Niels Bohr

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'''Niels Bohr''' d amussnagamaw (physicien) adanmarki, ittwassen ɣef leqdic-is di tussnagama tanaɛurt (nucléaire) d ubelkim (atome).

Ilul di Copenhague, tamaneɣt n tmurt n [[Danmark]]. Baba-s d afiziulug (physiologue). '''Niels Bohr''', ikcem ɣer yesnidi (laboratoire) n Rutherford (iqdec yid-s) di Manchester.

Deg usseggwas 1911, Bohr ikfa almud ines di tesdawit n Copenhague, yeffeɣ-d s Doctorat.

Deg usseggwas 1922, Bohr yuɣ arraz Nobel ɣef tiẓiri ɣef temṣukt (structure) tabelkamit (La théorie de Bohr sur la structure atomique). Tiẓri d-iffɣen gar usseggwas 1913 d usseggwas 1914.
Bohr, iḍfer leqdic I d-yeǧǧa Rutherford (1871-1937), I d-innan abelkim yebna ɣef yiɣes I ɣef tezzin iliktrunen.

Tiẓri n Bohr, d aseɣwen n tiẓri takantikt d tiẓri n Planck (assaɣ gar lqedd n ukantum (quantum) d usnagar n uzenzar) : abelkim ur yesɛi ara azenzar alikrumagniti, anagar ma illa aliktrun ibeddel aswir akanti. Lebbni-ya idegger ar sdat s waṭas tussnagama n ubelkim s wayen akw is d-ewwi d amaynut.

Deg usseggwas n 1916, Bohr iqdec d asalmad amussnagamaw di tesdawit n Copenhague. Deg usseggwas 1920, yuɣal d anemhal n Institut de physique théorique di tesdawit.

Deg ttrad amaḍal wis-sin, Bohr irwel ar Marikan, ikki di leqdic n lbumba tabelkamit, Projet Manhattan deg Los Alamos di New Mexico.

Mi ikfa ttrad, Bohr yuɣal d azamul mgal ttrad abelkami : Abelkim I Talzit ([[:fr:Atoms for peace award|Atoms for peace]]).

== Tudert-is ==

=== Temẓi d Unekcum ɣer Tussna (1885–1912) ===
Niels Henrik David Bohr ilul deg 7 Tuber 1885 deg Kopenhagen (Danmaṛk). Iddir deg yiwet n twacult tamesbaɣurt yerna d tmusnawt i yefkan azal ameqqran i tmusni:

* '''Baba-s:''' Christian Bohr, yella d aselmad ameqqran n tesenwuri deg Tesdawit n Kopenhagen.
* '''Yemma-s:''' Ellen Adler, tekka-d seg yiwet n twacult n yibankiwen d yikadimiyen udayen yesɛan ccan.
* '''Gma-s:''' Harald Bohr, yuɣal d amusnaw n tusnakt yettwassnen aṭas yerna d amyurar n ddabex uḍar ameqqran (yurar deg teɣlamt taɣelnawt n Danmaṛk).

Niels yekcem ɣer tesdawit n Kopenhagen deg useggas n 1903 akken ad yeɣreɣ tafizikt, tusnakt, tasnallunt d tfelsafit. Yewwi-d agerdas-is n dukṭura deg useggas n 1911 s yiwen n ukatay ɣef tɣara n yiliketṛunen deg yimuzzal.

=== Asnulfu n Tunt(akuntik) d Ccan Ameqqran (1913–1930) ===
Mi d-yewwi dukṭura-ines, Bohr yeffeɣ ɣer tmurt n Lengliz akken ad iqdec d yimusnawen imeqqranen n lweqt-nni. Yebda laqdic akked J.J. Thomson, syin iruḥ ɣer temdint n Manchester akken ad yeqdec akked Ernest Rutherford.

* '''Asmesl n 1913:''' Dinna i d-yessebded asmesl-is abelkami i ibeddlen udem n tussna s lekmal-is.
* '''Tsudut n Kopenhagen:''' Deg 1920, s lemɛawna n unabaḍ adanmaṛki, yessebded ''Tsudut n Tfizikt Tanaẓrit'' deg Kopenhagen. Tasudut-a tuɣal d ammas amaḍlan i yimusnawen imeqqranen am Werner Heisenberg, Wolfgang Pauli, d Paul Dirac.
* '''Arraz n Nobel:''' Yewwi Arraz n Nobel n tfizikt deg 1922 ɣef leqdic-is ɣef tiṣki n yiɣes abelkami d uceɛceɛ n tezmert.

=== Tafelsafit d Tidmi Tuɣẓint ===
Bohr ur yelli ara kan d afizikan yettnadin deg tanaremt, maca d amdan isenneden s waṭas ɣef '''tidmi tuɣẓint''' lqayen i wakken ad issefhem aswir n tunt (niveau quantique).

Yekcem s telqayt deg umjadel afelsafi ɣef tilawt d wusket. Amenzay-ines n ''wusemmed'' ur d-yeqqim ara kan deg tfizikt, maca yessaweḍ-it ad iseqdec tarrayt-a n uẓeɣẓen deg tesnudert d tesnimant, imi yumen belli tidet ur telli ara kan s yiwen n wudem, maca s wudmawen yemxallafen i yettkemmilen wway-gar-asen.

=== Ṭṭrad Amadlan Wis Sin, Taɣellit d Tnezwit (1940–1945) ===
Mi i d-tekcem tredsa(lɛesker) n Lalman tanazit ɣer Danmaṛk deg yebrir 1940, Bohr yeqqim deg Kopenhagen i wakken ad iḥader ɣef tsudut-is d yimusnawen izruzaɣ i yellan dinna. Maca deg ctember 1943, tewweḍ-it-id teɣtest belli inaziyen sewjaden ad t-ṭṭfen netta d twacult-is (imi yemma-s d tudayt). Dinna i d-tebda yiwet seg terwliwin timeqqranin n ṭṭrad:

* S tallelt n yimdanen n wzbu adanmaṛki d '''yimeggiyen''' n '''teɣellit''' abriṭani, Bohr d twacult-is rwlen deg yiḍ s yiwen n uɣerrabu amecṭuḥ ɣer tmurt n Sswid i yellan d tamurt tarawsant.
* Seg Sswid, yiwen n '''uɣalli''' abriṭani issewjed tagnit akken Bohr ad yerkeb deg yiwet n tmesrifegt tamecṭuḥt n lɛesker (tamesrifegt ''Mosquito'' yessawaḍen isalan s tuffra) ɣer tmurt n Lengliz. Bohr yeqqim deg wemkan n lqecc n tmesrifegt, yerna drus i yeqqim ur yemmut ara s lqella n uksijin deg yigenni.
* Mi yewweḍ ɣer Lengliz, yedda srid ɣer Marikan akken ad yettekki deg Usenfar n Manhattan i yessewjaden abumb aɣisan, ɣas akken yella yettnadi s wul-is ad issemneɛ amaḍal ɣef umenɣi s yimrigen-a.

=== Taggara n Tudert-is: Imenɣi ɣef Telwit ===
Mi yekfa ṭṭrad, Bohr yuɣal-d ɣer tmurt-is, Danmaṛk, d argaz yettwaqadren aṭas deg wamaḍal. Yefka akk lǧehd-is i yiwet n tɣawsa: aseqdec n tezmert taɣisant i telwit d tussna, mačči i ṭṭrad.

* Deg 1950, yura yiwet n tebrat yeldin i Yeɣlanen Yeddukklen (ONU) anda i d-yessuter ad yili lḥeqq n tuffɣa ɣef yisalan yecbuden tazmert taɣisant i wakken ad rsen leqyud i yimrigen.
* Yettekki s wudem uzzig deg usnulfu n Tsudut Tuṛufiyt i Unadi Aɣisan (CERN) deg temdint n Genève.

Niels Bohr yemmut deg 18 Wamber 1962 deg Kopenhagen. Yejja-d deffir-s adrar n tmusni d ubeddel n tfizikt yezzuznen tiseddarin n tmikanikt n tuntiwin.

== 1. Asmesl Abelkami n Bohr (1913) ==
Send(Uqbel) Bohr, Ernest Rutherford yessebded-d belli abelkim yesɛa iɣes ameqqran deg tlemmast. Maca '''asmesl-a'''(neɣ '''tamudemt-a''') yella yesɛa ugur: iliketṛunen ttezzin fella-s d wid yettasiren tazmert alamma ɣlin ɣef yiɣes.

Bohr yefra ugur-a mi d-yerna tiktiwin n Max Planck d Albert Einstein, yefka-d asmesl abelkami amaynut:

* Iliketṛunen ttezzin ɣef yiɣes deg yiḥuba yettwaktalen ibedden, war ma sṛuḥen tazmert.
* Iliketṛun yezmer ad ineggez seg uḥbu ɣer wayeḍ. Mi ara yali neɣ ad yader, yettak-d neɣ issumuy tunt n tezmert.
* Tazmert-a tettwasefhem s tegdawt-a:  ΔE=hν  (anda h d timezgit n Planck, ν d asnagar).

== 2. Amenzay n Wusemmed ==
Deg useggas n 1927, Bohr yessebded-d yiwen seg yimenzayen igejdanen n tmikanikt n tuntiwin: amenzay n wusemmed.

* Tawsa n ugama, am tafat neɣ abelkim, tezmer ad d-tban s snat n tikliwin yemxallafen: tikli n tzelɣa d tikli n tayyugt.
* Ur nezmir ara ad nẓer snat n tikliwin-a deg yiwen n ukayad. D tiwsatin timekmalin i wakken ad nefhem agmaḍ s lekmal-is.

== 3. Asegzi n Kopenhagen ==
Bohr, akked Werner Heisenberg d yimusnawen nniḍen deg tsudut n Kopenhagen, fkan-d asefhem amatu i tmikanikt n tuntiwin. Asefhem-a yeqqar-d:

* Inagrawen n tunt(akuntik) ur sɛin ara iraten ibedden uqbel ad ttwaskten.
* Asket s timmad-is d netta i d-yettgen talast i waddad n unagraw. Ayagi yella d tamentilt n umjadel ameqqran gar Bohr d Albert Einstein (i d-yennan &quot;Rebbi ur yetturar ara s tseqqart&quot;).

== 4. Aferket Aɣisan d Usmesl n Tmeqqit (1936-1939) ==
Deg tfizikt taɣisant, Bohr yefka-d asmesl n tmeqqit i wakken ad issefhem tiski n yiɣes.

* Iɣes yettwaḥseb am tmeqqit n waman anda ipṛutunen d inutṛunen ttemcabin ɣer tzelɣiwin n tmeqqit-a.
* Asmesl-a yefka-d tallelt tameqqrant i wakken ad fehmen amek i d-yettili uferket aɣisan, ladɣa aferket n Uṛanyum 235 i d-igellun s waṭas n tezmert taɣisant.

Niels Bohr yella d ajgu n tfizikt n lqern wis 20, yerna yeldi-d tiwwura i waṭas n tmusniwin tatrarin i nesseqdac ass-a.

== Tamselyut ==
* [http://www.imyura.net M.A.U d Y.A.Y] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130812220445/http://www.imyura.net/ |date=2013-08-12 }}&lt;/div&gt;

[[Taggayt:Tussna|Bohr]]
[[Taggayt:Tameddurt|Bohr]]</text>
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'''Niels Bohr''' d amussnagamaw (physicien) adanmarki, ittwassen ɣef leqdic-is di tussnagama tanaɛurt (nucléaire) d ubelkim (atome).

Ilul di Copenhague, tamaneɣt n tmurt n [[Danmark]]. Baba-s d afiziulug (physiologue). '''Niels Bohr''', ikcem ɣer yesnidi (laboratoire) n Rutherford (iqdec yid-s) di Manchester.

Deg usseggwas 1911, Bohr ikfa almud ines di tesdawit n Copenhague, yeffeɣ-d s Doctorat.

Deg usseggwas 1922, Bohr yuɣ arraz Nobel ɣef tiẓiri ɣef temṣukt (structure) tabelkamit (La théorie de Bohr sur la structure atomique). Tiẓri d-iffɣen gar usseggwas 1913 d usseggwas 1914.
Bohr, iḍfer leqdic I d-yeǧǧa Rutherford (1871-1937), I d-innan abelkim yebna ɣef yiɣes I ɣef tezzin iliktrunen.

Tiẓri n Bohr, d aseɣwen n tiẓri takantikt d tiẓri n Planck (assaɣ gar lqedd n ukantum (quantum) d usnagar n uzenzar) : abelkim ur yesɛi ara azenzar alikrumagniti, anagar ma illa aliktrun ibeddel aswir akanti. Lebbni-ya idegger ar sdat s waṭas tussnagama n ubelkim s wayen akw is d-ewwi d amaynut.

Deg usseggwas n 1916, Bohr iqdec d asalmad amussnagamaw di tesdawit n Copenhague. Deg usseggwas 1920, yuɣal d anemhal n Institut de physique théorique di tesdawit.

Deg ttrad amaḍal wis-sin, Bohr irwel ar Marikan, ikki di leqdic n lbumba tabelkamit, Projet Manhattan deg Los Alamos di New Mexico.

Mi ikfa ttrad, Bohr yuɣal d azamul mgal ttrad abelkami : Abelkim I Talzit ([[:fr:Atoms for peace award|Atoms for peace]]).

== Tudert-is ==

=== Temẓi d Unekcum ɣer Tussna (1885–1912) ===
Niels Henrik David Bohr ilul deg 7 Tuber 1885 deg Kopenhagen (Danmaṛk). Iddir deg yiwet n twacult tamesbaɣurt yerna d tmusnawt i yefkan azal ameqqran i tmusni:

* '''Baba-s:''' Christian Bohr, yella d aselmad ameqqran n tesenwuri deg Tesdawit n Kopenhagen.
* '''Yemma-s:''' Ellen Adler, tekka-d seg yiwet n twacult n yibankiwen d yikadimiyen udayen yesɛan ccan.
* '''Gma-s:''' Harald Bohr, yuɣal d amusnaw n tusnakt yettwassnen aṭas yerna d amyurar n ddabex uḍar ameqqran (yurar deg teɣlamt taɣelnawt n Danmaṛk).

Niels yekcem ɣer tesdawit n Kopenhagen deg useggas n 1903 akken ad yeɣreɣ tafizikt, tusnakt, tasnallunt d tfelsafit. Yewwi-d agerdas-is n dukṭura deg useggas n 1911 s yiwen n ukatay ɣef tɣara n yiliketṛunen deg yimuzzal.

=== Asnulfu n Tunt(akuntik) d Ccan Ameqqran (1913–1930) ===
Mi d-yewwi dukṭura-ines, Bohr yeffeɣ ɣer tmurt n Lengliz akken ad iqdec d yimusnawen imeqqranen n lweqt-nni. Yebda laqdic akked J.J. Thomson, syin iruḥ ɣer temdint n Manchester akken ad yeqdec akked Ernest Rutherford.

* '''Asmesl n 1913:''' Dinna i d-yessebded asmesl-is abelkami i ibeddlen udem n tussna s lekmal-is.
* '''Tsudut n Kopenhagen:''' Deg 1920, s lemɛawna n unabaḍ adanmaṛki, yessebded ''Tsudut n Tfizikt Tanaẓrit'' deg Kopenhagen. Tasudut-a tuɣal d ammas amaḍlan i yimusnawen imeqqranen am Werner Heisenberg, Wolfgang Pauli, d Paul Dirac.
* '''Arraz n Nobel:''' Yewwi Arraz n Nobel n tfizikt deg 1922 ɣef leqdic-is ɣef tiṣki n yiɣes abelkami d uceɛceɛ n tezmert.

=== Tafelsafit d Tidmi Tuɣẓint ===
Bohr ur yelli ara kan d afizikan yettnadin deg tanaremt, maca d amdan isenneden s waṭas ɣef '''tidmi tuɣẓint''' lqayen i wakken ad issefhem aswir n tunt (niveau quantique).

Yekcem s telqayt deg umjadel afelsafi ɣef tilawt d wusket. Amenzay-ines n ''wusemmed'' ur d-yeqqim ara kan deg tfizikt, maca yessaweḍ-it ad iseqdec tarrayt-a n uẓeɣẓen deg tesnudert d tesnimant, imi yumen belli tidet ur telli ara kan s yiwen n wudem, maca s wudmawen yemxallafen i yettkemmilen wway-gar-asen.

=== Ṭṭrad Amadlan Wis Sin, Taɣellit d Tnezwit (1940–1945) ===
Mi i d-tekcem tredsa(lɛesker) n Lalman tanazit ɣer Danmaṛk deg yebrir 1940, Bohr yeqqim deg Kopenhagen i wakken ad iḥader ɣef tsudut-is d yimusnawen izruzaɣ i yellan dinna. Maca deg ctember 1943, tewweḍ-it-id teɣtest belli inaziyen sewjaden ad t-ṭṭfen netta d twacult-is (imi yemma-s d tudayt). Dinna i d-tebda yiwet seg terwliwin timeqqranin n ṭṭrad:

* S tallelt n yimdanen n wzbu adanmaṛki d '''yimeggiyen''' n '''teɣellit''' abriṭani, Bohr d twacult-is rwlen deg yiḍ s yiwen n uɣerrabu amecṭuḥ ɣer tmurt n Sswid i yellan d tamurt tarawsant.
* Seg Sswid, yiwen n '''uɣalli''' abriṭani issewjed tagnit akken Bohr ad yerkeb deg yiwet n tmesrifegt tamecṭuḥt n lɛesker (tamesrifegt ''Mosquito'' yessawaḍen isalan s tuffra) ɣer tmurt n Lengliz. Bohr yeqqim deg wemkan n lqecc n tmesrifegt, yerna drus i yeqqim ur yemmut ara s lqella n uksijin deg yigenni.
* Mi yewweḍ ɣer Lengliz, yedda srid ɣer Marikan akken ad yettekki deg Usenfar n Manhattan i yessewjaden abumb aɣisan, ɣas akken yella yettnadi s wul-is ad issemneɛ amaḍal ɣef umenɣi s yimrigen-a.

=== Taggara n Tudert-is: Imenɣi ɣef Telwit ===
Mi yekfa ṭṭrad, Bohr yuɣal-d ɣer tmurt-is, Danmaṛk, d argaz yettwaqadren aṭas deg wamaḍal. Yefka akk lǧehd-is i yiwet n tɣawsa: aseqdec n tezmert taɣisant i telwit d tussna, mačči i ṭṭrad.

* Deg 1950, yura yiwet n tebrat yeldin i Yeɣlanen Yeddukklen (ONU) anda i d-yessuter ad yili lḥeqq n tuffɣa ɣef yisalan yecbuden tazmert taɣisant i wakken ad rsen leqyud i yimrigen.
* Yettekki s wudem uzzig deg usnulfu n Tsudut Tuṛufiyt i Unadi Aɣisan (CERN) deg temdint n Genève.

Niels Bohr yemmut deg 18 Wamber 1962 deg Kopenhagen. Yejja-d deffir-s adrar n tmusni d ubeddel n tfizikt yezzuznen tiseddarin n tmikanikt n tuntiwin.

== Leqdec-is ussnan ==

=== 1. Asmesl Abelkami n Bohr (1913) ===
Send(Uqbel) Bohr, Ernest Rutherford yessebded-d belli abelkim yesɛa iɣes ameqqran deg tlemmast. Maca '''asmesl-a'''(neɣ '''tamudemt-a''') yella yesɛa ugur: iliketṛunen ttezzin fella-s d wid yettasiren tazmert alamma ɣlin ɣef yiɣes.

Bohr yefra ugur-a mi d-yerna tiktiwin n Max Planck d Albert Einstein, yefka-d asmesl abelkami amaynut:

* Iliketṛunen ttezzin ɣef yiɣes deg yiḥuba yettwaktalen ibedden, war ma sṛuḥen tazmert.
* Iliketṛun yezmer ad ineggez seg uḥbu ɣer wayeḍ. Mi ara yali neɣ ad yader, yettak-d neɣ issumuy tunt n tezmert.
* Tazmert-a tettwasefhem s tegdawt-a:  ΔE=hν  (anda h d timezgit n Planck, ν d asnagar).

=== 2. Amenzay n Wusemmed ===
Deg useggas n 1927, Bohr yessebded-d yiwen seg yimenzayen igejdanen n tmikanikt n tuntiwin: amenzay n wusemmed.

* Tawsa n ugama, am tafat neɣ abelkim, tezmer ad d-tban s snat n tikliwin yemxallafen: tikli n tzelɣa d tikli n tayyugt.
* Ur nezmir ara ad nẓer snat n tikliwin-a deg yiwen n ukayad. D tiwsatin timekmalin i wakken ad nefhem agmaḍ s lekmal-is.

=== 3. Asegzi n Kopenhagen ===
Bohr, akked Werner Heisenberg d yimusnawen nniḍen deg tsudut n Kopenhagen, fkan-d asefhem amatu i tmikanikt n tuntiwin. Asefhem-a yeqqar-d:

* Inagrawen n tunt(akuntik) ur sɛin ara iraten ibedden uqbel ad ttwaskten.
* Asket s timmad-is d netta i d-yettgen talast i waddad n unagraw. Ayagi yella d tamentilt n umjadel ameqqran gar Bohr d Albert Einstein (i d-yennan &quot;Rebbi ur yetturar ara s tseqqart&quot;).

=== 4. Aferket Aɣisan d Usmesl n Tmeqqit (1936-1939) ===
Deg tfizikt taɣisant, Bohr yefka-d asmesl n tmeqqit i wakken ad issefhem tiski n yiɣes.

* Iɣes yettwaḥseb am tmeqqit n waman anda ipṛutunen d inutṛunen ttemcabin ɣer tzelɣiwin n tmeqqit-a.
* Asmesl-a yefka-d tallelt tameqqrant i wakken ad fehmen amek i d-yettili uferket aɣisan, ladɣa aferket n Uṛanyum 235 i d-igellun s waṭas n tezmert taɣisant.

Niels Bohr yella d ajgu n tfizikt n lqern wis 20, yerna yeldi-d tiwwura i waṭas n tmusniwin tatrarin i nesseqdac ass-a.

== Tamselyut ==
* [http://www.imyura.net M.A.U d Y.A.Y] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130812220445/http://www.imyura.net/ |date=2013-08-12 }}&lt;/div&gt;

[[Taggayt:Tussna|Bohr]]
[[Taggayt:Tameddurt|Bohr]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Nikola Kopernik</title>
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        <username>Gurzil90x</username>
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      <comment>Arniɣ-d ayen ilaqen</comment>
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'''Nikola Kopernik''' d amussnayyur, aẓar-is d apuluni. Ittwassen s teẓri I d-iqqaren : iṭij d areggag (ur ittmimiḍ ara) di tlemmast n umeɣrad. Amaḍal itezzi ɣef yiman-is abrid i wass, deg usseggwas ɣef iṭij (système hélicocentrique).

Nikola Kopernik (s tlatinit: ''Nicolaus Copernicus'', s tepulunit: ''Mikołaj Kopernik'') d amusnaw n tesnallunt, d amusnak, d ameskar di tdamsa, akked d argaz n usɣan. Yettwassen s umata imi d netta i d-isbedden '''tiẓri n tlemmast n tfukt''' (héliocentrisme), i d-yennan belli d Tafukt(iṭṭij) i yellan di tlemmast n unagraw-nneɣ, mačči d Tagnit.

Kupernik ilul ass n 19 di furar 1473 di temdint n Torun di tmurt n Pulunya, gar twacult n imzenza d yinawuren (fonctionnaires). Xal-is Lukas Watzelrude imended ɣef tɣuri ines. Deg usseggwas n 1491, Kupernik ikcem ɣer tesdawit n Krakubi, syin akkin iruḥ ar tmurt Ṭelyan ad iɣer tussna n tijjit d wezref di Padu (tasdawit anda isɣer, kra n 100 issegwassen d asawen, umussnaw ameqqwran Galili). &lt;br /&gt;
Deg usseggwas n 1497, yuɣ timsirin ɣef wezref di tesdawit n Bologne, din i yezdi taxxamt d usalmad amussnak Dominico Maria Novara (1454-1504). Kupernik, ilha-d s trakalt d tasnallunt.&lt;br /&gt;
Deg usseggwas 1500, ifka isaragen ɣef tussnayyurt di Rome.
Deg usseggwas 1503, Kupernik ikfa Duktura-ines n uzref, di Ferrare.

Seg usseggwas 1503 ar usseggwas 1510, Kupernik illa ɣer xal-is di Plogne. Gar usseggwas 1507 d usseggwas 1515, ikfa adlis ɣef tasnallunt ''De Hypothesibus Motuum Coelestium'' a se ''Commentariolus''.
Deg usseggwas 1512, Kupernik ittekka di tesmilt I teknawt (comission de réforme) n uszemz. Deg usseggwas 1517, yura-d adlis ɣef isurdiyen, ibda lsas n udlis-is ''De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium'' I ikfa deg usseggwas 1530.

Zzat tegrawla takupernikit, imussnawen la d-qqaren: amaḍal ur ittmimiḍ ara. Imtiwgen illan tezzint ɣef tegnit(lqaɛa).&lt;br /&gt;
Anagraw akuperniki ibedd ɣef:
- Yiwet : amaḍal itezzi deg yiwen wass ɣef yiman-is, deg usseggwas ɣef iṭij.
- Tis-snat, imtiwgen. nniḍden zgant tezzint ɣef iṭij.

S waya, Kupernik isebrurez-ed amek illa wass d yiḍ.
Maca, ayen i d-inna, di lqern XVI, d kra kan imussnawen I t)irefden; I t-yumnen; tugett ugin ayen I d-yenna; ayen id- yufa.

== Leqdic Agejdan: Tiẓri n Tlemmast n Tfukt ==
Send(Uqbel) Kopernik, amdan yella yettamen s teẓri n Baṭlimus (Ptolémée), i d-yennan belli Tagnit ur tettembiwil ara, d nettat i d amas n umeɣraḍ, yerna d yitran d tfukt(iṭṭij) i d-yettezzin fell-as. Tiẓri-ya tebna ɣef lsas asɣanan d uẓeɣẓen aqbur.

Kopernik ibeddel tamuɣli-ya s umudem amaynut, yebnan ɣef tɣawsiwin-a:

# '''Tafukt di Tlemmast:''' Tagnit mačči d talemmast n umeɣraḍ, maca d Tafukt i d-izgan di tlemmast.
# '''Tuzzya ɣef ugellus:''' Tagnit tettezzi ɣef '''ugellus-is''' aratak yal 24 n yisragen, d ayen i d-yettakkan ass d yiḍ.
# '''Tuzzya ɣef Tfukt:''' Tagnit d yimtiwgen-nniḍen tezzin ɣef Tfukt deg yiwet n tuzzya. Arured-nsen yemgarad ɣef leḥsab n wanmeggag yellan gar-asen d Tfukt.
# '''Amussu arudam n yitran:''' Amussu-nni i nettwali deg yigenni n yitran d tfukt, d amussu i d-yekkan seg umussu n Tagnit s timmad-is (marur n tmuɣli).

Aḍris-is agejdan i deg d-yessegza ayagi d adlis-nni ameqqran ''&quot;De revolutionibus orbium coelestium&quot;'' (Ɣef tuzzya n tɣawsiwin n yigenni), i d-yeffɣen deg useggas n 1543, akken kan yemmut.

== Asileɣ d Tuffut deg Tdamsa ==
Kopernik yella daɣen d amusnaw meqqren deg taɣult n tdamsa. Yefka-d tamuɣli-s ɣef tsiḍent d tedrimt. Yessufeɣ-d yiwen n ulugen i yettwassnen ass-a s '''&quot;Alugen n Gresham-Copernicus&quot;'''. Ulugen-a yeqqar-d: ''&quot;Idrimen n dir ssufuɣen idrimen yelhan seg wulzuzen&quot;'' . Isefhem-d amek i d-yettili uɣelluy n wazal n tedrimt mi ara yili usexleḍ di tanga i s d-ttwaxedmen yidrimen (amedya: asexleḍ n nneḥas deg wureɣ neɣ lfeṭṭa), ayen yettawin ɣer urured n lexlaṣ s tedrimt n dir, ma d tadrimt yelhan ad t-iffren umdan.

== Tigrawla Takupernikit d Wazal-is ==
Tamuɣli n Kopernik ur tbeddel ara kan aselken n tesnakt d tfizikt, maca tessaweḍ ɣer &quot;Tegrawla Takupernikit&quot; i d-yewwin abeddel ameqqran di tfalsafit d uẓeɣẓen amdan.

* '''Asemdu ɣef Tussna:''' Lsas i d-yefka yeldi abrid i yimusnawen am Galileo Galilei (i d-yesnernan tisellit s utiliskup), Johannes Kepler (i d-yufan alugen n tuzzya taglawayt/elliptique n yimtiwgen), d Isaac Newton (i d-isbedden tiẓri n teldayt).
* '''Asemdu ɣef Talsa:''' Tikti n Kopernik tekkes amdan seg tlemmast n txelqit, terra-t d amur amecṭuḥ deg tallunt meqqren. Ayagi yesnekna ula d isudaf n tmezgida di lweqt-nni, imi tiẓri-s tella mgal wayen i uɣen tannumi ttamnen yis.

== Taggrayt ==
Nikola Kopernik yegga-d aḥric ameqqran di tussna s tebɣest-is deg ubeddel n uẓeɣẓen amensay. Ayen i d-yewwi yella d asenɛet belli asmuqel n igenni ilaq ad yebnu ɣef tesnakt d uselken, mačči kan ɣef tikta tiqburin. D netta i d asalay amezwaru n tfizikt tatrart i ɣ-d-yessekcamen ɣer tmuɣli tusnant n tallunt d umeɣraḍ.

== Tamselyut ==
* [http://www.imyura.net Imyura.net, Mack A.U. d Yusef A.I.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130812220445/http://www.imyura.net/ |date=2013-08-12 }}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kopernik, Nikola}}
[[Taggayt:Tussna]]
[[Taggayt:Tameddurt]]
[[Taggayt:Amesnallun apuluni]]
[[Taggayt:Amesnallun n timiḍi wisXVI]]
[[Taggayt:Tasnallunt tabuḍant]]
[[Taggayt:Tugna n taglizt takaṭulit tapulunit]]
[[Taggayt:Amyaru n tutlayt talatint]]
[[Taggayt:Tugna tapulunit n timiḍi wisXVI]]
[[Taggayt:Tugna n Pruss]]
[[Taggayt:Anelmad n tasdawit n Bulunya]]
[[Taggayt:Anelmad n tasdawit Jagelun n Krakubya]]
[[Taggayt:Talalit n 1473]]
[[Taggayt:Talalit di Toruń]]
[[Taggayt:Lmut n 1543]]
[[Taggayt:Amezruy n unnay n Meɣres]]
[[Taggayt:Wikipedia:Afecku n tuqqla n imeɣriyen]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>William Shakespeare</title>
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'''William Shakespeare''' d amedyaz yettwasnen ugar, d argaz umezgun, d amyaru n yedles aglizi. Ilul ass n 23 ibrir (kuzyur) 1564. Immut ass n 23 ibrir (kuzyur) 1616. 

'''Ticequfin n Shakespeare'''

* ''[[Romeo and Juliet]]
* ''[[Macbeth (pièce)|Macbeth]]''
* ''[[King Lear]]
* ''[[Hamlet, Prince of Denmark]]
* ''[[Othello, the Moor of Venice]]
* ''[[Titus Andronicus]]''
* ''[[Julius Caesar]]
* ''[[Antony and Cleopatra]]
* ''[[Coriolanus]]
* ''[[Troilus and Cressida]]
* ''[[Timon of Athens]]
* ''[[All's Well that Ends Well]]
* ''[[As You Like It]]
* ''[[Le Songe d'une nuit d'été]]'' (''A Midsummer Night's Dream'')
* ''[[Beaucoup de bruit pour rien]]'' (''Much Ado About Nothing'')
* ''[[Mesure pour Mesure]]'' (''Measure for Measure'') **
* ''[[La Mégère apprivoisée]]'' (''The Taming of the Shrew'')
* ''[[La Nuit des rois (théâtre)|La Nuit des Rois]]'' (''Twelfth Night'')
* ''[[Le Marchand de Venise]]'' (''The Merchant of Venice'') **
* ''[[Les Joyeuses Commères de Windsor]]'' (''The Merry Wives of Windsor'')
* ''[[Peines d'amour perdues]]'' (''Love's Labour's Lost'')
* ''[[Les Deux Gentilshommes de Vérone]]'' (''The Two Gentlemen of Verona'')
* ''[[La Comédie des erreurs]]'' (''The Comedy of Errors'')

'''Ticequfin umezruy n Shakespeare'''

* ''[[Richard III (Shakespeare)|Richard III]]''
* ''[[Richard II (Shakespeare)|Richard II]]''
* ''[[Henri VI (Shakespeare)|Henri VI]], 1ère partie, 2e partie, 3e partie'' (''Henry VI, Part 1, Part 2, Part 3'')
* ''[[Henry V (tragédie historique)|Henri V]]'' (''Henry V'')
* ''[[Henri IV (Shakespeare)|Henri IV]], 1ère partie, 2e partie'' (''Henry IV, Part 1, Part 2'')
* ''[[Henri VIII (Shakespeare)|Henri VIII]]'' (''Henry VIII'')
* ''[[Le Roi Jean]]'' (''King John'')
* ''[[Édouard III (Shakespeare)|Édouard III]]'' (''Edward III'')

'''Ticequfin n tayri n Shakespeare'''
* ''[[Péricles, prince de Tyr]]'' (''Pericles, Prince of Tyre'') *
* ''[[Cymbeline]]'' *
* ''[[Le Conte d'hiver]]'' (''The Winter's Tale'') *
* ''[[La Tempête]]'' (''The Tempest'') *
* ''[[Les Deux Nobles Cousins]]'' (''The Two Noble Kinsmen'') *

'''Tasekla nniḍen n Shakespeare'''

* les ''Sonnets'' (voir [[Sonnet]])
* les ''Longs Poèmes''

== Tamselyut ==
* Wikipedia s tefransist
'''Af tuddert n Shakespeare'''
* [http://adlitteram.free.fr/index.php/content/view/79/31/ Biographie détaillée de Shakespeare]
* [http://www.onlineshakespeare.com/frenchindex.htm Online Shakespeare] tameddurt-ines s tefransist.
* [https://www.onelittleangel.com/sagesse/citations/william-shakespeare.asp Sa vie, ses portraits et ses poèmes mystiques].
* [http://www.littanam.ulg.ac.be Shakespeare et Hamlet sur la toile].
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Study_Guide:Shakespeare Study Guide:Shakespeare sur Wikibooks] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070330012934/http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Study_Guide:Shakespeare |date=2007-03-30 }}
* [https://www.opensourceshakespeare.org/ Open Source Shakespeare] possède l’édition de 1866 des œuvres complètes de Shakespeare, avec concordance complète et moteur de recherche avancé. Pas de publicité, mais ne donne le texte que scène par scène.
* [http://www.bl.uk/treasures/shakespeare/homepage.html British Library] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611141145/http://www.bl.uk/treasures/shakespeare/homepage.html |date=2011-06-11 }}; original 93 copies in quarto
* [http://www.ericdigests.org ericdigests.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416165920/http://www.ericdigests.org/ |date=2021-04-16 }} propose des pistes pédagogiques, sous forme de liste de liens. Pas de mention des sources, cependant. 
* [http://suchshakespearestuff.blogspot.com/ Such Shakespeare Stuff] est un blog quotidien couvrant l’actualité autour du dramaturge: télévision, films, livres, etc. On y trouve aussi des quizzes, des anecdotes, des forums et d’autres informations dans ce genre. 
* [http://william-shakespeare.classic-literature.co.uk/ classic-literature.co.uk] donne une version électronique d’un texte anonyme. Présente le texte page par page.
* Works by William Shakespeare sur le [http://www.gutenberg.org/author/William_Shakespeare Projet Gutenberg], dans des langues variées (y compris les œuvres illégitimes...) et avec les graphies d’origine.
* [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?author=Shakespeare%2C+William upenn.edu online books page for Shakespeare] donne un texte de base, et redirige vers d’autres sites de référence.
* [http://www.shakespeare-literature.com/ Shakespeare Literature] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200428062047/http://www.shakespeare-literature.com/ |date=2020-04-28 }} propose une version organisée par chapitre pour une recherche facilitée dans les œuvres du poète. 
* [http://shakespeare.palomar.edu/ Mr. William Shakespeare and the Internet]
* [http://www.methuen.co.uk/williamshakespearepoems.html Selected Sonnets par William Shakespeare]
* Shakespeare et le théâtre du Globe tirée de l’[http://search.eb.com/shakespeare/index2.html Encyclopædia Britannica]
* [http://www.touchstone.bham.ac.uk/index.html Touchstone - UK Shakespeare collections] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200722230042/http://www.touchstone.bham.ac.uk/index.html |date=2020-07-22 }} 
* [http://www.elook.org/literature/shakespeare/ elook.org Shakespeare]{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070601205223/http://www.elook.org/literature/shakespeare/ |date=2007-06-01 }} présente quatre œuvres en version électronique avec une base de données permettant les recherches. 
* [https://shakespeare-1.com/doubtful/ Doubtful Works of William Shakespeare] Texte complet des œuvres dramaturgiques attribuées par erreur à William Shakespeare.
* [http://shakespeare.nowheres.com/ The original shakespeare.com] L’édition Moby dans une version lisible en ligne. 
* [http://wiredforbooks.org/shakespeare/ William Shakespeare's plays and poems in audio and video]
* [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/Arts/subcollections/IllusShakeAbout.shtml The Illustrated Shakespeare] Un projet du Centre de Documentation Digitale de l’Université de Wisconsin, qui présente des images et des documents en relation avec Shakespeare et son œuvre.
* [http://www.kennedy-center.org/explorer/shakespeare/# Explore Shakespeare] Un site du Kennedy Center (&quot;The John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts&quot; - Washington DC) ayant la particularité de présenter Shakespeare et son oeuvre en relation avec les événements de...1330 à 2008. Accompagné d'une carte du monde positionnant les éléments cités.
* [http://www.aufildemeslectures.net/?P=s&amp;au=325 Citations]

[[Taggayt:Tameddurt|Shakespeare]]
[[Taggayt:Amaru|Shakespeare]]</text>
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    <title>Yusef Ɛabdi</title>
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'''Yusef Ɛabdi''' d yiwen sen inadallen n tmurt n [[Usṭralya]]. &lt;ref&gt;http://www.iaaf.org/athletes/biographies/letter=0/athcode=174222/index.html&lt;/ref&gt;

Ilul deg was n [[7 dujamber]] [[1977]] deg [[Iɛeẓẓugen]] di [[Tmurt n Leqbayel]].&lt;ref&gt;http://www.depechedekabylie.com/index.php?news=61028&lt;/ref&gt;

Tamezzugt-is d 3000 lmitrat.

Deg useggas n 2012, ad ittekki deg [[Uraren ulempiyen]] di [[London]] di tmurt n [[Legliz]]. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite Web |title=Archive copy |url=http://www.london2012.com/athlete/abdi-youcef-1090243/ |access-date=2013-04-11 |archive-date=2013-04-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403010746/http://www.london2012.com/athlete/abdi-youcef-1090243/ |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Tinfusin timsizzlin==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; 
|- 
!Aseggas
!Timsizzelt
!Adeg
!Abellez
!Tirmit
!Akud
|-
!colspan=&quot;6&quot;|Attekki i {{flagcountry|ALG}}
|-
|1996
|[[Tilɣuɣyin n umaḍal ilemẓiyen 1996 n atletaẓri|Tilɣuɣyin n umaḍal ilemẓiyen]]
|[[Sydney]], [[Usṭralya]]
|wis34
|800 m
|1:54.12
|-
!colspan=&quot;6&quot;|Attekki i {{flagcountry|AUS}}
|-
|2000
|[[Tilɣuɣyin n Usyania 2000 n atletaẓri|Tilɣuɣyin n Usyania]]
|[[Adelaide]], [[Usṭralya]]
|wis2
|1500 m
|3:45.45&lt;ref&gt;Atekki am inebgi&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
|2002
|[[Atletaẓri deg Uraren n Commonwealth 2002|Uraren n Commonwealth]]
|[[Manchester]], [[Tagelda Yeddukklen]]
|bgcolor=cc9966|wis3
|1500 m
|3:37.77
|-
|2003
|[[Tilɣuɣyin n umaḍal 2003 n atletaẓri|Tilɣuɣyin n umaḍal]]
|[[Paris]], [[Fransa]]
|wis10
|1500 m
|3:40.13
|-
|2006
|[[Atletaẓri deg Uraren n Commonwealth 2006|Uraren n Commonwealth]]
|[[Melbourne]], [[Usṭralya]]
|wis11
|3000 m s'chase
|9:02.22
|-
|2007
|[[Tilɣuɣyin n umaḍal 2007 n atletaẓri|Tilɣuɣyin n umaḍal]]
|[[Osaka]], [[Japun]]
|wis36
|3000 m s'chase
|9:51.33
|-
|2008
|[[Atletaẓri deg Uraren ulimpiyen n unebdu 2008|Uraren ulimpiyen]]
|[[Pekin]], [[Ccinwa]]
|wis6
|3000 m s'chase
|8:16.36
|-
|2009
|[[Tilɣuɣyin n umaḍal 2009 n atletaẓri|Tilɣuɣyin n umaḍal]]
|[[Berlin]], [[Lalman]]
|wis34
|3000 m s'chase
|8:49.88
|-
|2010
|[[Atletaẓri deg Uraren n Commonwealth 2010|Uraren n Commonwealth]]
|[[Delhi]], [[Lhend]]
|wis6
|3000 m s'chase
|8:33.20
|-
|2011
|[[Tilɣuɣyin n umaḍal 2011 n atletaẓri|Tilɣuɣyin n umaḍal]]
|[[Daegu]], [[Kurya n Wenẓul]]
|wis28
|3000 m s'chase
|8:38.42
|-
|2012
|[[Atletaẓri deg Uraren ulimpiyen n unebdu 2012|Uraren ulimpiyen]]
|[[London]], [[Tagelda Yeddukklen]]
|wis23
|3000 m s'chase
|8:29.81
|}

==Tamselyut==
&lt;references/&gt;


[[Taggayt:Addal|Yusef Ɛabdi]]
[[Taggayt:Tameddurt|Yusef Ɛabdi]]</text>
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    <title>Linux</title>
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      <text bytes="25517" sha1="e4ftl7mqwt18l9j0fttdw3zqnlc0pgx" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox aseɣẓan}}
'''Linux''' /ˈlɪnəks/ d iɣes n [[Anagraw n wammud|unagraw n wammud]], neɣ d isem i fkan i inagrawen n wammud yenarnan ɣef yiɣes ayi.

Linux d tawacult n yinagrawen n wammud yeldin yebnan ɣef yiɣes Linux, d iɣes n unagraw n wammud i d-yeffɣen i tikkelt tamezwarut ass n 17 ctember 1991, sɣur Linus Torvalds. Linux s umata, d asedger n Linux (distro), ideg yella yiɣes d ukemmus n yiseɣẓanen n unagraw d temkarḍiyin — tuget deg-sen ttaken-ten-id yikabaren wis kraḍ — akken ad d-snulfun anagraw n wammud ummid, yemmugen d aslag n Unix, dɣa yeffeɣ-d ddaw turagt GPL n tenɣelt.

D luluf n uzuzer n Linux i yellan, aṭas i yebnan srid neɣ arusrid ɣef uzuzer-nniḍen ; asedger n Linux yettwassnen deg-s yella Debian, Fedora Linux, Linux Mint, Arch Linux, akked Ubuntu, ma d asedger n tnezzut deg-s RedHat Enterprise Linux, SUSE Linux Enterprise, akked ChromeOS. Izuzren Linux sseqdacen-t aṭas deg tɣerɣertin n uqeddac. Aṭas n izuzer n Linux i yesseqdacen awal &quot;Linux&quot; s yisem-nsen, maca Tasbeddit Free Software tesseqdac u tessemter isem &quot;GNU/Linux&quot; akken ad d-twekked aseqdec d wazal n yiseɣẓanen GNU deg waṭas n uzuzer, d ayen i d-yeglan s kra n lxilaf. Ma mačči d iɣes Linux, iferdisen igejdanen i d-igellun s uzuzer zemren ad d-ilin deg-sen aqeddac n uskan ( anagraw n wusfaylu), d umsefrak n yikemmusen, d amakar n ubuqal akked tjeɣlalt Unix.

Linux d yiwen seg imedyaten yettwassnen akk deg yiseɣẓanen ilelliyen d uɣbalu yeldin. Ma yella deg tazwara, snulfan-t-id i yiselkimen udmawanen yebnan ɣef x86, seg wasmi ay d-yettwasagen ɣer wugar n tɣerɣertin wala anagraw niḍen n wammad, yernu sseqdacen-t ɣef waṭas n yibenkan gar-asen PCs, imahilen n tiɣsar, iframen igejdanen d yinagrawen yettwaselɣen. Linux d anagraw n wammud agejdan i yiqeddacen yernu sseqdacen-t daɣen deg 500 n yiselkimen iruraden akk deg umaḍal. Mi ara ddukklen akked '''''Android''''', i yebnan ɣef Linux, yemmugen i tiliɣriyin tuḥricin, ɣur-sent azadur meqqren akk deg inagrawen n wammud s yiswi amatu.

== Taskant ==
Iɣisi n Linux iga-t Linus Torvalds, deffir ma ixuṣṣ uɣis n umahil i GNU, d anagraw n wammud d amṣada akked Unix i yemmugen s useɣẓan ilelli i d-yellan deg usnerni seg 1983 sɣur Richard Stallman. Ssyen sakkin, yeffeɣ-d yiwen n unagraw n Unix ileḥḥun isem-nnes Minix, maca turagt-nnes ur tesɛi ara akk tilelli imir-nni yerna yettweg i yiwen n yiswi n usegmi. Unix amezwaru akk baṭel i yiselkimen udmawanen, 386BSD, ur d-iban ara armi d 1992, deg tallit-nni, Torvalds yebna yakan yerna yessuffeɣ-d s wudem azayez lqem amezwaru n iɣis Linux deg Internet. Am GNU d 386BSD, Linux ur yesεi ara angal Unix, imi d aεawed ajdid, dɣa ur yessinif ara i temsal tizerfanin imir-nni. Azuzer n Linux yuɣal mucaε deg yiseggasen n 1990, dɣa yerra titiknulujiyin Unix ttwakcament ɣer yiseqdacen n uxxam deg yiselkimen udmawanen anda akken i d-yella yakan d tin icudden ɣer leqdicat yennegman.

Azuzer n Linux deg-s anagraw n yisfuyla am X11 neɣ Wayland akked twennaḍt n tnarit am GNOME, KDE Plasma neɣ Xfce. Tigrummiwin i d-yettwaheggan i yiqeddacen ahat ur sεint ara agrudem n useqdac udlifan neɣ ad ilint deg-sent tnebdant n tifrat am LAMP.

Tangalt aɣbalu n Linux tezmer ad tettwaseqdec, ad tettwabeddel, ad tettwabḍu, ad tt-tefreq deg tnezzut neɣ deg war tnezzut sɣur yal yiwen ddaw tewtilin n turagt-is yettuqadren, am Turagt tazayezt GNU (GPL). Turagt anamek-is d asnulfu n uzuzer amaynut i s-iεemmed yiwen, yeshel ugar n unagraw n wammud am MacOS neɣ Microsoft Windows. Iɣis Linux, d amedya, yesɛa turagt ddaw GPLv2, s tsureft i yisawalen n unagraw yettaǧǧan tangalt yessawalen i yiɣis s unagraw ur yessefk ara ad tili ddaw GPL.

Ɣef lǧal n uɣmar n '''Android''' yebnan ɣef Linux deg tiliɣriyin tuḥricin, Linux, gar-asen Android, ɣur-s azadur n usbeddi meqqren akk deg inagrawen n wammud s umata seg mayyu 2022. 

Linux, seg Meɣres 2024, sseqdacen-t azal n 4 % seg yiselkimen n tnarit. Chromebook i yessefraken ChromeOS yebnan ɣef Linux, yessefrak ulzuz n usegmi amarikani K -12 yernu yettgensis-d qrib 20% seg uzenziɣ n &quot;'''notebook'''&quot; n ddaw-$300 deg Yiwanaken Yeddukklen. Linux d anagraw n wammud agejdan deg yiqeddacen, yerna sseqdacen-ten deg 500 n yimselkimen iruraden akk deg umaḍal.

Linux yetteddu daɣen ɣef yinagrawen yettwaselɣen, i.e.,Ibenkan yessefraken anagraw n wammad ttwabnan s umata deg uferɣẓan yernu ttwagen mliḥ i unagraw. Deg-s imeglayen, Asenqed awurman, Ibenkan n uxxam, tidiwentin n wurar n uvidyu, tiliẓṛiyin (Samsung d LG smart TVs), tikeṛṛusin (Tesla, Audi, Mercedes-Benz, Hyundai, akked Toyota), akked Aɣerrabu allunan (Falcon 9 rocket, Dragon crew).

== Amezruy ==

=== Imezwura ===
Anagraw n wammud Unix yella-d deg useggas n 1969, deg Bell Labs n AT&amp;T deg Marikan, sɣur ''Ken Thompson'', ''Dennis Ritchie'', ''Douglas McIlroy'', akked ''Joe Ossanna''. Unix yettwaru s lekmal-nnes s tutlayt tajmaεt(assembly), imi tella-d d tigawt icaεen imir-nni. Deg 1973, deg yiwet n tikli tamaynut, εawden uran-tt s tutlayt n usihel C sɣur ''Dennis Ritchie'' (ala kra n warrum d tigawin I/O). Tilin n useḍru n tutlayt n uswir unnig n Unix yerra asagen-is ɣer tɣerɣarin n uselkim yemgaraden fessus.

S yisem n tamsalt mgal aḥkar n 1956, AT&amp;T ur tkeččem ara ɣer tnezzut n uselkim, AT&amp;T yefka-d angal aɣbalu n unagraw n wammud i kra n win i d-yessutren. Ɣef waya, aseqdec n Unix yennerna s tɣawla yernu yeqqel yettwasmemmi s waṭas deg tisuda d teṛmisin tisdawanin. Deg 1984, AT&amp;T tger-d iman-is seg tkebbaniyin-is n wammud amnaḍan, dɣa yeffeɣ-d seg uḥettem-is ur yekcim ara ɣer tnezzut n uselkim; iserreḥ-as uḥettem-a, Bell Labs yebda yesnuzuy Unix d afaris uslig, Anda iseqdacen ur ttwasirgen ara ad t-beddlen s wudem azerfan.

Onyx Systems yebda yesnuzuy iselkimen udmawanen i yebnan ɣef Unix deg 1980. Syin ɣer da, Sun Microsystems, yesnulfa-d d yiwen n usenfar amaynut deg Unix i yinelmaden deg tesdawit n Stanford, yebda yesnuzuy daɣen iselkimen umahil n tnarit yebnan ɣef Unix deg 1982. d tin i d-yesgensisen aεraḍ amezwaru n tnezzut i d-yewwin akken ad d-yezuzzer yiwen aselkim udmawan i yesεan anagraw n wammud Unix.

S Unix simal &quot;yettwasekkeṛ&quot; s yisem-is d afaris '''amli''', asenfaṛ GNU, yebda-t-id Richard Stallman deg useggas n 1983, yesεa iswi ad d-yesnulfu &quot;anagraw n yiseɣẓanen ummid amṣada akked Unix&quot;  i yemmugen s useɣẓan ilelli. Amahil yebda-d deg 1984. Syin ɣer da, deg 1985, Stallman yebda-d Tasbeddit Free Software, yura Turagt tazayezt GNU (GNU GPL) deg 1989. Deg tezwara n yiseggasen n 1990, aṭas seg wahilen ay yessefken deg unagraw n wammud (am temkarḍiyin, isefsu, imaẓragen n yeḍrisen, ajeɣlal n yizirig n tiludna, d unagraw n usfaylu) ay ifuken, ɣas akken iferdisen n uswir yudren am yinuḍafen n yibenk, &quot;''Daemons&quot;'', akked iɣis, umi qqaren '''GNU Hurd''', llan ttwaḥebsen yerna ur kemlen ara.

Minix yesnulfa-t-id Andrew S.Tanenbaum, d aselmad n tussna n tsenselkimt, yerna yeffeɣ-d deg 1987 imi d anagraw n wammud am win n Unix yemmugen i yinelmaden d wiyaḍ yebɣan ad lemden imenzayen n unagraw n wammud. Ɣas akken angal n uɣbalu ummid n Minix yella s tlelli, awalen n turagin ur t-ǧǧin ara ad yili d aseɣẓan ilelli alamma ibeddel turagt deg yebrir 2000.

=== Asnulfu ===
[[Tugna:Linus Torvalds (cropped).jpg|vignette|Linus Torvalds, ameskar agejdan n uɣisi Linux.]]
Mi yella yeqqar deg tesdawit n helsinki deg umwan n 1990, ''torvalds'' yekcem ɣer yiwet n temsirt n unix. torvalds yudfen ɣer yiwet n temsirt n Unix. Tamsirt-nni tesseqdec yiwen n uselkim n MicroVAX yessefrak Ultrix, ma d yiwen seg yeḍrisen-nni ay yessefken i tɣuri d &quot;anagraw n Wammud : Asnulfu d useḍru&quot; sɣur ''Andrew S.Tanenbaum''. Adlis-a n tɣuri yella deg-s unɣel n unagraw n wammud n Minix n ''Tanenbaum''. S temsirt-a i d-yebda Torvalds i Unix i tikkelt tamezwarut. Deg 1991, yuɣal d awnaf ɣef yinagrawen n wammud. S turagt n Minix i tt-yesεan deg teswiεt-nni kan i useqdec n uselmed, yebda ixeddem ɣef iɣisi n unagraw-is n wammud i yuɣalen ɣer tagara d iɣisi Linux.&lt;ref&gt;http://minix1.woodhull.com/faq/mxlicense.html&lt;/ref&gt;

Ass n 3 Yulyu 1991, akken ad yesseddu tiɣra n unagraw Unix, Linus Torvalds yeɛreḍ ur yessaweḍ ara ad d-yawi tasukint tumḍint n warraten n yilugan n POSIX s usuter i ugraw n yisallen n comp.os.minix. Seld mi ur d-yufi ara arrat POSIX&lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux#cite_note-79&lt;/ref&gt;, Torvalds yerra deg tazwara i tifin n '''isawalen''' n unagraw deg warrat SunOS i tesεa tesdawit i tessexdam deg uqeddac-is n Sun Microsystems. Yelmed daɣen kra n teɣra(isawalen) n unagraw seg uḍris Minix n Tanenbaum.

''Torvalds'' yebda-d asnerni n iɣisi Linux deg Minix d yisnasen yuran i Minix ttwasqedcen daɣen deg Linux. Syin ɣer da, yennerna Linux deg usnerni n iɣisi Linux deg yinagrawen Linux. Isnasen GNU beddlen-d daɣen akk iḥricen n Minix, acku yelha ma sqedcen tangalt yellan s tlelli seg usenfaṛ GNU s unagraw n wammud i d-ilulen; tangalt yellan ddaw n GNU GPL tezmer ad tuɣal ad tettwaseqdec deg wahilen-nniḍen n uselkim skud ula d nutni ttwaserrḥen-d ddaw n turagt am takki neɣ turagt iwatan yemṣadan. Torvalds yebda-d abeddel seg turagt-is tanaṣlit i igedlen azuzzer amzenzi, ɣer GNU GPL. Ineflayen llan xeddmen akken ad skecmen iferdisen GNU akked iɣisi Linux, ad d-snulfun anagraw n wammud ileḥun yerna d ilelli.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux#cite_note-gnu_history-82&lt;/ref&gt;

Ɣas akken ur d-yeffiɣ ara armi d 1992, ɣef lǧal n yimmeẓḍa usḍifen, asnerni n 386BSD, seg-sen i d-iṣubb NetBSD, OpenBSD d FreeBSD, i d-yezwar win n Linux. Linus Torvalds yenna-d dakken lemmer yella iɣisi GNU neɣ 386BSD deg 1991, tili ahat ur d-yesnulfa ara Linux.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux#cite_note-83&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux#cite_note-meta-39&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Isem-is ===
Linus Torvalds yella yebɣa ad as-iɣer i usnulfu-nnes &quot;Freax&quot;, d asagen n &quot;free&quot;, &quot;freak&quot;, d &quot;x&quot; (am usmekti n Unix). Deg tazwara n leqdic-is ɣef unagraw, llan kra seg yismilen n usenfar-a deg-sen isem n &quot;Freax&quot; azal n uzgen n useggas. Torvalds yella yettwali isem n &quot; linux &quot; maca ur t-yeǧǧi ara ad yili imi iwalat d anasaf mliḥ.

Akken ad tessisheleḍ asnerni, ifuyla ulin ɣer uqeddac FTP n FUNET deg Ctembeṛ 1991. Ari Lemmke, Amdakkel n Turvalds n uxeddim deg Tesdawit n Ttiknulujit n Helsinki (HUT) yellan d yiwen seg yinedbalen iwiziwen n uqeddac FTP imir-nni, ur ixemmem ara dakken &quot;Freax&quot; d isem yelhan, dɣa isemma-as asenfar &quot;Linux&quot; ɣef uqeddac war ma icawer Torvalds. D acu kan, Torvalds yeqbel &quot;Linux&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-662072-4&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Asekcem deg tnezzut d taɣerfant ===
[[Tugna:Ubuntu 25.10 default desktop - English.png|vignette|Azuzer n linux ittwasnen ugar Ubuntu]]
Asmemmi n Linux deg twennaṭin n ufares, mačči d ayen ara t-sseqdacen kan yimaswaḍen, tebda tettnerni d tamezwarut deg tlemmast n yiseggasen n 1990 deg umɣiwan n uselkim-unnig, anda bdant tuddsiwin am NASA ttbeddilent timacinin-nsent ɣlayen s yigrawen n yiselkimen ur ɣlayen ara iteddun s Linux. Aseqdec amzenzi yebda-d mi d-yebda Dell d IBM, yeḍfer-it Hewlett-Packard, ttaken-d afus n Linux akken ad yerwel seg ufus Microsoft deg ulzuz n wammud n tnarit.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux#cite_note-security-86&lt;/ref&gt;

Ass-a, inagrawen n Linux sseqdacen-ten deg wakk iselkimen n tsenselkimt, seg yinagrawen yettwaselɣen ɣer qrib akk imselkimen-unnig, yernu ṭṭfen adeg deg yisebdaden n uqeddac am tanebdant n usnas LAMP mechuṛen. Simmal yettnerni useqdec n uzuzer Linux deg uxxam akked tnarit n unekcum.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite Web |title=Archive copy |url=http://www.eweek.com/c/a/Linux-and-Open-Source/Vista-Aiding-Linux-Desktop-Strategist-Says/ |access-date=2025-10-23 |archive-date=2009-07-09 |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090709050715/http://www.eweek.com/c/a/Linux-and-Open-Source/Vista-Aiding-Linux-Desktop-Strategist-Says/ |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Rrbeḥ ameqqran akk n Linux deg uzluz(ssuq), ahat d ssuq n yibenk aziraz, s '''''Android''''' i d anagraw n wammad anegmar deg tiliɣriyin tuḥricin yernu yettwassen aṭas deg teblaḍin yernu seg melmi kan, ɣef yilsawen d yimseddayen. Ula deg uhric n wurar n Linux, yettali-d s Valve yefka-d tallelt-is i Linux, dɣa yessufeɣ-d SteamOS, azuzer-is n Linux i d-yelhan s wurar, i d-yellan syin d asawen deg tɣerɣert-nsen n Steam Deck. Ula d afraq n Linux yuɣal yettwassen s waṭas n yinabaḍen idiganen d iɣelnawen, am unabaḍ afidirali n Brizil.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.infoworld.com/article/2675550/operating-systems/ibm--brazilian-government-launch-linux-effort.html&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Asnerni ===
''Linus Torvalds'' d netta ay d amsuddes agejdan i uɣisi n Linux yernu yessefrak anegmu-nnes, ma d ''Greg Kroah-Hartman'' d netta ay d amsuddes agejdan i ufurk urkid. ''Zoë Kooyman'' d anemhal aselkam n Tesbeddit tilellit n useɣẓan, s nnuba-s d netta i d anemhal amatu n GNU.&lt;ref&gt;https://web.archive.org/web/20231121082724/https://www.fsf.org/about/staff-and-board&lt;/ref&gt; Ɣer taggara, imdanen d tkebbaniyin snernayen iḥricen d iferdisen wis kraḍ ur nelli d GNU. Iferdisen-agi n wis kraḍ gebren aṭas n umahil, daɣen zemren ad gebren izegrar n uɣisi akked isnasen n useqdac, d temkarḍiyin.

Imsenziyen n Linux d timɣiwnin sdukklen yerna zuzzren iɣisi, isuddas GNU, akked wid ur nelli ara d GNU, s yiseɣẓanen niḍen n ukemmus n usefrek s talɣa n uzuzer n Linux.

== Asuneɣ-is ==
Aṭas n yineflayen n yiseɣẓanen n uɣbalu yeldin i iqeblen belli iɣisi Linux ur yesuneɣ ara maca iεedda-d deg ufran agaman. Torvalds iwala dakken  asuneɣ n Unix yella yettwasseqdec d aɣawas, &quot;Linux yemɣi-d s waṭas n tḍermas - yernu imi tiḍermas ur llin-t ara d igacuranen, llan s tɣawla yernu ttwaṣeggmen ugar n tzelɣiwin n ''Alpha'' deg ADN.&quot; Eric S. Raymond yettwali udmawen igrawliwen n Linux akken ad ilin d inmettiyen, mačči d atiknikan : uqbel Linux, aseɣẓan ameẓdu isuneɣ-t-id s leḥder sɣur inagrawen imecṭaḥ n yineflayen, maca &quot;Linux yemhez s wudem nniḍen maḍi. Seg tazwara, ɣas ini d uṭṭunen imeqqranen n yiwiziwen i t-yessefraken kan s walal n ''Internet'' gar-asen. Taɣara ur tettwaḥrez ara s ilugan iqesḥen neɣ s tmenḍawt maca s tsetratijit taḥerfit n uslelli yal ddurt, d uḍfar n tmuɣliwin seg tmiḍiyin n yimseqdacen deg kra n wussan, ad d-nini d asnulfu n kra n ufran Adarwini arurad ɣef tiḍermas i d-sskecmen ineflayen&quot;. Bryan Cantrill, d ajenyuṛ n Unagraw amyezwer, yeqbel dakken &quot;Linux ur yessunuɣ ara, yettwamhez&quot;, maca yettwali aya d talast, yenna-d dakken kra n tmahilin, ladɣa tid icudden ɣer tɣellist, ur issefk ara ad ad d-ttwamhez, &quot;aya mačči d anagraw asnudran deg taggara n wass, d anagraw n yiseɣẓanen.&quot;

Anagraw yebnan ɣef Linux d anagraw n wammud azegriran am win n Unix, d win i d-yettawin aṭas seg usnulfu-ines agejdan seg yimenzayen i d-yettwasbedden deg Unix deg yiseggasen n 1970 d 1980. Anagraw am wa yesseqdac iɣis aynamek, iɣisi Linux, i d-yelhan d uselḥu n ukala, aẓeṭṭa, anekcum ɣer yibenkan d yinagrawen n yifuyla. Inehhaṛen n yibenk kifkif-iten ddan srid akked uɣisi neɣ rnan-d d izegrar i d-yettεebbi unagraw ma ara yiteddu.

Tallunt n useqdac GNU d aḥric agejdan seg tuget n yinagrawen yebnan ɣef ukernel Linux, S android i d tasureft meqqren. Tamkarḍit GNU C, aseḍru n temkarḍit tizeɣt C, Ixeddem am uɣlaf(tasdurayant) i tiɣriwin n unagraw n uɣisi Linux ilaqen i ugrudem n tallunt n useqdac-iɣisi, Tagrumma n yifecka d tagrumma meqqren n usihel, d tagrumma hrawen i usnerni n Linux (gar-asen wid i d-yelhan s usefsu n uɣisi Linux s timmad-is).&lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux#cite_note-103&lt;/ref&gt;

Asenfaṛ GNU yesnernay daɣen Bash, d ajeɣlal CLI yettwassnen. Agrudem n useqdac udlif (neɣ GUI) i seqdacen tuget n yinagrawen Linux i yebnan s ufella n useḍru n unagraw X Window(Asfaylu X). Tagara-a, kra seg tmetti Linux nudan ad ddun ɣer useqdec n Wayland d aneggaf n uqeddac n uskan, ad beddlen X11.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux#cite_note-105&lt;/ref&gt;

Aṭas n yisenfaren-nniḍen n yiseɣẓanen n uɣbalu yeldin i yettekkin deg yinagrawen Linux.

Isuddas ibedden deg unagraw Linux llan deg-sen wigi:

* '''Asččaṛ n usenker,''' amedya GNU GRUB, LILO, SYSLINUX neɣ ''systemd-boot''. Wa d ahil ay d-yessakin iɣisin Linux ɣer tektawt tagejdant n uselkim, syin ad t-yeselkem uselkim, mi ara yekker uselkim, seld awennez n uferɣẓan.
* Ahil initi, am unsay ''sysvinit'' akked d umaynut systemd, OpenRC akked upstart. D wagi i d akala amezwaru i d-yesenker uɣisi Linux, dɣa attan ɣer uẓar n ttejra n ukala. Ad yebdu akala am yimeẓla n unagraw akked wid n tuqqna(Ama d udlif neɣ deg tdiwent).
* Timkerḍiyin n yiseɣẓanen yellan deg-sent tangalt i izemren ad ttwasqedcent s ikalan iteddun. Deg inagrawen n Linux s useqdec n yifuyla yettwaselkamen ELF, amseɣwen adinamik i yessefraken aseqdec n temkerḍiyin tidinamikin yettwassen s yisem n ld-linux.so. Ma yella anagraw yettwasebded i useqdac akken ad yessewḥal aseɣẓan s timmad-is, ifuyla n uqerru ad kecmen daɣen akken ad d-isefsu agrudem n usihel n temkarḍiyin yettwasbedden. Ɣer tama n temkarḍit n yiseɣẓanen yettwasqedcen s waṭas deg inagrawen n Linux, tamkarḍit GNU C (glibc), llant aṭas n temkerḍiyin nniḍen, am SDL akked Mesa.
* Tamkarḍit tizeɣt C d tamkarḍit ilaqen i useddu n wahilen yuran s C deg unagraw aselkim, s temkarḍit GNU C d tizeɣt. D ayen i d-yettaken aseḍru n API POSIX, am yisiɣzaf n API-nni. I yinagrawen yettwaselɣen, timlellayin am '''musl''', '''EGLIBC''' (d alleqem glibc i sseqdacen Debian) akked '''uClibc''' (i yemmugen i uClinux) ttwasneflint, ɣas akken sin-a ineggura ur ten-mazal ara ttwaḥerzen. Android yesseqdac tamkarḍit-nnes C, Bionic. D acu kan, '''musl''' yezmer ad yettwaseqdec s umata d asemselsi n uglibc deg yinagrawen n tnarit d yiselkimen n &quot;''laptop''&quot;, akken i t-yettwali deg kra n uzuzer n Linux am Void Linux.
* Tiludna n llsas n Unix, s iɣis n ifecka n GNU(coreutils) d aseḍru n tizeɣt. temlellayin llant i yinagrawen yettwaselɣen, am tenɣelt BusyBox, d &quot;''BSD ToyBox''&quot;.
* Afzcku n iwiǧiten d timkarḍiyin yettwasqedcen i lebni n ugrudem n useqdac udlif (GUIs) i yisnasen n yiseɣẓanen. Aṭas n yifeckuten n yiwiǧiten i d-yufraren, gar-asen GTK d Clutter i d-yesnulfa usenfaṛ GNOME, Qt i d-yesnulfa usenfaṛ Qt, dɣa d takebbanit Qt.
* Anagraw n usefrek n ikemmusen, am upkg d RPM. Ikemmusen nniḍen zemren ad yettwasefsu seg imisinen neɣ aɣbalu.
* Ahilen n ugrudem n useqdac am ujeɣlal n tiludna neɣ twennaṭin n usfaylu.

=== Agrudem n useqdac ===
Agrudem n useqdac, yettwassen daɣen s yisem n ujeɣlal, ama d agrudem n yizirig n tiludna (CLI), agrudem n useqdac udlif (GUI), neɣ isenqaden icudden ɣer warrum, icaεen i yinagrawen ur nesεi tilas. Ɣer yinagrawen n tnarit, agrudem n useqdac amezwer yettili s umata d udlif, ɣas akken CLI yella s waṭas s yisfuyla n userwas n tiludna neɣ s tdiwent tuhlist yemgaraden.

Tijeɣlalin n CLI d agrudem n useqdac yebnan ɣef uḍris, i yesseqdacen aḍris ama i unekcum neɣ i tuffɣa. Tajeɣlalt  yettwasqedcen ugar deg Linux  d ''Shell Bourne-Again'' (bash), deg tazwara, tennegma i usenfar n GNU; tijeɣlalin niḍen am Zsh sseqdacen-tent daɣen.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux#cite_note-109&lt;/ref&gt; Tuget n yeḥricen n Linux n uswir yudren, gar-asen iḥricen n Tallunt n useqdac(Userland) sseqdec kan CLI. CLI iwata ladɣa i tfulmant n lecɣal i d-yettuɣalen neɣ iεeṭṭlen, yerna yettak-d taɣwalt fessusen maḍi deg ukala.
[[Tugna:GNOME Shell.png|vignette|Ajeɣlal n GNOME]]
[[Tugna:VirtualBox debian64 XFCE Hebrew.png|vignette|Debian yessefrak tawennaḍt n tnarit n Xfce]]
Deg yinagrawen n tnarit, agrudem n useqdac yettwassnen akk d ijeɣlal GUI, i d-ijemɛen lwaḥid akked twennaṭin n tnarit meqqren, am KDE Plasma, GNOME, MATE, Cinnamon, LXDE, Pantheon, akked Xfce, ɣas akken aṭas n ugrudem n useqdac i yellan. Tuget n ugrudem n useqdac yettwassnen bnan ɣef unagraw X Window, zgan qqaren-as &quot;X&quot; neɣ &quot;X11&quot;. D ayen i d-yettaken tiferwi n uẓeṭṭa u yettaǧǧa asnas udlif iteddu deg unagraw akken ad d-yettwasken ɣef wayeḍ anda aseqdac yezmer ad yeg assaɣ d usnas.
[[Tugna:Fedora Linux 40 KDE Plasma.png|vignette|Fedora linux yessefraken tawennaḍt n tnarit Plasma KDE.]]
Wayland d aneggaf n uqeddac n uskan yemmugen d asemselsi(d ambeddel) n uneggaf X11; eg 2022, yewweḍ-it-id usmemmi hraw.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux#cite_note-112&lt;/ref&gt; Mačči am X11, Wayland ur yeḥwaǧ ara Amsefrak n yisfuyla azɣaray d umsefrak n tsuddest. Ihi, amsuddes n Wayland yettawi tamlilt n uqeddac n uskan, amsefrak n yisfuyla akked d umsefrak n tsuddest. Weston d aselkem n temselɣutt n Wayland, ma d ''Mutter'' n GNOME akked KWin n KDE ttwarefden ɣer Wayland d iqeddacen n uskan.

Enlightenment yettwasagen ɣer Wayland yakan seg lqem 19.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux#cite_note-113&lt;/ref&gt; Rnu ɣer waya, aṭas n yimsefraken n yisfuyla i yemmugen i Wayland, am Sway neɣ Hyprland, Am wakken daɣen i d-yettili i udlifen-nniḍen am ''Waybar'' neɣ ''Rofi.''

== Taneflit ==
Amgired amezwaru gar Linux d waṭas n yinagrawen-nniḍen n wammud n tura yettwassnen, d akken iɣisi n Linux d isuddas-nniḍen d iseɣẓanen ilelliyen d uɣbalu yeldin. Linux mačči ala netta i d anagraw n wammud am wa, ɣas akken s waṭas i yettwaseqdac ugar n wiyaḍ yellan s uɣbalu yeldin. Kra n turagt n yiseɣẓanen ilelliyen d uɣbalu yeldin bnant ɣef umenzay n tenɣelt, d yiwen n ṣṣenf n umyager: yal axeddim i d-yekkan seg uḥric n yiseɣẓanen n tenɣelt ilaq daɣen ad yili d anɣel s timmad-is. Turagt n yiseɣẓanen ilelliyen yettwassnen akk, Turagt tazayezt GNU (GPL), d yiwet n talɣa n tenɣelt, tettwaseqdec i uɣisi Linux akked waṭas seg yeḥricen n usenfaṛ GNU.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux#cite_note-118&lt;/ref&gt;

Izuzren n Linux yebnan ɣef Linux mmugent sɣur ineflayen ilmend n tegramahalant akked yinagrawen-nniḍen n wammud akked yilugan n tsenselkimt yettwasbedden. Inagrawen Linux teddun ɣer POSIX, &quot;''Single UNIX Specification''&quot; (SUS),&lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux#cite_note-120&lt;/ref&gt; &quot;''Linux Standard Base''&quot; (LSB), ISO, akked yilugan ANSI anda yezmer lḥal, ɣas akken ar ass-a, yiwen kan n uzuzer Linux i yettwacerken POSIX. 1, Linux-FT. Agraw yeldin iεreḍ u icerreḍ ma drus sin n uzuzer n Linux i d-yelhan d tnezzut Unix, EulerOS d Inspur K-UX.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux#cite_note-proven20230117-123&lt;/ref&gt;

Aṭas n uzuzeran n Linux i yessefraken tagrumma tanmeggagt n yiseɣẓanen n unagraw d ikemmusen n yiseɣẓanen n usnas i yellan i usader d usbeddi s tuqqna n uẓeṭṭa. Aya yettaǧǧa iseqdacen ad d-myezgen anagraw n wammud i wayen ḥwaǧen. Izuzeran n Linux ttwaḥerzent sɣur yimdanen ittekkin deg teflit-nnsen, d tirebbuyaɛ n tkadimiyin, d tuddsiwin tiwiziwin, d tuddsiwin tinezzanin. Azuzer n Linux yettili d amasay n twila tamezwert n uɣisi Linux yettwasbedden, taɣellist n unagraw amatu, yernu s umata, asnerni n yikemmusen n yiseɣẓanen yemgaraden s lekmal-nsen. Izuzaren n Linux sseqdacen s umata anemhal n ukemmus am ''upt'',''yum'', zypper, pacman Neɣ asader i usebded, tukksa, Daɣen leqqem akk iseɣẓanen n unagraw seg wadig alemmas.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux#cite_note-124&lt;/ref&gt;

== Amɣiwan ==
Asedger neɣ azuzer n Linux yettawi-t weḍfer s waṭas sɣur ineflayen-is akked imɣiwanen n iseqdacen-is. Kra n yimsenziyen snernayen yernu sseddayen azuzer-nsen ɣef llsas awizi, Debian d amedya yettwassnen mliḥ. Wiyaḍ sεan lqem amɣiwan n uzuzer-nsen amzenzi, akken ixeddem Red Hat akked Fedora, neɣ ''SUSE'' akked d ''OpenSUSE''.&lt;ref&gt;https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux#cite_note-126&lt;/ref&gt;

Deg waṭas n temdinin d temnaḍin, tidukliwin tidiganin yettwassnen s yisem n ugraw n useqdac Linux (GSL) ttnadint ad snernint azuzer-nsent amenyaf d yiseɣẓanen ilelliyen n usiɣzef. Gan timliliyin u ttaken-d asenɛet, asileɣ, tallelt tatiknikant akked usbeddi n unagraw n wammud i yiseqdacen imaynuten. Aṭas n tmettiyin n Internet i d-yettaken daɣen afus i yiseqdacen d yineflayen Linux. Tuget n uzuzeran n Linux d yiseɣẓanen ilelliyen / isenfaren n uɣbalu yeldin sεan tixxamin n udiwenni IRC neɣ igrawen n yisallen(neɣ deg tallit-a tamirant, sɛan tixxamin n udiwenni deg uneggaf n Matrix neɣ inmagaren imeẓliyan deg ''internet''). Inmagaren n Internet d allal-nniḍen n tallelt, s imedyaten am wid n Unix &amp; Linux Stack Exchange, LinuxQuestions.org akked tallelt yemgaraden n uzuzer neɣ inmagaren n umɣiwan, am wid n Ubuntu, Fedora, Arch Linux, Gentoo, atg. 

Ulamma s umata, izuzren n Linux ttilin war lexlaṣ, aṭas n tkebbaniyin timeqqranin i yettnuzun, ttεawanent, rennunt deg usnerni n yeḥricen n unagraw d yiseɣẓanen ilelliyen. asleḍt n uɣisi Linux deg 2017 tessken-d dakken ugar n 85% seg tengalin-is snulfan-tt-id yineflayen ay yettwaxellaṣen ɣef umahil-nsen, ǧǧan azal n 8,2% i yineflayen ur ttwaxellaṣen ara(s ufus n tallalt), ggran-d ala 4.1% ur ttwasneɣren ara. Kra seg tkebbaniyin timeqqranin ad d-yefkan ittekkiyen deg-sent Intel, Samsung, Google, AMD, Oracle, akked Facebook. Aṭas n tkebbaniyin, ladɣa RedHat , Canonical, d SUSE i yebnan ccɣel s wazal-is deg uzuzer n Linux.

[[Taggayt:Tasenselkimt]]
[[Taggayt:Linux]]</text>
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    <title>Coding bootcamp</title>
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      <text bytes="9576" sha1="ahmufp4zy4yrwj1fy1pnbcejwubzva6" xml:space="preserve">[https://codelabsacademy.com/blog/what-is-a-coding-bootcamp-a-comprehensive-guide-updated-for-2024?source=wikipedia Bootcamps n usekles]{{Assaɣ yerrẓen|date=January 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} d ahilen n usnerni n tesnatwilt. Banen-d tikkelt tamezwarut deg 2011.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://venturebeat.com/2015/11/08/coding-bootcamps-are-replacing-computer-science-degrees/|title=Coding bootcamps are replacing computer science degrees|last=Choxi|first=Roshan|date=2015|work=VentureBeat|access-date=2018-02-25|language=en-US|archive-date=2022-03-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319222015/https://venturebeat.com/2015/11/08/coding-bootcamps-are-replacing-computer-science-degrees/|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Amezruy ==
Bootcamps imezwura n usekles ldin deg 2011.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://andrewcallahan.com/a-brief-history-of-coding-bootcamps/|title=A Brief History of Coding Bootcamps |date=18 August 2014 | accessdate = 6 November 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web| url=https://careerkarma.com/blog/bootcamp-market-report-2020/?msID=9c9daf39-891a-4cb8-91d1-a6a1d0e8dbb3#online-bootcamps | first=James | last=Gallagher | title=State of the Coding Bootcamp Market Report | date=2020 | publisher=Career Karma | accessdate=6 May 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Seg Yulyu 2017, llan 95 n yikayaden n bootcamp n tesnilest s lxedma n tmeddit deg Yiwunak Yeddukklen.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.wired.com/2016/01/in-2016-the-coding-bootcamp-bubble-is-bound-to-burst/|title=In 2016, The Coding Bootcamp Bubble Is Bound to Burst|last=Lapowsky|first=Issie|date=2016|work=WIRED|access-date=2018-02-25|language=en-US}}&lt;/ref&gt; Tiɣzi n tesnawit s umata tella gar 8 d 36 n dduṛt, yerna amur ameqran seg-sent tella gar 10 d 12 (talemmast n 12,9) n dduṛt.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.coursereport.com/reports/coding-bootcamp-job-placement-2017|title=2017 Coding Bootcamp Market Size Study|website=www.coursereport.com|access-date=2016-09-16}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Amyager d uɣerbaz unnig ==
Ɣef leḥsab n tmerniwt n tɣawsiwin n tɣuri n tɣuri n tɣuri, kra n tesdawiyin bdant ahil-nsent n tɣuri n tɣuri s tɣawla neɣ ttekkant deg ticcurka d tɣuriwin n tɣuri tusligin yellan yakan.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.coursereport.com/blog/collaboration-in-higher-education-universities-coding-bootcamps|title=Collaboration in Higher Education: Universities + Coding Bootcamps|access-date=2016-09-16}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Bootcamps n usekles deg lantirnat ==
Llan waṭas n yiberdan n tmuɣliwin n bootcamps deg Internet. Wid-a s umata xeddmen s usdukkel n yinelmaden ed yiwen n uselmad yerna daɣen s umata rxisen yerna ttqadaren ugar lḥeṛs n yal yiwen seg yinelmaden. Llan aṭas n yibootcamps n usekles deg Internet i d-yettaken aṭas n tɣawsiwin, amedya, s lxedma n tlemmast, s lxedma n tlemmast, d lxedma n tlemmast. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.usnews.com/education/online-education/articles/2016-08-11/4-things-to-know-about-online-coding-boot-camps|title=4 Things to Know About Online Coding Boot Camps|access-date=2016-09-16}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Bootcamps n Tussna n Isefka d Tdukliwin ==
Bootcamps i d-yettawin cwiṭ n lbal ɣef usnefli n tmeẓdit s lekmal-is yerna ugar ɣef ufares n yimusnawen n yisefka d yimeẓla n yisefka ttwassen s yisem n [https://codelabsacademy.com/blog/what-is-a-data-science-bootcamp-a-comprehensive-guide?source=wikipedia bootcamps n tussna n yisefka].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=&quot;Data Scientist&quot; and &quot;Data Engineer&quot; Job Trends |url=http://www.indeed.com/jobtrends/q-%22Data-Scientist%22-q-%22Data-Engineer%22.html |access-date=2016-10-02 |website=Indeed}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Ahilen yettemcabin ==
Bootcamps n usekles zemren ad ilin d iferdisen yerna ḥwaǧen tazmert tamecṭuḥt; kra n tkebbaniyin sɛant iswi n uɛiwen n wid yebdan ad lemden tizemmar n uswir n ukeccum yerna ad ssutren deg bootcamps. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2018-09-04 |title=How A Podcast-Turned-Startup Is Trying to Get More Non-Traditional Students Into Tech – EdSurge News |url=https://www.edsurge.com/news/2018-09-04-how-a-podcast-turned-startup-is-trying-to-get-more-non-traditional-students-into-tech |access-date=2019-04-18 |website=EdSurge |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== tiɣri ==
Bootcamps n usekles zemren ad ilin s lxedma n tlemmast neɣ s Internet, zemren ad ten-id-sfaydin yixeddamen neɣ ad ttwaɛeqlen s lmizan n yinelmaden.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/10/29/edtechs-next-big-disruption-is-the-college-degree/|title=Edtech's Next Big Disruption Is The College Degree|last=Skonnard|first=Aaron|work=TechCrunch|access-date=2018-02-25|language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ɣef leḥsab n yiwen n ulɣu n unadi n ssuq n 2017, lmizan n leqraya yella gar tilelli arma d 21.000 n yidulaṛen i yiwen n uswir, yerna lmizan n leqraya n tlemmast n 11.874 n yidulaṛen.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.coursereport.com/reports/coding-bootcamp-job-placement-2017|title=2017 Coding Bootcamp Market Size Study|website=www.coursereport.com|access-date=2016-09-16}}&lt;/ref&gt;
&quot;Aselmed yettwaɛeṭṭlen&quot; d amkan n uxelleṣ aydeg inelmaden ttxellisen i uɣerbaz s lqidar (18%–22,5%) seg lmizan-nsen i 1–3 n yiseggasen deffir ma ffɣen seg uɣerbaz, deg wemkan n uxelleṣ uqbel. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.coursereport.com/blog/coding-bootcamp-deferred-tuition-income-share-agreements|title=Deferred Tuition|website=www.coursereport.com|access-date=2016-09-16}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Di Urupa, bootcamps n usekles zemren ad [https://codelabsacademy.com/bildungsgutschein?source=wikipedia ilin] d ilelliyen neɣ d snat n tmerwin n yimelyunen n yidinaren i yal ahil. Ma d ayen icudden ɣer tesdawit tunṣibt, tiwsiwin tusligin i ussileɣ ttbanent-d ɣlayet.

Ass n 16 Ɣuct 2016, Aɣlif n Usselmed n Yiwunak Yeddukklen iɛeyyen-d s 17 n yimelyunen n yidulaṛen n tedrimt neɣ n tedrimt i yinelmaden akken ad ḥedṛen i yiweẓla n ussileɣ ur nelli d iqburen, gar-asen coding bootcamps bootcamps.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/obama-administration-to-fund-nontraditional-training-for-students-1471341782|title=Obama Administration to Fund Nontraditional Training for Students|last=Mitchell|first=Josh|date=2016-08-16|newspaper=Wall Street Journal|issn=0099-9660|access-date=2016-09-16}}&lt;/ref&gt; Tiwsiwin-a neɣ idrimen-a ad ttwaḍefren s wahil n tgermant, EQUIP ay d-yeqqaren Taɣawsa n Usselmed s Ticcurka n Usnulfu.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.edsurge.com/news/2016-08-16-the-equip-eight-dept-of-ed-selects-partners-for-higher-education-experiment|title=The EQUIP Eight: Dept. of Ed Selects Partners for Higher Education Experiment (EdSurge News)|date=2016-08-16|language=en-US|access-date=2016-09-16|archive-date=2016-09-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918191742/https://www.edsurge.com/news/2016-08-16-the-equip-eight-dept-of-ed-selects-partners-for-higher-education-experiment|url-status=dead}}&lt;/ref&gt; Ahilen yessefk ad msefhamen d yiwen n uɣerbaz alemmas yettwasnen d tmehla n usnefli n tɣara (QAE) n terbaɛt tis kraḍt akken ad sfaydin seg lemɛawna tadrimant tafidiṛalit.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2016/03/18/groups-seek-become-quality-reviewers-boot-camps-online-courses-and-other-noncollege|title=Groups seek to become quality reviewers of boot camps, online courses and other noncollege offerings|access-date=2016-09-16}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Amjadel ==
Deg 2016, llant ccekkat dakken ticcurka gar yimukan n usselmed uslig (privé) s lemɛawna tadrimant tafidiṛalit tezmer ad d-tejbed tuddsiwin ur nesɛi ara aṭas n tmussni akken ad d-snulfunt ahilen n usselmed n usmel.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/prestoncooper2/2016/08/22/keep-coding-bootcamps-great-dont-give-them-taxpayer-money/#7821bb1350a0|title=Keep Coding Bootcamps Great: Don't Give Them Taxpayer Money|last=Cooper|first=Preston|access-date=2016-09-16}}&lt;/ref&gt; Iḥezziben n ukcem ed tuffɣa ttgen-d dakken iɣerbazen yettwasleḍyen ttqabalen-d cwiṭ n tmeɣra n tmeɣra n ssuq ilelli, yerna aya yezmer ad d-yeglu s tɣawsiwin n tɣawsiwin n tɣawsiwin, ed ssuma n tɣawsiwin. Daɣen, uguren yellan daxel n tmiḍrant n tesdawit taqburt zemren ad ttwaɛezlen s tɣawla ɣer ticcurkiwin n tesdawit/bootcamp.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/grade-point/wp/2016/08/16/colleges-partner-with-training-bootcamps-and-online-course-providers-for-federal-experiment/|title=Colleges partner with training boot camps and online course providers for federal experiment|website=Washington Post|access-date=2016-09-16}}&lt;/ref&gt; Seg tama niḍen, wiyaḍ ttwalin dakken asnerni n tsertit ay d-yezzin i lemɛawna tadrimant ad yeɛiwen inelmaden ay d-yetteddun ad ḥedṛen s tedrimt d tamecṭuḥt. Llan waṭas n yiḥulfan n bootcamps n usekles (coding bootcamps) ay d-yettwasqedcen kan i yimerkantiyen.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2016/08/06/are-coding-bootcamps-only-for-the-rich/|title=Are coding bootcamps only for the rich?|last=Pathak|first=Prasid|website=TechCrunch|access-date=2016-09-16}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Tikebbaniyin n usekles ==
Kra n tkebbaniyin am [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_Ninjas|Code Ninjas]] ed [https://northcoders.com/ Northcoders] ttmahalent ed yigerdan deg bootcamps ed wahilen niḍen n ussefrek (coding) akken ad ten-ssiwḍen ɣer sdat s yiswiren ed yiḥricen yemgerraden n wenrar n ussefrek. Ma d wiyaḍ, am [https://codelabsacademy.com/?source=wikipedia Code Labs Academy], xeddmen d yimdanen akken yebɣu yili lḥal-nsen axeddam neɣ akadimi, akken ad asen-fken tagnit ad beddlen ccɣel-nsen neɣ ad sselɣun deg unnar n usseḍru war ma sɛan lḥeqq n usseḍru.</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Caixa Al Maskari</title>
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      <text bytes="3818" sha1="q312mzhh78hyczan1ketouo8b3eb7sq" xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox biography}}

'''Caixa Ali Salem Al Maskari''' (tettwaled di 1939) d tgeofizisyenne d tameṭṭut n tneflit timmurit; tella-d taddayt (presidente) n ugraw Al Maskari Holding.&lt;ref&gt;https://almaskariholding.com/&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite Web |title=Archive copy |url=https://enterpriseasia.org/apea/uae/awards/uae-2016/h-e-dr-shaikha-al-maskari/ |access-date=2025-09-06 |archive-date=2023-10-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002164312/https://enterpriseasia.org/apea/uae/awards/uae-2016/h-e-dr-shaikha-al-maskari/ |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Ibezzuzen d teselkim ==
Tettwaled di [[Al Ɛayn]] (Tigrawin Yedduklen n Timmura). Tettwali-d s lauréa seg [[Tasdawit n Lundres]] u ddoctorat di tgeoloji seg [[Tasdawit n Indiana]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite Web |title=Archive copy |url=https://enterpriseasia.org/apea/uae/awards/uae-2016/h-e-dr-shaikha-al-maskari/ |access-date=2025-09-06 |archive-date=2023-10-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002164312/https://enterpriseasia.org/apea/uae/awards/uae-2016/h-e-dr-shaikha-al-maskari/ |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Abrid n umahil ==
Al Maskari tebdu amahil-is di [[1974]] di tkebbwanit n wuzzal n tazmert n Abu Dhabi ([[ADNOC]]), anida tettqelleq-d ad tesselkem tiseqdacin d tleqyatin n yixeddamen n wuzzal d waggaz, u ad taru-d isallen fell-asen. Tesfeḍ-as di 1989, teqqim ɣer tkebbwanit n wuzzal n twacult Al Maskari Foundation yettwasnulfen sɣur yemma-s, tcheikha Asha Al Maskari. Di 2008, ugraw yettwabeddel s tafaska tamaynut deg ''Al Maskari Holding''.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite Web |title=Archive copy |url=https://milkeninstitute.org/events/mena19/speakers/35779 |access-date=2025-09-06 |archive-date=2023-10-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002164348/https://milkeninstitute.org/events/mena19/speakers/35779 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Tella-d daɣen d tameṭṭut tamezwarut di Abu Dhabi i yellan yewwet-as usireg n ''entrepreneur général'' s yimawlan-is i yiman-is (amkarḍ n tkebbwanit ɣef yiman-is).&lt;ref&gt;https://www.aletihad.ae/news/الاقتصادي/4185276/شيخة-المسكري---مسيرة-نجاح-من-الجيوفيزياء-إلى-عالم-الأعمال&lt;/ref&gt;

== Asnifel ==
Di 2016, teṭṭefka-d '''Ussan Agellidin nnig n Itri n Ussamer''' (1ʳᵉ tagenza) seg lεars aswidiyen i tsemḍen n tira gar Swid d Timmura, s umata n yiseɣda n uselkim i yimeddayen n tnefsit akked [[Tasdawit n Göteborg]] deg taggara n yimezgen 1980.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite Web |title=Archive copy |url=https://emiratespressreleases.com/h-e-dr-shaikha-ali-salem-al-maskari-receives-swedish-royal-decoration/ |access-date=2025-09-06 |archive-date=2023-10-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002164414/https://emiratespressreleases.com/ |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;  
Di 2018, tella di '''Top 100''' n tilawin ifazen n Wammuḍ n Tmura n Tissut (Middle East) sɣur ''Forbes Middle East'' (addeb 70).&lt;ref&gt;https://gulfnews.com/business/uae-expats-among-100-most-influential-women-in-middle-east-1.2279215&lt;/ref&gt;

== Tudert tusligt ==
Tettɣer am yerkaz-d [[Donald Henry Hoss]], ammelkem n tgeoloji di [[Tasdawit n Iowa]]; ɣur-sen kraḍ n yxerṣen.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite Web |title=Archive copy |url=https://www.ozy.com/news-and-politics/shaikha-al-maskari-knows-the-drill/30390/ |access-date=2025-09-06 |archive-date=2022-06-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220625170311/https://www.ozy.com/news-and-politics/shaikha-al-maskari-knows-the-drill/30390/ |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt; Argaz-is yemmuten di 1990.&lt;ref&gt;https://www.thenationalnews.com/UAE/portrait-of-a-nation-emirati-matriarch-steps-down-from-company-role-after-50-years-of-service-1.737841&lt;/ref&gt;

== Tiwelhiwin ==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Al Maskari, Caixa Ali Salem}}
[[Taggayt:Tgeofizisyenne]]
[[Taggayt:Tameṭṭut n tneflit]]
[[Taggayt:Tameṭṭut timmurit]]
[[Taggayt:Tlidt di 1939]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Tizamugin n Maṣer Taqbut</title>
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      <text bytes="520" sha1="60c5zkzhobwnhuh01stw9jrlmt2fumf" xml:space="preserve">[[Tugna:All Gizah Pyramids.jpg|vignette|Ameẓdu n tzamugin n Giza.]]
'''Tizamugin''' (asuf: tazamugt ) n Maṣer taqbut d yiwen seg yizamulen (azamul ) imeqqranen n tɣerma tamiẓrant. Bnant zik s wudem n yijaddaren (ajaddar ) neɣ n tqerrabin (taqerrabt ) akken ad gen daxel-nsent igelliden (agellid ) n Maṣer, i wumi qqaren Iferɛunen. Akud ameqqran n lebni-nsent yella-d deg tallit taqburt n umezruy n Maṣer, ladɣa gar tasuta tis 3 d tis 6. D asenfar  ameqqran i d-yewwin aṭas n tmusniwin d tezmert n wemdan.</text>
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      <comment>Arniɣ-d ayen ilaqen</comment>
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      <text bytes="1075" sha1="li3hywhuhl98630nyuuyip8jg24zfs6" xml:space="preserve">[[Tugna:All Gizah Pyramids.jpg|vignette|Ameẓdu n tzamugin n Giza.]]
'''Tizamugin''' (asuf: tazamugt ) n Maṣer taqbut d yiwen seg yizamulen (azamul ) imeqqranen n tɣerma tamiẓrant. Bnant zik s wudem n yijaddaren (ajaddar ) neɣ n tqerrabin (taqerrabt ) akken ad gen daxel-nsent igelliden (agellid ) n Maṣer, i wumi qqaren Iferɛunen. Akud ameqqran n lebni-nsent yella-d deg tallit taqburt n umezruy n Maṣer, ladɣa gar tasuta tis 3 d tis 6. D asenfar  ameqqran i d-yewwin aṭas n tmusniwin d tezmert n wemdan.

== Tasegda d Tusnakt ==
Deg wayen yeɛnan tasegda d usali n tzamugin, Iferɛunen sseqdacen tussniwin lqayen, ladɣa deg taɣult n tusnakt d tanzeggit.

* Tazamugt tebna ɣef uzadur  (lsas) yesɛan talɣa n umkuẓ.
* Ɣef yidisan, tesɛa ukuẓ n yikerdisen (akerdis ) i d-yemlilin deg yiwet n tqacuct.
* Tizamugin tiqburin sɛant tasekta d ubleɣ ameqqran aṭas, i d-yessawden ad fkent tahuski  i lebni-nsent.
* Iferɛunen sbedden tizamugin-nsen s twelha yettwaqesden ɣer tneqqiḍin tigejdayin  (Agafa, Anẓul, Amalu, Agmuḍ) s tseddi  tameqqrant.</text>
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      <text bytes="2643" sha1="3olrwo2cydndku6v83pgnxxw4xt6zb0" xml:space="preserve">[[Tugna:All Gizah Pyramids.jpg|vignette|Ameẓdu n tzamugin n Giza.]]
'''Tizamugin''' (asuf: tazamugt ) n Maṣer taqbut d yiwen seg yizamulen (azamul ) imeqqranen n tɣerma tamiẓrant. Bnant zik s wudem n yijaddaren (ajaddar ) neɣ n tqerrabin (taqerrabt ) akken ad gen daxel-nsent igelliden (agellid ) n Maṣer, i wumi qqaren Iferɛunen. Akud ameqqran n lebni-nsent yella-d deg tallit taqburt n umezruy n Maṣer, ladɣa gar tasuta tis 3 d tis 6. D asenfar  ameqqran i d-yewwin aṭas n tmusniwin d tezmert n wemdan.

== Tasegda d Tusnakt ==
Deg wayen yeɛnan tasegda d usali n tzamugin, Iferɛunen sseqdacen tussniwin lqayen, ladɣa deg taɣult n tusnakt d tanzeggit.

* Tazamugt tebna ɣef uzadur  (lsas) yesɛan talɣa n umkuẓ.
* Ɣef yidisan, tesɛa ukuẓ n yikerdisen (akerdis ) i d-yemlilin deg yiwet n tqacuct.
* Tizamugin tiqburin sɛant tasekta d ubleɣ ameqqran aṭas, i d-yessawden ad fkent tahuski  i lebni-nsent.
* Iferɛunen sbedden tizamugin-nsen s twelha yettwaqesden ɣer tneqqiḍin tigejdayin  (Agafa, Anẓul, Amalu, Agmuḍ) s tseddi  tameqqrant.
Tasegda d tusnakt deg lebni n tzamugin n Maṣer taqbut ur llint ara d ayen i d-yusan s wudem agacuran, maca d agemmuḍ n tmusniwin lqayen i sɛan yimaṣriyen n tallit-nni. Iferɛunen sseqdacen tanzeggit d tusnakt s telqayt akken ad sbedden iẓekwan-a imeqqranen. Azadur n tzamugt yebna ɣef umkuẓ imnekdi, anda tiɣemmar-is d tid i d-yemcabahen s tseddi tamagdazt. Yal idis seg ukuẓ-nni yesɛa talɣa n ukerdis i d-yemlilin ɣer yiwet n tqacuct. Ayen issewhamen ugar d akken talɣut d wazalen n tzamugin-a, ladɣa tin n Xufu, mtawan aṭas ɣer wazalen isnakiyen imeqqranen. Imnadiyen n umezruy mazal ttqelliben deg yisemliyen iqburen akken ad fehmen ugar ɣef tarrayin s wacu d-wwin asiḍen-a(leḥsab-a), d wamek i ssawḍen ad sbedden idɣaɣen s yiwen n uktili ur nesɛi amgirred.

== Asɣan d Tmettant ==
Deg tmetti n Maṣer taqburt, asɣan  yesɛa azal ameqqran deg tudert n yal ass.

* Tazamugt ur telli ara d aẓekka kan, maca d allal  fakan i walluy n rruḥ n ugellid ɣer yigenni.
* Iferɛunen uminen s tmeddurt deffir n tmettant.
* Akken ad tedder rruḥ-nni, ilaq tafekka  ad teqqim ur tenger ara, ɣef waya i tt-ḥerzen s usɣuṛeṣ (mummification).

== Tizamugin Tixatarin ==
Llant aṭas n tzamugin deg Maṣer, maca tiggi d tid i d-yufraren:

* '''Tazamugt n Xufu (Khéops):''' D yiwet seg tmerwin n ddunit taqburt, d nettat i d tameqqrant akk.
* '''Tizamugin n Xafreɛ d Menkawreɛ:''' D tizamugin i d-yezzin i tin n Xufu, d amur ameqqran deg tgemmi nsen.
* '''Tazamugt n Djoser:''' D tazamugt tamezwarut akk, tesɛa talɣa n isurifen.</text>
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    <title>Tamyit tamaziɣt taqburt</title>
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Imaziɣen iqburen sbedden-d anagraw n usɣan d wumyan s lqay, i d-yesskanayen assaɣ-nsen akked ugama, igenni, d wid yemmuten.</text>
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