded cells represent articulations that are judged to be impossible. Vowel letters are also grouped in pairs—of unrounded and rounded vowel sounds—with these pairs also arranged from front on the left to back on the right, and from maximal closure at top to minimal closure at bottom. No vowel letters are omitted from the chart, though in the past some of the mid central vowels were listed among the 'other symbols'. ===Consonants=== ====Pulmonic consonants==== {{see also|IPA pulmonic consonant chart with audio}} A [[Egressive|pulmonic]] consonant is a consonant made by obstructing the [[glottis]] (the space between the vocal cords) or [[Human mouth|oral cavity]] (the mouth) and either simultaneously or subsequently letting out air from the lungs. Pulmonic consonants make up the majority of consonants in the IPA, as well as in human language. All consonants in English fall into this category.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fromkin|first=Victoria|author-link=Victoria Fromkin|author2=Rodman, Robert|title=An Introduction to Language|orig-year=1974|year=1998|publisher=Harcourt Brace College Publishers|location=Fort Worth, TX|edition=6th|isbn=0-03-018682-X|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00from_1}}</ref> The pulmonic consonant table, which includes most consonants, is arranged in rows that designate [[manner of articulation]], meaning how the consonant is produced, and columns that designate [[place of articulation]], meaning where in the vocal tract the consonant is produced. The main chart includes only consonants with a single place of articulation. {{IPA pulmonic consonants|caption=|affricates=no|notes=no}} '''Notes''' * In rows where some letters appear in pairs (the ''[[obstruent]]s''), the letter to the right represents a [[voice (phonetics)|voiced consonant]] (except [[breathy voice|breathy-voiced]] {{IPA|[ɦ]}}).<ref>Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1996, ''Sounds of the World's Languages,'' §2.1.</ref> In the other rows (the ''[[sonorant]]s''), the single letter represents a voiced consonant. * While IPA provides a single letter for the coronal places of articulation (for all consonants but fricatives), these do not always have to be used exactly. When dealing with a particular language, the letters may be treated as specifically dental, alveolar, or post-alveolar, as appropriate for that language, without diacritics. * Shaded areas indicate articulations judged to be impossible. * The letters {{IPA|[β, ð, ʁ, ʕ, ʢ]}} are canonically voiced fricatives but may be used for approximants.<ref>"A symbol such as {{IPA|[β]}}, shown on the chart in the position for a voiced bilabial fricative, can also be used to represent a voiced bilabial approximant if needed." (''Handbook'', p.9)</ref> * In many languages, such as English, {{IPA|[h]}} and {{IPA|[ɦ]}} are not actually glottal, fricatives, or approximants. Rather, they are bare [[phonation]].<ref>Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1996, ''Sounds of the World's Languages,'' §9.3.</ref> * It is primarily the shape of the tongue rather than its position that distinguishes the fricatives {{IPA|[ʃ ʒ]}}, {{IPA|[ɕ ʑ]}}, and {{IPA|[ʂ ʐ]}}. * {{IPA|[ʜ, ʢ]}} are defined as epiglottal fricatives under the "Other symbols" section in the official IPA chart, but they may be treated as trills at the same place of articulation as {{IPA|[ħ, ʕ]}} because trilling of the [[aryepiglottic fold]]s typically co-occurs.{{sfnp|Esling|2010|pp=688–9}} * Some listed phones are not known to exist as [[phoneme]]s in any language. ====Non-pulmonic consonants==== Non-pulmonic consonants are sounds whose airflow is not dependent on the lungs. These include [[click consonant|clicks]] (found in the [[Khoisan languages]] and some neighboring [[Bantu languages]] of Africa), [[Implosive consonant|implosives]] (found in languages such as [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Hausa language|Hausa]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]] and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]), and [[ejective consonant|ejectives]] (found in many [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Amerindian]] and [[Languages of the Caucasus|Caucasian languages]]). {{IPA non-pulmonic consonants|caption=|nonipa=no|affricates=no|notes=no}} '''Notes''' * Clicks have traditionally been described as consisting of a forward place of articulation, commonly called the click 'type' or historically the 'influx', and a rear place of articulation, which when combined with the voicing, aspiration, nasalization, affrication, ejection, [[contour click|timing]] etc. of the click is commonly called the click 'accompaniment' or historically the 'efflux'. The IPA click letters indicate only the click type (forward articulation and release). Therefore, all clicks require two letters for proper notation: {{angbr IPA|k͡ǂ, ɡ͡ǂ, ŋ͡ǂ, q͡ǂ, ɢ͡ǂ, ɴ͡ǂ}} ''etc.'', or with the order reversed if both the forward and rear releases are audible. The letter for the rear articulation is frequently omitted, in which case a {{angbr IPA|k}} may usually be assumed. However, some researchers dispute the idea that clicks should be analyzed as doubly articulated, as the traditional transcription implies, and analyze the rear occlusion as solely a part of the airstream mechanism.<ref>Amanda L. Miller ''et al.'', [https://web.archive.org/web/20070609200226/http://ling.cornell.edu/plab/amanda/amiller_jipa.pdf "Differences in airstream and posterior place of articulation among Nǀuu lingual stops"]. Submitted to the ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association''. Retrieved 27 May 2007.</ref> In transcriptions of such approaches, the click letter represents both places of articulation, with the different letters representing the different click types, and diacritics are used for the elements of the accompaniment: {{angbr IPA|ǂ, ǂ̬, ǂ̃}} ''etc.'' * Letters for the [[voiceless]] implosives {{angbr IPA|ƥ, ƭ, ƈ, ƙ, ʠ}} are no longer supported by the IPA, though they remain in Unicode. Instead, the IPA typically uses the voiced equivalent with a voiceless diacritic: {{angbr IPA|ɓ̥, ʛ̥}}, ''etc.''. * The letter for the [[Voiced retroflex implosive|retroflex implosive]], <span title="U+1D91">{{angbr IPA|ᶑ }}</span>, is not "explicitly IPA approved" (''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;166), but has the expected form if such a symbol were to be approved. * The ejective diacritic is placed at the right-hand margin of the consonant, rather than immediately after the letter for the stop: {{angbr IPA|t͜ʃʼ}}, {{angbr IPA|kʷʼ}}. In imprecise transcription, it often stands in for a superscript glottal stop in [[Glottalic consonant|glottalized]] but pulmonic [[sonorant]]s, such as {{IPA|[mˀ]}}, {{IPA|[lˀ]}}, {{IPA|[wˀ]}}, {{IPA|[aˀ]}} (also transcribable as creaky {{IPA|[m̰]}}, {{IPA|[l̰]}}, {{IPA|[w̰]}}, {{IPA|[a̰]}}). ====Affricates==== [[Affricate consonant|Affricates]] and [[Doubly articulated consonant|co-articulated]] stops are represented by two letters joined by a tie bar, either above or below the letters with no difference in meaning.<ref group=note>It is traditional to place the tie bar above the letters. It may be placed below to avoid overlap with ascenders or diacritic marks, or simply because it is more legible that way, as in {{cite web|author=Niesler, Louw, & Roux | date = 2005| title=Phonetic analysis of Afrikaans, English, Xhosa and Zulu using South African speech databases|url= http://www.ajol.info/index.php/salas/article/viewFile/6562/13287|publisher=Ajol.info|access-date=20 November 2012}}</ref> Affricates are optionally represented by [[Typographic ligature|ligatures]] (e.g. {{angbr IPA|ʦ, ʣ, ʧ, ʤ, ʨ, ʥ, ꭧ, ꭦ&thinsp;}}), though this is no longer official IPA usage<ref name="IPA 1999"/> because a great number of ligatures would be required to represent all affricates this way. Alternatively, a superscript notation for a consonant release is sometimes used to transcribe affricates, for example {{angbr IPA|tˢ}} for {{IPA|[t͜s]}}, paralleling {{IPA|[kˣ]}} ~ {{IPA|[k͜x]}}. The letters for the palatal plosives {{angbr IPA|c}} and {{angbr IPA|ɟ}} are often used as a convenience for {{IPA|[t͜ʃ]}} and {{IPA|[d͜ʒ]}} or similar affricates, even in official IPA publications, so they must be interpreted with care. {{IPA affricates|caption=|notes=no}} ====Co-articulated consonants==== [[Co-articulated consonant]]s are sounds that involve two simultaneous [[Place of articulation|places of articulation]] (are pronounced using two parts of the [[vocal tract]]). In English, the {{IPA|[w]}} in "went" is a coarticulated consonant, being pronounced by rounding the lips and raising the back of the tongue. Similar sounds are {{IPA|[ʍ]}} and {{IPA|[ɥ]}}. In some languages, plosives can be double-articulated, for example in the name of [[Laurent Gbagbo]]. {{IPA co-articulated consonants|caption=|notes=no}} '''Notes''' * {{IPA|[ɧ]}}, the [[sj-sound|Swedish ''sj''-sound]], is described by the IPA as a "simultaneous {{IPA|[ʃ]}} and {{IPA|[x]}}", but it is unlikely such a simultaneous fricative actually exists in any language.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ladefoged |first=Peter |author2=Ian Maddieson |year=1996 |title=The sounds of the world's languages |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell|pages=329–330|isbn=0-631-19815-6|author2-link=Ian Maddieson }}</ref> * Multiple tie bars can be used: {{angbr IPA|a͡b͡c}} or {{angbr IPA|a͜b͜c}}. For instance, if a prenasalized stop is transcribed {{angbr IPA|m͡b}}, and a doubly articulated stop {{angbr IPA|ɡ͡b}}, then a prenasalized doubly articulated stop would be {{angbr IPA|ŋ͡m͡ɡ͡b}} * If a diacritic needs to be placed on or under a tie bar, the [[combining grapheme joiner]] (U+034F) needs to be used, as in {{IPA|[b͜͏̰də̀bdɷ̀]}} 'chewed' ([[Margi language|Margi]]). Font support is spotty, however. ===Vowels=== {{Main|Vowel}} {{see also|IPA vowel chart with audio}} [[File:Cardinal vowel tongue position-front.svg|thumb|Tongue positions of [[Cardinal vowel|cardinal]] front vowels, with highest point indicated. The position of the highest point is used to determine vowel height and backness.]] [[File:Cardinal vowels-Jones x-ray.jpg|thumb|[[Radiography|X-ray photos]] show the sounds {{IPA|[i, u, a, ɑ]}}.]] The IPA defines a vowel as a sound which occurs at a syllable center.<ref>International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;10.</ref> Below is a chart depicting the vowels of the IPA. The IPA maps the vowels according to the position of the tongue. {{IPA vowels|caption=|notes=no}} The vertical axis of the chart is mapped by [[vowel height]]. Vowels pronounced with the tongue lowered are at the bottom, and vowels pronounced with the tongue raised are at the top. For example, {{IPA|[ɑ]}} (the first vowel in ''father'') is at the bottom because the tongue is lowered in this position. {{IPA|[i]}} (the vowel in "meet") is at the top because the sound is said with the tongue raised to the roof of the mouth. In a similar fashion, the horizontal axis of the chart is determined by [[vowel backness]]. Vowels with the tongue moved towards the front of the mouth (such as {{IPA|[ɛ]}}, the vowel in "met") are to the left in the chart, while those in which it is moved to the back (such as {{IPA|[ʌ]}}, the vowel in "but") are placed to the right in the chart. In places where vowels are paired, the right represents a [[Roundedness|rounded vowel]] (in which the lips are rounded) while the left is its unrounded counterpart. ====Diphthongs==== [[Diphthong]]s are typically specified with a non-syllabic diacritic, as in {{angbr IPA|uɪ̯}} or {{angbr IPA|u̯ɪ}}, or with a superscript for the on- or off-glide, as in {{angbr IPA|uᶦ}} or {{angbr IPA|ᵘɪ}}. Sometimes a tie bar is used: {{angbr IPA|u͡ɪ}}, especially if it is difficult to tell if the diphthong is characterized by an on-glide, an off-glide or is variable. '''Notes''' * {{angbr IPA|a}} officially represents a front vowel, but there is little if any distinction between front and central open vowels (see {{section link|Vowel#Acoustics}}), and {{angbr IPA|a}} is frequently used for an open central vowel.<ref name="thomason" /> If disambiguation is required, the [[Retraction (phonetics)|retraction diacritic]] or the [[Relative articulation#Centralized vowels|centralized diacritic]] may be added to indicate an open central vowel, as in {{angbr IPA|a̠}} or {{angbr IPA|ä}}. ==Diacritics and prosodic notation {{anchor|Diacritics}}== [[Diacritic]]s are used for phonetic detail. They are added to IPA letters to indicate a modification or specification of that letter's normal pronunciation.<ref name=IPA15>International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp.&nbsp;14–15.</ref> By being made superscript, any IPA letter may function as a diacritic, conferring elements of its articulation to the base letter. Those superscript letters listed below are specifically provided for by the IPA ''Handbook''; other uses can be illustrated with {{angbr IPA|tˢ}} ({{IPA|[t]}} with fricative release), {{angbr IPA|ᵗs}} ({{IPA|[s]}} with affricate onset), {{angbr IPA|ⁿd}} (prenasalized {{IPA|[d]}}), {{angbr IPA|bʱ}} ({{IPA|[b]}} with breathy voice), {{angbr IPA|mˀ}} (glottalized {{IPA|[m]}}), {{angbr IPA|sᶴ}} ({{IPA|[s]}} with a flavor of {{IPA|[ʃ]}}, i.e. a [[voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant]]), {{angbr IPA|oᶷ}} ({{IPA|[o]}} with [[Vowel breaking|diphthongization]]), {{angbr IPA|ɯᵝ}} ([[compressed vowel|compressed]] {{IPA|[ɯ]}}). Superscript diacritics placed after a letter are ambiguous between simultaneous modification of the sound and phonetic detail at the end of the sound. For example, labialized {{angbr IPA|kʷ}} may mean either simultaneous {{IPA|[k]}} and {{IPA|[w]}} or else {{IPA|[k]}} with a labialized release. Superscript diacritics placed before a letter, on the other hand, normally indicate a modification of the onset of the sound ({{angbr IPA|mˀ}} glottalized {{IPA|[m]}}, {{angbr IPA|ˀm}} {{IPA|[m]}} with a glottal onset). (See {{section link|#Superscript IPA}}.) {|class="wikitable" ! colspan=6|Syllabicity diacritics |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̩}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɹ̩ n̩}} |rowspan=2|[[Syllabic consonant|Syllabic]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̯}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɪ̯ ʊ̯}} |rowspan=2|[[Semivowel|Non-syllabic]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̍}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɻ̍ ŋ̍}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̑}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y̑}} |- ! colspan=6|Consonant-release diacritics |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;" |{{IPA|◌ʰ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tʰ}} |[[Aspiration (phonetics)|Aspirated]]{{ref label|Aspirated|a|}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̚}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|p̚}} |[[No audible release]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;" |{{IPA|◌ⁿ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|dⁿ}} |[[Nasal release]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ˡ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|dˡ}} |[[Lateral release (phonetics)|Lateral release]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;" |{{IPA|◌ᶿ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tᶿ}} |Voiceless dental fricative release |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ˣ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tˣ}} |Voiceless velar fricative release |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large;" |{{IPA|◌ᵊ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|dᵊ}} |Mid central vowel release |colspan=3| |- ! colspan=6|Phonation diacritics |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̥}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" |{{IPA|n̥ d̥}} |rowspan=2|[[Voiceless]] |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̬}} |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|s̬ t̬}} |rowspan=2|[[Voice (phonetics)|Voiced]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̊}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" |{{IPA|ɻ̊ ŋ̊}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size: xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̤}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" |{{IPA|b̤ a̤}} |[[Breathy voice]]d{{ref label|Aspirated|a|}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̰}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|b̰ a̰}} |[[Creaky voice]]d |- ! colspan=6|Articulation diacritics |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̪}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" |{{IPA|t̪ d̪}} |rowspan=2|[[Dental consonant|Dental]] |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̼}} |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|t̼ d̼}} |rowspan=2|[[Linguolabial consonant|Linguolabial]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌͆}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;" |{{IPA|ɮ͆}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̺}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|t̺ d̺}} |[[Apical consonant|Apical]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̻}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|t̻ d̻}} |[[Laminal consonant|Laminal]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̟}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|u̟ t̟}} |rowspan=2|[[Relative articulation#Advanced and retracted|Advanced (fronted)]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̠}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|i̠ t̠}} |rowspan=2|[[Relative articulation#Advanced and retracted|Retracted (backed)]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌᫈}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɡ᫈}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̄}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|q̄}}{{ref label|retracted|b|}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̈}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ë ä}} |[[Relative articulation#Centralized vowels|Centralized]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̽}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|e̽ ɯ̽}} |[[Mid-centralized]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̝}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|e̝ r̝}} |rowspan=2|[[Relative articulation#Raised and lowered|Raised]] <br>({{IPA|[r̝], [ɭ˔]}} are fricatives) |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̞}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|e̞ β̞}} |rowspan=2|[[Relative articulation#Raised and lowered|Lowered]] <br>({{IPA|[β̞], [ɣ˕]}} are approximants) |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌˔}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɭ˔}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌˕}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y˕ ɣ˕}} |- ! colspan=6|Co-articulation diacritics |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̹}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɔ̹ x̹}} |rowspan=2| More [[Roundedness|rounded]]<br>(over-rounding) |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̜}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɔ̜ xʷ̜}} |rowspan=2| Less rounded<br>(under-rounding){{ref label|less rounded labialization|c|}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌͗}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y͗ χ͗}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌͑}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y͑ χ͑ʷ}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ʷ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tʷ dʷ}} |[[Labialization|Labialized]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ʲ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tʲ dʲ}} |[[Palatalization (phonetics)|Palatalized]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ˠ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tˠ dˠ}} |[[Velarization|Velarized]] |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̴}} |rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA link|ɫ}} {{IPA|ᵶ}} |rowspan=2|Velarized or pharyngealized |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌ˤ}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|tˤ aˤ}} |[[Pharyngealization|Pharyngealized]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̘}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|e̘ o̘}} |rowspan=2|[[Advanced and retracted tongue root|Advanced tongue root]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̙}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|e̙ o̙}} |rowspan=2|[[Advanced and retracted tongue root|Retracted tongue root]] |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌&#xAB6A;}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y&#xAB6A;}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌&#xAB6B;}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|y&#xAB6B;}} |- |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌̃}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ẽ z̃}} |[[Nasalization|Nasalized]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:xx-large; line-height:1em;" |{{IPA|◌˞}} |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|ɚ ɝ}} |[[R-colored vowel|Rhoticity]] |} '''Notes''' : {{note|Aspirated|a}} With aspirated voiced consonants, the aspiration is usually also voiced (voiced aspirated – but see [[aspirated voiced|voiced consonants with voiceless aspiration]]). Many linguists prefer one of the diacritics dedicated to breathy voice over simple aspiration, such as {{angbr IPA|b̤}}. Some linguists restrict that diacritic to [[sonorant]]s, such as breathy-voice {{angbr IPA|m̤}}, and transcribe voiced-aspirated obstruents as e.g. {{angbr IPA|bʱ}}. : {{note|retracted|b}} Care must be taken that a superscript retraction sign is not mistaken for mid tone. : {{note|less rounded labialization|c}} These are relative to the cardinal value of the letter. They can also apply to unrounded vowels: {{IPA|[ɛ̜]}} is more spread (less rounded) than cardinal {{IPA|[ɛ]}}, and {{IPA|[ɯ̹]}} is less spread than cardinal {{IPA|[ɯ]}}.<ref>'Further report on the 1989 Kiel Convention', ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'' 20:2 (December 1990), p. 23.</ref><br>Since {{angbr IPA|xʷ}} can mean that the {{IPA|[x]}} is labialized (rounded) throughout its articulation, and {{angbr IPA|x̜}} makes no sense ({{IPA|[x]}} is already completely unrounded), {{angbr IPA|x̜ʷ}} can only mean a less-labialized/rounded {{IPA|[xʷ]}}. However, readers might mistake {{angbr IPA|x̜ʷ}} for "{{IPA|[x̜]}}" with a labialized off-glide, or might wonder if the two diacritics cancel each other out. Placing the 'less rounded' diacritic under the labialization diacritic, {{angbr IPA|xʷ̜}}, makes it clear that it is the labialization that is 'less rounded' than its cardinal IPA value. Subdiacritics (diacritics normally placed below a letter) may be moved above a letter to avoid conflict with a [[descender]], as in voiceless {{angbr IPA|ŋ̊}}.<ref name=IPA15 /> The raising and lowering diacritics have optional spacing forms {{angbr IPA|˔}}, {{angbr IPA|˕}} that avoid descenders. The state of the [[glottis]] can be finely transcribed with diacritics. A series of alveolar plosives ranging from open-glottis to closed-glottis [[phonation]] is: {|class="wikitable" |+Phonation scale |- ! Open glottis |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" |{{IPA|[t]}} |[[voiceless]] |- | |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[d̤]}} |[[breathy voice]], also called ''murmured'' |- | |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[d̥]}} |[[slack voice]] |- ![[Sweet spot (phonetics)|Sweet spot]] |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[d]}} |[[modal voice]] |- | |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[d̬]}} |[[stiff voice]] |- | |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[d̰]}} |[[creaky voice]] |- !Closed glottis |style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" |{{IPA|[ʔ͡t]}} |glottal closure |} Additional diacritics are provided by the [[Extensions to the IPA]] for speech pathology. ===Suprasegmentals=== These symbols describe the features of a language above the [[Phonological hierarchy|level]] of individual consonants and vowels, that is, at the level of syllable, word or [[phrase]]. These include [[prosody (linguistics)|prosody]], pitch, [[length (phonetics)|length]], [[stress (linguistics)|stress]], intensity, [[tone (linguistics)|tone]] and gemination of the sounds of a language, as well as the [[rhythm]] and [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]] of speech.<ref name="Handbook13">International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;13.</ref> Various ligatures of pitch/tone letters and diacritics are provided for by the [[Kiel Convention]] and used in the IPA ''Handbook'' despite not being found in the summary of the IPA alphabet found on the one-page chart. Under [[#Capital letters|capital letters]] below we will see how a carrier letter may be used to indicate suprasegmental features such as labialization or nasalization. Some authors omit the carrier letter, for e.g. suffixed {{IPA|[kʰuˣt̪s̟]ʷ}} or prefixed {{IPA|[ʷkʰuˣt̪s̟]}},<ref>Cf. the {{IPA|/ʷ.../}} and {{IPA|/ʲ.../}} transcriptions in Eszter Ernst-Kurdi (2017) ''The Phonology of Mada'', SIL Yaoundé.</ref> or place a spacing variant of a diacritic such as {{angbr IPA|˔}}<!--a spacing ATR or RTR diacritic would be a better example, when those have broader font support--> or {{angbr IPA|˜}} at the beginning or end of a word to indicate that it applies to the entire word.<ref>E.g. Aaron Dolgopolsky (2013) ''Indo-European Dictionary with Nostratic Etymologies''.</ref> {| class="wikitable" ! colspan=4|Length, stress, and rhythm |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ˈke}} | Primary [[stress (linguistics)|stress]] (appears<br /> before stressed syllable) | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ˌke}} | [[Secondary stress]] (appears<br /> before stressed syllable) |- | rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|eː kː}} | rowspan=2 | [[Length (phonetics)|Long]] ([[Vowel length|long vowel]] or<br />[[gemination|geminate consonant]]) | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|eˑ}} | Half-long |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ə̆ ɢ̆}} | [[Extra-short]] |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ek.ste}}<br>{{IPA|eks.te}} | [[Syllable]] break <br>(internal boundary) | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|es‿e}} | [[Connected speech|Linking]] (lack of a boundary; <br>a [[phonological word]])<ref group=note>The IPA ''Handbook'' variously defines the "linking" symbol as marking the "lack of a boundary" (p. 23) or "absence of a break" (p. 174), and gives [[French liaison]] and English [[linking r]] as examples. The illustration for Croatian uses it to tie atonic [[clitic]]s to tonic words, with no resulting change in implied syllable structure. It is also sometimes used simply to indicate that the consonant ending one word forms a syllable with the vowel beginning the following word.</ref> |- ! colspan=4|Intonation |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|{{!}}}} | [[Prosodic unit|Minor or foot break]] | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|‖}} | [[Prosodic unit|Major or intonation break]] |- | style="text-align:center;font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|↗&#xFE0E;}} | [[Intonation (linguistics)|Global rise]]<ref group=note name="global">The global rise and fall arrows come before the affected syllable or prosodic unit, like stress and upstep/downstep. This contrasts with the Chao tone letters (listed below), which most commonly come after. One will occasionally see a horizontal arrow {{angbr IPA|→}} for global level pitch (only dropping due to [[downdrift]]), e.g. in Julie Barbour (2012) ''A Grammar of Neverver''. Additionally, some fonts display the arrows as [[emoji]] by default, if &amp;#xFE0E; is not appended.</ref> | style="text-align:center;font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|↘&#xFE0E;}} | [[Intonation (linguistics)|Global fall]]<ref group=note name="global"/> |- ! colspan=4|Up- and down-step |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ꜛke}} | [[Upstep (phonetics)|Upstep]] | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ꜜke}} | [[Downstep (phonetics)|Downstep]] |} {| class="wikitable" ! colspan=13|Pitch diacritics<ref group=note name=pitch>There is not a one-to-one correspondence between tone diacritics and tone letters. When pitch is transcribed with diacritics, the three pitches {{angbr IPA|é ē è}} are taken as the basic levels and are called 'high', 'mid' and 'low'. Contour tones combine only these three and are called {{angbr IPA|e᷇}} 'high-mid' etc. The more extreme pitches, which do not form contours, are {{angbr IPA|e̋}} 'extra-high' and {{angbr IPA|ȅ}} 'extra-low', using [[#Comparative degree|doubled diacritics]]. When transcribed with tone letters, however, combinations of all five levels are possible. Thus, {{angbr IPA|e˥ e˧ e˩}} may be called 'high', 'mid' and 'low', with {{angbr IPA|e˦ e˨}} being 'near-high' and 'near-low', analogous to descriptions of vowel height. In a three-level transcription, {{angbr IPA|é ē è}} are identified with {{angbr IPA|e˥ e˧ e˩}}, but in a five-level transcription, {{angbr IPA|e̋ ȅ}} are identified with {{angbr IPA|e˥ e˩}} (''JIPA'' 19.2: 76).</ref> |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|ŋ̋ e̋}} | Extra high | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ̌ ě}} | Rising | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷄ e᷄}} | Mid-rising |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ́ é}} | High | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ̂ ê}} | Falling | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷅ e᷅}} | Low-rising |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ̄ ē}} | Mid | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷈ e᷈}} | Peaking (rising&ndash;falling) | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷇ e᷇}} | High-falling |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ̀ è}} | Low | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷉ e᷉}} | Dipping (falling&ndash;rising) | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|ŋ᷆ e᷆}} | Mid-falling |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{nowrap|{{IPA|ŋ̏ ȅ}}}} | Extra low | style="text-align:center;" colspan=4| (''etc.'')<ref group=note>Although any combination of tone diacritics is theoretically possible, such as {{angbr IPA|e᪰}} for a falling&ndash;rising&ndash;falling tone, any other than those illustrated are vanishingly rare.</ref> |} {| class="wikitable" ! colspan=5|[[Chao tone letter]]s<ref group=note name=pitch/> |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|˥e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|꜒e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|e˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;" | {{IPA|e꜒}} | High |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˦e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜓e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˦}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜓}} | Half-high |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˧e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜔e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜔}} | Mid |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˨e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜕e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˨}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜕}} | Half-low |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˩e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜖e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜖}} | Low |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˩˥e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜖꜒e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜖꜒}} | Rising (low to high or generic) |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|˥˩e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|꜒꜖e}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e꜒꜖}} | Falling (high to low or generic) |- | style="text-align:center;" colspan=5| (''etc.'') |} The old staveless tone letters, which are effectively obsolete, include high {{angbr IPA|ˉe}}, mid {{angbr IPA|˗e}}, low {{angbr IPA|ˍe}}, rising {{angbr IPA|ˊe}} and falling {{angbr IPA|ˋe}}. ====Stress==== Officially, the [[Stress (linguistics)|stress marks]] {{angbr IPA|ˈ ˌ}} appear before the stressed syllable, and thus mark the syllable boundary as well as stress (though the syllable boundary may still be explicitly marked with a period).<ref name=report/> Occasionally the stress mark is placed immediately before the nucleus of the syllable, after any consonantal onset.{{sfnp|Esling|2010|p=691}} In such transcriptions, the stress mark does not mark a syllable boundary. The primary stress mark may be [[#Comparative degree|doubled]] {{angbr IPA|ˈˈ}} for extra stress (such as prosodic stress). The secondary stress mark is sometimes seen doubled {{angbr IPA|ˌˌ}} for extra-weak stress, but this convention has not been adopted by the IPA.<ref name=report/> Some dictionaries place both stress marks before a syllable, {{angbr IPA|¦}}, to indicate that pronunciations with either primary or secondary stress are heard, though this is not IPA usage.<ref>For example, {{MW|Balearic}}.</ref> ====Boundary markers==== There are three boundary markers: {{angbr IPA|.}} for a syllable break, {{angbr IPA|<nowiki>|</nowiki>}} for a minor prosodic break and {{angbr IPA|‖}} for a major prosodic break. The tags 'minor' and 'major' are intentionally ambiguous. Depending on need, 'minor' may vary from a [[foot (prosody)|foot]] break to a break in list-intonation to a continuing–prosodic unit boundary (equivalent to a comma), and while 'major' is often any intonation break, it may be restricted to a final–prosodic unit boundary (equivalent to a period). The 'major' symbol may also be doubled, {{angbr IPA|‖‖}}, for a stronger break.{{#tag:ref|Russian sources commonly use a wavy line like {{unichar|2E3E|WIGGLY VERTICAL LINE}} (approx. ⌇) for a less-than-minor break, such as the slight break in list intonation (e.g. the very slight break between digits in a telephone number).<ref>Ž.V. Ganiev (2012) ''Sovremennyj ruskij jazyk.'' Flinta/Nauka.</ref> A dotted line like {{unichar|2E3D|VERTICAL SIX DOTS}} or {{unichar|2999|DOTTED FENCE}} is sometimes seen instead.|group="note"}} Although not part of the IPA, the following additional boundary markers are often used in conjunction with the IPA: {{angbr IPA|μ}} for a [[mora (linguistics)|mora]] or mora boundary, {{angbr IPA|σ}} for a syllable or syllable boundary, {{angbr IPA|+}} for a morpheme boundary, {{angbr IPA|#}} for a word boundary (may be doubled, {{angbr IPA|##}}, for e.g. a breath-group boundary),<ref>Nicholas Evans (1995) ''A Grammar of Kayardild''. Mouton de Gruyter.</ref> {{angbr IPA|$}} for a phrase or intermediate boundary and {{angbr IPA|%}} for a prosodic boundary. For example, C# is a word-final consonant, %V a post-[[pausa]] vowel, and T% an IU-final tone (edge tone). ====Pitch and tone==== {{see also|tone letter}} {{angbr IPA|ꜛ ꜜ}} are defined in the ''Handbook'' as "upstep" and "downstep", concepts from tonal languages. However, the upstep symbol can also be used for [[pitch reset]], and the IPA ''Handbook'' uses it for prosody in the illustration for Portuguese, a non-tonal language. Phonetic pitch and phonemic tone may be indicated by either diacritics placed over the nucleus of the syllable (e.g., high-pitch {{angbr IPA|é}}) or by [[Chao tone letter]]s placed either before or after the word or syllable. There are three graphic variants of the tone letters: with or without a stave, and facing left or facing right from the stave. The stave was introduced with the 1989 Kiel Convention, as was the option of placing a staved letter after the word or syllable, while retaining the older conventions. There are therefore six<!--One of our sources says 'seven', but the staveless tone letters were only allowed before the word/syllable pre-Kiel, and that was not changed in the Kiel Convention.--> ways to transcribe pitch/tone in the IPA: i.e., {{angbr IPA|é}}, {{angbr IPA|˦e}}, {{angbr IPA|e˦}}, {{angbr IPA|꜓e}}, {{angbr IPA|e꜓}} and {{angbr IPA|ˉe}} for a high pitch/tone.<ref name=report/><ref>Ian Maddieson (December 1990) The transcription of tone in the IPA, JIPA 20.2, p. 31.</ref><ref>Barry Heselwood (2013) ''Phonetic Transcription in Theory and Practice''. Edinburgh University Press. Page 7.</ref> Of the tone letters, only left-facing staved letters and a few representative combinations are shown in the summary on the ''Chart'', and in practice it is currently more common for tone letters to occur after the syllable/word than before, as in the Chao tradition. Placement before the word is a carry-over from the pre-Kiel IPA convention, as is still the case for the stress and upstep/downstep marks. The IPA endorses the Chao tradition of using the left-facing tone letters, {{angbr IPA|˥ ˦ ˧ ˨ ˩}}, for underlying tone, and the right-facing letters, {{angbr IPA|꜒ ꜓ ꜔ ꜕ ꜖}}, for surface tone, as occurs in [[tone sandhi]], and for the intonation of non-tonal languages.<ref group=note>Maddieson and others have noted that a phonemic/phonetic distinction should be handled by /slash/ or [bracket] delimiters. However, the reversed tone letters remain in use for tone sandhi.</ref> In the Portuguese illustration in the 1999 ''Handbook'', tone letters are placed before a word or syllable to indicate prosodic pitch (equivalent to {{IPA|[↗︎]}} global rise and {{IPA|[↘︎]}} global fall, but allowing more precision), and in the Cantonese illustration they are placed after a word/syllable to indicate lexical tone. Theoretically therefore prosodic pitch and lexical tone could be simultaneously transcribed in a single text, though this is not a formalized distinction. Rising and falling pitch, as in [[contour tone]]s, are indicated by combining the pitch diacritics and letters in the table, such as grave plus acute for rising {{IPA|[ě]}} and acute plus grave for falling {{IPA|[ê]}}. Only six combinations of two diacritics are supported, and only across three levels (high, mid, low), despite the diacritics supporting five levels of pitch in isolation. The four other explicitly approved rising and falling diacritic combinations are high/mid rising {{IPA|[e᷄]}}, low rising {{IPA|[e᷅]}}, high falling {{IPA|[e᷇]}}, and low/mid falling {{IPA|[e᷆]}}.<ref group=note>A work-around sometimes seen when a language has more than one rising or falling tone, and the author wishes to avoid the poorly legible diacritics {{angbr IPA|e᷄, e᷅, e᷇, e᷆}} but does not wish to employ tone letters, is to restrict the generic rising {{angbr IPA|ě}} and falling {{angbr IPA|ê}} diacritics to the higher-pitched of the rising and falling tones, say {{IPA|/e˥˧/}} and {{IPA|/e˧˥/}}, and to resurrect the retired (pre-Kiel) IPA subscript diacritics {{angbr IPA|e̗}} and {{angbr IPA|e̖}} for the lower-pitched rising and falling tones, say {{IPA|/e˩˧/}} and {{IPA|/e˧˩/}}. When a language has either four or six level tones, the two middle tones are sometimes transcribed as high-mid {{angbr IPA|e̍}} (non-standard) and low-mid {{angbr IPA|ē}}. Non-standard {{angbr IPA|e̍}} is occasionally seen combined with acute and grave diacritcs or with the macron to distinguish contour tones that involve the higher of the two mid tone levels.</ref> The Chao tone letters, on the other hand, may be combined in any pattern, and are therefore used for more complex contours and finer distinctions than the diacritics allow, such as mid-rising {{IPA|[e˨˦]}}, extra-high falling {{IPA|[e˥˦]}}, etc. There are 20 such possibilities. However, in Chao's original proposal, which was adopted by the IPA in 1989, he stipulated that the half-high and half-low letters {{angbr IPA|˦ ˨}} may be combined with each other, but not with the other three tone letters, so as not to create spuriously precise distinctions. With this restriction, there are 8 possibilities.<ref name=Chao>{{Citation | last = Chao | first = Yuen-Ren | year = 1930 | title = {{IPA|ə sistim əv}} "{{IPA|toun}}-{{IPA|letəz}}" | trans-title = A system of "tone-letters" | journal = Le Maître Phonétique | volume = 30 | pages = 24–27 | jstor = 44704341 }}</ref> The old staveless tone letters tend to be more restricted than the staved letters, though not as restricted as the diacritics. Officially, they support as many distinctions as the staved letters,<ref>See for example Pe Maung Tin [-phe -maʊ̃ -tɪ̃ː] (1924) bɜˑmiːz. ''Le Maître Phonétique'', vol. 2 (39), no. 5, pp. 4&ndash;5, where five pitch levels are distinguished</ref> but typically only three pitch levels are distinguished. Unicode supports default or high-pitch {{angbr IPA|ˉ ˊ ˋ ˆ ˇ ˜ ˙}} and low-pitch {{angbr IPA|ˍ ˏ ˎ ꞈ ˬ ˷}}. Only a few mid-pitch tones are supported (such as {{angbr IPA|˗ ˴}}), and then only accidentally. Although tone diacritics and tone letters are presented as equivalent on the chart, "this was done only to simplify the layout of the chart. The two sets of symbols are not comparable in this way."<ref>''Handbook'', p. 14.</ref> Using diacritics, a high tone is {{angbr IPA|é}} and a low tone is {{angbr IPA|è}}; in tone letters, these are {{angbr IPA|e˥}} and {{angbr IPA|e˩}}. One can double the diacritics for extra-high {{angbr IPA|e̋}} and extra-low {{angbr IPA|ȅ}}; there is no parallel to this using tone letters. Instead, tone letters have mid-high {{angbr IPA|e˦}} and mid-low {{angbr IPA|e˨}}; again, there is no equivalent among the diacritics. The correspondence breaks down even further once they start combining. For more complex tones, one may combine three or four tone diacritics in any permutation,<ref name=report>P.J. Roach, Report on the 1989 Kiel Convention, ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'', Vol. 19, No. 2 (December 1989), p. 75–76</ref> though in practice only generic peaking (rising-falling) {{IPA|e᷈}} and dipping (falling-rising) {{IPA|e᷉}} combinations are used. Chao tone letters are required for finer detail ({{IPA|e˧˥˧, e˩˨˩, e˦˩˧, e˨˩˦}}, etc.). Although only 10 peaking and dipping tones were proposed in Chao's original, limited set of tone letters, phoneticians often make finer distinctions, and indeed an example is found on the IPA Chart.<ref group=note>The example has changed over the years. In the chart included in the 1999 IPA ''Handbook'', it was {{IPA|[˦˥˦]}}, and since the 2018 revision of the chart it has been {{IPA|[˧˦˨]}}.</ref> The system allows the transcription of 112<!--125 less 5 triple letters and 8 other combos that form a straight line (e.g. 2-3-4)--> peaking and dipping pitch contours, including tones that are level for part of their length. {| class="wikitable" |+ Original (restricted) set of Chao tone letters<ref group=note>Chao did not include tone shapes such as {{IPA|[˨˦˦], [˧˩˩]}}, which rise or fall and then level off (or vice versa). Such tone shapes are, however, frequently encountered in the modern literature.</ref> ! Register ! Level<br><ref group=note>In Chao's Sinological convention, a single tone letter {{angbr IPA|˥}} is used for a high tone on a [[checked syllable]], and a double tone letter {{angbr IPA|˥˥}} for a high tone on an open syllable. Such redundant doubling is not used in the ''Handbook'', where the tones of Cantonese {{IPA|[si˥]}} 'silk' and {{IPA|[sɪk˥]}} 'color' are transcribed the same way. If the author wishes to indicate a difference in phonetic or phonemic length, the IPA accomplishes that with the length marks {{angbr IPA|◌̆ ◌ˑ ◌ː}} rather than through the tone letters.</ref> ! Rising ! Falling ! Peaking ! Dipping |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˧˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˩˧}} |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˨}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˨˨}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˨˦}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˦˨}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˨˦˨}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˦˨˦}} |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˥˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˧˥}} |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˦}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˦˦}} | | | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˥˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˧˩˥}} |- | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˥}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˩}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˩˥˧}} | style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;" | {{IPA|e˥˩˧}} |} More complex contours are possible. Chao gave an example of {{IPA|[꜔꜒꜖꜔]}} (mid-high-low-mid) from English prosody.<ref name=Chao/> Chao tone letters generally appear after each syllable, for a language with syllable tone ({{angbr IPA|a˧vɔ˥˩}}), or after the phonological word, for a language with [[word tone]] ({{angbr IPA|avɔ˧˥˩}}). The IPA gives the option of placing the tone letters before the word or syllable ({{angbr IPA|˧a˥˩vɔ}}, {{angbr IPA|˧˥˩avɔ}}), but this is rare for lexical tone. (And indeed reversed tone letters may be used to clarify that they apply to the following rather than to the preceding syllable: {{angbr IPA|꜔a꜒꜖vɔ}}, {{angbr IPA|꜔꜒꜖avɔ}}.) The staveless letters are not directly supported by Unicode, but some fonts allow the stave in Chao tone letters to be suppressed. ===Comparative degree=== IPA diacritics may be doubled to indicate an extra degree of the feature indicated.<ref name=K&L>Kelly & Local (1989) ''Doing Phonology'', [[Manchester University Press]].</ref> This is a productive process, but apart from extra-high and extra-low tones {{angbr IPA|ə̋, ə̏}} being marked by doubled high- and low-tone diacritics, and the major [[prosodic unit|prosodic break]] {{angbr IPA|‖}} being marked as a double minor break {{angbr IPA|{{!}}}}, it is not specifically regulated by the IPA. (Note that transcription marks are similar: double slashes indicate extra (morpho)-phonemic, double square brackets especially precise, and double parentheses especially unintelligible.) For example, the stress mark may be doubled to indicate an extra degree of stress, such as prosodic stress in English.<ref>Bloomfield (1933) ''Language'' p. 91</ref> An example in French, with a single stress mark for normal prosodic stress at the end of each [[prosodic unit]] (marked as a minor prosodic break), and a double stress mark for contrastive/emphatic stress: {{IPA|[ˈˈɑ̃ːˈtre {{!}} məˈsjø ‖ ˈˈvwala maˈdam ‖]}} ''{{lang|fr|Entrez monsieur, voilà madame}}.''<ref>Passy, 1958, ''Conversations françaises en transcription phonétique.'' 2nd ed.</ref> Similarly, a doubled secondary stress mark {{angbr IPA|ˌˌ}} is commonly used for tertiary (extra-light) stress.<ref>Yuen Ren Chao (1968) ''Language and Symbolic Systems'', p. xxiii</ref> In a similar vein, the effectively obsolete (though never retired) staveless tone letters were once doubled for an emphatic rising intonation {{angbr IPA|˶}} and an emphatic falling intonation {{angbr IPA|˵}}.<ref>Geoffrey Barker (2005) ''Intonation Patterns in Tyrolean German'', p. 11.</ref> [[Length (phonetics)|Length]] is commonly extended by repeating the length mark, as in English ''shhh!'' {{IPA|[ʃːːː]}}, or for "overlong" segments in [[Estonian phonology|Estonian]]: * ''vere'' {{IPA|/vere/}} 'blood [gen.sg.]', ''veere'' {{IPA|/veːre/}} 'edge [gen.sg.]', ''veere'' {{IPA|/veːːre/}} 'roll [imp. 2nd sg.]' * ''lina'' {{IPA|/linɑ/}} 'sheet', ''linna'' {{IPA|/linːɑ/}} 'town [gen. sg.]', ''linna'' {{IPA|/linːːɑ/}} 'town [ine. sg.]' (Normally additional degrees of length are handled by the extra-short or half-long diacritic, but the first two words in each of the Estonian examples are analyzed as simply short and long, requiring a different remedy for the final words.) Occasionally other diacritics are doubled: * [[R-colored vowel|Rhoticity]] in [[Badaga language|Badaga]] {{IPA|/be/}} "mouth", {{IPA|/be˞/}} "bangle", and {{IPA|/be˞˞/}} "crop".<ref>{{SOWL|314}}</ref> * Mild and strong [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspiration]]s, {{IPA|[kʰ]}}, {{IPA|[kʰʰ]}}.<ref group=note>Sometimes the obsolete transcription {{angbr IPA|k{{okina}}}} (with a turned apostrophe) for weak aspiration vs. {{angbr IPA|kʰ}} for strong aspiration is still seen.</ref><!-- Korean does not (primarily) contrast for degrees of aspiration, as the distinction is made mainly with a low tone following the weak stop and a high tone following the aspirated stop, for dialects (including Seoul) that aspirate prosodically initial stops. --> * [[Nasal vowel|Nasalization]], as in [[Palantla Chinantec]] lightly nasalized {{IPA|/ẽ/}} vs heavily nasalized {{IPA|/e͌/}},<ref>Peter Ladefoged (1971) ''Preliminaries of Linguistic Phonetics'', p. 35.</ref> though in [[extIPA]] the latter indicates [[velopharyngeal frication]]. * Weak vs strong [[ejective]]s, {{IPA|[kʼ]}}, {{IPA|[kˮ]}}.<ref>Fallon (2013) ''The Synchronic and Diachronic Phonology of Ejectives'', p. 267</ref> * Especially lowered, e.g. {{IPA|[t̞̞]}} (or {{IPA|[t̞˕]}}, if the former symbol does not display properly) for {{IPA|/t/}} as a weak fricative in some pronunciations of ''register''.<ref>Heselwood (2013) ''Phonetic Transcription in Theory and Practice'', p. 233.</ref> * Especially retracted, e.g. {{IPA|[ø̠̠]}} or {{IPA|[s̠̠]}},<ref>E.g. in Laver (1994) ''Principles of Phonetics'', pp. 559–560</ref><ref name=K&L/><ref>Hein van der Voort (2005) 'Kwaza in a Comparative Perspective', ''IJAL'' 71:4.</ref> though some care might be needed to distinguish this from indications of alveolar or alveolarized articulation in [[extIPA]], e.g. {{IPA|[s͇]}}. * The transcription of [[strident vowel|strident]] and [[harsh voice]] as extra-creaky {{IPA|/a᷽/}} may be motivated by the similarities of these phonations. ==Ambiguous letters== A number of IPA letters are not consistently used for their official values. A distinction between voiced fricatives and approximants is only partially implemented by the IPA, for example. Even with the relatively recent addition of the palatal fricative {{angbr IPA|ʝ}} and the velar approximant {{angbr IPA|ɰ}} to the alphabet, other letters, though defined as fricatives, are often ambiguous between fricative and approximant. For forward places, {{angbr IPA|β}} and {{angbr IPA|ð}} can generally be assumed to be fricatives unless they carry a lowering diacritic. Rearward, however, {{angbr IPA|ʁ}} and {{angbr IPA|ʕ}} are perhaps more commonly intended to be approximants even without a lowering diacritic. {{angbr IPA|h}} and {{angbr IPA|ɦ}} are similarly either fricatives or approximants, depending on the language, or even glottal "transitions", without that often being specified in the transcription. Another common ambiguity is among the letters for palatal consonants. {{angbr IPA|c}} and {{angbr IPA|ɟ}} are not uncommonly used as a typographic convenience for affricates, typically {{IPA|[t͜ʃ]}} and {{IPA|[d͜ʒ]}}, while {{angbr IPA|ɲ}} and {{angbr IPA|ʎ}} are commonly used for palatalized alveolar {{IPA|[n̠ʲ]}} and {{IPA|[l̠ʲ]}}. To some extent this may be an effect of analysis, but it is common to match up single IPA letters to the phonemes of a language, without overly worrying about phonetic precision. It has been argued that the lower-pharyngeal (epiglottal) fricatives {{angbr IPA|ʜ}} and {{angbr IPA|ʢ}} are better characterized as trills, rather than as fricatives that have incidental trilling.<ref>John Esling (2010) "Phonetic Notation", in Hardcastle, Laver & Gibbon (eds) ''The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences'', 2nd ed., p 695.</ref> This has the advantage of merging the upper-pharyngeal fricatives {{IPA|[ħ, ʕ]}} together with the epiglottal plosive {{IPA|[ʡ]}} and trills {{IPA|[ʜ ʢ]}} into a single pharyngeal column in the consonant chart. However, in [[Shilha language|Shilha Berber]] the epiglottal fricatives are not trilled.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ridouane |first1=Rachid |title=Tashlhiyt Berber |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |date=August 2014 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=207–221 |doi=10.1017/S0025100313000388 |s2cid=232344118 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Alderete |first1=John |last2=Jebbour |first2=Abdelkrim |last3=Kachoub |first3=Bouchra |last4=Wilbee |first4=Holly |title=Tashlhiyt Berber grammar synopsis |url=https://www.sfu.ca/~alderete/datasets/aldereteEtal2015_tashlhiytGrammarSynopsis.pdf |publisher=Simon Fraser University |access-date=20 November 2021}}</ref> Although they might be transcribed {{angbr IPA|ħ̠ ʢ̠}} to indicate this, the far more common transcription is {{angbr IPA|ʜ ʢ}}, which is therefore ambiguous between languages. Among vowels, {{angbr IPA|a}} is officially a front vowel, but is more commonly treated as a central vowel. The difference, to the extent it is even possible, is not phonemic in any language. For all phonetic notation, it is good practice for an author to specify exactly what they mean by the symbols that they use. ==Redundant letters== Three letters are not needed and would be hard to justify today by the standards of the modern IPA, but are retained due to inertia. {{angbr IPA|ʍ}} appears because it is found in English; officially it is a fricative, with terminology dating to the days before 'fricative' and 'approximant' were distinguished. Based on how all other fricatives and approximants are transcribed, one would expect either {{angbr IPA|xʷ}} for a fricative (not how it is actually used) or {{angbr IPA|w̥}} for an approximant. Indeed, outside of English transcription, that is what is more commonly found in the literature. {{angbr IPA|ɱ}} is another historic remnant. It is a nearly universal allophone of {{IPA|[m]}} before {{IPA|[f]}} and {{IPA|[v]}}, but it is only phonemically distinct in a single language (Kukuya), a fact that was discovered long after it was standardized in the IPA. (A number of consonants do not have dedicated IPA letters despite being phonemic in many more languages.) {{angbr IPA|ɱ}} is retained because of its historical use for European languages, where it could easily be normalized to {{angbr IPA|m̪}}. There have been several votes to retire {{angbr IPA|ɱ}} from the IPA, but so far they have failed. Finally, {{angbr IPA|ɧ}} is officially a simultaneous postalveolar and velar fricative, a realization that does not appear to exist in any language. It is retained because it is convenient for the transcription of Swedish, where it is used for a consonant that has various realizations in different dialects. That is, it is not actually a phonetic character at all, but a phonemic one, which is officially beyond the purview of the IPA alphabet; indeed, another phonemic IPA letter, {{angbr IPA|[[ƞ]]}} for the homorganic nasal of Japanese, was retired because it had no defined phonetic value. ==Superscript letters== {{anchor|Superscript IPA}}{{further|Unicode subscripts and superscripts#Superscript IPA|Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet#Superscript variants}} Superscript IPA letters may be used to indicate [[secondary articulation]]; onsets, releases and other transitions; shades of sound; light epenthetic sounds and incompletely articulated sounds. In 2020, the IPA and [[International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association|ICPLA]] endorsed the Unicode encoding of superscript variants of all contemporary IPA letters apart from the [[Chao tone letter]]s, including the extended retroflex letters {{angbr IPA|ꞎ 𝼅 𝼈 ᶑ 𝼊&thinsp;}}, which were thus confirmed as being implicit in the IPA alphabet.<ref name=pulmonic>Kirk Miller & Michael Ashby, [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20252r-mod-ipa-a.pdf L2/20-252R] Unicode request for IPA modifier-letters (a), pulmonic</ref><ref name=non-pulmonic>Kirk Miller & Michael Ashby, [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20253r-mod-ipa-b.pdf L2/20-253R] Unicode request for IPA modifier letters (b), non-pulmonic.</ref><ref>Kirk Miller & Martin Ball, [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20116r-ext-ipa-voqs-expansion.pdf L2/20-116R] Expansion of the extIPA and VoQS.</ref> Superscript letters can be meaningfully modified by [[combining character|combining diacritics]], just as baseline letters can. For example, a superscript dental nasal is {{angbr IPA|ⁿ̪d̪}}, a superscript voiceless velar nasal is {{angbr IPA|ᵑ̊ǂ}}, and labial-velar prenasalization is {{angbr IPA|ᵑ͡ᵐɡ͡b}}. Although the diacritic may seem a bit oversized compared to the superscript letter it modifies, e.g. {{angbr IPA|ᵓ̃}}, this can be an aid to legibility, just as it is with the composite superscript c-cedilla {{angbr IPA|ᶜ̧}} and rhotic vowels {{angbr IPA|ᵊ˞ ᶟ˞}}. Superscript length marks can be used to indicate the length of aspiration of a consonant, e.g. {{IPA|[pʰ tʰ&#x10782; kʰ&#x10781;]}}. Another option is to double the diacritic: {{angbr IPA|kʰʰ}}.<ref name=pulmonic/> ==Obsolete and nonstandard symbols== {{Main|Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet|Click letter|Sinological extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet}} A number of IPA letters and diacritics have been retired or replaced over the years. This number includes duplicate symbols, symbols that were replaced due to user preference, and unitary symbols that were rendered with diacritics or digraphs to reduce the inventory of the IPA. The rejected symbols are now considered obsolete, though some are still seen in the literature. The IPA once had several pairs of duplicate symbols from alternative proposals, but eventually settled on one or the other. An example is the vowel letter {{angbr IPA|ɷ}}, rejected in favor of {{angbr IPA|ʊ}}. Affricates were once transcribed with ligatures, such as {{angbr IPA|ʦ ʣ, ʧ ʤ, ʨ ʥ, ꭧ ꭦ&thinsp;}} (and others not found in Unicode). These have been officially retired but are still used. Letters for specific combinations of primary and secondary articulation have also been mostly retired, with the idea that such features should be indicated with tie bars or diacritics: {{angbr IPA|ƍ}} for {{IPA|[zʷ]}} is one. In addition, the rare voiceless implosives, {{angbr IPA|ƥ ƭ ƈ ƙ ʠ&thinsp;}}, were dropped soon after their introduction and are now usually written {{angbr IPA|ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ʄ̊ ɠ̊ ʛ̥&thinsp;}}. The original set of click letters, {{angbr IPA|ʇ, ʗ, ʖ, ʞ}}, was retired but is still sometimes seen, as the current pipe letters {{angbr IPA|ǀ, ǃ, ǁ, ǂ}} can cause problems with legibility, especially when used with brackets ([ ] or / /), the letter {{angbr IPA|l}}, or the [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosodic]] marks {{angbr IPA|<nowiki>|</nowiki>, ‖}}. (For this reason, some publications which use the current IPA pipe letters disallow IPA brackets.<!--The Routledge Khoisan Handbook, for example-->)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2009/09/click-symbols.html |title=John Wells's phonetic blog |publisher=Phonetic-blog.blogspot.com |date=9 September 2009 |access-date=18 October 2010}}</ref> Individual non-IPA letters may find their way into publications that otherwise use the standard IPA. This is especially common with: * Affricates, such as the Americanist [[barred lambda]] {{angbr IPA|ƛ}} for {{IPA|[t͜ɬ]}} or {{angbr IPA|č}} for {{IPA|[t͜ʃ&thinsp;]}}.<ref group=note>The motivation for this may vary. Some authors find the tie bars displeasing but the lack of tie bars confusing (i.e. {{angbr IPA|č}} for {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} as distinct from {{IPA|/tʃ/}}), while others simply prefer to have one letter for each segmental phoneme in a language.{{citation needed|date=September 2020}}</ref> * The [[Karlgren]] letters for Chinese vowels, {{angbr IPA|ɿ, ʅ&thinsp;, ʮ, ʯ&thinsp;}} * Digits for tonal phonemes that have conventional numbers in a local tradition, such as the [[Standard Chinese phonology#Tones|four tones of Standard Chinese]]. This may be more convenient for comparison between related languages and dialects than a phonetic transcription would be, because tones vary more unpredictably than segmental phonemes do. * Digits for tone levels, which are simpler to typeset, though the lack of standardization can cause confusion (e.g. {{angbr IPA|1}} is high tone in some languages but low tone in others; {{angbr IPA|3}} may be high, medium or low tone, depending on the local convention). * Iconic extensions of standard IPA letters that can be readily understood, such as retroflex [[voiced retroflex implosive|{{angbr|ᶑ&thinsp;}}]] and [[voiceless retroflex lateral fricative|{{angbr|ꞎ}}]]. These are referred to in the ''Handbook'' and have been included in IPA requests for Unicode support.<!--e.g. an official request for adding superscript retroflex letters to Unicode 14--> In addition, it is common to see ''ad hoc'' typewriter substitutions, generally capital letters, for when IPA support is not available, e.g. A for {{angbr IPA|ɑ}}, B for {{angbr IPA|β}} or {{angbr IPA|ɓ}}, D for {{angbr IPA|ð}}, {{angbr IPA|ɗ&thinsp;}} or {{angbr IPA|ɖ&thinsp;}}, E for {{angbr IPA|ɛ}}, F or P for {{angbr IPA|ɸ}}, G {{angbr IPA|ɣ}}, I {{angbr IPA|ɪ}}, L {{angbr IPA|ɬ}}, N {{angbr IPA|ŋ}}, O {{angbr IPA|ɔ}}, S {{angbr IPA|&thinsp;ʃ&thinsp;}}, T {{angbr IPA|θ}} or {{angbr IPA|ʈ&thinsp;}}, U {{angbr IPA|ʊ}}, V {{angbr IPA|ʋ}}, X {{angbr IPA|χ}}, Z {{angbr IPA|ʒ}}, as well as @ for {{angbr IPA|ə}} and 7 or ? for {{angbr IPA|ʔ}}. (See also [[SAMPA]] and [[X-SAMPA]] substitute notation.) ==Extensions== [[File:ExtIPA chart (2025).pdf|thumb|upright=1.25|Chart of the Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet (extIPA), as of 2025]] {{Main|Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet}} The [[Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for Disordered Speech]], commonly abbreviated "extIPA" and sometimes called "Extended IPA", are symbols whose original purpose was to accurately transcribe [[Speech disorder|disordered speech]]. At the [[Kiel Convention]] in 1989, a group of linguists drew up the initial extensions,<ref>"At the 1989 Kiel Convention of the IPA, a sub-group was established to draw up recommendations for the transcription of disordered speech." ("Extensions to the IPA: An ExtIPA Chart" ''in'' International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;186.)</ref> which were based on the previous work of the PRDS (Phonetic Representation of Disordered Speech) Group in the early 1980s.<ref>{{cite book|last=PRDS Group|title=The Phonetic Representation of Disordered Speech|year=1983|publisher=London: The King's Fund}}</ref> The extensions were first published in 1990, then modified, and published again in 1994 in the ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'', when they were officially adopted by the [[International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association|ICPLA]].<ref>"Extensions to the IPA: An ExtIPA Chart" ''in'' International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', pp.&nbsp;186–187.</ref> While the original purpose was to transcribe disordered speech, linguists have used the extensions to designate a number of sounds within standard communication, such as hushing, gnashing teeth, and smacking lips,<ref name="world" /> as well as regular lexical sounds such as [[lateral fricative]]s that do not have standard IPA symbols. In addition to the Extensions to the IPA for disordered speech, there are the conventions of the [[Voice Quality Symbols]], which include a number of symbols for additional airstream mechanisms and secondary articulations in what they call "voice quality". ==Associated notation== Capital letters and various characters on the number row of the keyboard are commonly used to extend the alphabet in various ways. ===Associated symbols=== There are various punctuation-like conventions for linguistic transcription that are commonly used together with IPA. Some of the more common are: ;{{angbr|*}} :(a) A [[Comparative linguistics|reconstructed form]]. :(b) An [[Grammaticality|ungrammatical form]] (including an unphonemic form). ;{{angbr|**}} :(a) A reconstructed form, deeper (more ancient) than a single {{angbr|*}}, used when reconstructing even further back from already-starred forms. :(b) An ungrammatical form. A less common convention than {{angbr|*}} (b), this is sometimes used when reconstructed and ungrammatical forms occur in the same text.<ref>e.g. Alan Kaye (2007) ''Morphologies of Asia and Africa''. Eisenbrauns.</ref> ;{{angbr|×}}: An ungrammatical form. A less common convention than {{angbr|*}} (b), this is sometimes used when reconstructed and ungrammatical forms occur in the same text.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell |first1=Lyle |title=Historical linguistics: an introduction |date=2013 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |location=Edinburgh |isbn=9780262518499 |pages=xix |edition=3.}}</ref> ;{{angbr|?}}: A doubtfully grammatical form. ;{{angbr|%}}: A generalized form, such as a typical shape of a [[wanderwort]] that has not actually been reconstructed.<ref>Haynie, Bowern, Epps, Hill & McConvell (2014) Wanderwörter in languages of the Americas and Australia. ''Ampersand'' 1:1–18.</ref> ;{{angbr|#}}: A word boundary &ndash; e.g. {{angbr|#V}} for a word-initial vowel. ;{{angbr|$}}: A [[phonological word]] boundary; e.g. {{angbr|H$}} for a high tone that occurs in such a position. ;{{angbr|_}}: The location of a segment &ndash; e.g. {{angbr|V_V}} for an intervocalic position === Capital letters === Full capital letters are not used as IPA symbols, except as typewriter substitutes (e.g. N for {{angbr IPA|ŋ}}, S for {{angbr IPA|&thinsp;ʃ&thinsp;}}, O for {{angbr IPA|ɔ}} &ndash; see [[SAMPA chart for English|SAMPA]]). They are, however, often used in conjunction with the IPA in two cases: # for [[archiphoneme|(archi)phonemes]] and for [[natural class]]es of sounds (that is, as wildcards). The [[extIPA]] chart, for example, uses capital letters as wildcards in its illustrations. # as carrying letters for the [[Voice Quality Symbols]]. Wildcards are commonly used in phonology to summarize syllable or word shapes, or to show the evolution of classes of sounds. For example, the possible syllable shapes of Mandarin can be abstracted as ranging from {{IPA|/V/}} (an atonic vowel) to {{IPA|/CGVNᵀ/}} (a consonant-glide-vowel-nasal syllable with tone), and [[word-final devoicing]] may be schematized as {{IPA|C}} → {{IPA|C̥}}/_#. In speech pathology, capital letters represent indeterminate sounds, and may be superscripted to indicate they are weakly articulated: e.g. {{IPA|[ᴰ]}} is a weak indeterminate alveolar, {{IPA|[ᴷ]}} a weak indeterminate velar.<ref>Perry (2000) ''Phonological/phonetic assessment of an English-speaking adult with [[dysarthria]]''</ref> There is a degree of variation between authors as to the capital letters used, but {{angbr IPA|C}} for {consonant}, {{angbr IPA|V}} for {vowel} and {{angbr IPA|N}} for {nasal} are ubiquitous in English-language material. Other common conventions are {{angbr IPA|T}} for {tone/accent} (tonicity)<!--e.g. Nathan White, 'Word in Hmong', in Phonological Word and Grammatical Word-->, {{angbr IPA|P}} for {plosive}<!--e.g. Karlsson & Sullivan (2005) /sP/ consonant clusters in Swedish, Vanderweide (2005) The acquisition of manner in pre-vocalic sequences, also Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics (HCHIEL)-->, {{angbr IPA|F}} for {fricative}<!--e.g. 2015 extIPA chart, or Pellegrino et al. "2010, a speech oddity: Phonetic transcription of reversed speech", Vanderweide (2005), also HCHIEL -->, {{angbr IPA|S}} for {sibilant}<!--e.g. Waterson (1987) Prosodic Phonology; Dolgopolsky, Indo-European Dict Nostratic Etymologies, also HCHIEL-->,<ref group=note>As in [[Afrasianist phonetic notation]]. {{angbr IPA|S}} is particularly ambiguous. It has been used for 'stop', 'fricative', 'sibilant', 'sonorant' and 'semivowel'. On the other hand, plosive/stop is frequently abbreviated {{angbr IPA|P}}, {{angbr IPA|T}} or {{angbr IPA|S}}. The illustrations given here use, as much as possible, letters that are capital versions of members of the sets they stand for: IPA {{IPA|[n]}} is a nasal and {{angbr IPA|N}} is any nasal; {{IPA|[p]}} is a plosive, {{IPA|[f]}} a fricative, {{IPA|[s]}} a sibilant, {{IPA|[l]}} both a lateral and a liquid, {{IPA|[r]}} both a rhotic and a resonant, and [ʞ] a click. {{angbr IPA|¢}} is an obstruent in Americanist notation, where it stands for {{IPA|[ts]}}. An alternative wildcard for 'glide', {{angbr IPA|J}}<!--e.g. International Journal of Slavic Linguistics and Poetics XXIII-->, fits this pattern, but is much less common than {{angbr IPA|G}} in English-language sources.</ref> {{angbr IPA|G}} for {glide/semivowel}<!--e.g. Vanderweide (2005), HCHIEL-->, {{angbr IPA|L}} for {lateral}<!--e.g. Smith 2000 Dependency Theory Meets OT, or in Australian languages that have a large set of laterals--> or {liquid}<!--e.g. Walker 1984 Pronunciation of Canadian French, or Pellegrino et al., or Vanderweide (2005), HCHIEL-->, {{angbr IPA|R}} for {rhotic}<!--e.g. Smith 2000 Dependency Theory Meets OT, or Pellegrino et al.--> or {resonant/sonorant<!--e.g. "R" for "sonorant" in Larry Hyman 'Coda constraints on tone', also HCHIEL-->},<ref group=note>At least in the notation of {{angbr|CRV-}} syllables, the {{angbr|R}} is understood to include liquids and glides but to exclude nasals, as in Bennett (2020: 115) 'Click Phonology', in Sands (ed.), ''Click Consonants'', Brill</ref><!--do a GBooks search for 'CLV' or 'CRV' + 'liquid'/'resonant' + 'phonology' for instances of L and R--> {{angbr IPA|₵}} for {obstruent},<!--e.g. International Journal of Slavic Linguistics and Poetics XXIII--> {{angbr IPA|Ʞ}} for {click}<!--see Bonny Sands 2020 'Introduction', ''Click Consonants'', Brill-->, {{angbr IPA|A<!--e.g. Dolgopolsky-->, E<!--e.g. Dolgopolsky-->, O, Ɨ, U<!--e.g. Dolgopolsky-->}} for {open, front, back, close, rounded vowel}<ref group=note>{Close vowel} may instead be {{angbr IPA|U}}, and {{angbr IPA|O}} may stand for {obstruent}.</ref> and {{angbr IPA|B, D, Ɉ, K, Q, Φ, H}} for {labial<!--HCHIEL-->, alveolar<!--Perry (2000)-->, post-alveolar/palatal, velar<!--HCHIEL, Perry (2000), or more generically as 'dorsal' in van de Vijver, Höhle & Ott, On the distribution of dorsals in complex and simple onsets in child German, Dutch and English-->, uvular, pharyngeal, glottal<ref group=note>Or glottal~pharyngeal {{angbr IPA|H}}, as in Afrasianist phonetic notation</ref> consonant}, respectively, and {{angbr IPA|X}} for {any sound}<!--e.g. Walker 1984 Pronunciation of Canadian French-->. The letters can be modified with IPA diacritics, for example {{angbr IPA|Cʼ}} for {ejective}, {{angbr IPA|Ƈ&thinsp;}} for {implosive}, {{angbr IPA|N͡C}} or {{angbr IPA|ᴺC}} for {prenasalized consonant}, {{angbr IPA|Ṽ}} for {[[nasal vowel]]}<!--e.g. Pellegrino et al.-->, {{angbr IPA|CʰV́}} for {aspirated CV syllable with high tone}, {{angbr IPA|S̬}} for {voiced sibilant}, {{angbr IPA|N̥}} for {voiceless nasal}<!--e.g. Huffman & Hinnebusch, 'The phonetic nature of "voiceless" nasals in Pokomo'-->, {{angbr IPA|P͡F}} or {{angbr IPA|Pꟳ}} for {affricate}, {{angbr IPA|Cʲ}} for {palatalized consonant}<!--e.g. Alexei Kochetov, Phonetic variation and gestural specification: Production of Russian consonants--> and {{angbr IPA|D̪}} for {dental consonant}. {{angbr IPA|H}}, {{angbr IPA|M}}, {{angbr IPA|L}} are also commonly used for high, mid and low tone, with {{angbr IPA|LH}} for rising tone and {{angbr IPA|HL}} for falling tone, rather than transcribing them overly precisely with IPA tone letters or with ambiguous digits.<ref group=note>Somewhat more precisely, {{angbr IPA|LM}} and {{angbr IPA|MH}} are sometimes used for low and high rising tones, and {{angbr IPA|HM}}, {{angbr IPA|ML}} for high and low falling tones; occasionally {{angbr IPA|R}} for 'rising' or {{angbr IPA|F}} for 'falling' is also seen.</ref> Typical examples of archiphonemic use of capital letters are {{angbr IPA|I}} for the Turkish harmonic vowel set {{IPA|{i y ɯ u}}};<ref group=note>For other Turkic languages, {{angbr IPA|I}} may be restricted to {{IPA|{ɯ i}}} (that is, to ''ı i''), {{angbr IPA|U}} to ''u ü'', {{angbr IPA|A}} to ''a e/ä'', etc.</ref> {{angbr IPA|D}} for the conflated flapped middle consonant of American English ''writer'' and ''rider''; {{angbr IPA|N}} for the [[homorganic]] syllable-coda nasal of languages such as Spanish and Japanese (essentially equivalent to the wild-card usage of the letter); and {{angbr IPA|R}} in cases where a phonemic trill {{IPA|/r/}} and flap {{IPA|/ɾ/}} are indeterminate, as in Spanish ''enrejar'' {{IPA|/eNreˈxaR/}} (the ''n'' is homorganic and the first ''r'' is a trill but the second is variable).<ref>[[Antonio Quilis]] (1997) ''Principios de fonología y fonética españolas'', p. 65.</ref> Similar usage is found for ''phonemic'' analysis, where a language does not distinguish sounds that have separate letters in the IPA. For instance, Castillian Spanish has been analyzed as having phonemes {{IPA|/Θ/}} and {{IPA|/S/}}, which surface as {{IPA|[θ]}} and {{IPA|[s]}} in voiceless environments and as {{IPA|[ð]}} and {{IPA|[z]}} in voiced environments (e.g. ''hazte'' {{IPA|/ˈaΘte/}}, → {{IPA|[ˈaθte]}}, vs ''hazme'' {{IPA|/ˈaΘme/}}, → {{IPA|[ˈaðme]}}; or ''las manos'' {{IPA|/laS ˈmanoS/}}, → {{IPA|[lazˈmanos]}}).<ref>Xavier Frías Conde (2001) ''Introducción a la fonología y fonética del español'', p. 11&ndash;12. Ianua. Revista Philologica Romanica.</ref> {{angbr IPA|V}}, {{angbr IPA|F}} and {{angbr IPA|C}} have completely different meanings as [[Voice Quality Symbols]], where they stand for "voice" (generally meaning [[secondary articulation]], as in {{angbr IPA|Ṽ}} "nasal voice", not phonetic voicing), "falsetto" and "creak". They may also take diacritics that indicate what kind of voice quality an utterance has, and may be used to extract a suprasegmental feature that occurs on all susceptible segments in a stretch of IPA. For instance, the transcription of [[Scottish Gaelic]] {{IPA|[kʷʰuˣʷt̪ʷs̟ʷ]}} 'cat' and {{IPA|[kʷʰʉˣʷt͜ʃʷ]}} 'cats' ([[Islay]] dialect) can be made more economical by extracting the suprasegmental labialization of the words: {{IPA|Vʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]}} and {{IPA|Vʷ[kʰʉˣt͜ʃ]}}.<ref>Laver (1994) ''Principles of Phonetics'', p. 374.</ref> The usual wildcard X or C might be used instead of V so that the reader does not misinterpret {{angbr IPA|Vʷ}} as meaning that only vowels are labialized (i.e. {{IPA|Xʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]}} for all segments labialized, {{IPA|Cʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]}} for all consonants labialized), or the carrier letter may be omitted altogether (e.g. {{IPA|ʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟]}}, {{IPA|[ʷkʰuˣt̪s̟]}} or {{IPA|[kʰuˣt̪s̟]ʷ}}). (See {{section link|#Suprasegmentals}} for other transcription conventions.) ==Segments without letters== The blank cells on the IPA chart can be filled without much difficulty if the need arises. The expected retroflex letter forms have appeared in the literature for the [[retroflex implosive]] {{angbr IPA|ᶑ&thinsp;}}, the [[retroflex lateral flap]] {{angbr IPA|𝼈&thinsp;}} and the [[retroflex click]]s {{angbr IPA|𝼊&thinsp;}}; the first is mentioned in the IPA ''Handbook'' and the IPA requested Unicode support for superscript variants of all three. The missing voiceless lateral fricatives are provided for by the [[extIPA]]. The epiglottal trill is arguably covered by the generally trilled epiglottal "fricatives" {{angbr IPA|ʜ ʢ}}. Labiodental plosives {{angbr IPA|ȹ ȸ}} appear in some old Bantuist texts. ''Ad hoc'' near-close central vowels {{angbr IPA|ᵻ ᵿ}} are used in some descriptions of English. Diacritics can duplicate some of these; {{angbr IPA|p̪ b̪}} are now universal for labiodental plosives, {{angbr IPA|ɪ̈ ʊ̈}} are common for the central vowels and {{angbr IPA|ɭ̆&thinsp;}} is occasionally seen for the lateral flap. Diacritics are able to fill in most of the remainder of the charts.<ref>"Diacritics may also be employed to create symbols for phonemes, thus reducing the need to create new letter shapes." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p.&nbsp;27)</ref> If a sound cannot be transcribed, an asterisk {{angbr|*}} may be used, either as a letter or as a diacritic (as in {{angbr|k*}} sometimes seen for the [[Korean phonology|Korean]] "fortis" velar). ===Consonants=== Representations of consonant sounds outside of the core set are created by adding diacritics to letters with similar sound values. The Spanish bilabial and dental approximants are commonly written as lowered fricatives, {{IPA|[β̞]}} and {{IPA|[ð̞]}} respectively.<ref group=note>Dedicated letters have been proposed, such as rotated <span style="{{mirrorH}}"><span style="{{mirrorV}}">{{angbr IPA|β}}</span></span> and <span style="{{mirrorH}}"><span style="{{mirrorV}}">{{angbr IPA|ð}}</span></span>, reversed <span style="{{mirrorH}}">{{angbr IPA|β}}</span> and <span style="{{mirrorH}}">{{angbr IPA|ð}}</span>, or small-capital {{angbr IPA|{{sm|б}}}} and {{angbr IPA|ᴆ}}. Ball, Rahilly & Lowry (2017) ''Phonetics for speech pathology'', 3rd edition, Equinox, Sheffield.</ref> Similarly, voiced lateral fricatives would be written as raised lateral approximants, {{IPA|[ɭ˔ ʎ̝ ʟ̝]}}; extIPA provides {{angbr IPA|𝼅}} for the first of these. A few languages such as [[Banda languages|Banda]] have a bilabial flap as the preferred allophone of what is elsewhere a labiodental flap. It has been suggested that this be written with the labiodental flap letter and the advanced diacritic, {{IPA|[ⱱ̟]}}.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Olson | first1 = Kenneth S. | last2 = Hajek | first2 = John | year = 1999 | title = The phonetic status of the labial flap | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_international-phonetic-association-journal_1999-12_29_2/page/101 | journal = Journal of the International Phonetic Association | volume = 29 | issue = 2| pages = 101–114 | doi = 10.1017/s0025100300006484 | s2cid = 14438770 }}</ref> Similarly, a labiodental trill would be written {{IPA|[ʙ̪]}} (bilabial trill and the dental sign), and labiodental stops {{IPA|[p̪ b̪]}} rather than with the ''ad hoc'' letters sometimes found in the literature. Other taps can be written as extra-short plosives or laterals, e.g. {{IPA|[&thinsp;ɟ̆ ɢ̆ ʟ̆]}}, though in some cases the diacritic would need to be written below the letter. A [[retroflex trill]] can be written as a retracted {{IPA|[r̠]}}, just as non-subapical retroflex fricatives sometimes are. The remaining consonants &ndash; the uvular laterals ({{IPA|[ʟ̠]}} ''etc.'') and the palatal trill &ndash; while not strictly impossible, are very difficult to pronounce and are unlikely to occur even as allophones in the world's languages. ===Vowels=== The vowels are similarly manageable by using diacritics for raising, lowering, fronting, backing, centering, and mid-centering.<ref>"The diacritics...can be used to modify the lip or tongue position implied by a vowel symbol." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p.&nbsp;16)</ref> For example, the unrounded equivalent of {{IPA|[ʊ]}} can be transcribed as mid-centered {{IPA|[ɯ̽]}}, and the rounded equivalent of {{IPA|[æ]}} as raised {{IPA|[ɶ̝]}} or lowered {{IPA|[œ̞]}} (though for those who conceive of vowel space as a triangle, simple {{IPA|[ɶ]}} already is the rounded equivalent of {{IPA|[æ]}}). True mid vowels are lowered {{IPA|[e̞ ø̞ ɘ̞ ɵ̞ ɤ̞ o̞]}} or raised {{IPA|[ɛ̝ œ̝ ɜ̝ ɞ̝ ʌ̝ ɔ̝]}}, while centered {{IPA|[ɪ̈ ʊ̈]}} and {{IPA|[ä]}} (or, less commonly, {{IPA|[ɑ̈]}}) are near-close and open central vowels, respectively. The only known vowels that cannot be represented in this scheme are vowels with unexpected [[roundedness]], which would require a dedicated diacritic, such as protruded {{angbr IPA|ʏʷ}} and compressed {{angbr IPA|uᵝ}} (or protruded {{angbr IPA|ɪʷ}} and compressed {{angbr IPA|ɯᶹ}}). ==Symbol names== {{Main|Naming conventions of the International Phonetic Alphabet}} An IPA symbol is often distinguished from the sound it is intended to represent, since there is not necessarily a one-to-one correspondence between letter and sound in broad transcription, making articulatory descriptions such as "mid front rounded vowel" or "voiced velar stop" unreliable. While the ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association'' states that no official names exist for its symbols, it admits the presence of one or two common names for each.<ref>"...the International Phonetic Association has never officially approved a set of names..." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;31)</ref> The symbols also have [[Nonce word|nonce names]] in the [[Unicode]] standard. In many cases, the names in Unicode and the IPA ''Handbook'' differ. For example, the ''Handbook'' calls {{angbr IPA|ɛ}} "epsilon", while Unicode calls it "small letter open e". The traditional names of the Latin and Greek letters are usually used for unmodified letters.<ref group=note> For example, the IPA ''Handbook'' lists {{angbr IPA|p}} as "lower-case P" and {{angbr IPA|χ}} as "chi." (International Phonetic Association, ''Handbook'', p.&nbsp;171) </ref> Letters which are not directly derived from these alphabets, such as {{angbr IPA|ʕ}}, may have a variety of names, sometimes based on the appearance of the symbol or on the sound that it represents. In Unicode, some of the letters of Greek origin have Latin forms for use in IPA; the others use the characters from the Greek block. For diacritics, there are two methods of naming. For traditional diacritics, the IPA notes the name in a well known language; for example, {{angbr IPA|é}} is "e-[[Acute accent|acute]]", based on the name of the diacritic in English and French. Non-traditional diacritics are often named after objects they resemble, so {{angbr IPA|d̪}} is called "d-bridge". [[Geoffrey Pullum]] and [[William Ladusaw]] list a variety of names in use for IPA symbols, both current and retired, in their ''[[Phonetic Symbol Guide]]''; many of these found their way into Unicode.<ref name=Pullum/> ==Computer support== ===Unicode=== {{main|Phonetic symbols in Unicode#IPA}} [[Unicode]] supports nearly all of the IPA alphabet. Apart from basic Latin and Greek and general punctuation, the primary blocks are [[IPA Extensions]], [[Spacing Modifier Letters]] and [[Combining Diacritical Marks]], with lesser support from [[Phonetic Extensions]], [[Phonetic Extensions Supplement]], [[Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement]], and scattered characters elsewhere. The [[extended IPA]] is supported primarily by those blocks and [[Latin Extended-G]]. === IPA numbers === {{main|IPA number}} After the [[Kiel Convention]] in 1989, most IPA symbols were assigned an identifying number to prevent confusion between similar characters during the printing of manuscripts. The codes were never much used and have been superseded by Unicode.<ref>A chart of the numbers for the most common IPA symbols can be found on the IPA website.[https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/sites/default/files/IPA_Number_chart_(C)2005.pdf IPA number chart]</ref> ===Typefaces=== [[File:IPA font sample (SIL, Brill, Noto, Calibri).png|thumb|The sequence {{IPA|⟨˨˦˧꜒꜔꜓k͜𝼄a͎̽᷅ꟸ⟩}} in the fonts Gentium Book Plus, Andika, Brill, Noto Serif and Calibri. All of these fonts align diacritics well. Asterisks are characters not supported by that font. In Noto, the red tone letters do not link properly. This is a test sequence: Noto and Calibri support most IPA adequately.]] Many typefaces have support for IPA characters, but good diacritic rendering remains rare.<ref name="Es gilt das gesprochene Wort: Schriftarten für IPA-Transkriptionen">{{cite web |title=Es gilt das gesprochene Wort: Schriftarten für IPA-Transkriptionen |date=16 March 2014 |url=https://www.isoglosse.de/2014/03/schriftarten-ipa-transkriptionen/ | access-date=2022-08-18 |language=de}}</ref> [[Web browser]]s generally do not need any configuration to display IPA characters, provided that a typeface capable of doing so is available to the operating system. ====System fonts==== The ubiquitous [[Arial]] and [[Times New Roman]] fonts include IPA characters, but they are neither complete (especially Arial) nor render diacritics properly. The basic Latin [[Noto fonts]] are better, only failing with the more obscure characters. The proprietary [[Calibri]] font,<!--good diacritic placement of Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement, but incomplete tone support--> which is the default font of [[Microsoft Office]], has nearly complete IPA support with good diacritic rendering. {| class=wikitable !Font !!Sample !!Comments |- |[[Times New Roman]] || <span style="font-family:Times New Roman;">⟨˨˦˧꜒꜔꜓k͜𝼄a͎̽᷅ꟸ⟩</span> || The tone letters join properly, but the tie-bar and diacritics are displaced, and the diacritics overstrike each other rather than stacking |} ====Other commercial fonts==== [[Brill Publishers#Brill Typeface|Brill]]<!--comparable support to Calibri--> has good IPA support. It is a commercial font but freely available for non-commercial use.<ref name="Brill Typeface">{{cite web |title=Brill Typeface |url=https://brill.com/page/1228?language=en%20Brill%20Typeface |access-date=2022-08-18 |language=en |archive-date=18 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818094822/https://brill.com/page/1228?language=en%20Brill%20Typeface |url-status=dead }}</ref> ====Free fonts==== Typefaces that provide nearly full IPA support<!--e.g. Modifier Tone Letters such as tone-sandhi U+A712--> and properly render diacritics<!--e.g. Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement characters such as U+1DC5--> include [[Gentium|Gentium Plus]], [[Charis SIL]], [[Doulos SIL]], and [[Andika (font)|Andika]]. <!--SIL fonts seem to be the only ones with complete IPA support. --> In addition to the support found in other fonts, these fonts support the full range of old-style (pre-Kiel) staveless tone letters, which do not have dedicated Unicode support, through an option to suppress the stave of the Chao tone letters. ===ASCII and keyboard transliterations=== {{further|Comparison of ASCII encodings of the International Phonetic Alphabet}} Several systems have been developed that map the IPA symbols to [[ASCII]] characters. Notable systems include [[SAMPA]] and [[X-SAMPA]]. The usage of mapping systems in on-line text has to some extent been adopted in the context input methods, allowing convenient keying of IPA characters that would be otherwise unavailable on standard keyboard layouts. ===IETF language tags=== [[IETF language tag]]s have registered {{mono|fonipa}} as a variant subtag identifying text as written in IPA.<ref name="IANA">{{cite web |title=Language Subtag Registry |url=https://www.iana.org/assignments/language-subtag-registry/language-subtag-registry |publisher=IANA |access-date=30 April 2021 |language=en |date=2021-03-05}}</ref> Thus, an IPA transcription of English could be tagged as {{mono|en-fonipa}}. For the use of IPA without attribution to a concrete language, {{mono|und-fonipa}} is available. ===Computer input using on-screen keyboard=== Online IPA keyboard utilities are available, though none<!--before claiming something provides full support, verify that it supports the tone diacritics that do not appear on the IPA chart--> of them cover the complete range of IPA symbols and diacritics.<ref group=note>Online IPA keyboard utilities include the [https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/IPAcharts/inter_chart_2018/IPA_2018.html IPA 2018 i-charts] hosted by the IPA, [https://r12a.github.io/pickers/ipa/ IPA character picker 27] at GitHub, [http://ipa.typeit.org/full/ Type IPA phonetic symbols] at TypeIt.org, and an [https://westonruter.github.io/ipa-chart/keyboard/ IPA Chart keyboard] at GitHub.</ref> In April 2019, Google's [[Gboard]] for [[Android (operating system)|Android]] added an IPA keyboard to its platform.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2019/04/18/gboard-updated-with-63-new-languages-including-ipa-not-the-beer/|title=Gboard updated with 63 new languages, including IPA (not the beer)|date=18 April 2019|website=Android Police|language=en-US|access-date=28 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://support.google.com/gboard/answer/6380730?co=GENIE.Platform=Android|title=Set up Gboard – Android – Gboard Help|website=support.google.com|access-date=28 April 2019}}</ref> For iOS there are multiple free keyboard layouts available, e.g. "IPA Phonetic Keyboard".<ref>{{Cite web|title=IPA Phonetic Keyboard|url=https://apps.apple.com/lu/app/ipa-phonetic-keyboard/id1440241497|access-date=8 December 2020|website=App Store|language=en-gb}}</ref> ==See also== {{Div col}} * {{annotated link|Afroasiatic phonetic notation}} * {{annotated link|Americanist phonetic notation}} * {{annotated link|Arabic International Phonetic Alphabet}} * {{annotated link|Articulatory phonetics}} * {{annotated link|Case variants of IPA letters}} * {{annotated link|Cursive forms of the International Phonetic Alphabet}} * {{annotated link|Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet}} * [[Index of phonetics articles]] * {{annotated link|International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration}} * {{annotated link|International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects}} * [[List of international common standards]] * {{annotated link|Luciano Canepari}} * {{annotated link|Phonetic symbols in Unicode}} * {{annotated link|RFE Phonetic Alphabet}} * {{annotated link|SAMPA}} * {{annotated link|Semyon Novgorodov}} – inventor of IPA-based [[Yakut scripts]] * {{annotated link|TIPA (software)|TIPA}} provides IPA support for [[LaTeX]] * {{annotated link|UAI phonetic alphabet}} * {{annotated link|Uralic Phonetic Alphabet}} * {{annotated link|Voice Quality Symbols}} * {{annotated link|X-SAMPA}} {{Div col end}} ==Notes== {{Reflist|group=note|30em}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ==Further reading== {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{Cite journal|last=Ball|first=Martin J.|author2=John H. Esling|author3=B. Craig Dickson|year=1995|title=The VoQS system for the transcription of voice quality|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-phonetic-association-journal_1995-12_25_2/page/71|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|volume=25|issue=2|pages=71–80|doi=10.1017/S0025100300005181|s2cid=145791575 }} * {{Cite journal|last=Duckworth|first=M.|author2=G. Allen|author3=M.J. Ball|date=December 1990|title=Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for the transcription of atypical speech|url=https://archive.org/details/clinical-linguistics-phonetics_october-december-1990_4_4/page/273|journal=Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics|volume=4|issue=4|pages=273–280|doi=10.3109/02699209008985489}} * {{Cite journal|last1=Hill|first1=Kenneth C.|date=March 1988|last2=Pullum|first2=Geoffrey K.|last3=Ladusaw|first3=William|title=Review of ''Phonetic Symbol Guide'' by G. K. Pullum & W. Ladusaw|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_language_1988-03_64_1/page/143|journal=Language|volume=64|issue=1|pages=143–144|doi=10.2307/414792|jstor=414792}} * {{Cite journal|author=International Phonetic Association|year=1989|title=Report on the 1989 Kiel convention|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_international-phonetic-association-journal_1989-12_19_2/page/67|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|volume=19|issue=2|pages=67–80|doi=10.1017/s0025100300003868|s2cid=249412330 }} * {{Cite book|author=International Phonetic Association|year=1999|title=Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet|location=Cambridge|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=0-521-65236-7}} (hb); {{ISBN|0-521-63751-1}} (pb). * {{Cite book|last=Jones|first=Daniel|author-link=Daniel Jones (phonetician)|title=English pronouncing dictionary|year=1988|edition=revised 14th|publisher=Dent|location=London|oclc=18415701|isbn=0-521-86230-2|url=https://archive.org/details/englishpronounci00dani}} * {{Cite journal|last=Ladefoged|first=Peter|author-link=Peter Ladefoged|date=September 1990|title=The revised International Phonetic Alphabet|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_language_1990-09_66_3/page/550|journal=Language|volume=66|issue=3|pages=550–552|doi=10.2307/414611|jstor=414611}} * {{Cite journal|last=Ladefoged|first=Peter|author2=Morris Halle|date=September 1988|title=Some major features of the International Phonetic Alphabet|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_language_1988-09_64_3/page/577|journal=Language|volume=64|issue=3|pages=577–582|doi=10.2307/414533|jstor=414533}} * {{Cite book|last=Laver|first=John|title=Principles of Phonetics|year=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|isbn=0-521-45031-4}} (hb); {{ISBN|0-521-45655-X}} (pb). * {{Cite book|last=Pullum|first=Geoffrey K.|author-link=Geoffrey Pullum|author2=William A. Ladusaw|title=Phonetic Symbol Guide|year=1986|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|location=Chicago|isbn=0-226-68532-2|title-link=Phonetic Symbol Guide}} * {{Cite book|last=Skinner|first=Edith|author2=Timothy Monich|author3=Lilene Mansell|title=Speak with Distinction|location=New York|publisher=Applause Theatre Book Publishers|year=1990|isbn=1-55783-047-9|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/speakwithdistinc0000skin}} * {{cite book|last1=Fromkin|first1=Victoria|last2=Rodman|first2=Robert|last3=Hyams|first3=Nina|title=An Introduction to Language|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00from_616|url-access=limited|date=2011|publisher=Wadsworth, Cengage Learning|location=Boston|pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00from_616/page/n252 233]–234|edition=9th|isbn=978-1-4282-6392-5}} {{Refend}} ==External links== {{Commons category|International Phonetic Alphabet}} * {{Official website|http://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org}} * [https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/IPAcharts/inter_chart_2018/IPA_2018.html Interactive IPA chart] <!-- Do not add links to unofficial pages per [[WP:LINKFARM]] - some might belong to [[Help:IPA]] --> {{IPA navigation}} {{Language phonologies}} {{List of writing systems}} {{Latin script}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:International Phonetic Alphabet| ]] [[Category:Phonetic guides]] [[Category:Unicode]] pjm1900t7xf6dbovt1zu7sr8ddwaqlh 0 54813 337337 306685 2026-08-15T06:40:37Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337337 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox Indian political party | name = Akhil Bharat Hindu Mahasabha | logo = ABHM flag.svg |colorcode = {{party color|Bharatiya Janata Party}} | foundation = {{start date and age|1915}} <small>(as organization)</small><br />{{start date and age|1933}}<small>(as political party)</small><ref name="Ali">{{cite book|title=An Indian Dynasty|first=Tariq|last=Ali|publisher=G.P. Putnam|year=1985|page=196}}</ref> | founder = [[Madan Mohan Malaviya]] | headquarters = [[New Delhi]] | split = [[Indian National Congress]]<ref name="Ali"/> |eci = Registered Unrecognised<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/ElectoralLaws/OrdersNotifications/year2018/Notification-13.04.2018.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=29 May 2018 |archive-date=30 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180530035200/http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/ElectoralLaws/OrdersNotifications/year2018/Notification-13.04.2018.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> |alliance = |loksabha_seats = {{Composition bar|0|543|hex=#FF9933}} |rajyasabha_seats = {{Composition bar|0|245|hex=#FF9933}} |state_seats_name = [[State legislative assemblies of India|State Legislative Assembly]] |state_seats = {{Composition bar|0|4036|hex=#FF9933}} | state2_seats_name = [[State legislative councils of India|State Legislative Council]] | state2_seats = {{Composition bar|0|426|hex=#FF9933}} | no_states = {{Composition bar|0|31|hex=#FF9933}} {{small|(Collectively '''28''' States & '''3''' UTs)}} |ideology = [[Hindutva]]{{sfn|Jha|2018|pp=1–4}}{{sfn|Bapu|2013|p=61}}<br />[[Hindu nationalism]]{{sfn|Jha|2018|pp=1–4}}<ref name=Clemens/><br />[[Ultranationalism]]<ref>{{cite book|year=1974|publisher=Allyn and Bacon|title=A History of Asia|page=601|first=Woodbridge|last=Bingham}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=India in Axis strategy|publisher=Klett-Cotta|first=Milan|last=Hauner|page=66|year=1981}}</ref><br />[[Social conservatism]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Religion, Caste, and Politics in India|first=Christophe|last=Jaffrelot|page=63|publisher=Primus Books|year=2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Denise|last=Cush|page=316|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism|publisher=Routledge|year=2012}}</ref><br />[[National conservatism]]<ref>{{cite journal|last=Misra|first=Amalendu|year=1999|title=Savarkar and the Discourse on Islam in Pre-Independent India|url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-asian-history_1999_33_1-2/page/175|journal=Journal of Asian History|volume=33|issue=2|page=175}}</ref><br />[[Economic nationalism]]<ref>{{cite book|publisher=Vedic Press|page=12|first=Nirmal C.|last=Chatterjee|year=1959|title=Hindu Mahasabha Tracts}}</ref><br />[[Right-wing populism]]<ref>{{cite book|first=Mehran|last=Tamadonfar|page=125|year=2013|title=Religion and Regimes|publisher=Lexington Books}}</ref> |position = {{nowrap|[[Right-wing politics|Right-wing]]<ref>{{cite book|first=L|last=Delap|publisher=Springer|page=152|year=2013|title=Men, Masculinities and Religious Change in Twentieth-Century Britain}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=P.R.|last=Kumaraswamy|title=India's Israel Policy|year=2010|page=159|publisher=Columbia University Press}}</ref> to [[Far-right politics|far-right]]<ref name=Clemens>{{cite book|first=Clemens|last=Six|title=Secularism, Decolonisation, and the Cold War in South and Southeast Asia|quote=The Hindu Mahasabha, a far-right Hindu nationalist political party|publisher=Routledge|year=2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Luce|first=Henry Robinson|date=17 October 1949|title=INDIA: Anchor for Asia|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|page=33|publisher=Time Incorporated|volume=54}}</ref>}} |colours = [[Saffron (colour)|Saffron]] |website = http://www.abhm.org.in/ http://akhilbharathindumahasabha.org/ https://abhmbengal.org.in/ |symbol = [[File:Horse and rider Indian election symbol.png|150px]]<ref name=symbol>{{cite news |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/history-of-election-symbols-how-they-still-help-to-connect-with-the-masses/articleshow/25961306.cms |title=Congress: History of election symbols: How they still help to connect with the masses |newspaper=The Economic Times |date=18 November 2013 |author=Vikram Doctor |access-date= 18 October 2021 |quote=Other parties were happier with what they got – the Hindu Mahasabha had a suitably aggressive horse and rider.. }}</ref> }} '''Hindu Mahasabha''' (officially '''Akhil Bhārat Hindū Mahāsabhā'''), All-India Hindu Grand Assembly India ke ek Hindu nationalist political party hae.{{sfn|Jha|2018|pp=1–4}}<ref name="McDermottGordon2014">{{cite book|last1=McDermott|first1=Rachel Fell|last2=Gordon|first2=Leonard A.|last3=Embree|first3=Ainslie T.|first4=Frances W. |last4=Pritchett |first5=Dennis |last5=Dalton|title=Sources of Indian Traditions: Modern India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w8qJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA439|year=2014|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-51092-9|pages=439–}}</ref><ref name="Klostermaier1989">{{cite book|last=Klostermaier|first=Klaus K.|title=A Survey of Hinduism: First Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ltn3OuF_i4sC&pg=PA403|year=1989|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-88706-807-2|pages=403–}}</ref> ==References== <references/> ==Ii bhi dekho== ==Bahaari jorr== [[vibhag:India ke political party]] 6qyari07d6vzqi9x5bmcznhgey11fh8 0 59040 337333 327341 2026-08-15T06:36:51Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337333 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Analytical chemistry''', [[rasayan vigyan]] ke ek hissa hae. Ii chij me [[chemical]] ke analyse kare hae. Isme natural aur artificial chij ke chemical component study karaa jaae hae. Iske kae ke khatir [[chromatography]], [[mass spectrometry]], [[flame test]] jaise technique ke kaam me laawa jaae hae. == Itihaas == [[File:Bunsen-Kirchhoff.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Gustav Kirchhoff]] (left) aur [[Robert Bunsen]] (right)]] Analytical chemistry, rasayan vigyan ke pahila din se important rahaa, jisse ii paawa jaawe sakat rahaa ki ek chij me kon-kon element aur chemical hae. Ii time me analytical chemistry ke khaas yogdaan me rahaa [[Justus von Liebig]] se development of systematic [[elemental analysis]] aur systematized organic analysis based on the specific reactions of functional groups.{{cn|date=May 2025}} Pahila instrumental analysis ek flame emissive spectrometry rahaa, jiske [[Robert Bunsen]] aur [[Gustav Kirchhoff]] suruu kare rahin, aur jon [[rubidium]] (Rb) aur [[caesium]] (Cs) ke 1860 me paawe rahin.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Arikawa|first=Yoshiko|title=Basic Education in Analytical Chemistry|journal=Analytical Sciences|year=2001|volume=17|issue=Supplement|pages=i571–i573|url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/analscisp/17icas/0/17icas_0_i571/_pdf|access-date=10 January 2014|format=pdf}}</ref> Analytical chemistry me sab se jaada pagriti took 1900 ke baad bhais rahaa. Ii time me, instrumental analysis dhire-dhire field me jaada kaam me laawe jaae lagaa rahaa. Dher basic spectroscopic aur spectrometric techniques ke 20th century ke suruu me paawa gais rahaa aur 20th century ke ant talak refine karaa gais rahaa.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0039-9140(99)00358-6 |title=Review of analytical measurements facilitated by drop formation technology |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_talanta_2000-04-28_51_5/page/921 |year=2000 |last1=Miller |first1=K |journal=Talanta |volume=51 |issue=5 |pages=921–33 |pmid=18967924 |last2=Synovec |first2=RE}}</ref> Separation vigyan ke pagriti yahii rakam ke time line ke follow kare hae aur jaada transform hoe gais , high performance instruments se.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0165-9936(02)00806-3 |title=History of gas chromatography |year=2002 |last1=Bartle |first1=Keith D. |last2=Myers |first2=Peter |journal=TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry |volume=21 |issue=9–10 |pages=547}}</ref> [[1970s]] me isme se dher technique ke saathe kaam me laawe jaawe lagaa, jiske "hybrid techniques" bola jaawe hae, ek sample ke ke characterization ke complete kare ke khaatir.{{cn|date=May 2025}} ==References== {{reflist}} [[vibhag:A]] [[vibhag:Rasayan vigyan]] 3qlk83pawptstcihd1zua24a36d5zu4 0 59665 337328 328780 2026-08-15T06:30:08Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337328 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:NumberSetinC.svg|right|200px|thumb|Set me hae [[natural number]]s, the [[integer]]s (ℤ), the [[rational number]]s (ℚ), the [[real number]]s (ℝ), aur the [[complex number]]s (ℂ)]] '''Ginti''', [[Mathematics]] ke ek concept hae, jiske kaam me laae ke giina aur [[naap]]a jaae hae. Ginti khaatir 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0 ke kaam me laawa jaae hae. Ginti ke sab se sahaj namuna hae [[natural number]]s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, .....<ref>{{Cite journal |title=number, n. |url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/129082 |journal=OED Online |language=en-GB |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=2017-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004081907/http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/129082 |archive-date=2018-10-04 |url-status=live }}</ref> Ek-ek number ke koi bhasa me number sabd, nai to number symbols, jiske ''numerals'' bola jaawe hae, me likha jaae sake hae; jaise ki, "paanch" ek number sabd aur "5" iske numeral hae. Kaaheki khaali thorraa symbol ke yaad karaa jaae sake hae , basic numerals ke [[numeral system]] me arrange karaa jaae hae, jon ek number ke represent kare ke organized way hae. Sab se jaada kaam me laawe waala numeral system [[Hindu–Arabic numeral system]] hae, jisme koi [[Integer|non-negative integer]] ke ten fundamental numeric symbols adj. and n. {{cite web|title=numeral, adj. and n.|url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/129111 |journal=OED Online |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=2017-05-16 |archive-date=2022-07-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730095156/https://www.oed.com/start;jsessionid=B9929F0647C8EE5D4FDB3A3C1B2CA3C3?authRejection=true&url=%2Fview%2FEntry%2F129111 |url-status=live }}</ref> Naape aur giine ke alaawa , ginti ke labels (jaise telephone numbers), order kare ke khaatir (as with [[serial number]]s), and for codes (as with [[ISBN]]s). Sadharan kaam me ''numeral'' ke the ''number'' se ditinguish nai karaa jaae sake hae. Mathematics me, number ke idea ke kuchh sau saal me barrhae ke zero (0) ke saamil karaa gais hae,<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/history-of-zero/ |title=The Origin of Zero |last=Matson |first=John |work=Scientific American |access-date=2017-05-16 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170826235655/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/history-of-zero/ |archive-date=2017-08-26 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[negative number]]s,<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f6HlhlBuQUgC&pg=PA88 |title=A History of Mathematics: From Mesopotamia to Modernity |last=Hodgkin |first=Luke |date=2005-06-02 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-152383-0 |pages=85–88 |language=en |access-date=2017-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190204012433/https://books.google.com/books?id=f6HlhlBuQUgC&pg=PA88 |archive-date=2019-02-04 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[rational number]] jaise [[one half]] <math>\left(\tfrac{1}{2}\right)</math>, [[real number]] jaise [[square root of 2]] <math>\left(\sqrt{2}\right)</math> aur [[pi|{{pi}}]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Mathematics across cultures : the history of non-western mathematics |date=2000 |publisher=Kluwer Academic |location=Dordrecht |isbn=1-4020-0260-2 |pages=410–411}}</ref> aur [[complex number]]s<ref>{{Cite book |last=Descartes |first=René |title=La Géométrie: The Geometry of René Descartes with a facsimile of the first edition |url=https://archive.org/details/geometryofrenede00rend |year=1954 |author-link=René Descartes |orig-year=1637 |publisher=[[Dover Publications]] |isbn=0-486-60068-8 |access-date=20 April 2011 }}</ref> jon real numbers ke extend kare hae [[imaginary unit|square root of {{math|−1}}]] (and its combinations with real numbers by adding or subtracting its multiples).<ref name=":0" /> Numbers se [Calculation]] arithmetical operations se karaa jaawe hae, jisme se sab se jaana maana hae [[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[multiplication]], [[division (mathematics)|division]], aur [[exponentiation]]. Iske adhyan aur kaam ke [[arithmetic]] bola jaawe hae, ek sabd jiske [[number theory]] ke khaatir kaam me bhi laawa jaawe hae, jon number ke properties ke adhyan hae. ==Itihaas== ===Ginti ke sab se pahile kaam me laana=== Haddi aur duusra chij ke paawa gais hae, jisme mark kaata gais hae, jiske biswas karaa jaawe hae ki [[tally marks]] hae.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marshack |first=Alexander |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vbQ9AAAAIAAJ |title=The roots of civilization; the cognitive beginnings of man's first art, symbol, and notation (1st ed.) |date=1971 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |isbn=0-07-040535-2 |location=New York |oclc=257105}}</ref> Kuchh itihaas ke parrhe waale ii suggest karis hae ki [[Lebombo bone]] (dated about 43,000 years ago) aur [[Ishango bone]] (dated about 22,000 to 30,000 years ago) sab se puraana arithmetic chij hae, lekin ii interpretation ke dispute karaa jaawe hae.<ref name="auto">{{harvnb|Burgin|2022|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rWF2EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2–3]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Thiam|Rochon|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=EWSsDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA164 164]}}</ref> Ii tally marks ke saait time ke jiine ke khaatir kaam me laawa gais rahaa, jaise ketna roj bitaa hae, [[chandarma]] ke cycles nai to [[Quantity|quantities]], jaise ketna jaanwar hae ke gine ke khaatir.<ref name="Ore">{{Cite book |last=Ore |first=Øystein |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sl_6BPp7S0AC |title=Number theory and its history |date=1988 |publisher=Dover |isbn=0-486-65620-9 |location=New York |oclc=17413345}}</ref> Ek [[Number sense|perceptual system for quantity]] jiske numeracy ke underly kare ke socha jaawe hae, jaise phylogenetic distribution jon suggest kare hae ki ii bhasa se pahile rahaa. <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Coolidge |first1=Frederick L. |last2=Overmann |first2=Karenleigh A. |title=Numerosity, Abstraction, and the Emergence of Symbolic Thinking |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=53 |issue=2 |year=2012 |pages=204–225|doi=10.1086/664818 |s2cid=51918452 |url=https://osf.io/utn53/ }}</ref><ref name="auto"/> Ek tallying system me place value (as in modern [[decimal]] notation) ke koi concept nai rahe hae, jon isse brraa ginti likhe nai de hae. Lekin tallying systems ke pahila rakam ke abstract numeral system maana jaawe hae. Sab se puraana unambiguous ginti, archaeological record me [[Ancient Mesopotamian units of measurement|Mesopotamian base&nbsp;60]] system hae({{circa|3400}}&nbsp;BC);<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schmandt-Besserat |first=Denise |title=Before Writing: From Counting to Cuneiform (2 vols) |publisher=University of Texas Press |date=1992}}</ref> jisme place value 3rd millennium BCE me aais rahaa.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robson |first=Eleanor |title=Mathematics in Ancient Iraq: A Social History |publisher=Princeton University Press |date=2008}}</ref> Sab se puraana, jaana jaawe waala base&nbsp;10 system 3100&nbsp;BC me [[Egypt]] me suruu karaa gais rahaa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/Ancient-Africa/mad_ancient_egyptpapyrus.html#berlin |title=Egyptian Mathematical Papyri – Mathematicians of the African Diaspora |publisher=Math.buffalo.edu |access-date=2012-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407231917/http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/Ancient-Africa/mad_ancient_egyptpapyrus.html#berlin |archive-date=2015-04-07 |url-status=live }}</ref> ===Numerals=== Numbers, '''numerals''' se different hae. Numerals uu chinh hae jisse ginti ke likha jaawe hae. Egyptian log pahila ciphered numeral system ke banae rahin, aur Greeks iske baad rahin jon gine waala number ke Ionian aur Doric alphabets me mal kare rahin.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chrisomalis |first=Stephen |date=2003-09-01 |title=The Egyptian origin of the Greek alphabetic numerals |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_antiquity_2003-09_77_297/page/485 |journal=Antiquity |volume=77 |issue=297 |pages=485–96 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00092541 |s2cid=160523072 |issn=0003-598X }}</ref> Roman numerals, ek system hae Roman alphabet ke letters ke kaam me laawe hae, Europe me sab se jaada kaam me laawa jaawat rahaa, [[Hindu–Arabic numeral system]] ke late 14th century me dunia bhar me faile se pahile, aur Hindu–Arabic numeral system abhi sab se jaada kaam me laawe waala system hae. <ref name="Cengage Learning2">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dOxl71w-jHEC&pg=PA192 |title=The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History, Volume 1 |last2=Crossley |first2=Pamela |last3=Headrick |first3=Daniel |last4=Hirsch |first4=Steven |last5=Johnson |first5=Lyman |publisher=Cengage Learning |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4390-8474-8 |page=192 |quote=Indian mathematicians invented the concept of zero and developed the "Arabic" numerals and system of place-value notation used in most parts of the world today |first1=Richard |last1=Bulliet |access-date=2017-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170128072424/https://books.google.com/books?id=dOxl71w-jHEC&pg=PA192 |archive-date=2017-01-28 |url-status=live }}</ref> Ii system ke khaas gun ii hae ki isme [[zero]] ke khaatir chinh hae, jiske puraana [[Indian mathematics|Indian mathematicians]] lagbhag 500 AD me develop kare rahin.<ref name="Cengage Learning2" /> ===Zero=== Pahila dafe jab [[zero]] ke kaam me laawa gais rahaa, AD 628 me rahaa, aur ii ''[[Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta]]'' me likha hae, t [[Indian mathematician]] [[Brahmagupta]] ke khaas kaam. Uud&nbsp;0 ke ek number ke ruup me kaam me laais rahaa aue iske operations ke discuss karis rahaa, jisme[[division by zero]] bhi hae. Ii time talak (the 7th&nbsp;century), ii concept Cambodia pahunch gais rahaa, [[Khmer numerals]] me,<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Aczel |first=Amir D. |date=2015-05-07 |title=My Quest to Find the First Zero |url=https://time.com/3845786/my-quest-to-find-the-first-zero/ |access-date=2025-02-15 |magazine=TIME |language=en |archive-date=2025-04-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250420170708/https://time.com/3845786/my-quest-to-find-the-first-zero/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> aur iske baare me documentation dekhae hae ki idea baad me s China aur [[Islamic dunia]] talak faila rahaa. [[File:Khmer Numerals - 605 from the Sambor inscriptions.jpg|thumb|Number 605 in Khmer numerals me, ek 683 AD ke inscription se. Puraana time me zero ke decimal number ke rakam kaam me laawa jaawat rahaa.]] Brahmagupta ke ''Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta'' pahila book hae jon zero ke ek number ke ruup me batae hae, tab Brahmagupta ke jaada kar ke pahila jan maana jaawe hae jon concept of zero ke formulate karis rahaa. Uu zero ke kaam me laae ke niyam diis hae, negative aur positive numbers ke saathe, jaise "zero ke jab ek positive number se jorra jaawe hae tab answer ek positive number rahe hae, aur jab negative number ke zero se jorraa jaawe hae tab answe ek negative number" rahe hae. ''Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta'' sabse puraana book hae jon zero ke ek number ke ruup me kaam me laawe hae. [[vibhag:G]] [[vibhag: Arithmetic]] 59q3l20l7igkrdmy2gq7cfr5doohmu3 0 60218 337314 312796 2026-08-15T06:16:53Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337314 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Nuclear_Power_Plant_Cattenom.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Ek nuclear power plant]] '''Nuclear power''', nuclear reaction se [[electricity]] banaae hae. Nuclear power, [[nuclear fission]], [[nuclear decay]] aur [[nuclear fusion]] se banaawa jaae hae. Abhi sab se jaada nuclear power [[uranium]] aur [[plutonium]] ke nuclear fission se banaawa jaae hae. 2023 me [[dunia]] ke puura electricity utpaadan me se khaali 10% nuclear power se aais rahaa.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Nuclear Power Today {{!}} Nuclear Energy - World Nuclear Association|url=https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx#:~:text=Nuclear%20energy%20now%20provides%20about,in%20about%20220%20research%20reactors.|access-date=2023-06-07|website=world-nuclear.org}}</ref> ==Itihaas== Nuclear fission ke 1938 me pahila dafe karaa gais rahaa. Iske baad ii jaana gais ki ek [[nucleus]] jab fission me rahe hae tab ii duusra fission reaction ke bhi suruu kare sake hae, jiske matlab hae ki ek "chain reaction" hoe hae.<ref name="Inside the Atomic Patent Office">{{cite journal | doi = 10.2968/064002008 | volume=64 | issue=2 | title=Inside the atomic patent office | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_bulletin-of-the-atomic-scientists_may-june-2008_64_2/page/26 | year=2008 | journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists | pages=26–31 | last1 = Wellerstein | first1 = Alex| bibcode=2008BuAtS..64b..26W }}</ref> Jab iske experiment kar ke pakka jaan jaawa gias rahaa, tab dher des me sarkar ke uppar dabao daala gais ki uu nuclear hatyaar banae. [[United States]] me pahila nuclear reactor banaawa gais jon ki December 1942 me kaam kare ke suruu karis. Iske baad nuclear hatyaar ke banae me kosis karaa gais aur July 1945 me pahila nuclear bomb ke test karaa gais aur ek mahina baad [[Hiroshima]] aur [[Nagasaki]] me atomic bomb giraawa gais. December 20 1951 me pahila dafe nuclear reactor se electricity banaawa gais rahaa. US Navy, nuclear power ke [[submarine]] aur aircraft carrier ke chalae ke khaatir nuclear power ke January 1954 se kaam me laae ke suruu karis.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ne.anl.gov/About/reactors/lwr3.shtml#fragment-2 |title=STR (Submarine Thermal Reactor) in "Reactors Designed by Argonne National Laboratory: Light Water Reactor Technology Development" |publisher=U.S. Department of Energy, Argonne National Laboratory |year=2012 |access-date=2012-07-25 |archive-date=2012-06-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120622185310/http://www.ne.anl.gov/About/reactors/lwr3.shtml#fragment-2 |url-status=live }}</ref> 27 June 1954 me USSR me pahila dafe nuclear power planr se electricity banae ke power grid me jorra gais rahaa.<ref name="IAEANews">{{cite web |url=http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/News/2004/obninsk.html |title=From Obninsk Beyond: Nuclear Power Conference Looks to Future |website=[[International Atomic Energy Agency]] |access-date=2006-06-27 |date=2004-06-23 |archive-date=2006-11-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061115165641/http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/News/2004/obninsk.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ==References== <references/> [[vibhag:N]] [[vibhag:Urjaa aur idhan]] i4nif0hl35d9cjstqzt3ahq3yd5kip1 0 60760 337329 313345 2026-08-15T06:31:12Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337329 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox scientist | name = Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar | native_name = | honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRS}} | image = Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar.gif | image_size = 220px | birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1910|10|19}} | birth_place = [[Lahore]], [[Punjab (British India)|Punjab]], [[British Raj|British India]] (aaj ke [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]], [[Pakistan]]) | death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1995|08|21|1910|10|19}} | death_place = [[Chicago, Illinois]], U.S. | citizenship = {{ubl|British India (1910–1947)|India (1947–1953)|United States (1953–1995)}} | alma_mater = {{Plainlist| * [[University of Madras]] ([[BSc]]) * [[Trinity College, Cambridge]] ([[MSc]], [[PhD]]) }} | spouse = {{marriage|Lalitha Doraiswamy|1936}} | family = [[Chandrasekhar family]] | thesis_title = Polytropic distributions | thesis_year = 1933 | doctoral_advisor = [[Ralph H. Fowler]]<br />[[Arthur Eddington]] | doctoral_students = {{Plainlist| * [[Donald Edward Osterbrock]] * [[Guido Münch]] * [[Roland Winston]] * [[Jeremiah P. Ostriker]] * [[Jerome Kristian]] * [[Yousef Sobouti]] * [[Anne Barbara Underhill]] * [[Arthur Code]] * [[Surindar Kumar Trehan]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu/id.php?id=70801&fChrono=1|title=Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar – The Mathematics Genealogy Project|website=www.genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240604162044/https://www.genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu/id.php?id=70801&fChrono=1|archive-date=2024-06-04|url-status=dead}}</ref>}} | known_for = {{Plainlist| * [[Chandrasekhar limit]] * [[Chandrasekhar number]] * [[Chandrasekhar friction]] * [[Chandrasekhar–Kendall function]] * [[Chandrasekhar's H-function]] * [[Emden–Chandrasekhar equation]] * [[Chandrasekhar–Fermi method]] * [[Chandrasekhar–Friedman–Schutz instability]] * Chandrasekhar transformation * [[Chandrasekhar–Page equations]] * [[Kramers–Chandrasekhar equation]] * [[Chandrasekhar potential energy tensor|Chandrasekhar tensor]] * [[Chandrasekhar virial equations]] * [[Batchelor–Chandrasekhar equation]] * [[Schönberg–Chandrasekhar limit]] * [[Chandrasekhar's white dwarf equation]] * [[Chandrasekhar polarization]] * [[Chandrasekhar's X- and Y-function]] * [[Discrete Ordinates Method]] * ''[[List of things named after Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar|Others in list form]]''}} | signature = Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar signature.png | footnotes = | field = [[Astrophysics]] <br />[[General relativity]]<br />[[Fluid dynamics]]<br />[[Radiation]]<br/>[[Quantum chemistry|Quantum theory]] | work_institutions = [[University of Chicago]]<br />[[Yerkes Observatory]]<br />[[Ballistic Research Laboratory]]<br />[[University of Cambridge]] | prizes = {{Plainlist| * [[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]] (1944) * [[Adams Prize]] (1948) * [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] (1983) * [[Copley Medal]] (1984) * [[National Medal of Science]] (1966) * [[Royal Medal]] (1962) * [[Padma Vibhushan]] (1968) * [[Dannie Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics|Heineman Prize]] (1974) * [[International Center for Relativistic Astrophysics |Marcel Grossman Award]] (1994)}} }} '''Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar''' ([[19 October]] [[1910]] - [[21 August]] [[1995]]<ref name="Osterbrock 1998 pp. 658–665">{{cite journal |title=Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (19 October 1910 – 21 August 1995) |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-american-philosophical-society_1998-12_142_4/page/658 |first=Donald E. |last=Osterbrock |author-link=Donald Edward Osterbrock |journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society |volume=142 |issue=4 |date=December 1998 |pages=658–665 |publisher=American Philosophical Society |jstor=3152289 |issn=0003-049X }} {{link note|note=Registration or subscription required}}</ref> ek Indian-American physicist rahaa, jon "structure of stars, stellar evolution aur black hole" ke baare me khaas adhyan karis hae. 1983 me uske [[Nobel Prize]] in Physics, "theoretical studies in in the evolution of stars" ke khaatir dewa gais rahaa. Uske adhyan se abhi ke jaankari, barraa [[taara]] aur [[black hole]] ke baare me aais hae.<ref name=currentscience>{{cite journal | last=Vishveshwara | first=C.V. | title=Leaves from an unwritten diary: S. Chandrasekhar, Reminiscences and Reflections| journal=Current Science | volume=78 | issue=8 | pages=1025–1033 |date=25 April 2000 | url=http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/apr252000/generalia.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Horgan | first1 = J. | author-link = John Horgan (American journalist) | year = 1994 | title = Profile: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar&nbsp;– Confronting the Final Limit | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_scientific-american_1994-03_270_3/page/32 | journal = [[Scientific American]] | volume = 270 | issue = 3| pages = 32–33 | doi = 10.1038/scientificamerican0394-32 | issn = 0036-8733 }}</ref> Dher inventions , jaise ki Chandrasekhar limit aur Chandra X-Ray Observatory ke uske naam dewa gais hae.<ref name="Sreenivasan">{{Cite journal | last=Sreenivasan | author-link=K. R. Sreenivasan| first=K. R. | title=Chandrasekhar's Fluid Dynamics | journal=Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics| volume=51| issue=1| pages=1–24| date=2019 |doi=10.1146/annurev-fluid-010518-040537 | issn = 0066-4189 | bibcode=2019AnRFM..51....1S| doi-access=free}}</ref> Chandrasekhar ke janam [[Lahore]] me bhais rahaa aur uu Madras aur Cambridge me parrhis hae. Uu 1937 se [[America]] me parrhaat rahaa aur 1953 me America ke citizen banaa. ==References== <references/> {{BD|1910|1995|Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan}} [[vibhag:C]] [[vibhag:S]] [[vibhag:India ke log]] [[vibhag:United States ke log]] [[vibhag:Physicist]] q449bumxz767af97veel9of2j5j4sfu 0 61047 337336 320275 2026-08-15T06:40:10Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337336 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Kumbh Mela in Prayagraj 2019 stamp of India.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Ek 2019 ke jisme Kumbh Mela dekhae hae]] '''Kumbha Mela,''' [[Hiindu]] log ke ek khaas tiith yaatra aur teohaar hae. 4 February 2019 ke Kumbha Mela me sab se jaada log ekkaththaa bhae rahin. Iske lahbhag har 12 saal me, [[Brihaspati]] (Jupiter) ke parikrama ke banae ke chaar naddi ke kinaare banaawa jaae hae. Ii hae Allahabad Kumbh Mela (Prayagraj), jahaan pe [[Ganges]], [[Yamuna]] aur [[Saraswati]] mile hae, Haridwar Kumbh Mela, Nashik-Trimbakeshwar Simhastha, [[Godavari Naddi]] me aur Ujjain Simhastha, [[Shipra]] me.<ref name=britkumbh>{{cite book |title=Kumbh Mela: Hindu festival| publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica|year= 2015|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kumbh-Mela|quote=The Kumbh Mela lasts several weeks and is one of the largest festivals in the world, attracting more than 200 million people in 2019, including 50 million on the festival’s most auspicious day.}}</ref> Ii teohaar me log paani me dupki lagae hae aur ii time dher rakam ke chij becha jaae hae, parrhai aur dharam ke baare me sant log aapan bichaar de hae, dher dharmik log ekkhattha hoe hae aur maniranjan bhi rahe hae.<ref name=eckp154>{{cite book|author=Diana L. Eck|title=India: A Sacred Geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uD_0P6gS-vMC|year=2012|publisher=Harmony Books|isbn=978-0-385-53190-0|pages=153–155}}</ref> II mela me hissa le waala ii biswas kare hae ki uu log praschit kare hae pichhla bhuul ke khaatir aur uulog ke paap maaf hoe jaae hae.<ref name="Kama_Seeing">{{cite journal | last=Maclean | first=Kama |title=Seeing, Being Seen, and Not Being Seen: Pilgrimage, Tourism, and Layers of Looking at the Kumbh Mela|journal=CrossCurrents|date=September 2009|volume=59|issue=3 |pages=319–341|doi=10.1111/j.1939-3881.2009.00082.x| s2cid=170879396 }}</ref> Ii maana jaae hae ki ii teohaar ke 8th century ke Hindu philosopher, [[Adi Shankara]] suruu karis rahaa.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Making the Colonial State Work for You: The Modern Beginnings of the Ancient Kumbh Mela in Allahabad |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-asian-studies_2003-08_62_3/page/877 | last=Maclean | first=Kama | journal=The Journal of Asian Studies| year=2003| volume=62| number=3| pages=877–879| doi=10.2307/3591863| jstor=3591863| s2cid=162404242 }}</ref> ==References== <references/> [[vibhag:K]] [[vibhag:Hinduism]] 40voi731a1oifgowxqw2zndz3ejiu59 0 61074 337341 314086 2026-08-15T06:43:21Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337341 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Basor_Dalit_caste.jpg|right|200px|thumb|INdia ke Uttar Pradesh ke Basor caste ke log]] Ek '''jaat''' (caste), ek atal (fixed) samaajik toli (group) hae jisme ek paida hoe waala jan eak khaas samaajik sthar (hierarchy) pe rahe hae. Iske jaat-paath bola jaae hae. Iske niche, log khaali aapan jaat me [[saadi]] kare hae, ek khaas dhandhaa (occupation) kare hae, samaj me aapan jagha (status) jaane hae, duusra jaat se mile jukhe nai hae aur jaada, nai to kamti sudh (pure) maana jaae hae. Ii sabd kuch kirwa, jaise ki [[chuunti]], [[madmakkhi]] aur termite meke hierarchy ke describe kare khaatir bhi kaam e laawa jaae hae.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wilson |first=E. O. |year=1979 |title=The Evolution of Caste Systems in Social Insects |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_proceedings-of-the-american-philosophical-society_1979-08-30_123_4/page/204 |journal=[[Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society]] |volume=123 |number=4 |pages=204–210 |jstor=986579}}</ref> India ke jaat-paath, puraana jamaana ke [[varna]] ke bahaana (excuse) log ke samaj me khaali ekke jagha rahe ke majbuur karaa gais hae. Vedic jamaana me chaar rakam ke varna rahaa: [[Brahmin]], [[Kshatriya]], [[Vaishya]] aur [[Shudra]] aur ii ispe nibhar rahaa ki ek jan kon kaam karat rahaa. Varna inherited nai rahaa. [[vibhag:Samaj]] [[vibhag:J]] rn806hn2o02ufry86p1te8e94gv1tv0 0 61239 337308 314579 2026-08-15T06:11:42Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337308 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox language family | name = Altaic | acceptance = highly controversial<ref>{{cite book |last=Georg |first=Stefan |year=2023 |chapter=Connections between Uralic and Other Language Families |editor1=Daniel Abondolo |editor2=Riitta-Liisa Valijärvi |title=The Uralic Languages |location=London |publisher=Routledge |pages=176–209 |doi=10.4324/9781315625096-4|isbn=9781315625096 }}</ref> | region = Northern and Central [[Asia]] | familycolor = Altaic | family = Proposed as a major [[language family]] by some | child1 = [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] | child2 = [[Mongolic languages|Mongolic]] | child3 = [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic]] | child4 = [[Koreanic languages|Koreanic]] (sometimes included) | child5 = [[Japonic languages|Japonic]] (sometimes included) | child6 = [[Ainu languages|Ainu]] (rarely included) | iso2 = tut | iso5 = tut | glotto = none | map = Lenguas altaicas.png | mapcaption = {{Legend|#00008B|[[Turkic languages]]}} {{Legend|#32CD32|[[Mongolic languages]]}} {{Legend|#FF0000|[[Tungusic languages]]}} {{Legend|#FFD700|[[Koreanic languages]]}} (sometimes included) {{Legend|#8B008B|[[Japonic languages]]}} (sometimes included) {{Legend|#8B0000|[[Ainu languages]]}} (rarely included) | protoname = Proto-Altaic }} '''Altaic bhasa''' ek maange waala bhasa ke palwaar hae<ref>Martine Robbeets & Alexander Savelyev, "Introduction", ''The Oxford Guide to the Transeurasian Languages'' (2020, Oxford, pp. 1–3). "The Transeurasian [Altaic] languages are among the most fervently debated language families in modern linguistics..." (pg. 1)</ref>, jisme [[Turkic bhasa]], [[Mongolic bhasa]] aur [[Tungusic bhasa]] ke palwaar hae aur sait [[Japonic bhasa]] aur [[Koreanic bhasa]]<ref name=georg1999>{{cite journal |given1=Stefan |surname1=Georg |author-link1=Stefan Georg|given2=Peter A. |surname2=Michalove |given3=Alexis Manaster |surname3=Ramer |given4=Paul J. |surname4=Sidwell |year=1999 |title=Telling general linguists about Altaic |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-linguistics_1999-03_35_1/page/65 |journal=Journal of Linguistics |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=65–98 |doi=10.1017/S0022226798007312 |s2cid=144613877 }}</ref> ke palwaar bhi. Ii bhasa ke palwaar me baat kare waala log [[Asia]] me 35 degrees N ke North me aur aur East Europe me hae. Iske central asia ke [[Altai]] pahaarr ke naam dewa gais hae. [[vibhag:A]] [[vibhag:Altaic bhasa| ]] 7y0u1ro97ckvblxihwaiwtdh5ttx60v 0 61953 337343 318381 2026-08-15T07:43:32Z Amherst99 2407 Amherst99 moved panna [[Slasher Film]] se [[Slasher film]] 318381 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Psycho (1960) theatrical poster (retouched).jpg|thumb|[[Alfred Hitchcock]] ke ''[[Psycho (1960 film)|Psycho]]'' (1960) ek slasher genre ke film hae.]] '''Slasher film''', horror films ke ek subgenre hae jisme ek kaatil, nai to ek kaatil ke jhund koi ke chok aujaar se murder mare hae. <ref name="Clayton-2015">{{Cite book|title=Style and form in the Hollywood slasher film |date=2015|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|last=Clayton|first=Wickham |isbn=9781137496478|location=Basingstoke|oclc=927961472}}</ref> Kuchh jaana maana slasher film hae; [[Peeping Tom]], [[Psycho]], [[Friday the 13th]], [[Scream]] [[vibhag:F]] [[vibhag:S]] [[vibhag:Films]] gxvd33j12hbr09psdmzyvul6ra93hx5 0 63793 337335 323569 2026-08-15T06:38:46Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337335 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox island | name = Axel Heiberg | image_name = Shaded relief map of Axel Heiberg Island.png | image_caption = Axel Heiberg Island ke chhaapa. | image_size = | image_map = Axel Heiberg Island, Canada.svg | image_map_caption = Axel Heiberg Island ke jagha | native_name = ᐅᒥᖕᒪᑦ ᓄᓈᑦ | native_name_link = Inuktituk | native_name_lang = iu | nickname = | location = [[Arctic Ocean]] | pushpin_map = Canada Nunavut#Canada | pushpin_label = | pushpin_label_position = | pushpin_map_alt = | pushpin_relief = 1 | pushpin_map_caption = | coordinates = {{Coord|79|45|N|091|00|W|region:CA_type:isle_scale:3000000|notes=}} | archipelago = [[Sverdrup Islands]]<br />[[Queen Elizabeth Islands]]<br />[[Arctic Archipelago]] | total_islands = | major_islands = | area_km2 = | length_km = 371 | width_min_km = 220 | width_max_km = 246 | rank = 32nd | highest_mount = [[Outlook Peak]] | elevation_m = 2,210 | country = Canada | country_admin_divisions_title = [[Provinces and territories of Canada|Territory]] | country_admin_divisions = [[Nunavut]] | country_admin_divisions_title_1 = [[Regions of Nunavut|Region]] | country_admin_divisions_1 = [[Qikiqtaaluk Region|Qikiqtaaluk]] | country_admin_divisions_title_2 = | country_admin_divisions_2 = | country_capital_city = | country_largest_city = | country_largest_city_population = | country_leader_title = | country_leader_name = | population = 0 | population_as_of = | density_km2 = | ethnic_groups = }} '''Axel Heiberg Island''' ( {{transliteration|iu|Umingmat Nunaat}}), [[Nunavut]], [[Canada]] ke [[Qikiqtaaluk Region]] ke ek island hae jisme koi nai rahe hae. Ii [[Arctic Ocean]] me hae, [[dunia]] ke 32nd sab se barraa island aur Canada ke 7th sab se barraa island hae. [[Statistics Canada]] ke anusaar,<ref>[http://www.statcan.ca/english/Pgdb/phys07.htm Area of major sea islands, by region] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040812115837/http://www.statcan.ca/english/Pgdb/phys07.htm |date=August 12, 2004 }}</ref> iske area {{cvt|43178|km2}} hae. Iske naam [[Axel Heiberg]] ke naam se aais hae. Ii [[Arctic Archipelago]] ke group ke ek barraa island hae, aur ii [[Sverdrup Islands]] aur [[Queen Elizabeth Islands]] ke ek hissa hae. Iske [[Petrified wood|fossil forests]] ke khaatir jaana jaae hae, jon [[Eocene]] jamaana ke hae.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Fossilized Forest Of Axel Heiberg Island |url=https://beatymuseum.ubc.ca/2017/08/30/the-fossilized-forest-of-axel-heiberg-island/ |publisher= The University of British Columbia |access-date=15 November 2019}}</ref> Kamti mineralization ke kaaran iske "mummification" bolnaa jaada sach hae "fossilisation" se compare karo tab. Hian ke fossil ke records ii sabuut de hae ki Axel Heiberg jangal ek high-latitude wetland jangal rahaa.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Williams | first1 = C.J. | last2 = Johnson | first2 = A.H. | last3 = LePage | first3 = B.A. | last4 = Vann | first4 = D.R. | last5 = Sweda | first5 = T. | year = 2003 | title = Reconstruction of Tertiary Metasequoia Forests II". Structure, Biomass and Productivity of Eocene Floodplain Forests in the Canadian Arctic | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_paleobiology_spring-2003_29_2/page/271 | journal = Paleobiology | volume = 29 | issue = 2| pages = 271–292 | doi=10.1666/0094-8373(2003)029<0271:rotmfi>2.0.co;2| s2cid = 131497232 }}</ref> Ek [[ammonite]] of [[holotype]] ke hian pe paawa gais rahaa jon ''[[Otoceras|Otoceras gracile]]'' [[Griesbachian]] (Early [[Triassic]]) jamaana ke hae.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Kutygin R.V., Budnikov I.V., Biakov A.S., Davydov V.I., Kilyasov A.N., Silantiev V.V.|year=2019|url=https://kpfu.ru/portal/docs/F_194089775/161_4_est_4.pdf|title=First findings of ''Otoceras'' (Ceratitida) in the Kobyuma zone of the Southern Verkhoyansk region, Northeastern Russia|journal=Uchenye Zapiski Kazanskogo Universiteta. Seriya Estestvennye Nauki|volume=161|issue=4|page=557|language=ru|doi=10.26907/2542-064X.2019.4.550-570|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331230222/https://kpfu.ru/portal/docs/F_194089775/161_4_est_4.pdf|archive-date=March 31, 2022|url-status=live}}</ref> [[vibhag:A]] [[vibhag:Arctic Ocean ke island]] [[vibhag:Canada ke island]] 774tztnq8n2ed5ttrl6vo7gmq3ya0ux 0 63819 337340 323582 2026-08-15T06:42:54Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337340 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox island | name = Tierra del Fuego archipelago | image_name = NASA Tierra del Fuego image.jpg | image_caption = Tierra del Fuego archipelago<br>at the tip of South America | pushpin_map = Tierra del Fuego | pushpin_map_caption = Political map of Tierra del Fuego<br>and mainland South America | native_name = | native_name_link = | nickname = | location = [[Pacific Ocean]], [[Atlantic Ocean]] | coordinates = | archipelago = | total_islands = | major_islands = [[Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego|Tierra del Fuego]], [[Hoste Island|Hoste]], [[Navarino Island|Navarino]],<br/> [[Gordon Island|Gordon]], [[Wollaston Islands|Wollastone]], [[Noir Island|Noir]], [[Isla de los Estados|Staten]],<br/> [[Hermite Islands|Hermite]], [[Santa Inés Island|Santa Inés]], [[Clarence Island, Chile|Clarence]], [[Dawson Island|Dawson]],<br/> [[Capitán Aracena Island|Capitán Aracena]], [[Londonderry Island|Londonderry]], [[Picton, Lennox and Nueva|Picton,<br/> Lennox, Nueva]], [[Diego Ramírez Islands|Diego Ramírez]], [[O'Brien Island, Chile|O'Brien]],<br/> aur [[Desolación Island]]s | area_sqmi = | length_mi = | width_mi = | highest_mount = {{interlanguage link|Monte Shipton|es}} | elevation_ft = | country = {{Flag|Chile}} | country_admin_divisions_title = [[Regions of Chile|Region]] | country_admin_divisions = {{Flag|Magallanes y Antártica Chilena}} | country_admin_divisions_title_1 = [[Provinces of Chile|Provinces]] | country_admin_divisions_1 = [[Tierra del Fuego Province, Chile|Tierra del Fuego Province]]<br/> aur [[Antártica Chilena (Province)|Antártica Chilena]] | country_admin_divisions_title_2 = [[Communes of Chile|Communes]] | country_admin_divisions_2 = [[Cabo de Hornos, Chile|Cabo de Hornos]], [[Antártica]],<br/> [[Porvenir, Chile|Porvenir]], [[Primavera, Chile|Primavera]], [[Timaukel]] | country1 = {{ARG}} | country1_admin_divisions_title = [[Provinces of Argentina|Province]] | country1_admin_divisions = {{flagicon|Tierra del Fuego}} [[Tierra del Fuego Province, Argentina|Tierra del Fuego Province]] | population = ~201.000 | population_as_of = 2022 | density_sqmi = | ethnic_groups = [[Argentine people|Argentines]], [[Chilean people|Chileans]], [[Selkʼnam people|Selkʼnam]]s,<br/> [[Kawésqar]], [[Yaghans]] | additional_info = }} '''Tierra del Fuego''' ({{IPAc-en|t|i|ˈ|ɛr|ə|_|d|ɛ|l|_|ˈ|f|w|eɪ|ɡ|oʊ}}, {{IPA|es|ˈtjera ðel ˈfweɣo|lang}}; jon "'''Land of Fire'''" ke [[Spanish bhasa]] ke anuwaad hae, [[South America]] ke southern tip ke lage ke island hae, jon [[Strait of Magellan]] se South America se separated hae. Ii archipelago ke khaas island, [[Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego]] hae, jiske area {{convert|73,746|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}} hae,<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Tierra del Fuego {{!}} Archipelago, Patagonia, Argentina & Chile|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Tierra-del-Fuego-archipelago-South-America |access-date=2025-02-07}}</ref> ke saathe aur dher chhotaa-chhotaa island hae, jisme [[Cape Horn]] aur [[Diego Ramírez Islands]] hae. Tierra del Fuego archipelago ke lagbhag two-thirds western hissa, jisme dher islands bji hae, Chile ke hissa hae, aur eastern part Argentina ke hissa hae.<ref name=":0" /> Ii archipelago ke south ke hissa, Cape Horn, [[latitude]] [[56th parallel south|56°S]] ke kuchh north me hae. Tierra del Fuego me insaan 8,000 BC se rahe hae.<ref name="Ant86-331">{{cite journal |title=Hunter-gatherers, biogeographic barriers and the development of human settlement in Tierra del Fuego |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_antiquity_2012-03_86_331/page/71 |journal=Antiquity |date=1 March 2012 |volume=86 |issue=331 |pages=71–87 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00062463|last1=Morello |first1=Flavia |last2=Borrero |first2=Luis |last3=Massone |first3=Mauricio |last4=Stern |first4=Charles |last5=García-Herbst |first5=Arleen |last6=McCulloch |first6=Robert |last7=Arroyo-Kalin |first7=Manuel |last8=Calás |first8=Elisa |last9=Torres |first9=Jimena |last10=Prieto |first10=Alfredo |last11=Martinez |first11=Ismael |last12=Bahamonde |first12=Gabriel |last13=Cárdenas |first13=Pedro |hdl=1893/3664 |s2cid=161882222 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> European ke lig sab se pahile ii islands ke explore kare rahin [[1520]] me jab [[Ferdinand Magellan]] hian se sail karis rahaa. ''Tierra del Fuego'' ("Land of Fire") aur similiar naam ii kaaran se bola jaae hae kaaheki hian ke log aagi baarat rahin , apne ke garam kare ke khaatir, nai to signal kare ke khaatir.<ref>{{Cite web |publisher=Australis |date=2017-04-11 |title=8 Facts You Never Knew About the Tierra del Fuego Archipelago |url=https://blogpatagonia.australis.com/8-facts-never-knew-tierra-del-fuego-archipelago/ |access-date=2025-01-26|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=In Search of Paradise Lost in Tierra del Fuego|first=James|last=Kelly|date=5 June 2017|url=https://www.earthisland.org/journal/index.php/articles/entry/in_search_of_paradise_lost_in_tierra_del_fuego/ |access-date=2025-01-26 |publisher=Earth Island Journal}}</ref> European descent ke log ke hian pe settlement nineteenth century ke duura bhaag me suruu bhais rahaa jab sheep farmoing aur sonaa ke boom rahaa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Iparraguirre|first=Sylvia|title=Tierra del fuego: a biography of the end of the world|date=19 March 2024 |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/_/SInnrYWflAcC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA146|page=146|publisher=Photo Design Ediciones - Florian von der Fecht |isbn=978-987-99166-9-8 |access-date=1 March 2016|archive-date=23 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923100234/https://books.google.com/books?id=SInnrYWflAcC&pg=PA146|url-status=live}}</ref> Aaj-kal, petroleum extraction economic activity ke north Tierra del Fuego me dominate kare hae, jab tourism, manufacturing, aur Antarctic logistics south me important hae. [[vibhag:T]] [[vibhag: Atlantic Ocean ke island]] [[vibhag:Pacific Ocean ke island]] [[vibhag:Chile ke island]] [[vibhag:Argentina ke island]] gjeyramq96zs8108i5lxm42b816r6bm 0 64080 337315 323257 2026-08-15T06:18:47Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337315 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox island | name = Severnaya Zemlya | native_name = Северная Земля | native_name_lang = | image_name = Krenkel-Bucht 2 2014-08-31.jpg | image_caption = Krenkel Bay, Komsomolets Island me | image_map = Kara sea2SZ.PNG | image_map_size = | image_map_caption = Severnaya Zemlya ke jagha jon continental Russia ke<br/> northernmost me hae | coordinates = {{coord|79|30|0|N|97|15|0|E}} | pushpin_map = Russia | pushpin_label_position = right | pushpin_map_caption = Location in Russia | country = [[Russian Federation]] <!-- the name of the country --> | country_admin_divisions_title = [[Federal subjects of Russia|Federal subject]] | country_admin_divisions = [[Krasnoyarsk Krai]] | country_admin_divisions_title_1 = [[Raion|District]] | country_admin_divisions_1 = [[Taymyrsky Dolgano-Nenetsky District]] | major_islands = [[October Revolution Island|October Revolution]], [[Bolshevik Island|Bolshevik]],<br/> [[Komsomolets Island|Komsomolets]], [[Pioneer Island (Russia)|Pioneer]], [[Schmidt Island|Schmidt]] | location = {{ubl | [[Arctic Ocean]] | [[Kara Sea]]&nbsp;/ [[Laptev Sea]] }} | highest_mount = [[Karpinsky Glacier|Mount Karpinsky]] ({{cvt|965|m}}) | area_km2 = 37000 | elevation_m = | population = No permanent population | population_as_of = 2017 | population_footnotes = | timezone1 = [[UTC+07:00]] <br>(Krasnoyarsk, Indochina) | utc_offset1 = | timezone1_DST = +7 | utc_offset1_DST = | website = | footnotes = }} '''Severnaya Zemlya''' , ek {{cvt|37000|km2|sqmi|adj=mid}} barraa [[archipelago]] Russian high [[Arctic]] me hae. Ii [[Siberia]] ke [[Taymyr Peninsula]] ke lage hae, aur mainland se [[Vilkitsky Strait]] se separated hae. Ii archipelago [[Arctic Ocean]], ke [[Kara Sea]] west me aur [[Laptev Sea]] east me divide kare hae. Severnaya Zemlya ke 1913 me pahila dafe note karaa gais rahaa aur 1930&ndash;32 me pahila dafe chart karaa gais rahaa, jiske matlab hae ki ii [[dunia]] ke aakhri barraa [[archipelago]] hae jiske explore karaa gais hae.<ref name="Barr1975">{{cite journal |last=Barr |first=William |year=1975 |title=Severnaya Zemlya: The Last Major Discovery |journal=Geographical Journal |volume=141 |pages=59–71 |issue=1 |doi=10.2307/1796946 |jstor=1796946}}</ref> Ii island Russia ke [[Krasnoyarsk Krai]] administrative zone me hae. [[Soviet Union]] ke time hian pe dher research stations rahaa lekin aaj-kal hian pe koi nai rahe hae. Prima Polar Station ke chhorr ke<ref>{{cite web |title=Фотогалерея: 2004 - "Полярное Кольцо" Местонахождение: 17 мая, Северная Земля, о. Большевик, м. Баранова, п/ст Примах |trans-title=Photo gallery: 2004 - "Polar Ring" Location: May 17, Severnaya Zemlya, Bolshevik Island, Baranov Cape, Primakh station. |url=http://www.ec-arctic.ru/photos/view_photo.php3?id=1159,section=20 |work=ec-arctic.ru}}</ref> [[Cape Baranov]] ke lage.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=De Korte |first1=J. |last2=Volkov |first2=A.E. |last3=Gavrilo |first3=M.V. |title=Bird Observations in Severnaya Zemlya, Siberia |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_arctic_1995-09_48_3/page/222 |journal=Arctic |date=1 January 1995 |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=222–234 |doi=10.14430/arctic1244 |jstor=40511657 |id= |citeseerx=10.1.1.560.4897 }}</ref> [[vibhag:S]] [[vibhag:Russia ke island]] j6s1y0nhzd5t7prxc7rha2rogu20v2e 0 64287 337313 323470 2026-08-15T06:16:34Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 4 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337313 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox planet | name = Enceladus | pronounced = {{IPAc-en|ɛ|n|ˈ|s|ɛ|l|ə|d|ə|s}}<ref>{{Cite dictionary |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/Enceladus |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731003737/https://www.lexico.com/definition/enceladus |url-status=dead |archive-date=July 31, 2020 |title=Enceladus |dictionary=Lexico UK English Dictionary |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> | mpc_name = Saturn II | named_after = [[Enceladus (giant)|Ἐγκέλαδος]] ''Enkélados'' | adjectives = Enceladean {{IPAc-en|ɛ|n|s|ə|ˈ|l|eɪ|d|i|ə|n}}<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.rfreitas.com/Astro/TerraformSRS1983.htm |bibcode=1983JBIS...36..139F |title=Terraforming Mars and Venus Using Machine Self-Replicating Systems (SRS) |last1=Freitas |first1=R. A. |journal=Journal of the British Interplanetary Society |year=1983 |volume=36 |page=139 }}</ref><ref>Postberg et al. "Plume and surface composition of Enceladus", p. 129–130, 148, 156; Lunine et al. "Future Exploration of Enceladus and Other Saturnian Moons", p. 454; in Schenk et al., eds. (2018) ''Enceladus and the Icy Moons of Saturn''</ref> | image = PIA17202 - Approaching Enceladus.jpg | image_scale = | caption = Enceladus ke chhaapa ''[[Cassini–Huygens|Cassini]]'' orbiter, October 2015<br> me utaris rahaa | note = yes | discoverer = [[William Herschel]] | discovered = August 28, 1789 | semimajor = {{val|238037|u=km}}<!-- Computed using the http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/NatSats/NaturalSatellites.html μ value --><ref name="Facts" /> | eccentricity = {{val|0.0047}}<ref name="Facts"/> | period = {{val|1.370218|u=days}}<ref name="Facts"/> | inclination = 0.009° (to Saturn's equator)<ref name="Facts"/> | satellite_of = [[Saturn]] | dimensions = 513.2&thinsp;×&thinsp;502.8&thinsp;×&thinsp;496.6&nbsp;km<ref name="Facts" /> | mean_radius = {{val|252.1|0.2|u=km}}<ref name="Jacobson2022"/> ({{val|0.0395}} Earths, {{val|0.1451}} Moons) | mass = {{val|1.080318|0.00028|e=20|u=kg}}<ref name="Jacobson2022">{{cite journal |last1=Jacobson |first1=Robert. A. |title=The Orbits of the Main Saturnian Satellites, the Saturnian System Gravity Field, and the Orientation of Saturn's Pole |journal=The Astronomical Journal |date=November 1, 2022 |volume=164 |issue=5 |pages=199 |doi=10.3847/1538-3881/ac90c9 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022AJ....164..199J |s2cid=252992162 }}</ref> (1.8{{e|-5}} Earths) | density = {{val|1.6097|0.0038|u=g/cm³}}<ref name="Jacobson2022"/> | surface_grav = {{val|0.113|u=m/s2}} (0.0116 [[g-force|g]]) | moment_of_inertia_factor = {{val|0.3305|0.0025}}<ref name="McKinnon2015">{{cite journal|last1= McKinnon|first1=W. B.|title= Effect of Enceladus's rapid synchronous spin on interpretation of Cassini gravity|journal= Geophysical Research Letters|volume= 42|issue= 7|year= 2015|pages= 2137–2143|doi= 10.1002/2015GL063384|bibcode= 2015GeoRL..42.2137M|doi-access= free}}</ref> | escape_velocity = {{V2|0.108|252.1|3}}&nbsp;km/s (860.4&nbsp;km/h)<!-- Calculated from mass figure above. --><ref name="Facts" /> | rotation = [[Synchronous rotation|Synchronous]] | axial_tilt = < 0.05 deg<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Giese |first1=B. |title=An upper limit on Enceladus’ obliquity |journal=European Planetary Science Congress (EPSC) |date=2014 |url=https://elib.dlr.de/89471/}}</ref> | albedo = {{val|1.375|0.008}} ([[geometric albedo|geometric]] at 550 nm) or {{val|0.81|0.04}}&nbsp;([[Bond albedo|Bond]]) | magnitude = 11.7 | temp_name1 = [[Kelvin]]<ref name="Spencer">{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1121661 |title=Cassini Encounters Enceladus: Background and the Discovery of a South Polar Hot Spot |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2006-03-10_311_5766/page/1401 |date=2006 |journal=Science |volume=311 |pages=1401–5 |pmid=16527965 |issue=5766 |bibcode=2006Sci...311.1401S |last1=Spencer |first1=John R. |last2=Pearl |first2=J. C. |s2cid=44788825 |display-authors= }}</ref> | min_temp_1 = 32.9&nbsp;[[kelvin|K]] | mean_temp_1 = 75&nbsp;K | max_temp_1 = 145&nbsp;K | temp_name2 = [[Celsius]] | min_temp_2 = −240&nbsp;°C | mean_temp_2 = −198&nbsp;°C | max_temp_2 = −128&nbsp;°C | atmosphere = Trace (water vapor) | surface_pressure = Trace, significant spatial variability<ref name="Dougherty">{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.1120985|title=Identification of a Dynamic Atmosphere at Enceladus with the Cassini Magnetometer|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2006-03-10_311_5766/page/1406|date=2006|journal=Science|volume=311|pages=1406–9|pmid=16527966|issue=5766|bibcode=2006Sci...311.1406D|last1=Dougherty|first1=M. K.|last2=Khurana|first2=K. K.|s2cid=42050327|display-authors=}}</ref><ref name="Hansen">{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.1121254|title=Enceladus' Water Vapor Plume|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2006-03-10_311_5766/page/1422|date=2006|journal=Science|volume=311|pages=1422–5|pmid=16527971|issue=5766|bibcode=2006Sci...311.1422H|last1=Hansen|first1=Candice J.|last2=Esposito|first2=L.|s2cid=2954801|display-authors=}}</ref> | atmosphere_composition = 91% [[water]] vapor<br />4% [[nitrogen]]<br />3.2% [[carbon dioxide]]<br />1.7% [[methane]]<ref name="Waite">{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1121290 |title=Cassini Ion and Neutral Mass Spectrometer: Enceladus Plume Composition and Structure |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2006-03-10_311_5766/page/1419 |date=2006 |journal=Science |volume=311 |pages=1419–22 |pmid=16527970 |issue=5766 |bibcode=2006Sci...311.1419W | last1=Waite | first1=Jack Hunter Jr. |last2=Combi|first2=M. R. |s2cid=3032849 |display-authors= }}</ref> }} '''Enceladus''', sixth sab se barraa [[Saturn ke chaand]] hae aur [[Saur Mandal]] ke 18th sab se barraa hae. iske diameter lagbhag {{convert|500|km|lk=on|abbr=off|sp=us}} hae,<ref name="Facts">{{cite web|url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Sat_Enceladus&Display=Facts|work=Solar System Exploration|title=Enceladus: Facts & Figures|publisher=NASA|date=August 12, 2013|access-date=April 26, 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016093801/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Sat_Enceladus&Display=Facts|archive-date=October 16, 2013}}</ref> aur ii [[Saturn]] ke sab se barraa chaand, [[Titan (moon)|Titan]] ke one-tenth hae. Ii snow se covered hae aur saur mandal me ke sab se reflective chij me se ek hae. Iske kaaran iske surface temperature, din me 12 baje khaali {{convert|-198|°C|K F|lk=on|abbr=on}} talak pahuche sake hae. Iske chhota size ke bawajuut Enceladus me dher surface features hae, puraana [[impact crater|cratered]] regions se nawaa, deformed [[terrain]]. {{Solar System}} [[vibhag:E]] [[vibhag:Sanigrah ke chaand]] 5v6zgnkbtz7mjfa25pzliut6pro9vgq 0 64290 337323 323483 2026-08-15T06:25:16Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337323 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox planet | name = Io | alt_names = Jupiter I | image = Io highest resolution true color.jpg | image_alt = The dark spot just left of the center is the erupting volcano [[Prometheus (volcano)|Prometheus]]. The whitish plains on either side of it are coated with volcanically deposited [[sulfur dioxide]] frost, whereas the yellower regions contain a higher proportion of [[sulfur]]. | caption = Io ke color image jiske ''[[Galileo (spacecraft)|Galileo]]'' spacecraft,<br/> 1999 me utaris rahaa. | bgcolour = #a0ffa0 | discoverer = [[Galileo Galilei]] | discovered = 8 January 1610<ref name="IAUMoonDiscoveries">{{cite web|url=https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Page/Planets |title=Planet and Satellite Names and Discoverers |publisher=Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature, [[USGS]]|archive-url= https://archive.today/20230815165140/https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Page/Planets|archive-date=15 August 2023}}</ref> | pronounced = {{IPAc-en|ˈ|aɪ|.|oʊ}}<ref>{{Cite dictionary |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/Io |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200229215137/https://www.lexico.com/definition/io |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 February 2020 |title=Io |dictionary=[[Lexico]] UK English Dictionary |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}<br/>{{MW|Io}}</ref> nai to Greco-Latin me ''Īō''<br/> (approximated as {{IPAc-en|ˈ|i:|.|oʊ}}){{citation needed|date=Feb 2022}} | adjectives = Ionian {{IPAc-en|aɪ|ˈ|oʊ|n|i|ə|n}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kieffer |first=S. W. |url=https://open.uapress.arizona.edu/system/actioncallout/4/f/d/4fd096aa-d130-495a-a611-80deb03ab195/attachment/28561a2d1a1959358964a24da9723ff2.pdf |title=Satellites of Jupiter |date=1982 |publisher=University of Arizona Press |isbn=978-0-8165-0762-7 |editor-last=Morrison |editor-first=David |series=Space science series |location=Tucson, Ariz |chapter=Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Volcanic Eruptions: Implications for the Plumes on Io |editor-last2=Matthews |editor-first2=Mildred Shapley}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Williams |first=D. J. |display-authors=etal |date=18 October 1996 |title=Electron Beams and Ion Composition Measured at Io and in Its Torus |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1996-10-18_274_5286/page/401 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=274 |issue=5286 |pages=401–403 |doi=10.1126/science.274.5286.401 |pmid=8832885 |bibcode=1996Sci...274..401W |issn=0036-8075}}</ref> | named_after = [[Io (mythology)|Ἰώ]] ''Īō'' | mean_orbit_radius = {{val|421700|u=km}} ({{val|0.002819|ul=AU}}) | eccentricity = {{val|0.0040313019}} | periapsis = {{val|420000|u=km}} ({{val|0.002808|u=AU}}) | apoapsis = {{val|423400|u=km}} ({{val|0.002830|u=AU}}) | period = {{val|1.769137786|u=d}} ({{val|152853.5047|u=s}},<br/> {{val|42.45930686|u=h}}) | avg_speed = {{val|17.334|u=km/s}} | inclination = 0.05° (to Jupiter's equator)<br />2.213° (to the [[ecliptic]]) | satellite_of = [[Jupiter]] | group = [[Galilean moon]] | mean_radius = {{val|1821.6|.5|u=km}} (0.28592 Earths)<ref name="jplfact"/> | dimensions = 3,660.0 × 3,637.4 × 3,630.6&nbsp;km<ref name="Thomas1998">{{cite journal |last=Thomas |first=P. C. |display-authors=etal |date=1998 |title=The Shape of Io from Galileo Limb Measurements |journal=Icarus |volume=135 |issue=1 |pages=175–180 |doi=10.1006/icar.1998.5987 |bibcode=1998Icar..135..175T|doi-access=free }} </ref> | surface_area = {{val|41698064.7357|u=km2}} (0.082 Earths) | volume = {{val|2.5319064907|e=10|u=km3}} (0.023 Earths) | mass = {{val|8.931938|.000018|e=22|u=kg}}<br/> (0.015 Earths)<ref name="jplfact"/> | density = {{val|3.528|.006|u=g/cm3}} (0.639 Earths)<ref name="jplfact"/> | surface_grav = {{val|1.796502844|ul=m/s2}} (0.1831923077 [[g-force|g]]) | moment_of_inertia_factor = {{val|0.37824|0.00022}}<ref name="Schubert2004">{{cite book|last1=Schubert|first1=G.|last2=Anderson|first2=J. D.|last3= Spohn|first3= T.|last4= McKinnon|first4=W. B.|editor1-last= Bagenal| editor1-first= F.| editor2-last= Dowling| editor2-first= T. E.| editor3-last= McKinnon| editor3-first= W. B.|title=Jupiter : the planet, satellites, and magnetosphere|chapter= Interior composition, structure and dynamics of the Galilean satellites|date= 2004|publisher= Cambridge University Press|location=New York|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=aMERHqj9ivcC|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=aMERHqj9ivcC&pg=PA281|isbn= 978-0521035453|pages= 281–306|oclc= 54081598}}</ref> | escape_velocity = 2,558.3174910781&nbsp;m/s | right_asc_north_pole = 268.05°<ref name="iau2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Archinal |first1=B. A. |last2=Acton |first2=C. H. |last3=A'Hearn |first3=M. F. |last4=Conrad |first4=A. |last5=Consolmagno |first5=G. J. |last6=Duxbury |first6=T. |last7=Hestroffer |first7=D. |last8=Hilton |first8=J. L. |last9=Kirk |first9=R. L. |last10=Klioner |first10=S. A. |last11=McCarthy |first11=D. |last12=Meech |first12=K. |last13=Oberst |first13=J. |last14=Ping |first14=J. |last15=Seidelmann |first15=P. K. |date=2018 |title=Report of the IAU Working Group on Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements: 2015 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10569-017-9805-5 |journal=Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy |language=en |volume=130 |issue=3 |page=22 |doi=10.1007/s10569-017-9805-5 |bibcode=2018CeMDA.130...22A |issn=0923-2958|url-access=subscription }}</ref> | declination = 64.50°<ref name="iau2015" /> | albedo = {{val|.63|.02}}<ref name="jplfact">{{cite web |last=Yeomans |first=Donald K. |date=13 July 2006 |title=Planetary Satellite Physical Parameters |publisher=JPL Solar System Dynamics |url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?sat_phys_par}}</ref> | magnitude = 5.02 ([[Opposition (astronomy)|opposition]])<ref name="magnitude">{{cite web |title=Classic Satellites of the Solar System |url=http://www.oarval.org/ClasSaten.htm |publisher=Observatorio ARVAL |access-date=28 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709203915/http://www.oarval.org/ClasSaten.htm |archive-date=9 July 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> | angular_size = {{nowrap |1.2 [[minute and second of arc|arcseconds]]}}<ref name="www.eso.org 2001">{{cite web | title=Io | website=www.eso.org | date=5 December 2001 | url=https://www.eso.org/public/images/eso0204b/ | access-date=21 May 2022}}</ref> | rotation = [[synchronous rotation|synchronous]] | rot_velocity = 271&nbsp;km/h | temp_name1 = Surface | min_temp_1 = 90&nbsp;[[Kelvin|K]] | mean_temp_1 = 110&nbsp;[[Kelvin|K]] | max_temp_1 = 130&nbsp;K<ref name="Rathbun2004">{{cite journal |last1=Rathbun |first1=J. A. |last2=Spencer |date=2004 |first2=J.R. |last3=Tamppari |first3=L.K. |last4=Martin |first4=T.Z. |last5=Barnard |first5=L. |last6=Travis |first6=L.D. |title=Mapping of Io's thermal radiation by the Galileo photopolarimeter-radiometer (PPR) instrument |journal=Icarus |volume=169 |issue=1 |pages=127–139 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2003.12.021 |bibcode=2004Icar..169..127R}} </ref> | atmosphere = yes (extremely faint, exosphere only) | surface_pressure = {{convert|0.5 to 4|mPa|atm|sigfig=3|abbr=on}} | atmosphere_composition = 90%&nbsp;[[sulfur dioxide]] }} '''Io''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|aɪ|.|oʊ}}), [[Jupiter]] ke chaar khaas chaand me se Jupiter ke sab se nagiich hae aur duusra sab se chhota hae. Lo, [[dunia]] ke [[Chandarma]] se thorraa barraa hae aur [[Saur Mandal]] ke 4th sab se barra chaand hae. Iske density aur sab chaand ke mukable me sab se jaada hae, iske [[surface gravity]] sab se jaada hae aur isme sab se kamti [[paani]] hae agar iske saur mandal ke koi bhi chij se compare karaa jaae. {{Solar System}} [[vibhag:I]] [[vibhag:Brahaspati ke chaand]] co18jmp0rvzhl56jtw5utq539wfnx3b 0 64292 337309 323489 2026-08-15T06:12:23Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337309 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox planet | name = Europa | alt_names = Jupiter {{rn|II}} | pronounced = {{IPAc-en|j|ʊ|ˈ|r|oʊ|p|ə}}<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/Europa |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200322182116/https://www.lexico.com/definition/europa |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 March 2020 |title=Europa |dictionary=[[Lexico]] UK English Dictionary |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}</ref> | adjectives = Europan {{IPAc-en|j|ʊ|ˈ|r|oʊ|p|ən}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lucchita |first1=B. K. |url=https://open.uapress.arizona.edu/system/actioncallout/4/f/d/4fd096aa-d130-495a-a611-80deb03ab195/attachment/28561a2d1a1959358964a24da9723ff2.pdf |title=Satellites of Jupiter |last2=Soderblom |first2=L. A. |date=1982 |publisher=University of Arizona Press |isbn=978-0-8165-0762-7 |editor-last=Morrison |editor-first=David |series=Space science series |location=Tucson, Ariz |editor-last2=Matthews |editor-first2=Mildred Shapley}}</ref><ref name="Greenberg 2005">Greenberg (2005) ''Europa: the ocean moon''</ref> | named_after = [[Europa (mythology)|Ευρώπη]] ''Eurōpē'' | image = Europa - Perijove 45 (cropped).png | image_alt = Surface predominantly white, with a prominent brown oval on the lower right named Callanish crater | image_scale = | caption = Europa ke chhaapa, jiske ''[[Juno (spacecraft)|Juno]]'' spacecraft, September<br/> 2022 me utaris rahaa.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/pia25334-junocam-image-of-europa-from-flyby | title=JunoCam Image of Europa from Flyby | website=Jet Propulsion Laboratory}}</ref> | discoverer = [[Galileo Galilei]]<br />[[Simon Marius]] | discovered = 8 January 1610 | orbit_ref = <ref name="horizons">{{cite web|url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons.cgi|title=JPL HORIZONS solar system data and ephemeris computation service|work=Solar System Dynamics|publisher=[[NASA]], Jet Propulsion Laboratory|access-date=10 August 2007|archive-date=7 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007034731/http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons.cgi|url-status=live}}</ref> | epoch = 8 January 2004 | mean_orbit_radius = {{val|670900|u=km}}<ref name="factsheet">{{cite web|title=Overview of Europa Facts|work=NASA|url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Jup_Europa|access-date=27 December 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326221921/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Jup_Europa|archive-date=26 March 2014 }}</ref> | eccentricity = 0.009<ref name="factsheet"/> | periapsis = {{val|664862|u=km}} Periapsis is derived<br/> from the semimajor axis (''a'') and<br/> eccentricity (''e''): ''a''(1&nbsp;−&nbsp;''e'').</ref> | apoapsis = {{val|676938|u=km}} Apoapsis is derived<br/> from the semimajor axis (''a'') and <br/>eccentricity (''e''): ''a''(1&nbsp;+&nbsp;''e'').</ref> | period = {{val|3.551181|u=d}}<ref name="factsheet"/> | avg_speed = {{val| 13743.36|u=m/s}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/moons/jupiter-moons/europa/by-the-numbers|title=By the Numbers &#124; Europa|website=NASA Solar System Exploration|access-date=6 May 2021|archive-date=6 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506170939/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/moons/jupiter-moons/europa/by-the-numbers/|url-status=live}}</ref> | inclination = 0.470° (to Jupiter's equator)<br />1.791° (to the [[ecliptic]])<ref name="factsheet"/> | satellite_of = [[Jupiter]] | group = [[Galilean moon]] | mean_radius = {{val|1,560.8|.5|u=km}}<br />(0.245 [[Earth]]s)<ref name="jplfact"/> | surface_area = {{val|3.061|e=7|u=km2}}<br />(0.061 Earths) Surface area derived from<br/> the radius (''r''): 4{{pi}}''r''². | volume = {{val|1.593|e=10|u=km3}}<br />(0.015 Earths) Volume derived from<br/> the radius (''r''): ⁴/₃{{pi}}''r''³.</ref> | mass = {{val|4.79984|e=22|u=kg}}<br />(0.008 Earths)<ref name="jplfact"/> | density = {{val|3.013|.005|u=g/cm3}}<br />(0.546 Earths)<ref name="jplfact"/> | surface_grav = {{val|1.314|ul=m/s2}}<br />(0.134 g) Surface gravity derived from<br/> the mass (''m''), the [[gravitational constant]]<br/> (''G'') and the radius (''r''): G''m''/''r''².</ref> | moment_of_inertia_factor = {{val|0.346|0.005}}<ref name="Showman1999">{{cite journal|last1= Showman|first1=A. P.|last2= Malhotra|first2= R.|s2cid=9492520|title=The Galilean Satellites|url= https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1999-10-01_286_5437/page/77|journal= Science|volume= 286|issue= 5437|date= 1 October 1999|pages =77–84|doi= 10.1126/science.286.5437.77|pmid=10506564}}</ref> (estimate) | escape_velocity = {{val|2.025|u=km/s}} Escape velocity derived from<br/> the mass (''m''), the [[gravitational constant]]<br/> (''G'') and the radius (''r''): <math>\textstyle\sqrt{2Gm/r}</math>.</ref> | rotation = [[synchronous rotation|Synchronous]] | axial_tilt = 0.1°<ref name="Bills2005">{{cite journal|last=Bills|first=Bruce G.|title=Free and forced obliquities of the Galilean satellites of Jupiter|date=2005|volume=175|issue=1|pages=233–247|doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2004.10.028|bibcode=2005Icar..175..233B|journal=Icarus|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1259023|access-date=29 June 2019|archive-date=27 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727063125/https://zenodo.org/record/1259023|url-status=live}}</ref> (to Jupiter) | right_asc_north_pole = 268.08° <ref name="iau2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Archinal |first1=B. A. |last2=Acton |first2=C. H. |last3=A'Hearn |first3=M. F. |last4=Conrad |first4=A. |last5=Consolmagno |first5=G. J. |last6=Duxbury |first6=T. |last7=Hestroffer |first7=D. |last8=Hilton |first8=J. L. |last9=Kirk |first9=R. L. |last10=Klioner |first10=S. A. |last11=McCarthy |first11=D. |last12=Meech |first12=K. |last13=Oberst |first13=J. |last14=Ping |first14=J. |last15=Seidelmann |first15=P. K. |date=2018 |title=Report of the IAU Working Group on Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements: 2015 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10569-017-9805-5 |journal=Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy |language=en |volume=130 |issue=3 |page=22 |doi=10.1007/s10569-017-9805-5 |bibcode=2018CeMDA.130...22A |issn=0923-2958}}</ref> | declination = 64.51° <ref name="iau2015" /> | albedo = 0.67&nbsp;±&nbsp;0.03<ref name="jplfact">{{cite web|last=Yeomans|first=Donald K.|date=13 July 2006|title=Planetary Satellite Physical Parameters|publisher=JPL Solar System Dynamics|url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?sat_phys_par|access-date=5 November 2007|archive-date=14 August 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090814111752/http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?sat_phys_par|url-status=live}}</ref> | magnitude = 5.29 ([[Opposition (astronomy and astrology)|opposition]])<ref name="jplfact"/> | temp_name1 = Surface | min_temp_1 = ≈&thinsp;50 [[kelvin|K]] | mean_temp_1 = 102&nbsp;K (−171&nbsp;°C) | max_temp_1 = 125&nbsp;K | atmosphere = yes | surface_pressure = 0.1 [[Pascal (unit)|μPa]] (10⁻¹² [[bar (unit)|bar]])<ref name="McGrathChapter">{{cite book|last=McGrath|editor1=Pappalardo, Robert T.|editor2=McKinnon, William B.|editor3=Khurana, Krishan K.|title=Europa|date=2009|publisher=University of Arizona Press|isbn=978-0-8165-2844-8|chapter=Atmosphere of Europa }}</ref> }} '''Europa''' [[Brahaspati ke chaand]] hae. Iske [[dunia]] se sadhaaran durbiiin se dekha jaae sake hae aur chaar [[Galilean moons]] me se ek hae. Ii sab se chhotaa chaand hae jon Brahaspati ke parikrama kare hae, aur ii dunia ke [[chandarma]] se thorraa chhota hae. Europa ek icy chaand hae, aur ii Brahaspati ke tiin icy chaand me se Brahaspati ke sab se nagiich hae. Iske kaaran iske surface kaafi nawaa hae, jiske kaaran [[tidal heating]] hae. {{Solar System}} [[vibhag:E]] [[vibhag:Brahaspati ke chaand]] bvlsb7fzvjmzduwjdeip199xe6np0ho 0 64295 337312 323510 2026-08-15T06:14:45Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337312 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox planet | name = Ganymede | alt_names = Jupiter {{rn|III}} | pronounced = {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɡ|æ|n|ᵻ|m|iː|d}}<br />{{respell|GAN|im|eed}}<ref>{{cite OED|Ganymede}}<br />{{cite Merriam-Webster|Ganymede}}</ref> | adjectives = Ganymedian,<ref>Quinn Passey & E. M. Shoemaker (1982) "Craters on Ganymede and Callisto", in David Morrison, ed., ''Satellites of Jupiter'', vol. 3, International Astronomical Union, pp. 385–386, 411.</ref><br />Ganymedean<ref>''Journal of Geophysical Research'', v. 95 (1990).</ref><ref>E. M. Shoemaker et al. (1982) "Geology of Ganymede", in David Morrison, ed., ''Satellites of Jupiter'', vol. 3, International Astronomical Union, pp. 464, 482, 496.</ref> ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɡ|æ|n|ə|ˈ|m|iː|d|i|.|ən}}) | named_after = {{lang|grc|[[Ganymede (mythology)|Γανυμήδης]]}}, {{transliteration|grc|Ganymēdēs}} | image = Ganymede - Perijove 34 Composite.png | image_alt = Surface with swatches of light and dark brown. The bright crater on the lower left is the Tros crater. | caption = Ganymede, sachchaa rang me, jiske ''[[Juno (spacecraft)|Juno]]'' spacecraft<br/> June 2021 me utaris rahaa<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.missionjuno.swri.edu/junocam/processing?id=10742 | title='Tros Crater, Ganymede – PJ34-1 Detail' &#124; }}</ref> | background = Wheat | discovery_ref = <ref name="SidereusNuncius">{{cite web|last=Galilei |first=Galileo |url=http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/images/barker/5990/Sidereus-Nuncius-whole.pdf |date=March 1610 |title=Sidereus Nuncius |author2=translated by Edward Carlos |editor-first=Peter |editor-last=Barker |publisher=University of Oklahoma History of Science |access-date=January 13, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051220010647/http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/images/barker/5990/Sidereus-Nuncius-whole.pdf |archive-date=December 20, 2005 }}</ref><ref name="NASA">{{cite web |url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/moons/jupiter-moons/ganymede/in-depth/ |title=In Depth {{!}} Ganymede |website=NASA Solar System Exploration |access-date=June 16, 2021 |archive-date=July 28, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180728113750/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/moons/jupiter-moons/ganymede/in-depth/ |url-status=live }}</ref> | discoverer = [[Galileo Galilei]]<br />[[Simon Marius]] | discovered = January 7, 1610 | semimajor = {{val|1070400|u=km}}<ref name="orbit">{{cite web |title=Planetary Satellite Mean Orbital Parameters |publisher=Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology |url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?sat_elem |access-date=February 9, 2008 |archive-date=November 3, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103134221/http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?sat_elem |url-status=live }}</ref> | eccentricity = {{val|0.0013}}<ref name="orbit" /> | periapsis = {{val|1069200|u=km}} | apoapsis = {{val|1071600|u=km}} | period = {{val|7.15455296|ul=d}}<ref name="orbit" /> | avg_speed = {{val|10.880|u=km/s}} | inclination = 2.214° (to the [[ecliptic]])<br />0.20° (to Jupiter's equator)<ref name="orbit" /> | satellite_of = [[Jupiter]] | group = [[Galilean moon]] | mean_radius = {{val|2634.1|0.3|u=km}} (0.413 Earths)<ref name="Showman1999">{{cite journal |last1=Showman |first1=Adam P. |last2=Malhotra |first2=Renu |title=The Galilean Satellites |date=October 1, 1999 |journal=Science |volume=286 |pages=77–84 |doi=10.1126/science.286.5437.77 |url=http://www.lpl.arizona.edu/~showman/publications/showman-malhotra-1999.pdf |pmid=10506564 |issue=5437 |access-date=January 17, 2008 |archive-date=May 14, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514231040/http://www.lpl.arizona.edu/~showman/publications/showman-malhotra-1999.pdf |url-status=live |archivedate=May 14, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514231040/http://www.lpl.arizona.edu/~showman/publications/showman-malhotra-1999.pdf }}</ref> | surface_area = {{val|8.72|e=7|u=km2}} (0.171 Earths) | volume = {{val|7.66|e=10|u=km3}} (0.0704 Earths)<ref name="volumecomment" group=lower-alpha /> | mass = {{val|1.4819|e=23|u=kg}} (0.025 Earths)<ref name="Showman1999" /> | density = {{val|1.936|ul=g/cm3}} (0.351 Earths)<ref name="Showman1999" /> | surface_grav = {{val|1.428|ul=m/s2}} (0.146 ''[[g-force|g]]'')<ref name="surfacegravitycomment" group=lower-alpha /> | moment_of_inertia_factor = {{val|0.3115|0.0028}}<ref name="Schubert2004">{{cite book |last1=Schubert |first1=G. |last2=Anderson |first2=J. D. |last3=Spohn |first3=T. |last4=McKinnon |first4=W. B. |editor1-last=Bagenal |editor1-first=F. |editor2-last=Dowling |editor2-first=T. E. |editor3-last=McKinnon |editor3-first=W. B. |title=Jupiter: the planet, satellites, and magnetosphere |chapter=Interior composition, structure and dynamics of the Galilean satellites |date=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aMERHqj9ivcC |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aMERHqj9ivcC&pg=PA281 |isbn=978-0521035453 |pages=281–306 |oclc=54081598 |access-date=July 23, 2019 |archive-date=April 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416151559/https://books.google.com/books?id=aMERHqj9ivcC |url-status=live }}</ref> | escape_velocity = {{val|2.741|u=km/s}}<ref name="escapevelocitycomment" group=lower-alpha /> | rotation = [[synchronous rotation|synchronous]] | axial_tilt = 0–0.33°<ref name="Bills2005">{{cite journal |last=Bills |first=Bruce G. |title=Free and forced obliquities of the Galilean satellites of Jupiter |date=2005 |volume=175 |issue=1 |pages=233–247 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2004.10.028 |bibcode=2005Icar..175..233B |journal=Icarus |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1259023 |access-date=July 13, 2019 |archive-date=July 27, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727063125/https://zenodo.org/record/1259023 |url-status=live }}</ref> (to Jupiter's equator) | right_asc_north_pole = 268.20°<ref name="iau2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Archinal |first1=B. A. |last2=Acton |first2=C. H. |last3=A'Hearn |first3=M. F. |last4=Conrad |first4=A. |last5=Consolmagno |first5=G. J. |last6=Duxbury |first6=T. |last7=Hestroffer |first7=D. |last8=Hilton |first8=J. L. |last9=Kirk |first9=R. L. |last10=Klioner |first10=S. A. |last11=McCarthy |first11=D. |last12=Meech |first12=K. |last13=Oberst |first13=J. |last14=Ping |first14=J. |last15=Seidelmann |first15=P. K. |date=2018 |title=Report of the IAU Working Group on Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements: 2015 |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10569-017-9805-5 |journal=Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy |language=en |volume=130 |issue=3 |page=22 |doi=10.1007/s10569-017-9805-5 |bibcode=2018CeMDA.130...22A |issn=0923-2958}}</ref> | declination = 64.57°<ref name="iau2015" /> | angular_size = {{nowrap |1.2 to 1.8 [[minute and second of arc|arcseconds]]}} | albedo = {{val|0.43|0.02}}<ref name="jplfact">{{cite web |last=Yeomans |first=Donald K. |date=July 13, 2006 |title=Planetary Satellite Physical Parameters |publisher=JPL Solar System Dynamics |url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?sat_phys_par |access-date=November 5, 2007 |archive-date=November 1, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101144111/http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?sat_phys_par |url-status=live }}</ref> | magnitude = 4.61 ([[opposition (astronomy)|opposition]])<ref name="jplfact" /><br />4.38 (in 1951)<ref name="horizons">{{cite web |title=Horizon Online Ephemeris System for Ganymede (Major Body 503) |publisher=California Institute of Technology, Jet Propulsion Laboratory |last1=Yeomans |last2=Chamberlin |url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons.cgi?find_body=1&body_group=mb&sstr=503 |access-date=April 14, 2010 |archive-date=February 2, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202122141/http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons.cgi?find_body=1&body_group=mb&sstr=503 |url-status=live }} (4.38 on 1951-Oct-03).</ref> | temp_name1 = K | max_temp_1 = 152<ref name="Orton1996">{{cite journal |last1=Orton |first1=G. S. |last2=Spencer |first2=G. R. |last3=Travis |first3=L. D. |last4=Martin |first4=T. Z. |last5=Tamppari |first5=L. K. |display-authors=2 |title=Galileo Photopolarimeter-radiometer observations of Jupiter and the Galilean Satellites |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_science_1996-10-18_274_5286/page/389 |journal=Science |date=1996 |volume=274 |issue=5286 |pages=389–391 |bibcode=1996Sci...274..389O |doi=10.1126/science.274.5286.389 |s2cid=128624870 }}</ref> | mean_temp_1 = 110<ref name="Delitsky1998">{{cite journal|last1=Delitsky |first1=Mona L. |last2=Lane |first2=Arthur L. |title=Ice chemistry of Galilean satellites |journal=J. Geophys. Res. |date=1998 |volume=103 |issue=E13 |pages=31,391–31,403 |doi=10.1029/1998JE900020 |url=https://trs.jpl.nasa.gov/bitstream/handle/2014/20675/98-1725.pdf |bibcode=1998JGR...10331391D |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061003013845/http://trs-new.jpl.nasa.gov/dspace/bitstream/2014/20675/1/98-1725.pdf |archive-date=October 3, 2006 |doi-access=free }}</ref> | min_temp_1 = 70<ref name="Delitsky1998" /> | atmosphere = yes | surface_pressure = {{convert|0.2-1.2|μPa|atm|sigfig=3|abbr=on}}<ref name="Hall1998">{{cite journal |last1=Hall |first1=D. T. |last2=Feldman |first2=P. D. |last3=McGrath |first3=M. A. |last4=Strobel |first4=D. F. |display-authors=2 |title=The Far-Ultraviolet Oxygen Airglow of Europa and Ganymede |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_1998-05-20_499_1/page/475 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=1998 |volume=499 |issue=1 |pages=475–481 |doi=10.1086/305604 |bibcode=1998ApJ...499..475H |doi-access=free }}</ref> | atmosphere_composition = mostly [[oxygen]]<ref name="Hall1998" /> | temp_name2 = °C | min_temp_2 = −203 | max_temp_2 = −121 | mean_temp_2 = −163 }} '''Ganymede''', [[Brahaspati ke chaand]] hae aur [[Saur Mandal]] ke sab se barraa hae. [[Saturn]] ke sab se barraa chaand, [[Titan]] ke rakam, ii grah p [[Mercury]] se barraa hae, lekin iske [[surface gravity]] Mercury, [[Io]], aur [[Chandarma]] se kamti hae, iske kamti density ke kaaran.<ref name="nasa.gany">{{cite web |publisher=www2.jpl.nasa.gov |title=Ganymede Fact Sheet |url=http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/ganymede/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970105182318/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/ganymede/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 5, 1997 |access-date=January 14, 2010 }}</ref> Ganymede, Brahaspati ke lagbhag hae saat din [[orbit]] kare hae aur ii 1:2:4 [[orbital resonance]] me chaand [[Europa]] aur [[Io]] se hae. {{Solar System}} [[vibhag:G]] [[vibhag:Brahaspati ke chaand]] 9v3iq3fcyxy7w2wobwo687tiaoyklcw 0 64309 337342 323526 2026-08-15T06:44:21Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337342 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox planet | name = Titan | mpc_name = Saturn VI | pronounced = | adjectives = Titanian<ref>{{cite web|work=JPL |url=https://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/news/newsreleases/newsrelease20050118-2/ |date=January 18, 2005 |title=Cassini Equinox Mission: Huygens Landed with a Splat |access-date=May 26, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620002838/https://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/news/newsreleases/newsrelease20050118-2/ |archive-date=June 20, 2010 }}</ref> or Titanean<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Luz | display-authors = etal | year = 2003 | title = Latitudinal transport by barotropic waves in Titan's stratosphere | journal = Icarus | volume = 166 | issue = 2 | pages = 343–358 | doi = 10.1016/j.icarus.2003.08.014 }}</ref><br/> (both {{IPAc-en|t|aɪ|ˈ|t|eɪ|n|i|ə|n}})<ref>{{OED|Titanian}}</ref><ref>"Titanian" is the written adjectival form of both Titan and Uranus's moon [[Titania (moon)|Titania]]. However, Uranus's moon has a Shakespearean pronunciation with a short "i" vowel and the "a" of ''spa'': {{IPAc-en|t|ᵻ|ˈ|t|ɑː|n|i|ə|n}}, while either spelling for Titan is pronounced with those two vowels long: {{IPAc-en|t|aɪ|ˈ|t|eɪ|n|i|ə|n}}.</ref> | named_after = [[Τῑτάν]] ''Tītan'' | image = Titan in true color by Kevin M. Gill.jpg | image_alt = Image of a thick atmosphere that is yellow due to a dense organonitrogen haze | background = PaleGoldenrod | caption = Titan ke chhaapa, jiske ''[[Cassini–Huygens|Cassini]]'' orbiter, December<br/> 2011 me utaris rahaa. | orbit_ref = <ref name="horizons">Unless otherwise specified: {{cite web |url=https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons.cgi#top |title=JPL HORIZONS solar system data and ephemeris computation service |work=Solar System Dynamics |publisher=NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory |access-date=August 19, 2007 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007034731/https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons.cgi#top |archive-date=October 7, 2012 }}</ref> | discoverer = [[Christiaan Huygens]] | discovered = March 25, 1655 | satellite_of = [[Saturn]] | periapsis = {{val|1186680|u=km}} | apoapsis = {{val|1257060|u=km}} | semimajor = {{val|1221870|u=km}} | eccentricity = {{val|0.0288}} | period = {{val|15.945|u=days}} | avg_speed = 5.57 km/s (calculated) | inclination = {{val|0.34854|u=°}} (to Saturn's equator) | mean_radius = {{val|2574.73|0.09|u=km}} (0.404 [[Earth]]s)<ref name="Zebker 2018">{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.1168905 |pmid=19342551 |first1=Howard A. |last1=Zebker |first2=Bryan |last2=Stiles |first3=Scott |last3=Hensley |first4=Ralph |last4=Lorenz |first5=Randolph L. |last5=Kirk |first6=Jonathan I. |last6=Lunine |title=Size and Shape of Saturn's Moon Titan |date=May 15, 2009 |journal=Science |volume=324 |issue=5929 |pages=921–923 |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7ec3/29458f5dabfa6c370476df8236779941f93f.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212021254/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7ec3/29458f5dabfa6c370476df8236779941f93f.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 12, 2020 |bibcode=2009Sci...324..921Z |s2cid=23911201 }}</ref> | surface_area = {{val|8.33|e=7|u=km2}} (0.163 Earths) | volume = {{val|7.16|e=10|u=km3}} (0.066 Earths) | mass = {{val|1.34518|0.00003|e=23|u=kg}} <br />(0.0225 Earths)<ref name="Durante 2019">{{cite journal| doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2019.03.003| last1=Durante | first1=Daniele| last2=Hemingway | first2=Douglas J.| last3=Racioppa | first3=Paolo| last4=Iess | first4=Luciano| last5=Stevenson | first5=David J.| date=July 2019| title=Titan's gravity field and interior structure after Cassini| journal=Icarus| volume=326| pages=123–132| bibcode=2019Icar..326..123D| ref={{sfnRef|Durante Hemingway et al.|2019}}| hdl=11573/1281269| hdl-access=free}}</ref> | density = {{val|1.8798|0.0044|u=g/cm3}}<ref name="Jacobson 2006">{{cite journal| doi=10.1086/508812| last1=Jacobson | first1=R. A.| last2=Antreasian | first2=P. G.| last3=Bordi | first3=J. J.| last4=Criddle | first4=K. E.| last5=Ionasescu | first5=R.| last6=Jones | first6=J. B.| last7=Mackenzie | first7=R. A.| last8=Meek | first8=M. C.| last9=Parcher | first9=D.| first10=F. J. | last10=Pelletier| first11=W. M. | last11=Owen, Jr.| first12=D. C. | last12=Roth| first13=I. M. | last13=Roundhill| first14=J. R. | last14=Stauch| date=December 2006| title=The Gravity Field of the Saturnian System from Satellite Observations and Spacecraft Tracking Data| url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astronomical-journal_2006-12_132_6/page/2520| journal=The Astronomical Journal| volume=132 | issue=6 | pages=2520–2526| bibcode=2006AJ....132.2520J| ref={{sfnRef|Jacobson Antreasian et al.|2006}}| doi-access=free}}</ref> | surface_grav = {{val|1.352|u=m/s2}} ({{val|0.138|u=[[G-force|''g'']]}}) | moment_of_inertia_factor = {{val|0.3414|0.0005}}<ref name="Iess2010">{{cite journal|last1= Iess|first1= L.|last2= Rappaport|first2= N. J.|last3= Jacobson|first3= R. A.|last4= Racioppa|first4= P.|last5= Stevenson|first5= D. J.|last6= Tortora|first6= P.|last7= Armstrong|first7= J. W.|last8= Asmar|first8= S. W.|title= Gravity Field, Shape, and Moment of Inertia of Titan|url= https://archive.org/details/sim_science_2010-03-12_327_5971/page/1367|journal= Science|volume= 327|issue= 5971|date= March 12, 2010|pages= 1367–1369|doi= 10.1126/science.1182583|pmid= 20223984|bibcode= 2010Sci...327.1367I|s2cid= 44496742}}</ref> (estimate) | escape_velocity = {{val|2.641|u=km/s}} | rotation = [[Synchronous rotation|Synchronous]] | axial_tilt = Zero (to the orbital plane);<br />{{val|27|u=°}} (to the sun) | albedo = 0.22 ([[Geometric albedo|geometric]]) <ref>{{cite web |last=Williams |first=D. R. |date=February 22, 2011 |title=Saturnian Satellite Fact Sheet |publisher=NASA |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/saturniansatfact.html |access-date=April 22, 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100430122034/https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/saturniansatfact.html |archive-date=April 30, 2010 }}</ref><br/> {{val|0.265|0.03}} ([[Bond albedo|Bond]])<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Liming|last2=Nixon|first2=Conor A.|last3=Achterberg|first3=Richard K.|last4=Smith|first4=Mark A.|last5=Gorius|first5=Nicolas J. P.|last6=Jiang|first6=Xun|last7=Conrath|first7=Barney J.|last8=Gierasch|first8=Peter J.|last9=Simon-Miller|first9=Amy A.|last10=Flasar|first10=F. Michael|last11=Baines|first11=Kevin H.|last12=Ingersoll|first12=Andrew P.|last13=West|first13=Robert A.|last14=Vasavada|first14=Ashwin R.|last15=Ewald|first15=Shawn P.|display-authors=1|date=December 2011|title=The global energy balance of Titan|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20110023012/downloads/20110023012.pdf|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|volume=38|issue=23|doi=10.1029/2011GL050053|bibcode=2011GeoRL..3823201L|access-date=August 20, 2023}}</ref> | magnitude = 8.2 to 9.0 | single_temperature = {{convert|93.7|K|°C}}<ref name="Mitri">{{cite journal |last1=Mitri |first1=G. |last2=Showman |first2=Adam P. |last3=Lunine |first3=Jonathan I. |last4=Lorenz |first4=Ralph D. |date=2007 |title=Hydrocarbon Lakes on Titan |url=https://www.lpl.arizona.edu/~showman/publications/mitri-etal-2007-lakes.pdf |journal=Icarus |volume=186 |issue=2 |pages=385–394 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2006.09.004 |bibcode=2007Icar..186..385M |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227112028/https://www.lpl.arizona.edu/~showman/publications/mitri-etal-2007-lakes.pdf |archive-date=February 27, 2008 }}</ref> | atmosphere = yes | surface_pressure = {{val|146.7|ul=kPa}} ({{val|1.45|ul=atm}}) | atmosphere_composition = Variable [[Stratosphere]]:<br />98.4% [[nitrogen]] ({{chem|N|2}}),<br />1.4% [[methane]] ({{chem|CH|4}}),<br />0.2% [[hydrogen]] ({{chem|H|2}}); Lower [[troposphere]]:<br />95.0% {{chem|N|2}}, 4.9% {{chem|CH|4}};<br />{{nowrap|97% {{chem|N|2}},}} {{nowrap|2.7±0.1% {{chem|CH|4}},}} {{nowrap|0.1–0.2% {{chem|H|2}}{{sfnp |Coustenis |Taylor |2008 |pp=154–155}}}} }} <!-- Per WP:LEADCITE items in the lead are sourced in the body of the article --> '''Titan''', [[Sanigrah ke chaand]] me se sab se barraa hae aur ii [[Saur Mandal]] ke duusra sab se barraa chaand hae. Ii khaali ek jaana jaae waala chaand hae jiske [[atmosphere]], [[dunia]] ke atmosphere se denser hae, aur outer space me, dunia ke alaawa, khaali ek jagha hae jahaan pe stable bodies of liquid ke rahe ke sabuut hae. Titan, Sanigrah ke saat golaa chaand me se ek hae aur duusra sab se duur hae. Titan ke diameter, [[dunia]] ke chaand se 50% jaada hae aur 80% jaada garrhu hae. Ii saur mandal me, Jupiter ke chaand, [[Ganymede]], baad, duusra sab se barraa chaand hae, aur [[Mercury]] se barraa hae; lekin Titan ke wajan Mercury ke khaali 40% hae, kaaheki Mercury me jaada [[loha]] aur patthar hae, jab Titan jaada kar ke ice hae, jon kamti dense hae. {{Saur Mandal}} [[vibhag:T]] [[vibhag:Sanigrah ke chaand]] 5zcjgikt4hn7sjfc2gc37el3vw1tnxl 0 64350 337330 323637 2026-08-15T06:32:44Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337330 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}} [[File:Kuiper belt plot objects of outer solar system.png|upright=1.3|thumb|Varungrah ke orbit se duur, Kuiper belt ke chij.<br/> (Scale [[Astronomical unit|AU]]; [[epoch (astronomy)|epoch]] me, January 2015 me.) {| | {{legend2|#FFFF00|[[Suraj]]}}<br /> {{legend2|#666666|[[Arungrah trojan]]}}<br /> {{legend2|#FF3333|[[Gas daano]]: {{hlist|class=inline|[[Brahaspati|B]]|[[Sanigrah|S]]|[[Arungrah|A]]|[[Varungrah|V]]}}}}<br /> {{legend2|#006700|[[Centaur]]}} | valign=top | {{legend2|#870087|[[Varungrah trojan]]}}<br /> {{legend2|#FFD68F|'''Resonant Kuiper belt'''}}<br /> {{legend2|#009EE6|'''Classical Kuiper belt'''}}<br /> {{legend2|#545400|[[Scattered disc]]}} |} <div style="font-size: 0.9em; margin-top: 4px; line-height: 1.2em;">''Distances scale me nai hae, lekin size hae. Biich me ke [[piyar]] disc Mangalgrah ke orbit ke baraabar har..<br />Source: Minor Planet Center, {{URL|https://www.cfeps.net/}} and others''</div> ]] '''Kuiper belt''' <ref> {{cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/help/pronunciation-key |title=Pronunciation Key: Quick Reference |website=Merriam-Webster.com |publisher=Merriam-Webster |access-date=3 April 2025 |archive-date=1 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070601152219/http://mw1.merriam-webster.com/pronsymbols.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Saur Mandal]] ke sab se duur waala hissa ke [[circumstellar disc]] hae, jon Varungrah ke [[orbit]] se, 30 [[astronomical unit]]s (AU) pe, se lagbhag [[Suraj]] se 50 AU talak.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Alan |last1=Stern |title=Collisional erosion in the primordial Edgeworth-Kuiper belt and the generation of the 30–50&nbsp;AU Kuiper gap |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_astrophysical-journal_1997-12-01_490_2/page/879 |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=490 |issue=2 |pages=879–882 |date=1997 |doi=10.1086/304912 |last2=Colwell |first2=Joshua E. |bibcode=1997ApJ...490..879S|doi-access=free }}</ref> Ii [[asteroid belt]] ke rakam hae, lekin dher barraa hae—20&nbsp;chaurraa aur –200&nbsp;dafe aur garrhu hae.<ref name="beyond">{{cite book |title=The Solar System beyond the Planets |first1=Audrey |last1=Delsanti |first2=David |last2=Jewitt |name-list-style=amp |department=Institute for Astronomy |publisher=University of Hawaii |url=http://www2.ess.ucla.edu/~jewitt/papers/2006/DJ06.pdf |access-date=9 March 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070925203400/http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/faculty/jewitt/papers/2006/DJ06.pdf |archive-date=25 September 2007 |bibcode=2006ssu..book..267D |year=2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1-link=Georgij A. Krasinsky |first1=G. A. |last1=Krasinsky |last2=Pitjeva |first2=E. V. |bibcode=2002Icar..158...98K |title=Hidden Mass in the Asteroid Belt |journal=Icarus |volume=158 |issue=1 |pages=98–105 |date=July 2002 |doi=10.1006/icar.2002.6837 |author2-link=Elena V. Pitjeva |last3=Vasilyev |first3=M.V. |last4=Yagudina |first4=E.I.}}</ref> Asteroid belt belt ke rakam, isme chhota-chhota chij hae jon [[Saur Mandal]] ke bane ke time se bachaa hae. Jab ki dher [[asteroid]] patthar aur [[metal]] ke banaa hae, jaada Kuiper belt ke chij frozen [[volatiles]] (termed "ices"), jaise [[methane]], [[ammonia]], aur [[paani]] se banaa hae. Kuiper belt uu chij ke ghar hae jiske astronomer log jaada kar ke [[bauna grah]] bole hae: [[Orcus]], [[Yamgrah]],<ref name="pluto_dwarf">{{cite web |last1=Christensen |first1=Lars Lindberg |title=IAU 2006 General Assembly: Result of the IAU Resolution votes |url=https://www.iau.org/news/pressreleases/detail/iau0603/ |publisher=IAU |access-date=25 May 2021 |archive-date=29 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429212224/https://www.iau.org/news/pressreleases/detail/iau0603/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Haumea]],<ref name="Dwarf_5">{{cite web |last1=Christensen |first1=Lars Lindberg |title=IAU names fifth dwarf planet Haumea |url=https://www.iau.org/news/pressreleases/detail/iau0807/ |publisher=IAU |access-date=25 May 2021 |archive-date=25 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140425065601/http://iau.org/public_press/news/detail/iau0807/ |url-status=dead |date=17 September 2008}}</ref> [[Quaoar]], aur [[Makemake]].<ref name="Dwarf_4">{{cite web |last1=Christensen |first1=Lars Lindberg |title=Fourth dwarf planet named Makemake |date=19 July 2008|url=https://www.iau.org/news/pressreleases/detail/iau0806/ |publisher=IAU |access-date=25 May 2021 |archive-date=16 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190616154815/https://www.iau.org/news/pressreleases/detail/iau0806/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Saur Mandal]] ke kuchh [[chaand]], jaise Varungrah ke [[Triton]] aur [[Sanigrah]] ke [[Phoebe]], saait ii jagha se aae hoi.<ref>Johnson, Torrence V.; and Lunine, Jonathan I.; ''Saturn's moon Phoebe as a captured body from the outer Solar System'', Nature, Vol. 435, pp. 69–71</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Neptune's capture of its moon Triton in a binary-planet gravitational encounter |author1=Craig B. Agnor |author2=Douglas P. Hamilton |name-list-style=amp |journal=Nature |volume=441 |issue=7090 |pages=192–4 |url=http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~cagnor/papers_pdf/2006AgnorHamilton.pdf |date=2006 |access-date=20 June 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070621182809/http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~cagnor/papers_pdf/2006AgnorHamilton.pdf |archive-date=21 June 2007 |url-status=dead |bibcode=2006Natur.441..192A |doi=10.1038/nature04792 |pmid=16688170|s2cid=4420518 }}</ref> ==References== {{reflist}} {{Saur Mandal}} [[vibhag:K]] [[vibhag:Varungrah paar ke chij]] 3a5ql278qjqple84ralk0bbo06em1ep 0 65776 337307 327514 2026-08-15T06:10:54Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337307 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox artist | name = Giovanni Bellini | image = Giovanni Bellini FeltételezettÖnarcképeKJ.jpg | image_size = 200px | caption = Apne se banaawa gais chhaapa, {{circa|1500}}, <br>Musei Capitolini, ([[Rome]]) | birth_name = | birth_date = {{circa|1430}} | birth_place = [[Venice]], Republic of Venice<br/> (abhi ke [[Veneto]], [[Italy]]) | death_date = 29 December 1516 | death_place = Venice, Republic of Venice<br/> (abhi ke Veneto, Italy) | nationality = [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] | known_for = [[Painting]] | education = | movement = [[Venetian Renaissance]] | notable_works = ''The Feast of the Gods'' | patrons = | module = {{Infobox person|child=yes | signature = Bellini Giovanni 1426-1516 02.jpg}} }} '''Giovanni Bellini''' ({{IPA|it|dʒoˈvanni belˈliːni|lang}};<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dipionline.it/dizionario/ricerca?lemma=Giovanni |title=Giovanni |work=DiPI Online |author=Luciano Canepari |author-link=Luciano Canepari | access-date=19 October 2018 |language=it |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021190917/http://www.dipionline.it/dizionario/ricerca?lemma=Giovanni |archive-date=21 October 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dipionline.it/dizionario/ricerca?lemma=Bellini |title=Bellini |work=DiPI Online |author=Luciano Canepari |access-date=19 October 2018 |language=it |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021190849/http://www.dipionline.it/dizionario/ricerca?lemma=Bellini |archive-date=21 October 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> c. [[1430]] – [[29 November]] [[1516]])<ref>{{cite book |last1=Humfrey |first1=Peter |chapter=Introduction |pages=1–12 |chapter-url=https://assets.cambridge.org/97805216/62963/sample/9780521662963ws.pdf |editor1-last=Humfrey |editor1-first=Peter |title=The Cambridge Companion to Giovanni Bellini |date=2008 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-72855-3 }}</ref> [[Italy]] ke ek renaissance chitrkaar rahaa, jon saait chitrkaari ke Bellini palwaar se sab se jaana maana jan rahaa. Giovanni ke [[Jacopo Bellini]] ke ghar me paala gais rahaa, jiske pahile uske pitaji socha jaawat rahaa, lekin abhi iske baare me log sawaal kare hae. .<ref name="art story">{{cite web |title=Giovanni Bellini - Biography and Legacy |url=https://www.theartstory.org/artist/bellini-giovanni/life-and-legacy/ |website=The Art Story |access-date=28 November 2020}}; {{cite journal |last1=Maze |first1=Daniel Wallace |title=Giovanni Bellini: Birth, Parentage, and Independence |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_renaissance-quarterly_fall-2013_66_3/page/783 |journal=Renaissance Quarterly |date=2013 |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=783–823 |doi=10.1086/673583 |jstor=10.1086/673583 |s2cid=191485612 }}</ref> Uske barraa bhaiyaa, [[Gentile Bellini]] ke aur achchhaa chitrkaar maana jaawat rahaa, uske jindagi me, lekin ulta chij abhi sach hae. [[Andrea Mantegna]] uske saala rahaa. {{BD|1430|1516|Bellini, Giovanni}} [[vibhag:B]] [[vibhag:Italy ke chitrkaar]] a69gh20gxx2ceztbwjjcg6dveu53gzl 0 67105 337331 330204 2026-08-15T06:33:03Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 1 book for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337331 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Sultanate of Delhi | native_name = {{native name|fa|{{Nastaliq|سلطنت دهلی}}}}<br />{{small|{{transliteration|fa|Salṭanat-i-Dehlī}}}} | common_name = Delhi Sultanate | era = [[Medieval India]] | status = [[Sultanate]] | event_start = [[History of Delhi#Delhi Sultanate|Independence]]{{sfn|Jackson|2003|p=28}} | year_start = 1206 | date_start = 25 June | event1 = [[Khalji Revolution]] | date_event1 = 1 February – 13 June 1290 | event2 = [[Battle of Lahrawat]] | date_event2 = 6 September 1320 | event3 = [[Sack of Delhi (1398)|Sack of Delhi]] | date_event3 = 17–20 December 1398 | event_end = [[First Battle of Panipat|Battle of Panipat]] | year_end = 1526 | date_end = 21 April | stat_area1 = | stat_area2 = | stat_area3 = | stat_area4 = | stat_year1 = 1250 | stat_year2 = 1300 | stat_year3 = 1312 | stat_year4 = 1350 | p1 = Ghurid dynasty | s1 = Mughal Empire | s2 = Bengal Sultanate | s3 = Bahmani Sultanate | s4 = Gujarat Sultanate | s5 = Malwa Sultanate | s6 = Khandesh Sultanate | s7 = Jaunpur Sultanate | s8 = Multan Sultanate | s9 = Madurai Sultanate | image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Map of the Mamluk Dynasty.png|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Mamluk Dynasty circa 1250.{{sfn|Schwartzberg|1978|p=147}}|[[File:Map_of_the_Khalji_Sultanate.png|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Khalji Dynasty circa 1320.{{sfn|Schwartzberg|1978|p=38}}|[[File:Map_of_the_Tughlaqs.png|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Tughlaq Dynasty circa 1330.{{sfn|Jackson|2003}}{{sfn|Schwartzberg|1978|p=147}}| [[File:Map of the Sayyid Dynasty.png|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Sayyid Dynasty circa 1421.{{sfn|Schwartzberg|1978|p=148}}|[[File:Map of the Lodis.png|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Lodi Dynasty circa 1489. {{sfn|Schwartzberg|1978|p=148}}}} | image_map_caption = | capital = {{plainlist| * [[Lahore]] (1206–1210) * [[Badayun]] (1210–1214) * [[Delhi]] (1214–1327; 1334–1506) * [[Daulatabad Fort|Daulatabad]] (1327–1334) * [[Agra]] (1506–1526)}} | official_languages = {{ubl |[[Hindustani language|Hindavi]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eaton |first=Richard Maxwell |title=The Sufis of Bijapur, 1300–1700: Social Roles of Sufis in Medieval India |date=2015 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-6815-5 |pages=41–42}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Alam |first=Muzaffar |year=1998 |title=The pursuit of Persian: Language in Mughal Politics |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_modern-asian-studies_1998-05_32_2/page/317 |journal=Modern Asian Studies |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=317–349 |doi=10.1017/s0026749x98002947 |s2cid=146630389 |quote=Hindavi was recognized as a semi-official language by the Sor Sultans (1540–1555) and their chancellery rescripts bore transcriptions in the Devanagari script of the Persian contents. The practice is said to have been introduced by the Lodis (1451–1526).}}</ref> |[[Persian language|Persian]]<ref name="asi.nic.in">{{Cite web |title=Arabic and Persian Epigraphical Studies - Archaeological Survey of India |url=http://asi.nic.in/asi_epigraphical_arabicpersian.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929105219/http://asi.nic.in/asi_epigraphical_arabicpersian.asp |archive-date=29 September 2011 |access-date=29 January 2018 |website=Asi.nic.in}}</ref> }} | legislature = [[Corps of Forty]] (1211–1266) | population_estimate = 101,000,000<ref name="ggdc.net" /> | population_estimate_year = 1500 | religion = '''State religion'''<br />[[Sunni Islam]]<br />'''Others'''<br />[[Hinduism]] (majority), [[Jainism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Christianity]], [[Sikhism]], [[Zoroastrianism]] | currency = [[Ancient taka|Taka]] | government_type = [[Sultan|Sultanate]] | leader1 = [[Qutb ud-Din Aibak]] (first) | year_leader1 = 1206–1210 | leader2 = [[Ibrahim Khan Lodi]] (last) | year_leader2 = 1517–1526 | title_leader = [[List of sultans of Delhi|Sultan]] | today = {{ubl|[[Bangladesh]]|[[India]]|[[Pakistan]]||[[Nepal]]}} | image_flag = Delhi Sultanate Flag.svg | flag_type = Flag of the Delhi Sultanate according to the contemporary ''[[Catalan Atlas]]'' ({{circa}} 1375).<ref>Grey flag with black vertical stripe according to the ''[[Catalan Atlas]]'' ({{circa}} 1375): [[File:Flag of the Delhi Tughlaq Sultanate according to the Catalan Atlas.jpg|60px]] in the [[:File:Sultan of Delhi (top) and King of Vijayanagar (bottom) in the Catalan Atlas of 1375.jpg|depiction of the Delhi Sultanate in the Catalan Atlas]]</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kadoi |first=Yuka |date=2010 |title=On the Timurid flag |url=https://www.academia.edu/17410816 |journal=Beiträge zur islamischen Kunst und Archäologie |volume=2 |page=148 |doi=10.29091/9783954909537/009 |s2cid=263250872 |quote="...helps identify another curious flag found in northern India – a brown or originally silver flag with a vertical black line – as the flag of the Delhi Sultanate (602–962/1206–1555)."}}</ref><ref>Note: other sources describe the use of two flags: the black [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] flag, and the red [[Ghurid dynasty|Ghurid]] flag, as well as various banners with figures of the new moon, a dragon or a lion.{{Cite book |last=Qurashi |first=Ishtiyaq Hussian |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.281982/page/n159/mode/2up |title=The Administration of the Sultanate of Delhi |date=1942 |publisher=SH. MUHAMMAD ASHRAF |location=Kashmiri Bazar Lahore |page=143 |quote="Large banners were carried with the army. In the beginning, the sultans had only two colours : on the right were black flags, of Abbasid colour; and on the left, they carried their colour, red, which was derived from Ghor. Qutb-ud-din Aibak's standards bore the figures of the new moon, a dragon or a lion; Firuz Shah's flags also displayed a dragon."}}{{cite book |last1=Jha |first1=Sadan |title=Reverence, Resistance and Politics of Seeing the Indian National Flag |date=8 January 2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-11887-4 |page=36 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-lswCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 |language=en}}, also "On the right of the Sultan was carried the black standard of the Abbasids and on the left the red standard of Ghor." in {{cite book |last1=Thapliyal |first1=Uma Prasad |title=The Dhvaja, Standards and Flags of India: A Study |date=1938 |publisher=B.R. Publishing Corporation |isbn=978-81-7018-092-0 |page=94 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AMogAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA94 |language=en}}</ref> | flag_border = yes }} '''Delhi Sultanate''' nai to '''Sultanate of Delhi''' ek [[Medieval India|late medieval]] [[empire]] rahaa jon [[Delhi]] me based rahaa aur [[Indian subcontinent]] ke duusra hissa me bhi faela rahaa, tiin sau saal talak..<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Shally-Jensen |first1=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YQuXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA171 |title=A Cultural Encyclopedia of Lost Cities and Civilizations |last2=Vivian |first2=Anthony |date=2022 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-4408-7311-9 |page=171 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="brt">[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/156530/Delhi-sultanate Delhi Sultanate], Encyclopædia Britannica</ref><ref>A. Schimmel, Islam in the Indian Subcontinent, Leiden, 1980</ref> Ii [[sultanate]] 1206 me suruu bhais rahaa jab pahile ke [[Ghurid Empire|Ghurid ilaaka]] ke India me aapan niche kar liis rahaa. Ii sultanate ke itihaas ke paanch periods me baata jaae sake hae: [[Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)|Mamluk]] (1206–1290), [[Khalji dynasty|Khalji]] (1290–1320), [[Tughlaq dynasty|Tughlaq]] (1320–1414), [[Sayyid dynasty|Sayyid]] (1414–1451), aur [[Lodi dynasty|Lodi]] (1451–1526). Ii abhi ke [[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]] ke ek barraa ilaaka aapan niche karis rahaa, aur [[Nepal]] ke kuchh dakchhin hissa bhi.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chapman |first=Graham |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzh-CwAAQBAJ |title=Shared Space: Divided Space: Essays on Conflict and Territorial Organization |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-35837-4 |editor-last=Chisholm |editor-first=Michael |pages=106–134 |language=en |chapter=Religious vs. regional determinism: India, Pakistan and Bangladesh as inheritors of empire |editor-last2=Smith |editor-first2=David M. |orig-year=1990}}</ref> Sultanate Sultanate ke foundation ke Ghurid conqueror [[Muhammad of Ghor|Muhammad Ghori]] bichhaais rahaa, jab uu [[Rajput|Rajput Confederacy]], jiske [[Prithviraj Chauhan]] agwai karis rahaaa, ke [[Second Battle of Tarain|1192 near Tarain]], [[First Battle of Tarain|earlier battle]] ke ulta kar ke, harais rahaa.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sugata Bose |author-link1=Sugata Bose |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6ihNtzxy5GEC&q=Rajput |title=Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy |last2=Ayesha Jalal |author-link2=Ayesha Jalal |date=2004 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-30786-4 |page=21 |language=en |quote=It was a similar combination of political and economic imperatives which led Muhammad Ghuri, a Turk, to invade India a century and half later, in 1192. His defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan, a Rajput chieftain, in the strategic battle of Tarain in northern India paved the way for the establishment of the first Muslim sultanate...}}</ref> Ghurid dynasty ke successor rahe ke kaaran, Delhi Sultanate sab se pahile dher principalities pe raaj karat rahin jispe Muhammad Ghori keTurkic slave-generals raaj karat rahin, jisme [[Taj al-Din Yildiz]], [[Qutb ud-Din Aibak]], [[Bahauddin Tughril]] aur [[Nasir ad-Din Qabacha]] rahaa, jon baata gais Ghurid ilaaka ke apne me baate rahin.<ref>{{Cite book |last=K. A. Nizami |author-link=K. A. Nizami |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_9cmAQAAMAAJ |title=A Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi Sultanat (A.D. 1206–1526) |publisher=The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House |year=1992 |edition=2nd |volume=5 |page=198}}</ref> Khalji aur Tughlaq ke raaj ke time bahut jaldi se [[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent|Muslim conquests]] [[South India]] talak bhais rahaa.<ref name="Mahajan 121">{{Cite book |last=Mahajan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMWSQuf4oSIC&dq=revolution+ceaseless&pg=RA1-PA90 |title=History of Medieval India |publisher=Chand |year=2007 |isbn=9788121903646 |page=121}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sugata Bose, Ayesha Jalal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bodaohHyDRcC&dq=tughlaq+deccan+south+india&pg=PA28 |title=Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy |date=1998 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=9780415169523 |page=28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=M.S. Ahluwalia |title=History and Culture of Rajasthan (From Earliest Times upto 1956 A.D.) |publisher=Centre for Rajasthan Studies, University of Rajasthan |year=1999 |editor-last=Shyam Singh Ratnawat |page=135 |chapter=Rajput Muslim Relations (1200–1526 A.D.) |oclc=264960720 |quote=The Khaiji rule proved much stronger for the Rajput principalities ... A new wave of invasions and conquests began, which ended only when practically the whole of India had been bought under the sway of the Delhi kingdom. |editor-last2=Krishna Gopal Sharma}}</ref> Ii sultanate aakhri me aapan chotii pe pahucha Tughlaq dynasty ke time, jisme uulog puura Indian subcontinent [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]] ke niche hoe gais rahaa. Ek khaas political transformation [[North India]] bhar me bhais, jab Central Asian raaja [[Timur]] ke barbaad kare waala raid Delhi pe 1398 mebhais rahaa, jiske baad virodhi Hindu powers jaisr [[Vijayanagara Samrajya]] aur [[Kingdom of Mewar]] aapan ajaadi fir se lae liin, au nawaa Muslim sultanates jaise [[Bengal Sultanate|Bengal]] aur [[Bahmani Sultanate]] alag hoe gain rahaa.<ref>Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund, ''A History of India'', 3rd ed., Routledge, 1998, {{ISBN|0-415-15482-0}}, pp.&nbsp;187–190.</ref>{{sfn|Smith|1920|loc=Ch. 2, p. 218}} In 1526, [[Timurid dynasty|Timurid]] raja [[Babur]] northern India invade karis rahaa [[First Battle of Panipat|conquered the Sultanate]], jisse [[Mughal Samrajya]] suruu bhais rahaa. Delhi Sultanate ke bane ke kaaran Indian subcontinent, international aur multicultural Islamic social aur economic networks ke nagiich hoe gais rahaa,{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|pp=50–52}} jiske [[Hindustani language]]<ref name="brown2008" /> aur [[Indo-Islamic architecture]] se dekhaa jaawe hae.<ref>A. Welch, "Architectural Patronage and the Past: The Tughluq Sultans of India", Muqarnas 10, 1993, Brill Publishers, pp.&nbsp;311–322.</ref><ref>J. A. Page, [https://archive.org/stream/guidetothequtbde031434mbp#page/n15/mode/2up/search/temple ''Guide to the Qutb''], Delhi, Calcutta, 1927, pp.&nbsp;2–7.</ref> [[vibhag:D]] [[vibhag:India ke samrajya]] ovs9mb362baloxi2hhyq4x46qs1u5mt 0 68642 337321 334091 2026-08-15T06:23:45Z InternetArchiveBot 26740 Add 2 books for [[en:Wikipedia:Verifiability|verifiability]] (20260815sim)) #IABot (v2.0.9.5) ([[User:GreenC bot|GreenC bot]] 337321 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox writer <!-- for more information see [[:Template:Infobox writer/doc]] --> | name = Jean Racine | image = Portrait de Jean Racine d'après Jean-Baptiste Santerre.jpg | caption = Portrait by [[Jean-Baptiste Santerre]] | birth_name = Jean-Baptiste Racine | birth_date = {{birth date|1639|12|21|df=y}} | birth_place = [[La Ferté-Milon]], [[Picardy]], France | death_date = {{death date and age|1699|4|21|1639|12|21|df=y}} | death_place = Paris, France | occupation = Dramatist | education = | alma_mater = | period = Seventeenth century | genre = [[Tragedy]] (primarily), [[comedy]] | movement = [[Classicalism]], [[Jansenism]] | notableworks = ''[[Andromaque]]'', ''[[Phèdre]]'', ''[[Athalie]]'' | spouse = | partner = | children = | relatives = | awards = | signature = | subjects = }} <!-- Due to number and complexity of references, a carriage return that appears in the code only, not the page, is inserted at the end of long references, where the text resumes, as well as where a long reference ends, and another begins. --> '''Jean-Baptiste Racine''' ({{IPAc-en|r|æ|ˈ|s|iː|n}} {{respell|rass|EEN}}, {{IPAc-en|USalso|r|ə|ˈ|s|iː|n}} {{respell|rə|SEEN}}; {{IPA|fr|ʒɑ̃ batist ʁasin|lang}}; [[22 December]] [[1639]] – [[21 April]] [[1699]]) [[France]] ke ek dramatist rahaa, jon [[17th-century]] France ke tiin mashuur playwrights me se ek rahaa , [[Molière]] aur [[Pierre Corneille|Corneille]] ke saathe, aur iske saathe Western tradition aur world literatureke ek khaas jan rahaa. Racine jaada kar ke tragedy likhat rahaa, aur aisan kuchh "examples of neoclassical perfection"<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=25068685|pages=327–331|last1=Muller|first1=D. G.|title=Phedre|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_theatre-journal_1999-10_51_3/page/327|volume=51|issue=3|journal=Theatre Journal|year=1999|doi=10.1353/tj.1999.0066|s2cid=191586923}}</ref> <!-- -->as ''[[Phèdre]]'',<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=395873|pages=289–298|last1=Braga|first1=T. J.|title=Double Vision in Racine's Phèdre|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_french-review_1990-12_64_2/page/289|volume=64|issue=2|journal=The French Review|year=1990}}</ref> <!-- -->''[[Andromaque]]'',<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/theatre-dance/reviews/andromaque-oxford-playhouse-1645576.html|work=The Independent|first=Michael|last=Coveney|title=Andromaque, Oxford Playhouse - Reviews, Theatre & Dance|date=16 March 2009}}</ref> <!-- -->aur ''[[Athalie]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=379685|pages=55–57|last1=Mann|first1=A.|title=Racine's Biblical Masterpieces, Esther and Athalie|volume=3|issue=1|journal=The French Review|year=1929}}</ref> <!-- -->Uu ek comedy, ''[[Les Plaideurs]]'',<ref>[http://www.enotes.com/literary-criticism/racine-jean-vol-28 Jean Racine Criticism (Vol. 28)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> <!-- -->aur ek muted tragedy, ''[[Esther (play)|Esther]]'',<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=THeoseRjlP0C&pg=PA149&lpg=PA149 George Steiner: A Reader – Google Books<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> chhotaa log ke khaatir likhis rahaa. ==References== {{reflist}} {{stub}} {{BD|1639|1699|Racine, Jean}} [[Vibhag:R]] [[Vibhag:France ke lekhak]] ik2hvvtzlwkq0xhyrtso0qfrppv69kb 3 69513 337300 2026-08-14T17:06:20Z New user message 12502 Adding [[Template:Welcome|welcome message]] to new user's talk page 337300 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Template:Welcome|realName=|name=Gopal Arjun}} -- [[sadasya:New user message|New user message]] ([[sadasya ke baat:New user message|talk]]) 17:06, 14 August 2026 (UTC) 52gpyz2qriyrvj0l6g06l4it2wx6a46 0 69514 337344 2026-08-15T07:43:32Z Amherst99 2407 Amherst99 moved panna [[Slasher Film]] se [[Slasher film]] 337344 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Slasher film]] 2fwqkess3fnwrgelesdl0boamhj3f2u