Lexicon philosophicum

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    <title>Lexicon philosophicum</title>
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      <timestamp>2026-06-20T05:11:12Z</timestamp>
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      <text bytes="19968" sha1="r8w21kpabuse32l1r3uafdj8svh3gwu" xml:space="preserve">&lt;div style=&quot;max-width:58em;margin:0 auto;padding:1.4em 1.6em;font-family:-apple-system,'Segoe UI',Roboto,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;color:var(--color-base,#202122);background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#faf8f2);border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,'Times New Roman',serif;font-size:2.25em;line-height:1.05;color:#a86a3d;letter-spacing:0.02em;&quot;&gt;Lexicon philosophicum&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-style:italic;font-size:1.05em;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);margin-top:0.3em;&quot;&gt;Vocabula philosophica Latina, additis Graecorum nominibus&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;height:3px;background:#c08552;margin:0.85em 0 0 0;&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0.9em 0 1.3em 0;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.05em;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);&quot;&gt;[[#A|A]] · [[#B|B]] · [[#C|C]] · [[#D|D]] · [[#E|E]] · [[#F|F]] · [[#G|G]] · [[#H|H]] · [[#I|I]] · [[#L|L]] · [[#M|M]] · [[#N|N]] · [[#O|O]] · [[#P|P]] · [[#Q|Q]] · [[#R|R]] · [[#S|S]] · [[#T|T]] · [[#V|V]]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;A&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;A&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Abductio|Abductio]]&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Abstractio|Abstractio]]&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Accidens|Accidens]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;συμβεβηκός&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Anarchismus|Anarchismus]]&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Anima|Anima]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ψυχή&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Animus|Animus]]&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Appetitus|Appetitus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ὁρμή&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Assensio|Assensio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;συγκατάθεσις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;B&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;B&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Beatitudo|Beatitudo]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;εὐδαιμονία&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Bonum|Bonum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἀγαθόν&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;C&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;C&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Causa|Causa]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;αἰτία&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Cognitio|Cognitio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;γνῶσις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Comprehensio|Comprehensio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;κατάληψις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Cupiditas|Cupiditas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἐπιθυμία&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;D&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;D&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Decorum|Decorum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;πρέπον&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Definitio|Definitio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ὁρισμός&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Deus|Deus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;θεός&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Dialectica|Dialectica]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;διαλεκτική&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;E&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;E&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Elementum|Elementum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;στοιχεῖον&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Essentia|Essentia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;οὐσία&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;F&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;F&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Fatum|Fatum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;εἱμαρμένη&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Finis|Finis]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;τέλος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Forma|Forma]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;μορφή&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;G&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;G&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Genus|Genus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;γένος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;H&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;H&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Honestum|Honestum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;καλόν&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;I&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;I&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Idea|Idea]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἰδέα&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Individuum|Individuum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἄτομον&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Iudicium|Iudicium]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;κρίσις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Iustitia|Iustitia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;δικαιοσύνη&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;L&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;L&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Locus|Locus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;τόπος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;M&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;M&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Materia|Materia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ὕλη&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Memoria|Memoria]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;μνήμη&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Mens|Mens]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;νοῦς&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Motus|Motus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;κίνησις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Mundus|Mundus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;κόσμος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;N&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;N&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Natura|Natura]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;φύσις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Necessitas|Necessitas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἀνάγκη&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Notio|Notio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἔννοια&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;O&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;O&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Officium|Officium]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;καθῆκον&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Opinio|Opinio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;δόξα&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;P&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;P&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Perturbatio|Perturbatio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;πάθος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Praeposita|Praeposita]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;προηγμένα&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Principium|Principium]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἀρχή&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Probabile|Probabile]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;πιθανόν&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Providentia|Providentia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;πρόνοια&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Prudentia|Prudentia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;φρόνησις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;Q&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;Q&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Qualitas|Qualitas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ποιότης&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Quantitas|Quantitas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ποσότης&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;R&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;R&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Ratio|Ratio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;λόγος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;S&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;S&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Sapientia|Sapientia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;σοφία&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Scientia|Scientia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἐπιστήμη&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Sensus|Sensus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;αἴσθησις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Species|Species]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;εἶδος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Substantia|Substantia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ὑπόστασις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;T&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;T&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Tempus|Tempus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;χρόνος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;V&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;V&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 0.4em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Veritas|Veritas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἀλήθεια&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Virtus|Virtus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἀρετή&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Visum|Visum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;φαντασία&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Universale|Universale]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;καθόλου&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Voluntas|Voluntas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;βούλησις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Voluptas|Voluptas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἡδονή&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:1.3em;padding-top:0.6em;border-top:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);font-family:Georgia,serif;font-style:italic;font-size:0.9em;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);&quot;&gt;LIX vocabula&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
[[Categoria:Lexicon philosophicum|*]]
[[fr:Dictionnaire de philosophie]]</text>
      <sha1>r8w21kpabuse32l1r3uafdj8svh3gwu</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>10814</id>
      <parentid>10812</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-20T06:08:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PandaMystique</username>
        <id>2967</id>
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      <text bytes="20217" sha1="79h363zy0wehahrzxtlmdlqc8k46mvm" xml:space="preserve">&lt;div style=&quot;max-width:58em;margin:0 auto;padding:1.4em 1.6em;font-family:-apple-system,'Segoe UI',Roboto,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;color:var(--color-base,#202122);background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#faf8f2);border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,'Times New Roman',serif;font-size:2.25em;line-height:1.05;color:#a86a3d;letter-spacing:0.02em;&quot;&gt;Lexicon philosophicum&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-style:italic;font-size:1.05em;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);margin-top:0.3em;&quot;&gt;Vocabula philosophica Latina, additis Graecorum nominibus&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;height:3px;background:#c08552;margin:0.85em 0 0 0;&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0.9em 0 1.3em 0;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.05em;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);&quot;&gt;[[#A|A]] · [[#B|B]] · [[#C|C]] · [[#D|D]] · [[#E|E]] · [[#F|F]] · [[#G|G]] · [[#H|H]] · [[#I|I]] · [[#L|L]] · [[#M|M]] · [[#N|N]] · [[#O|O]] · [[#P|P]] · [[#Q|Q]] · [[#R|R]] · [[#S|S]] · [[#T|T]] · [[#V|V]]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;A&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;A&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Abductio|Abductio]]&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Abstractio|Abstractio]]&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Accidens|Accidens]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;συμβεβηκός&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Anarchismus|Anarchismus]]&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Anima|Anima]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ψυχή&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Animus|Animus]]&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Appetitus|Appetitus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ὁρμή&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Assensio|Assensio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;συγκατάθεσις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;B&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;B&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Beatitudo|Beatitudo]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;εὐδαιμονία&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Bonum|Bonum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἀγαθόν&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;C&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;C&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Causa|Causa]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;αἰτία&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Cognitio|Cognitio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;γνῶσις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Comprehensio|Comprehensio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;κατάληψις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Cupiditas|Cupiditas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἐπιθυμία&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;D&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;D&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Decorum|Decorum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;πρέπον&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Definitio|Definitio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ὁρισμός&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Deus|Deus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;θεός&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Dialectica|Dialectica]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;διαλεκτική&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;E&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;E&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Elementum|Elementum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;στοιχεῖον&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Empirismus|Empirismus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἐμπειρία&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Essentia|Essentia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;οὐσία&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;F&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;F&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Fatum|Fatum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;εἱμαρμένη&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Finis|Finis]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;τέλος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Forma|Forma]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;μορφή&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;G&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;G&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Genus|Genus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;γένος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;H&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;H&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Honestum|Honestum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;καλόν&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;I&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;I&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Idea|Idea]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἰδέα&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Individuum|Individuum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἄτομον&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Iudicium|Iudicium]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;κρίσις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Iustitia|Iustitia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;δικαιοσύνη&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;L&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;L&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Locus|Locus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;τόπος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;M&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;M&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Materia|Materia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ὕλη&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Memoria|Memoria]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;μνήμη&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Mens|Mens]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;νοῦς&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Motus|Motus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;κίνησις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Mundus|Mundus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;κόσμος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;N&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;N&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Natura|Natura]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;φύσις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Necessitas|Necessitas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἀνάγκη&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Notio|Notio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἔννοια&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;O&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;O&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Officium|Officium]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;καθῆκον&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Opinio|Opinio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;δόξα&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;P&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;P&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Perturbatio|Perturbatio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;πάθος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Praeposita|Praeposita]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;προηγμένα&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Principium|Principium]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἀρχή&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Probabile|Probabile]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;πιθανόν&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Providentia|Providentia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;πρόνοια&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Prudentia|Prudentia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;φρόνησις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;Q&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;Q&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Qualitas|Qualitas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ποιότης&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Quantitas|Quantitas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ποσότης&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;R&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;R&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Ratio|Ratio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;λόγος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;S&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;S&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Sapientia|Sapientia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;σοφία&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Scientia|Scientia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἐπιστήμη&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Sensus|Sensus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;αἴσθησις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Species|Species]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;εἶδος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Substantia|Substantia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ὑπόστασις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;T&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;T&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Tempus|Tempus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;χρόνος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;V&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;V&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 0.4em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Veritas|Veritas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἀλήθεια&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Virtus|Virtus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἀρετή&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Visum|Visum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;φαντασία&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Universale|Universale]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;καθόλου&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Voluntas|Voluntas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;βούλησις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Voluptas|Voluptas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἡδονή&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:1.3em;padding-top:0.6em;border-top:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);font-family:Georgia,serif;font-style:italic;font-size:0.9em;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);&quot;&gt;LIX vocabula&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
[[Categoria:Lexicon philosophicum|*]]
[[fr:Dictionnaire de philosophie]]</text>
      <sha1>79h363zy0wehahrzxtlmdlqc8k46mvm</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>10816</id>
      <parentid>10814</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-20T08:31:47Z</timestamp>
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        <id>2967</id>
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      <text bytes="20353" sha1="5xopv45ry4gv5jt4l8w0qr3bztsfl37" xml:space="preserve">&lt;div style=&quot;max-width:58em;margin:0 auto;padding:1.4em 1.6em;font-family:-apple-system,'Segoe UI',Roboto,Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;color:var(--color-base,#202122);background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#faf8f2);border:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,'Times New Roman',serif;font-size:2.25em;line-height:1.05;color:#a86a3d;letter-spacing:0.02em;&quot;&gt;Lexicon philosophicum&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-style:italic;font-size:1.05em;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);margin-top:0.3em;&quot;&gt;Vocabula philosophica Latina, additis Graecorum nominibus&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;height:3px;background:#c08552;margin:0.85em 0 0 0;&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0.9em 0 1.3em 0;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.05em;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);&quot;&gt;[[#A|A]] · [[#B|B]] · [[#C|C]] · [[#D|D]] · [[#E|E]] · [[#F|F]] · [[#G|G]] · [[#H|H]] · [[#I|I]] · [[#L|L]] · [[#M|M]] · [[#N|N]] · [[#O|O]] · [[#P|P]] · [[#Q|Q]] · [[#R|R]] · [[#S|S]] · [[#T|T]] · [[#V|V]]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;A&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;A&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/A priori|A priori]]&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Abductio|Abductio]]&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Abstractio|Abstractio]]&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Accidens|Accidens]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;συμβεβηκός&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Anarchismus|Anarchismus]]&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Anima|Anima]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ψυχή&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Animus|Animus]]&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Appetitus|Appetitus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ὁρμή&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Assensio|Assensio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;συγκατάθεσις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;B&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;B&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Beatitudo|Beatitudo]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;εὐδαιμονία&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Bonum|Bonum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἀγαθόν&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;C&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;C&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Causa|Causa]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;αἰτία&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Cognitio|Cognitio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;γνῶσις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Comprehensio|Comprehensio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;κατάληψις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Cupiditas|Cupiditas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἐπιθυμία&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;D&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;D&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Decorum|Decorum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;πρέπον&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Definitio|Definitio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ὁρισμός&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Deus|Deus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;θεός&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Dialectica|Dialectica]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;διαλεκτική&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;E&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;E&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Elementum|Elementum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;στοιχεῖον&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Empirismus|Empirismus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἐμπειρία&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Essentia|Essentia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;οὐσία&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;F&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;F&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Fatum|Fatum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;εἱμαρμένη&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Finis|Finis]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;τέλος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Forma|Forma]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;μορφή&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;G&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;G&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Genus|Genus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;γένος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;H&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;H&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Honestum|Honestum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;καλόν&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;I&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;I&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Idea|Idea]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἰδέα&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Individuum|Individuum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἄτομον&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Iudicium|Iudicium]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;κρίσις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Iustitia|Iustitia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;δικαιοσύνη&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;L&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;L&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Locus|Locus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;τόπος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;M&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;M&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Materia|Materia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ὕλη&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Memoria|Memoria]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;μνήμη&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Mens|Mens]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;νοῦς&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Motus|Motus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;κίνησις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Mundus|Mundus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;κόσμος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;N&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;N&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Natura|Natura]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;φύσις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Necessitas|Necessitas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἀνάγκη&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Notio|Notio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἔννοια&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;O&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;O&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Officium|Officium]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;καθῆκον&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Opinio|Opinio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;δόξα&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;P&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;P&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Perturbatio|Perturbatio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;πάθος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Praeposita|Praeposita]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;προηγμένα&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Principium|Principium]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἀρχή&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Probabile|Probabile]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;πιθανόν&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Providentia|Providentia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;πρόνοια&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Prudentia|Prudentia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;φρόνησις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;Q&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;Q&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Qualitas|Qualitas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ποιότης&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Quantitas|Quantitas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ποσότης&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;R&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;R&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Ratio|Ratio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;λόγος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;S&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;S&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Sapientia|Sapientia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;σοφία&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Scientia|Scientia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἐπιστήμη&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Sensus|Sensus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;αἴσθησις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Species|Species]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;εἶδος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Substantia|Substantia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ὑπόστασις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;T&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;T&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Tempus|Tempus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;χρόνος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;V&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;V&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 0.4em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Veritas|Veritas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἀλήθεια&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Virtus|Virtus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἀρετή&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Visum|Visum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;φαντασία&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Universale|Universale]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;καθόλου&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Voluntas|Voluntas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;βούλησις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Voluptas|Voluptas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἡδονή&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:1.3em;padding-top:0.6em;border-top:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);font-family:Georgia,serif;font-style:italic;font-size:0.9em;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);&quot;&gt;LIX vocabula&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
[[Categoria:Lexicon philosophicum|*]]
[[fr:Dictionnaire de philosophie]]</text>
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      <id>10818</id>
      <parentid>10816</parentid>
      <timestamp>2026-06-20T09:01:28Z</timestamp>
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&lt;div style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,'Times New Roman',serif;font-size:2.25em;line-height:1.05;color:#a86a3d;letter-spacing:0.02em;&quot;&gt;Lexicon philosophicum&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-style:italic;font-size:1.05em;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);margin-top:0.3em;&quot;&gt;Vocabula philosophica Latina, additis Graecorum nominibus&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;height:3px;background:#c08552;margin:0.85em 0 0 0;&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0.9em 0 1.3em 0;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.05em;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);&quot;&gt;[[#A|A]] · [[#B|B]] · [[#C|C]] · [[#D|D]] · [[#E|E]] · [[#F|F]] · [[#G|G]] · [[#H|H]] · [[#I|I]] · [[#L|L]] · [[#M|M]] · [[#N|N]] · [[#O|O]] · [[#P|P]] · [[#Q|Q]] · [[#R|R]] · [[#S|S]] · [[#T|T]] · [[#V|V]]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;A&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;A&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/A priori|A priori]]&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Abductio|Abductio]]&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Abstractio|Abstractio]]&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Accidens|Accidens]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;συμβεβηκός&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Anarchismus|Anarchismus]]&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Anima|Anima]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ψυχή&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Animus|Animus]]&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Appetitus|Appetitus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ὁρμή&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Assensio|Assensio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;συγκατάθεσις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
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&lt;div id=&quot;B&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;B&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Beatitudo|Beatitudo]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;εὐδαιμονία&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Bonum|Bonum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἀγαθόν&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
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&lt;div id=&quot;C&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;C&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Causa|Causa]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;αἰτία&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Cognitio|Cognitio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;γνῶσις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Comprehensio|Comprehensio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;κατάληψις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Cupiditas|Cupiditas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἐπιθυμία&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
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&lt;div id=&quot;D&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;D&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Decorum|Decorum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;πρέπον&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Definitio|Definitio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ὁρισμός&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Deus|Deus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;θεός&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Dialectica|Dialectica]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;διαλεκτική&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;E&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;E&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Elementum|Elementum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;στοιχεῖον&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Empirismus|Empirismus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἐμπειρία&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Epistemologia|Epistemologia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἐπιστήμη&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Essentia|Essentia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;οὐσία&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;F&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;F&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Fatum|Fatum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;εἱμαρμένη&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Finis|Finis]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;τέλος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Forma|Forma]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;μορφή&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;G&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;G&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Genus|Genus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;γένος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;H&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;H&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Honestum|Honestum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;καλόν&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;I&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;I&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Idea|Idea]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἰδέα&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Individuum|Individuum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἄτομον&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Iudicium|Iudicium]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;κρίσις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Iustitia|Iustitia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;δικαιοσύνη&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;L&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;L&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Locus|Locus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;τόπος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;M&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;M&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Materia|Materia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ὕλη&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Memoria|Memoria]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;μνήμη&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Mens|Mens]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;νοῦς&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Motus|Motus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;κίνησις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Mundus|Mundus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;κόσμος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;N&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;N&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Natura|Natura]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;φύσις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Necessitas|Necessitas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἀνάγκη&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Notio|Notio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἔννοια&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;O&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;O&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Officium|Officium]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;καθῆκον&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Opinio|Opinio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;δόξα&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;P&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;P&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Perturbatio|Perturbatio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;πάθος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Praeposita|Praeposita]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;προηγμένα&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Principium|Principium]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἀρχή&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Probabile|Probabile]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;πιθανόν&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Providentia|Providentia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;πρόνοια&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Prudentia|Prudentia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;φρόνησις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;Q&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;Q&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin:0 0 1.1em 0;&quot;&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Qualitas|Qualitas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ποιότης&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Quantitas|Quantitas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ποσότης&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;R&quot; style=&quot;font-family:Georgia,serif;font-size:1.45em;color:#a86a3d;border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-subtle,#d8d3c8);padding-bottom:0.12em;margin:0.3em 0 0.6em 0;&quot;&gt;R&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Ratio|Ratio]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;λόγος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Sapientia|Sapientia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;σοφία&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Scientia|Scientia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἐπιστήμη&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Sensus|Sensus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;αἴσθησις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Species|Species]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;εἶδος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Substantia|Substantia]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ὑπόστασις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Tempus|Tempus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;χρόνος&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
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&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Veritas|Veritas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἀλήθεια&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Virtus|Virtus]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἀρετή&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Visum|Visum]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;φαντασία&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Universale|Universale]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;καθόλου&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Voluntas|Voluntas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;βούλησις&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;display:inline-block;width:15em;vertical-align:top;margin:0 0 0.3em 0;&quot;&gt;[[Lexicon philosophicum/Voluptas|Voluptas]] &lt;span style=&quot;color:var(--color-subtle,#54595d);font-style:italic;font-size:0.92em;&quot;&gt;ἡδονή&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
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[[Categoria:Lexicon philosophicum|*]]
[[fr:Dictionnaire de philosophie]]</text>
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    <title>Lexicon philosophicum/Individuum</title>
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      <comment>Paginam instituit, scribens '{{Lexicon|Individuum}} ==※ Individuum ※== '''Individuum''' id dicitur quod, numero unum, in plura eiusdem speciei dividi non potest quin esse desinat quod est; cui opponitur tum [[Lexicon philosophicum/Universale|universale]], quod de pluribus praedicatur, tum id quod in partes eandem naturam habentes secari potest. Individuum enim proprie et per se exsistit; universale autem, ut plerique post Aristotelem censent, non nisi in individuis aut per individua su...'</comment>
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==※ Individuum ※==
'''Individuum''' id dicitur quod, numero unum, in plura eiusdem speciei dividi non potest quin esse desinat quod est; cui opponitur tum [[Lexicon philosophicum/Universale|universale]], quod de pluribus praedicatur, tum id quod in partes eandem naturam habentes secari potest. Individuum enim proprie et per se exsistit; universale autem, ut plerique post Aristotelem censent, non nisi in individuis aut per individua subsistit. Hinc oritur quaestio gravis: si solum individuum vere subsistit, quomodo de eo [[Lexicon philosophicum/Scientia|scientia]] haberi possit, quae universalium esse videtur.&lt;ref&gt;De toto argumento vide Gracia, Jorge J. E., ''Introduction to the Problem of Individuation in the Early Middle Ages'', München, Philosophia Verlag, 1984.&lt;/ref&gt;

Duobus praecipue modis vocabulum usurpatur. Primo significat id quod re vera unum est et ab omni alio numero differt, ut hic homo, hic equus, quod subiectum ultimum est nec de ullo inferiore dicitur. Deinde, ad vim nominis pressius accommodatum, significat id quod dividi nequit, quod scilicet partes eiusdem rationis non habet: quo sensu veteres corpora illa minima atque insecabilia, ex quibus omnia constare putabant, individua appellaverunt. Distinguendum praeterea unum numero, hoc est hoc singulare ab aliis omnibus diversum, ab eo quod specie unum est et plura sub se continet.

Nomen ex praepositione negante ''in-'' et adiectivo ''dividuus'' (id est divisibilis, a verbo dividere) compositum est, ita ut « individuum » sonet « quod dividi non potest ». Hoc vocabulo Latini Graecum τὸ ἄτομον (ab α privante et verbo τέμνειν, « secare ») reddiderunt. Iam Cicero atomos Democriti et Epicuri « individua corpora » nominavit; postea vero in dialectica vocabulum ad illud Porphyrianum ἄτομον traductum est, id est ad infimum subiectum quod in species ulterius non dividitur.&lt;ref&gt;Cicero individua corpora atomos vocat, ut ''De finibus'' I, 6, 17; ''De natura deorum'' I, 24, 66. Vide etiam Lucretius, ''De rerum natura'' I, 599-634.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Historia philosophica notionis ==

=== Antiquitas: atomi et substantia prima ===

Apud Graecos duplici via de individuo cogitatum est, altera ad rerum naturam, altera ad logicam spectante.

Atomistae, ut Leucippus et Democritus, individua proprie dicta illa corpora minutissima posuerunt, quae propter soliditatem dividi non possunt, numero infinita, figura et ordine et positu inter se differentia; ex horum concursu et complexione res omnes fieri docuerunt. Hanc sententiam Epicurus suscepit, cuius testem et interpretem Latinum habemus Lucretium. Sed haec ad rerum naturam magis quam ad logicam pertinent.

Apud Aristotelem quaestio individui praesertim sub nomine substantiae primae apparet. In ''Categoriis'' [[Lexicon philosophicum/Substantia|substantiam]] primam id esse statuit quod neque de subiecto ullo dicitur neque in subiecto est, velut hic aliquis homo aut hic equus. Hae solae proprie « hoc aliquid » (τόδε τι) significant et per se subsistunt; cetera omnia aut de ipsis dicuntur aut in ipsis insunt, ita ut, his sublatis, nihil reliquum sit. Quare individuum in essendo primum habetur.&lt;ref&gt;Aristoteles, ''Categoriae'' 5, 2a11-19 et 3b10-18.&lt;/ref&gt;

At idem Aristoteles docet scientiam et [[Lexicon philosophicum/Definitio|definitionem]] non individui sed speciei esse: individui enim, quatenus individuum est, definitio nulla datur, sed sensu tantum percipitur. Unde illud exoritur quod posteri saepe usurpaverunt, individuum esse ineffabile, hoc est proprio sermone comprehendi non posse. Ita individuum, in essendo primum, in cognoscendo posterius evadit.&lt;ref&gt;Aristoteles, ''Metaphysica'' VII, 10, 1035b34-1036a9; VII, 15, 1039b27-1040a7.&lt;/ref&gt;

Porphyrius deinde in ''Isagoge'' individuum descripsit ut id quod de uno solo praedicatur, quodque proprietatum collectione constat quae in nullo alio eadem reperitur, velut « Socrates, hoc album, hic Sophronisci filius ». In arbore illa quae ab eius nomine ''Porphyriana'' appellatur, a summo [[Lexicon philosophicum/Genus|genere]] per [[Lexicon philosophicum/Species|species]] descenditur usque ad speciem infimam, sub qua individua ponuntur et divisio consistit: infra individuum enim nulla est ulterior per species divisio.&lt;ref&gt;Porphyrius, ''Isagoge'' 7, 19-27 (ed. A. Busse, ''Commentaria in Aristotelem Graeca'' IV.1, Berlin, 1887).&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Schola mediae aetatis: principium individuationis ===

Boethius porro, qui has Porphyrii quaestiones Latinis tradidit, vocabulum in usu logico firmavit atque individui notionem cum substantia coniunxit; nam personam ita definivit: « persona est naturae rationabilis individua substantia ». Hoc loco « individua substantia » in philosophiam Latinam alte penetravit.&lt;ref&gt;Boethius, ''Liber contra Eutychen et Nestorium'', cap. 3.&lt;/ref&gt;

Maxima de individuo mediae aetatis quaestio haec fuit: si species (velut humanitas) communis est et natura una, quid efficit ut Socrates hic homo sit, a Platone numero distinctus? Quaeritur scilicet quodnam sit illud principium individuationis, quo natura communis ad hoc singulare contrahitur.

Thomas Aquinas, Aristotelem secutus, [[Lexicon philosophicum/Materia|materiam]] id principium esse docuit, non quamlibet tamen, sed materiam [[Lexicon philosophicum/Quantitas|quantitate]] signatam: [[Lexicon philosophicum/Forma|forma]] enim speciem dat, quae communis est; materia vero sub certis dimensionibus determinata facit ut haec forma in hoc subiecto numero individuetur. Unde sequitur formas a materia separatas (quales angelos ponebant) in eadem specie plures esse non posse, sed singulas singulis speciebus respondere.&lt;ref&gt;Thomas Aquinas, ''De ente et essentia'', cap. 2; ''Summa theologiae'' I, q. 50, a. 4; ''Super Boethium De Trinitate'', q. 4, a. 2.&lt;/ref&gt;

Ioannes Duns Scotus materiam ut individuationis principium reiecit, quippe quae per se indeterminata et ipsa quodammodo communis sit. Posuit igitur realitatem quandam positivam atque formalem, quam ''haecceitatem'' (id est huius rei singularitatem) appellare solemus, qua natura communis ad hoc individuum velut ultima determinatione contrahitur. Ita individuationem non a materia sed a principio formali ac positivo repetivit.&lt;ref&gt;Ioannes Duns Scotus, ''Ordinatio'' II, d. 3, pars 1, q. 1-6.&lt;/ref&gt;

Fuerunt et qui accidentium collectione res individuari putarent; quod tamen et Thomas et Scotus reppulerunt, quoniam accidentia substantiam iam individuatam praesupponunt, neque id quod posterius est causa esse potest eius quod prius est.

Guillelmus Occamus, ut nominalistarum princeps, ipsam quaestionem aliter intellexit. Cum universalia extra animam non esse contenderet, nullo individuationis principio opus esse iudicavit: res enim quaeque se ipsa individua est, nec ulla datur natura communis quae contrahatur. Singularitas igitur prima est et per se nota, non per aliud explicanda.&lt;ref&gt;Guillelmus de Ockham, ''Summa logicae'' I, 16; ''Ordinatio'' I, d. 2, q. 6.&lt;/ref&gt; Schola autem posterior (ut Franciscus Suárez) viam mediam ingressa est, totam rei entitatem id esse statuens quo res individuatur, ita ut neque sola materia neque sola haecceitas, sed res ipsa integra principium sit.&lt;ref&gt;Franciscus Suárez, ''Disputationes metaphysicae'' V, sect. 6.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Recentiores: identitas et indiscernibilia ===

Aetate recentiore quaestio a principio individuationis ad identitatem et discernendi rationem deflexit.

Gottfried Leibnitius principium identitatis indiscernibilium statuit: non posse scilicet duas res dari quae omnibus notis inter se conveniant et solo numero differant; nam si nulla nota interna distinguerentur, ne duae quidem essent, sed una. Quare unaquaeque substantia individua notionem quandam completam habet, omnia sua praedicata complectentem, quae totum universum suo modo exprimit. Sic individua non nudo numero sed intima qualitatum differentia inter se distingui voluit.&lt;ref&gt;Leibniz, ''Discours de métaphysique'' (1686), § 8-9; ''Monadologie'' (1714), § 9; ''Nouveaux essais'' II, 27. Vocabulum « indiscernibilium » ipsi Leibnitio debetur.&lt;/ref&gt;

Ioannes Lockius individuationem ab ipsa exsistentia repetivit, qua res hoc loco et hoc tempore determinatur, quae loci ac temporis determinatio duobus eiusdem generis communis esse non potest. Idem de eadem re per tempus permanente quaesivit, atque personae identitatem in conscientia ac [[Lexicon philosophicum/Memoria|memoria]] potissimum posuit.&lt;ref&gt;Locke, ''De intellectu humano'' (1689) II, 27, 1-9.&lt;/ref&gt; Immanuel Kantius denique notavit solam intuitionem ad obiectum singulare immediate referri, conceptus vero semper generales esse: quo redit illa antiqua inter sensum singularium et intellectum universalium distinctio.

== Doctrinae recentiores ==

Saeculo vicesimo, in ea quae analytica dicitur philosophia, de individui natura iterum quaesitum est, praesertim quidnam individuum supra suas proprietates sit.

Alii individuum nihil aliud esse contendunt quam fascem quendam proprietatum simul praesentium (quae sententia « theoria fasciculi » vulgo dicitur): non subesse aliquod fundamentum nudum, sed rem ex ipsis qualitatibus [[Lexicon philosophicum/Universale|universalibus]] conflari. Cui obicitur illud Leibnitii principium necessarium reddi, cum tamen, ut Max Black notissimo exemplo ostendit, duo globi inter se prorsus similes fingi possint, qui nulla omnino nota, ne relativa quidem, distinguantur, sed numero solo duo sint.&lt;ref&gt;De fasciculi et subiecti nudi theoriis vide Loux, Michael J., ''Metaphysics. A Contemporary Introduction'', 3a ed., New York, 2006, cap. 3; et Black, Max, « The Identity of Indiscernibles », ''Mind'', vol. 61, 1952, p. 153-164.&lt;/ref&gt;

Alii contra subiectum quoddam nudum ponunt, non quasi rem nullis proprietatibus praeditam, sed quasi fundamentum quod per se qualitatibus determinatis non describitur, quod tamen et numericam differentiam et proprietatum inhaerentiam sustineat. Quibus rursus obicitur rem omni qualitate vacuam vix posse intellegi. Sunt et qui, proprietates ipsas singulares esse statuentes (quae « tropi » dicuntur), individuum ex tropis compraesentibus componant atque numericam differentiam in ipsa troporum singularitate fundent.

In disputationibus denique de mundis possibilibus quaeritur utrum singulae res haecceitate quadam, id est essentia individuali non qualitativa, inter se distinguantur (quam sententiam haecceismum vocant), an sola qualitatum varietate.&lt;ref&gt;Adams, Robert M., « Primitive Thisness and Primitive Identity », ''The Journal of Philosophy'', vol. 76, 1979, p. 5-26.&lt;/ref&gt; In arte praeterea logica recentiore individuum est id quod valor variabilis individualis esse potest et cui nomina propria respondent; quo pertinet illud Quineanum, esse idem valere ac variabilis cuiusdam valorem esse.&lt;ref&gt;Quine, Willard V. O., « On What There Is », ''Review of Metaphysics'', vol. 2, 1948, p. 21-38.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Quaestiones philosophicae ==

Prima quaestio de principio individuationis manet: quid scilicet efficiat ut individuum unum sit et ab aliis distinctum, utrum materia, an forma sive haecceitas, an accidentia, an ipsa exsistentia, an denique nihil, si singularitas per se prima ponitur.

Altera de indiscernibilibus: an duae res solo numero differre possint, an qualitatum perfecta similitudo ad identitatem sufficiat. Qui hoc negant, Leibnitii principium tenent; qui affirmant, exempla fingunt rerum prorsus similium loco tantum diversarum.

Tertia ad individui et [[Lexicon philosophicum/Universale|universalis]] cognationem pertinet. Individuum enim per se exsistit, sed, ut multi tradunt, qua individuum est proprie nec definitur nec scitur; universale contra scitur, sed per se non exsistit. Unde quaeritur quomodo essendi ordo et intellegendi ordo inter se respondeant, quae eadem fere quaestio est quae in [[Lexicon philosophicum/Abstractio|abstractione]] et in universalibus versatur.

Quaeritur praeterea de eadem re per tempus permanente, et quaenam condicio personae identitatem servet. Atque haec omnia cum [[Lexicon philosophicum/Substantia|substantia]], [[Lexicon philosophicum/Essentia|essentia]], forma et materia arte cohaerent, neque sine illis recte intelleguntur.

== Notae ==

&lt;references /&gt;

== Bibliographia ==

=== Fontes antiqui ===

* Aristoteles, ''Categoriae'' 5
* Aristoteles, ''Metaphysica'' VII (Z), 10 et 13-15
* Porphyrius, ''Isagoge'', ed. A. Busse, ''Commentaria in Aristotelem Graeca'' IV.1, Berlin, 1887
* Boethius, ''In Isagogen Porphyrii commenta'', ed. S. Brandt, ''Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum'' 48, 1906
* Thomas Aquinas, ''De ente et essentia''; ''Summa theologiae'', Ia, q. 50
* Ioannes Duns Scotus, ''Ordinatio'' II, d. 3
* Guillelmus de Ockham, ''Summa logicae'', I
* Franciscus Suárez, ''Disputationes metaphysicae'', disp. V

=== Studia recentiora ===

* Adams, Robert Merrihew, « Primitive Thisness and Primitive Identity », ''The Journal of Philosophy'', vol. 76, 1979, p. 5-26
* Armstrong, David M., ''Universals. An Opinionated Introduction'', Boulder, Westview Press, 1989
* Black, Max, « The Identity of Indiscernibles », ''Mind'', vol. 61, 1952, p. 153-164
* Campbell, Keith, ''Abstract Particulars'', Oxford, Blackwell, 1990
* Cross, Richard, ''Duns Scotus'', New York, Oxford University Press, 1999
* Gracia, Jorge J. E., ''Introduction to the Problem of Individuation in the Early Middle Ages'', München, Philosophia Verlag, 1984
* Gracia, Jorge J. E. (cur.), ''Individuation in Scholasticism. The Later Middle Ages and the Counter-Reformation, 1150-1650'', Albany, State University of New York Press, 1994
* Loux, Michael J., ''Metaphysics. A Contemporary Introduction'', 3a ed., New York, Routledge, 2006
* Lowe, E. J., ''The Possibility of Metaphysics. Substance, Identity, and Time'', Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1998
* Maurin, Anna-Sofia, ''If Tropes'', Dordrecht, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2002
* Wiggins, David, ''Sameness and Substance Renewed'', Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2001

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      <comment>Paginam instituit, scribens '{{Lexicon|Idea}} ==※ Idea ※== '''Idea''' duobus sensibus inter se valde diversis in philosophia usurpatur. Priore et antiquiore, qui Platonis est, idea significat formam aeternam atque intellegibilem, quae sensibilium rerum exemplar est, per se subsistit et a materia seiuncta est; quo sensu ideae res maxime reales sunt et veri nominis [[Lexicon philosophicum/Scientia|scientiae]] obiecta. Posteriore autem, qui ab aetate Cartesii increbuit, idea significat id...'</comment>
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==※ Idea ※==
'''Idea''' duobus sensibus inter se valde diversis in philosophia usurpatur. Priore et antiquiore, qui Platonis est, idea significat formam aeternam atque intellegibilem, quae sensibilium rerum exemplar est, per se subsistit et a materia seiuncta est; quo sensu ideae res maxime reales sunt et veri nominis [[Lexicon philosophicum/Scientia|scientiae]] obiecta. Posteriore autem, qui ab aetate Cartesii increbuit, idea significat id quod menti cogitanti praesto est, hoc est conceptum sive rei imaginem in animo. Hoc sensuum discrimen in tota vocabuli historia tenendum est, ne quis Platonis ideas cum cogitationibus nostris confundat.

Nomen Graecum ἰδέα, sicut et cognatum εἶδος, a radice verbi ἰδεῖν, « videre », ductum est, ita ut primum « speciem » vel « formam adspectabilem » significaret. Plato vero vocabulum ad formas illas intellegibiles transtulit. Latini vocabulum Graecum ''idea'' mutuati sunt: iam Cicero rerum formas a Platone « ideas » appellari testatur, easque modo [[Lexicon philosophicum/Species|species]] modo [[Lexicon philosophicum/Forma|formas]] reddit; Seneca quoque de idea et idos Platonico disputat.&lt;ref&gt;Cicero, ''Orator'' 2, 8-10; ''Academica'' I, 30-33; Seneca, ''Epistulae morales'' 58, 16-22; 65, 4-10.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Historia philosophica notionis ==

=== Antiquitas: ideae Platonicae ===

Idearum doctrinam Plato non semel nec uno modo tradidit, sed praecipue in dialogis aetatis mediae, ut in ''Phaedone'', ''Convivio'', ''Re publica'', sensim exposuit, in ''Parmenide'' autem in dubium vocavit ac postea in ''Sophista'' immutavit. Sunt autem ideae, eius sententia, verae illae et primariae res, quae aeternae, immutabiles, intellegibiles sunt, neque sensibus sed sola mente percipiuntur. Eas autem Plato posuit ut cognitio et definitio certum quiddam ac stabile attingerent; nam si omnia sensibilia perpetuo fluunt, nihil in iis firmum est quod vere sciri aut nominari possit. Sunt enim a rebus sensibilibus seiunctae (χωρισταί), quae ideis aut participare aut eas imitari dicuntur, ita ut idea unum sit supra multa: ut idea Boni, Pulchri, Aequalis ipsius. [[Lexicon philosophicum/Scientia|Scientia]] proprie dicta harum idearum est, [[Lexicon philosophicum/Opinio|opinio]] vero rerum sensibilium, quae fluunt nec umquam vere sunt. Idea praeterea exemplar (παράδειγμα) est, ad quod opifex ille mundi, in ''Timaeo'', omnia conformat; et inter ideas summa est idea Boni, quae ceteris et lucem et esse praebet, velut sol rebus adspectabilibus.&lt;ref&gt;Plato, ''Phaedo'' 74a-77a; ''Res publica'' VI-VII, 507b-518b; ''Symposium'' 210a-211b; ''Timaeus'' 27d-29d.&lt;/ref&gt;

Idearum doctrinam Plato ipse in ''Parmenide'' acriter examinavit, ubi et participationis difficultates et argumentum illud, quod « tertius homo » appellatur, proponuntur; quae quaestiones postea in [[Lexicon philosophicum/Universale|universalium]] disputatione redierunt. Est enim idea Platonica veluti universale illud quod realistae posuerunt, latius tamen patens: non modo commune quiddam, sed exemplar rerum, causa et scientiae obiectum.&lt;ref&gt;Plato, ''Parmenides'' 130a-135c.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Aristotelis reprehensio ===

Aristoteles ideas a rebus separatas reiecit. Negavit enim formas seorsum subsistere posse, idque pluribus argumentis ostendere conatus est: ideas ad res cognoscendas aut movendas nihil conferre, atque, si commune separatim poneretur, in infinitum esse progrediendum, quod ipsum « tertii hominis » argumentum est. Retinuit tamen εἶδος ut formam rebus ipsis inhaerentem, non extra eas positam. Ita in schola Aristotelea idea separata reiecta est; mansit tamen distinctio inter ideam et formam, atque illa quaestio de universali ''ante rem'', ''in re'', ''post rem'' quae per Medioplatonicos, Neoplatonicos et scholasticos pervulgata est.&lt;ref&gt;Aristoteles, ''Metaphysica'' I, 9, 990a34-993a10; XIII-XIV; ''Ethica Nicomachea'' I, 6 (de idea Boni).&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Ideae in mente Dei ===

Posteriores Platonici ideas non iam extra mentem, sed in mente collocaverunt. Iam Philo Alexandrinus eas in Verbo divino, tamquam mundum intellegibilem, posuit; Medioplatonici (ut Alcinous) ideas « cogitationes Dei » (νοήσεις θεοῦ) esse docuerunt; Plotinus denique eas in Intellectu (Νοῦς) constituit, qui secunda est hypostasis et mundus intellegibilis. Ex his fontibus Christiani scriptores doctrinam suam hauserunt.&lt;ref&gt;Alcinous, ''Didascalicus'' 9; Plotinus, ''Enneades'' V, 9; Philo, ''De opificio mundi'' 16-25.&lt;/ref&gt;

Augustinus ideas esse docuit formas illas principales ac rationes rerum stabiles atque incommutabiles, quae in ipsa mente [[Lexicon philosophicum/Deus|Dei]] continentur et secundum quas omnia condita sunt. Sic idea Platonica, e mundo intellegibili in mentem divinam translata, exemplar creationis facta est.&lt;ref&gt;Augustinus, ''De diversis quaestionibus octoginta tribus'', q. 46. Vide etiam Plotinus, ''Enneades'' V, 9.&lt;/ref&gt;

Notandum est Latinos medii aevi Platonem non e fontibus ipsis, sed maxime per Ciceronem, Senecam, Calcidium (qui partem ''Timaei'' Latine vertit et est commentatus) atque Augustinum accepisse. Quare disputatio scholastica de ideis Platonicis illi Augustini quaestioni quadragesimae sextae praecipue innititur, in qua ideae paradigmata divina in mente Dei dicuntur.&lt;ref&gt;Calcidius, ''Timaeus a Calcidio translatus commentarioque instructus''; de Augustini fonte Ciceroniano cf. ''Orator'' 8-10.&lt;/ref&gt;

Thomas Aquinas hanc sententiam excoluit, ideas divinas ponens formas exemplares in intellectu Dei, per quas res et cognoscit et creat. Idea enim, ut docet, est forma rei prout a faciente intellecta, quemadmodum domus in mente aedificatoris prior est quam in materia. Quo sensu idea ad illud propius accedit quod posteriores « mentis conceptum » dixerunt.&lt;ref&gt;Thomas Aquinas, ''Summa theologiae'' I, q. 15, a. 1-3.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Conversio recentior: idea ut mentis conceptus ===

Maxima vocabuli mutatio saeculo septimo decimo facta est, cum Renatus Cartesius ideam non iam formam rei extra animum, sed cogitationis modum appellaret, id scilicet quod menti immediate obicitur. Ideae igitur sunt veluti rerum imagines in [[Lexicon philosophicum/Mens|mente]], quamquam, proprie loquendo, modi cogitandi sunt. Notavit praeterea ideas, quatenus res quasdam repraesentant, diversum quendam « realitatis obiectivae » gradum habere, quo ipso ad Dei exsistentiam demonstrandam usus est. Distinxit autem ideas innatas, adventicias, a se ipso fictas; atque ex idea Dei et ex idea sui ipsius praecipua sua argumenta duxit.&lt;ref&gt;Cartesius, ''Meditationes de prima philosophia'' III; ''Principia philosophiae'' I, 17-18.&lt;/ref&gt;

Hoc sensu accepto, Ioannes Lockius totam fere humanam [[Lexicon philosophicum/Cognitio|cognitionem]] circa ideas versari statuit, ideam vocans quidquid mens, dum cogitat, ante se habet. Distinxit ideas simplices et compositas, atque ideas sensus et reflexionis, omnes a sola experientia ortas. Georgius Berkeleius res ipsas sensibiles nihil aliud esse contendit quam idearum collectiones, quae nonnisi in mente percipiente exsistunt (« esse est percipi »): ideae enim, cum inertes sint, a spiritu solo percipiuntur. David Humius denique ideas vocavit languidiores illas impressionum imagines, quibus in cogitando utimur, omnemque ideam ex aliqua impressione derivari docuit.&lt;ref&gt;Locke, ''De intellectu humano'' I, 1, 8; II, 1-2. Berkeley, ''De principiis cognitionis humanae'' I, 1-7. Hume, ''Tractatus de natura humana'' I, 1, 1.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Malebranchius, Spinoza, Leibnitius ===

Alii eodem fere saeculo aliter de ideis senserunt. Nicolaus Malebranchius ideas non in mente nostra, sed in ipso Deo collocavit: res enim omnes « in Deo » videmus, quoniam mens humana ideas, quae sunt rationes rerum aeternae apud Deum, intuetur. Qua doctrina veterem illam de ideis divinis traditionem cum recentiore repraesentationis ratione coniunxit.&lt;ref&gt;Malebranche, ''De inquisitione veritatis'' III, 2, 1-6.&lt;/ref&gt;

Benedictus de Spinoza ideam non imaginem inertem, sed cogitationis modum atque affirmationem esse statuit; distinxit praeterea ideas adaequatas, quae rei naturam vere exprimunt, ab inadaequatis ac mutilis, quae confuse tantum repraesentant.&lt;ref&gt;Spinoza, ''Ethica'' II, prop. 11-49 (praesertim prop. 43, scholium).&lt;/ref&gt;

Gottfried Leibnitius denique monuit ideam non semper esse repraesentationem menti actu praesentem, sed saepe habitum quendam vel facultatem rem aliquam cogitandi; quo sensu ideas nobis innatas esse dixit, non ut actu cogitatas, sed ut dispositiones.&lt;ref&gt;Leibniz, ''Meditationes de cognitione, veritate et ideis'' (1684); ''Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain'' (1765), praefatio.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Kantius et idealismus Germanicus ===

Immanuel Kantius vocabulum « idea » sensu proprio adhibuit, a Platonico et ab empiricorum usu diverso. Ideae enim rationis (ut anima, mundus, Deus) sunt conceptus quibus nullum obiectum sensibus datum respondere potest; non ex experientia hauriuntur neque rem aliquam constituunt, sed [[Lexicon philosophicum/Ratio|rationis]] usum regunt ac dirigunt. Usus enim earum regulativus est, non constitutivus: ad unitatem scientiae quaerendam nos impellunt, fallaces autem fiunt si quis eas pro rerum supra sensus positarum cognitione habeat. Ipse autem Kantius Platonem laudavit, qui ideas tamquam exemplaria posuisset.&lt;ref&gt;Kant, ''Critica rationis purae'', Dialectica transcendentalis (A 313-338 / B 370-396).&lt;/ref&gt; Georgius Hegelius denique ideam ad summum philosophiae principium evexit: ipsam scilicet [[Lexicon philosophicum/Veritas|veritatem]], in qua conceptus et obiectivitas inter se plene conveniunt, atque omnium rerum fundamentum. Haec autem idea non quiescit, sed se ipsam per gradus explicat, primum in Logica, deinde in Natura, postremo in Spiritu. Quo facto idea, post longum per mentes hominum iter, ad pristinam quandam dignitatem rediit, non iam ut forma immota, sed ut totum quoddam quod sese evolvit.&lt;ref&gt;Hegel, ''Scientia logicae'', pars III; ''Encyclopaedia'' §§ 213-244.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Usus recentiores ==

=== Idea et repraesentatio ===

Aetate recentiore vocabulum « idea » in philosophia minus frequentatur: eius locum fere occupant vocabula ''conceptus'', ''repraesentatio'', ''intentio'', ''propositio'', ''contentum mentale''. Manet tamen eadem quaestio de eo quod mente continetur ac cogitatione attingitur, et de modo quo notiones nostrae res extra animum positas respiciant. In phaenomenologia Edmundus Husserl vocabulum εἶδος ad rei [[Lexicon philosophicum/Essentia|essentiam]] significandam revocavit, quae singulari quadam mentis visione (quam ''intuitionem eideticam'' vocant) attingitur; quo ad antiquiorem illum et obiectivum sensum ex parte reditur. Non tamen ad Platonem prorsus redit: essentia enim ratione quadam phaenomenologica in ipsa conscientia apprehenditur, neque ut res a mente separata extra animum ponitur. Idem tamen « ideam sensu Kantiano » de termino quodam regulativo usurpavit.

=== Usus hodiernus ===

In cotidiano autem sermone et apud plerosque recentiores « idea » fere idem valet ac cogitatio, opinio vel consilium animo conceptum: qui usus ex Lockii potissimum traditione manavit. In philosophia praeterea mentis disputatur utrum conceptus sint res quaedam in animo (velut imagines aut signa interna), an potius facultates quaedam ac dispositiones rem cognoscendi; quae quaestio illam ipsam de natura idearum controversiam, novis verbis, prosequitur. Distinguendae tamen sunt hae disciplinae: in philosophia mentis de repraesentatione mentali quaeritur; in significationis doctrina de eo quod verbis ac propositione affirmatur; in psychologia autem recentiore et scientiis cognitionis de imaginibus illis internis quibus mens, ut hodie putant, in cogitando utitur.

== Quaestiones philosophicae ==

Prima et gravissima quaestio de ipso vocabulo est. Cum enim « idea » modo formam obiectivam extra animum, modo conceptum subiectivum in animo significet, summopere cavendum est ne hi sensus inter se confundantur. Qui enim Platonis ideas tamquam cogitationes alicuius mentis interpretatur, gravem committit errorem ac tempora permiscet.

Altera de earum statu: utrum ideae, sensu Platonico, per se exsistant, an in sola mente, divina vel humana, sint. Quae quaestio cum [[Lexicon philosophicum/Universale|universalium]] controversia arte cohaeret: nam realista ideas seu formas vere esse tenet, conceptualista autem et nominalista eas, [[Lexicon philosophicum/Abstractio|abstractione]] adhibita, ad mentem revocant.

Tertia, in recentiore [[Lexicon philosophicum/Cognitio|cognitionis]] doctrina, ex ipsa idearum theoria oritur: si enim mens proxime nonnisi suas ideas percipit, quaeritur quomodo de rebus extra animum positis quicquam sciri possit. Quod dubium « idearum velamen » appellare solemus, ex quo facilis ad rerum omnium dubitationem via patet.

Distinguenda denique idea ab iis quibuscum saepe confunditur: a [[Lexicon philosophicum/Notio|notione]] et conceptu, ab [[Lexicon philosophicum/Essentia|essentia]] et [[Lexicon philosophicum/Forma|forma]], atque ab eo [[Lexicon philosophicum/Universale|universali]] quod logici tractant.

== Notae ==

&lt;references /&gt;

== Bibliographia ==

=== Fontes antiqui ===

* Plato, ''Phaedo''; ''Res publica'' VI-VII; ''Parmenides''; ''Timaeus''
* Aristoteles, ''Metaphysica'' I, 9; XIII-XIV
* Cicero, ''Orator'' 2, 7-10; ''Academica'' I
* Seneca, ''Epistulae morales'' 58 et 65
* Plotinus, ''Enneades'' V
* Augustinus, ''De diversis quaestionibus octoginta tribus'', q. 46
* Thomas Aquinas, ''Summa theologiae'' I, q. 15

=== Fontes recentiores ===

* Cartesius, ''Meditationes de prima philosophia'' (1641); ''Principia philosophiae'' (1644)
* Malebranche, Nicolas, ''De la recherche de la vérité'' (1674-1675)
* Spinoza, Benedictus de, ''Ethica'' (1677), pars II
* Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, ''Meditationes de cognitione, veritate et ideis'' (1684); ''Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain'' (1765)
* Locke, John, ''An Essay concerning Human Understanding'' (1689)
* Berkeley, George, ''A Treatise concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge'' (1710)
* Hume, David, ''A Treatise of Human Nature'' (1739-1740)
* Kant, Immanuel, ''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'' (1781/1787), Dialectica transcendentalis
* Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, ''Wissenschaft der Logik'' (1812-1816), Doctrina conceptus
* Husserl, Edmund, ''Ideen zu einer reinen Phänomenologie und phänomenologischen Philosophie'' (1913)

=== Studia recentiora ===

* Boland, Vivian, ''Ideas in God according to Saint Thomas Aquinas. Sources and Synthesis'', Leiden, Brill, 1996
* Burbidge, John W., ''On Hegel's Logic. Fragments of a Commentary'', Atlantic Highlands, Humanities Press, 1981
* Cherniss, Harold, ''Aristotle's Criticism of Plato and the Academy'', Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press, 1944
* Della Rocca, Michael, ''Representation and the Mind-Body Problem in Spinoza'', New York, Oxford University Press, 1996
* Fine, Gail, ''On Ideas. Aristotle's Criticism of Plato's Theory of Forms'', Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1993
* Grier, Michelle, ''Kant's Doctrine of Transcendental Illusion'', Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2001
* Jolley, Nicholas, ''The Light of the Soul. Theories of Ideas in Leibniz, Malebranche, and Descartes'', Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1990
* Kenny, Anthony, ''Descartes. A Study of His Philosophy'', New York, Random House, 1968
* Nadler, Steven, ''Malebranche and Ideas'', New York, Oxford University Press, 1992
* Ross, William David, ''Plato's Theory of Ideas'', Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1951
* Yolton, John W., ''John Locke and the Way of Ideas'', Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1956
* Yolton, John W., ''Perceptual Acquaintance from Descartes to Reid'', Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1984

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      <comment>Paginam instituit, scribens '{{Lexicon|Empirismus}} ==※ Empirismus ※== '''Empirismus''' ea doctrina est quae omnem humanam [[Lexicon philosophicum/Cognitio|cognitionem]], vel saltem eius principia, ex sensuum experientia oriri tenet, ita ut nihil sit in intellectu quod non prius in sensu fuerit. Opponitur ei sententiae quae quasdam notiones aut principia menti ingenita esse contendit, atque ei rationi philosophandi (quae rationalismus dicitur) quae mentem ipsam, citra experientiam, ver...'</comment>
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==※ Empirismus ※==
'''Empirismus''' ea doctrina est quae omnem humanam [[Lexicon philosophicum/Cognitio|cognitionem]], vel saltem eius principia, ex sensuum experientia oriri tenet, ita ut nihil sit in intellectu quod non prius in sensu fuerit. Opponitur ei sententiae quae quasdam notiones aut principia menti ingenita esse contendit, atque ei rationi philosophandi (quae rationalismus dicitur) quae mentem ipsam, citra experientiam, veritatum necessariarum fontem facit.

Vocabulum non uno modo accipitur. Nam « empiricus » apud veteres medicos illos significabat qui, posthabita causarum occultarum inquisitione, sola experientia atque observatione niterentur; « empirismus » autem, prout doctrinam de cognitionis origine designat, recentioris est aetatis, neque ante saeculum duodevicesimum hoc sensu invaluit. Itaque empiricus medicus ab empirico philosopho distinguendus est.

Nomen a Graeco ἐμπειρία (« experientia », « usus rerum »), per adiectivum ἐμπειρικός, ductum est, unde Latine « empiricus ». Vox autem « empirismus » recens est, a philosophis ad hanc doctrinam significandam conficta.&lt;ref&gt;De vocis historia et de empiricorum medicorum secta vide Frede, Michael, ''Essays in Ancient Philosophy'', Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1987.&lt;/ref&gt;

Duplex praeterea est empirismus philosophicus: alter de notionum origine, qui omnes nostras notiones ex sensibus duci affirmat; alter de cognitionis fundamento, qui omnem de rebus scientiam experientia niti contendit. Neque qui alterum tenet, continuo alterum amplectitur: fieri enim potest ut notiones quidem ex sensu oriantur, veritates tamen quaedam sola ratione comprobentur.

== Historia philosophica notionis ==

=== Antiquitas: empirici medici et sensuum auctoritas ===

Vocabulum primum in medicina ortum est. Aetate enim Hellenistica secta illa Empiricorum (ut Philinus Cous et Serapion) contra Dogmaticos, qui causas morborum occultas ratione indagandas proponebant, contendit nihil ad medendum valere praeter id quod usu atque observatione comprobatum esset. Empirici igitur experientiam, observationum memoriam et rerum similium collationem solas sequebantur. Quam controversiam Cornelius Celsus copiose exposuit.&lt;ref&gt;Celsus, ''De medicina'', prooemium. Vide etiam Sextum Empiricum, cuius cognomen ab eadem secta ductum est.&lt;/ref&gt;

In philosophia autem veteres quoque sensuum auctoritati multum tribuerunt. Epicurei sensus omnes veros esse atque veritatis criterium statuerunt, notitiasque (προλήψεις) ex sensibus saepius repetitis in animo fieri. Stoici animum hominis nascentis velut tabulam vacuam esse dixerunt, in qua sensus quasi scribunt; quae imago iam apud Aristotelem invenitur et postea apud recentiores rediit.&lt;ref&gt;De Epicureis vide Diogenem Laertium X, 31-33; de Stoicorum tabula, Aetius, ''Placita'' IV, 11.&lt;/ref&gt;

Maxime vero Aristoteles fontem illum empirismi posterioris praebuit. Docuit enim omnem nostram cognitionem a sensu initium capere: ex sensu enim memoria, ex multis memoriis experientia, ex experientia [[Lexicon philosophicum/Universale|universale]] in anima oritur. Intellectum praeterea, antequam quicquam cogitet, tabulae nondum scriptae similem esse posuit, atque universalia ex sensuum imaginibus [[Lexicon philosophicum/Abstractio|abstractione]] hauriri. Non tamen empiricus stricto sensu fuit, quoniam prima principia et intellectum agentem supra sensum collocavit.&lt;ref&gt;Aristoteles, ''Analytica posteriora'' II, 19, 99b34-100b17; ''De anima'' III, 4, 430a1-2.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Medium aevum: « nihil in intellectu nisi prius in sensu » ===

Philosophi scholastici Aristotelem secuti idem fere tenuerunt: cognitionem omnem a sensu proficisci, intellectum vero species intellegibiles a rerum imaginibus abstrahere. Hinc illud effatum pervulgatum est, « nihil esse in intellectu quod non prius fuerit in sensu », cuius sententiam Thomas Aquinas quoque secutus est. Quod tamen non ita accipiendum est quasi mens omnis prorsus actionis expers sit; nam intellectus agens ipse abstrahit, et prima quaedam principia per se nota habentur. Huic autem viae, quae per abstractionem a sensibus procedit, illa Augustini de illuminatione divina doctrina ex parte opponebatur, quae mentem veritates aeternas non e sensibus, sed superno lumine cernere docebat.&lt;ref&gt;Thomas Aquinas, ''Quaestiones disputatae de veritate'', q. 2, a. 3, arg. 19; ''Summa theologiae'' I, q. 84, a. 6. De Augustini illuminatione cf. eiusdem ''De Trinitate'' XII.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Recentiores: empirismus Britannicus ===

Aetate recentiore empirismus, iam non medicus sed philosophicus, apud Britannos potissimum floruit. Franciscus Baconus experientiam et inductionem omnis scientiae fundamentum fecit, vana mentis commenta reiciens. Ioannes autem Lockius primus empirismum de cognitionis origine plene constituit: mentem hominis nascentis « albae chartae » similem esse docuit, in qua nihil scriptum sit, omnesque nostras [[Lexicon philosophicum/Idea|ideas]] ex experientia, id est ex sensu et ex animi reflexione, oriri; ideas igitur vel principia menti innata esse pernegavit. Distinxit autem ideas simplices, quae vel a sensu vel a reflexione accipiuntur, et compositas, quas mens ex simplicibus conformat; ipsam vero scientiam in perspecta idearum inter se convenientia aut discrepantia posuit.&lt;ref&gt;Bacon, ''Novum Organum'' (1620) I. Locke, ''De intellectu humano'' (1689) I (contra notiones innatas); II, 1-12; IV, 1.&lt;/ref&gt;

Georgius Berkeleius his principiis usus res sensibiles ipsas in idearum collectiones resolvit, quae nonnisi in mente percipiente sint. David denique Humius empirismum acerrime ad extremum perduxit, novo tamen posito fundamento: nam impressiones ab ideis distinxit, omnesque ideas languidiores esse impressionum imagines docuit, neque quicquam in mente esse quod non ex aliqua impressione derivetur. Hinc duo eius capita notissima: alterum de [[Lexicon philosophicum/Causa|causa]], cum inter res nullam necessariam connexionem percipiamus, sed coniunctionem tantum constantem, ita ut necessitatis opinio non ex ratione sed ex consuetudine nascatur; alterum de inductione, cui nullum rationis firmamentum subesse contendit, quoniam ex praeteritis de futuris nihil certo colligi potest. Omnem praeterea pervestigationem in duo genera divisit: in eam quae idearum relationes spectat (ut mathematica, quae necessaria sunt et sola mente cernuntur) et eam quae ad rerum facta pertinet (quae contingentia sunt et experientia tantum innotescunt); quae vero neutrius generis sunt, ut pleraque metaphysica, flammis potius tradenda esse acerbe iudicavit.&lt;ref&gt;Berkeley, ''De principiis cognitionis humanae'' (1710). Hume, ''Tractatus de natura humana'' (1739-1740) I, 3; ''Inquisitio de intellectu humano'' (1748), sect. 4-7 et 12.&lt;/ref&gt; Hi tamen philosophi non semper se ipsos empiricos appellabant; nomen potius posteriore philosophiae historia ad eos relatum est.

=== Empirismus et rationalismus ===

Empirismo opponitur rationalismus, quem Cartesius, Spinoza, Leibnitius secuti sunt: hi enim ideas quasdam menti innatas, atque rationem ipsam veritatum necessariarum et universalium fontem esse voluerunt. Praecipua inter utrosque controversia de innatis ideis fuit, qua de re Leibnitius contra Lockium disputavit, illud empiricorum effatum hac adiectione temperans: « nihil in intellectu quod non prius in sensu, nisi ipse intellectus ». Altius autem subest quaestio de scientiae necessariae fonte: empirici enim experientiam nonnisi singularia et contingentia praebere concedunt, unde dubium oritur num inde veritates necessariae ac universales, quales in mathematicis cernuntur, duci possint.

Hanc litem Immanuel Kantius componere conatus est. Docuit enim cognitionem omnem ab experientia incipere, non tamen omnem ex experientia oriri: esse scilicet in mente formas quasdam priores, quarum aliae ad sensum pertinent (ut spatium et tempus), aliae ad intellectum (ut categoriae), quibus experientia ipsa constituitur. Ita scientiam necessariam et universalem neque ex sola experientia neque ex sola ratione, sed ex his formis quae a priori dicuntur repeti voluit, atque empirismi et rationalismi controversiam utrumque superando componere.&lt;ref&gt;Kant, ''Critica rationis purae'' (1781/1787), introductio (B 1).&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Empirismus recentior ===

Saeculo vicesimo empirismus novam formam induit. In Circulo Vindobonensi (ut apud Carnap et Schlick) atque apud A. J. Ayer ea invaluit sententia, quae positivismus logicus appellatur: omnem propositionem quae sensum habeat aut analyticam esse (ut in logica et mathematicis, sola verborum vi veram), aut experientia comprobandam esse; cetera, in his metaphysicam, sensu carere. Hac igitur significationis regula adhibita, non solum quid verum, sed quid omnino sensate dici posset definire conati sunt, metaphysicam totam tamquam inanem reicientes. Sic empirismus ad ipsam sermonis significationem pertinere coepit. Neque tamen iis omnibus (ut Carnap, Schlick, Neurath, Reichenbach, Ayer) eadem de experientia, logica ac sermone sententia fuit.

Hanc tamen doctrinam Willard Quine, in libello « De duobus empirismi dogmatibus », labefactavit: nam et discrimen illud inter analytica et synthetica et reductionem singularum propositionum ad experientiam in dubium vocavit, docens sententias nostras non singulas sed universas simul experientiae obici, velut contextum quendam. Empirismum igitur sine illis dogmatibus retinendum esse censuit.&lt;ref&gt;Quine, Willard V. O., « Two Dogmas of Empiricism », ''The Philosophical Review'', vol. 60, 1951, p. 20-43.&lt;/ref&gt;

In philosophia denique scientiae Bas van Fraassen empirismum « constructivum » proposuit: scientiae scilicet finem non esse veritatem simpliciter de omnibus entibus positis, sed theoriam empirice adaequatam, id est rectam de rebus observabilibus, sive iam observatis sive tantum observabilibus; itaque theoriam accipere non idem esse ac de entibus inobservabilibus ab ea positis credere. Idem postea empirismum non ut placitorum congeriem, sed ut habitum quendam animi sive consilium philosophandi proposuit, quo illae ipsae repugnantiae vitarentur quae fortioribus empirismi formis obiectae sunt. Manet praeterea vetus illa de structuris innatis contentio, quae hodie in animi scientiis inter empiricos et nativismi fautores renovatur.&lt;ref&gt;van Fraassen, Bas C., ''The Scientific Image'', Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1980.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Quaestiones philosophicae ==

Prima quaestio est de cognitionis fonte: utrum omnis cognitio ex experientia hauriatur, an aliqua eius pars menti insit ante omnem experientiam. Quae quaestio cum illa de notionibus a priori arte cohaeret.

Altera de veritatibus necessariis et universalibus: cum experientia singularia tantum et contingentia praebeat, quaeritur unde illa certitudo necessaria, qualis in mathematicis cernitur, oriatur. Hoc dubium Humius acutissime proposuit, Kantius autem per formas a priori solvere temptavit.

Tertia de inductione: an ulla ratione liceat ex rebus observatis de non observatis concludere; quod nisi conceditur, vacillat ipsa naturae scientia.

Manet denique de ipso empirismo scrupulus: nam principium illud, quo nihil nisi per experientiam aut per solam verborum vim sciri posse adseritur, neque experientia comprobari neque analyticum esse videtur; unde quaeritur num sibi ipsi repugnet. Quod tamen dubium praecipue in fortiores empirismi formas, ut in ipsum verificationismum, cadit, non in omnem empiricam doctrinam. Atque haec omnia cum [[Lexicon philosophicum/Abstractio|abstractione]], cum [[Lexicon philosophicum/Causa|causa]] et cum ipsa [[Lexicon philosophicum/Scientia|scientia]] necessario implicantur.

== Notae ==

&lt;references /&gt;

== Bibliographia ==

=== Fontes antiqui ===

* Aristoteles, ''Analytica posteriora'' II, 19; ''De anima'' III, 4
* Celsus, ''De medicina'', prooemium
* Sextus Empiricus, ''Adversus mathematicos''; ''Pyrrhoniae hypotyposes''
* Thomas Aquinas, ''Summa theologiae'' I, q. 84

=== Fontes recentiores ===

* Bacon, Francis, ''Novum Organum'' (1620)
* Locke, John, ''An Essay concerning Human Understanding'' (1689)
* Berkeley, George, ''A Treatise concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge'' (1710)
* Hume, David, ''A Treatise of Human Nature'' (1739-1740); ''An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding'' (1748)
* Mill, John Stuart, ''A System of Logic'' (1843)
* Carnap, Rudolf, ''Der logische Aufbau der Welt'' (1928)
* Ayer, Alfred Jules, ''Language, Truth and Logic'' (1936)
* Quine, Willard Van Orman, « Two Dogmas of Empiricism » (1951)
* van Fraassen, Bas C., ''The Scientific Image'' (1980); ''The Empirical Stance'' (2002)

=== Studia recentiora ===

* Anstey, Peter R., et Vanzo, Alberto, « The Origins of Early Modern Experimental Philosophy », ''Intellectual History Review'', vol. 22, 2012, p. 499-518
* Calvente, Sofía, et Manzo, Silvia, « Empiricism, Early Modern », in D. Jalobeanu et C. T. Wolfe (cur.), ''Encyclopedia of Early Modern Philosophy and the Sciences'', Cham, Springer, 2022
* Frede, Michael, ''Essays in Ancient Philosophy'', Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1987
* Friedman, Michael, ''Reconsidering Logical Positivism'', Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1999
* Haakonssen, Knud (cur.), ''The Cambridge History of Eighteenth-Century Philosophy'', Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2006
* Loeb, Louis E., ''From Descartes to Hume. Continental Metaphysics and the Development of Modern Philosophy'', Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1981
* Norton, David Fate (cur.), ''The Cambridge Companion to Hume'', Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993
* Stroud, Barry, ''Hume'', London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1977
* Woolhouse, R. S., ''The Empiricists'', Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1988

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      <comment>Paginam instituit, scribens '{{Lexicon|A priori}} ==※ A priori ※== '''A priori''' dicitur id quod ante omnem experientiam, eaque non innixum, cognoscitur; cui opponitur quod a posteriori, id est ex experientia, innotescit. Cognitio igitur a priori ea est cuius iustificatio non ex sensuum testimonio, sed ex intellectu, ratione vel notionum conexione pendet; a posteriori autem ea quae sensuum testimonio confirmatur. Notandum tamen haec verba apud veteres alio sensu usurpata esse quam apu...'</comment>
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==※ A priori ※==
'''A priori''' dicitur id quod ante omnem experientiam, eaque non innixum, cognoscitur; cui opponitur quod a posteriori, id est ex experientia, innotescit. Cognitio igitur a priori ea est cuius iustificatio non ex sensuum testimonio, sed ex intellectu, ratione vel notionum conexione pendet; a posteriori autem ea quae sensuum testimonio confirmatur. Notandum tamen haec verba apud veteres alio sensu usurpata esse quam apud recentiores.

Locutio ipsa e Latinitate scholastica orta est, qua Aristotelis discrimen inter id quod « prius » (πρότερον) et id quod « posterius » (ὕστερον) est redditum est. Primum enim a priori et a posteriori non ad cognitionis originem, sed ad demonstrandi viam pertinebant: a priori demonstrare erat a [[Lexicon philosophicum/Causa|causa]] ad effectum procedere (quae demonstratio « propter quid » dicitur), a posteriori vero ab effectu ad causam (demonstratio « quia »). Posteriore demum aetate locutio ad illud significandum traducta est quod nos hodie intellegimus, scilicet cognitionem ab experientia independentem.

== Historia philosophica notionis ==

=== Origo: demonstratio a priori et a posteriori ===

Aristoteles duo demonstrationis genera distinxit: alteram quae causam rei affert et cur ita sit ostendit, alteram quae ex signis aut effectibus rem ita esse tantum probat. Haec scholastici demonstrationem a priori (a causa, quae prior est) et a posteriori (ab effectu, qui posterior est) appellaverunt. Exempli gratia, ex eo quod stellae errantes non scintillant colligitur eas prope abesse (quae demonstratio a posteriori est, ab effectu ducta); contra, quia prope absunt, ideo eas non scintillare ostenditur (quae demonstratio a priori est, a causa). Sic Thomas Aquinas [[Lexicon philosophicum/Deus|Dei]] exsistentiam non a priori, sed a posteriori, ex rebus creatis tamquam ex effectibus, demonstrari posse docuit (ut in quinque viis); posterioribus autem temporibus argumentum illud Anselmi, quod ex ipsa Dei notione procedit, « a priori » dici coepit.&lt;ref&gt;Aristoteles, ''Analytica posteriora'' I, 13. Thomas Aquinas, ''Summa theologiae'' I, q. 2, a. 2.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Conversio epistemologica ===

Sensim autem locutio ad cognitionis fontem deflexa est. Quod ita accidit: cum enim a priori demonstrare esset ex principiis, non ex rebus observatis, procedere, facile « a priori » id significare coepit quod ex sola ratione, citra sensuum testimonium, cognoscitur. Gottfried Leibnitius veritates rationis, quae necessariae sunt et sola mente citra experientiam cognoscuntur ac principio contradictionis nituntur, a veritatibus facti, quae contingentes sunt et experientia innotescunt ac principio rationis sufficientis reguntur, distinxit, illas a priori, has a posteriori nominans. Immanuel autem Kantius hunc sensum plene firmavit: [[Lexicon philosophicum/Cognitio|cognitionem]] a priori eam esse statuit quae non ab hac vel illa, sed ab omni prorsus experientia independens sit; cuius notae sunt [[Lexicon philosophicum/Necessitas|necessitas]] et stricta universalitas, quippe cum experientia nihil nisi contingens et ad summum generale praebeat. A posteriori contra, sive empirica, ea cognitio est quae ex experientia hauritur. Hoc tamen a priori non idem est ac id quod menti ingenitum est: aliud enim est unde notio in animo primum oriatur, aliud qua ratione cognitio comprobetur; potest enim aliquid a priori cognosci, etiamsi notiones eius occasione experientiae excitentur.&lt;ref&gt;Leibniz, ''Monadologie'' (1714), § 33; ''Nouveaux essais'' IV, 9. Kant, ''Critica rationis purae'' (1781/1787), introductio (B 1-6).&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Triplex discrimen: a priori, analyticum, necessarium ===

Cavendum est ne tria haec discrimina, quae saepe simul cadunt, inter se confundantur. Aliud enim est discrimen a priori et a posteriori, quod ad cognoscendi modum pertinet (utrum citra experientiam an ex experientia aliquid sciatur); aliud analytici et synthetici, quod ad ipsam propositionem spectat (utrum praedicatum in subiecti [[Lexicon philosophicum/Notio|notione]] iam contineatur, an ei aliquid addat); aliud denique necessarii et contingentis, quod ad ipsam rem refertur (utrum aliter se habere non possit, an possit). Quae tria, etsi plerumque congruunt, non tamen idem sunt.

Hinc illa Kantii quaestio princeps orta est: an dentur iudicia synthetica a priori, id est quae et notionem ampliant et tamen ab experientia non pendent. Talia esse contendit mathematica (ut « septem et quinque esse duodecim »), itemque prima naturae scientiae principia (ut « omnes mutationes secundum causae et effectus legem fieri »); quae omnia in formis illis a priori, spatio scilicet et tempore et intellectus categoriis, fundavit. Empirici contra, ut Humius, talia pernegant: omnem enim veritatem aut in idearum relationibus aut in rerum factis ponunt, nullo tertio genere relicto; quae Humii distinctio illi posteriori analyticorum et syntheticorum, itemque a priori et a posteriori, partim respondere visa est. Hoc autem de iudiciis syntheticis a priori dubium inde a Kantio philosophiae cardo fuit: ab eo enim pendet utrum metaphysica scientiae nomen mereatur, et qua tandem in re rationalismus ab empirismo differat.

== Doctrinae recentiores ==

Inter Kantium autem et positivistas illos medium quiddam excogitatum est. Cum enim geometria non Euclidea et relativitatis doctrina apud physicos invaluissent, illud a priori fixum atque immutabile, quale Kantius posuerat, vix amplius teneri poterat. Quare Ernst Cassirer et Hans Reichenbach principia quaedam a priori proposuerunt quae experientiam scientificam quidem constituunt, sed quae, mutata scientia, ipsa quoque mutari et corrigi possint: a priori scilicet non absolutum, sed relativum atque historicum.&lt;ref&gt;Reichenbach, Hans, ''Relativitätstheorie und Erkenntnis Apriori'' (1920); Ernst Cassirer, ''Zur Einsteinschen Relativitätstheorie'' (1921).&lt;/ref&gt;

Saeculo vicesimo positivistae logici Humii fere dichotomiam renovaverunt: omnem cognitionem a priori analyticam esse censuerunt, hoc est sola verborum significatione vel placito veram, qualis in logica et mathematicis cernitur; synthetica autem a priori prorsus reppulerunt. Ita a priori nihil de rerum natura enuntiare, sed solam notionum nostrarum structuram aperire videbatur. Hac enim ratione empirismum cum certitudine illa mathematicae logicaeque, quae a priori esse videtur, conciliare studuerunt: si enim cognitio a priori mere analytica est, nihil obstat quominus omnis de rebus scientia ab experientia pendeat.&lt;ref&gt;Carnap, Rudolf, ''Logische Syntax der Sprache'' (1934); ''Meaning and Necessity'' (1947). Ayer, A. J., ''Language, Truth and Logic'' (1936), cap. 4.&lt;/ref&gt;

Willard deinde Quine ipsum discrimen analytici et synthetici in dubium vocavit, atque adeo notionem cognitionis a priori tamquam certum quoddam et seiunctum genus labefactavit: nullam enim propositionem, ne logicae quidem aut mathematicae, ab omni emendatione immunem esse contendit, si tota scientia experientiae ex toto respondet.&lt;ref&gt;Quine, Willard V. O., « Two Dogmas of Empiricism », ''The Philosophical Review'', vol. 60, 1951, p. 20-43.&lt;/ref&gt; Multi tamen recentiores cognitionem a priori retinent, etsi fallibilem et emendationi obnoxiam neque ex sola analyticitate pendentem: discrimen enim a priori et a posteriori intellegi potest, etiamsi nulla veritas prorsus irrevocabilis ponatur.

Saul autem Kripke haec discrimina, quae Kantius fere coniunxerat, rursus distraxit. Ostendit enim dari et veritates necessarias quae tamen a posteriori cognoscuntur (ut Hesperum eundem esse ac Phosphorum, quod observatione astronomica compertum est), et veritates contingentes quae a priori sciri possunt (ut hunc ipsum baculum unius metri esse, quod ille qui mensurae nomen ei certo tempore imposuit a priori novit, quamvis res contingens sit). Identitas enim illa, si semel vera est, necessario valet, observatione tamen astronomica reperta est; metri contra longitudo a priori cognoscitur non quia sine mensione pateat, sed quia ipsa nominis « metrum » significatio huic baculo certo tempore alligatur, unde res contingens manet, cum baculus alius longitudinis esse potuerit. Quare a priori et necessarium non idem sunt, sed discrimen epistemologicum a metaphysico seiungendum est.&lt;ref&gt;Kripke, Saul, ''Naming and Necessity'', Cambridge (Massachusetts), Harvard University Press, 1980.&lt;/ref&gt;

De fonte autem cognitionis a priori variae sunt sententiae: alii eam rationali quadam intuitione, qua mens veritates necessarias immediate perspicit, explicant; alii sola notionum vel verborum significatione; alii placito atque hominum consensione; alii denique formis illis mentis quas Kantius posuit. Disputatur praeterea adhuc num et quatenus talis cognitio omnino detur: quam alii (ut Laurence BonJour) contra empiricos ac naturalistas tuentur, rationi vim quandam veritatum perspiciendarum tribuentes; alii vero (ut Philip Kitcher de mathematicis) in dubium vocant aut omnino tollunt.

== Quaestiones philosophicae ==

Prima quaestio est an ulla omnino cognitio a priori detur. Quod rationalistae affirmant, [[Lexicon philosophicum/Empirismus|empirici]] vero, qui omnem [[Lexicon philosophicum/Scientia|scientiam]] ex experientia repetunt, vel negant vel ad sola analytica restringunt.

Altera, an dentur iudicia synthetica a priori, quae et ampliativa sint et experientia non egeant: in quo cardo totius rei vertitur. Hinc enim de mathematicis, de logica, de metaphysicae ipsius possibilitate disceptatur.

Tertia de mutuo trium discriminum nexu: utrum a priori, analyticum, necessarium semper sese consequantur, an inter se sint independentia. Kantius enim a priori cum necessario fere coniunxit; Kripke autem ea distraxit, veritates necessarias a posteriori et contingentes a priori afferens.

Restat denique de ipsa locutione cautio: cum « a priori » olim demonstrationem a causa ad effectum, nunc autem cognitionem ab experientia independentem significet, ne quis hos sensus permisceat. Atque haec omnia cum [[Lexicon philosophicum/Cognitio|cognitione]], cum [[Lexicon philosophicum/Veritas|veritate]] et cum ipsa [[Lexicon philosophicum/Scientia|scientiae]] necessitate cohaerent. In hac enim quaestione illud agitur, utrum detur ratio quaedam quae non tota ex observatione pendeat, qualisque sit mathematicae logicaeque natura, et an omnis denique cogitatio ab usu historico, sermone hominumque institutis postremo regatur.

== Notae ==

&lt;references /&gt;

== Bibliographia ==

=== Fontes antiqui ===

* Aristoteles, ''Analytica posteriora'' I, 2 et 13
* Thomas Aquinas, ''Summa theologiae'' I, q. 2, a. 2

=== Fontes recentiores ===

* Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, ''Monadologie'' (1714); ''Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain'' (1765)
* Hume, David, ''An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding'' (1748)
* Kant, Immanuel, ''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'' (1781/1787)
* Reichenbach, Hans, ''Relativitätstheorie und Erkenntnis Apriori'' (1920)
* Carnap, Rudolf, ''Logische Syntax der Sprache'' (1934); ''Meaning and Necessity'' (1947)
* Ayer, Alfred Jules, ''Language, Truth and Logic'' (1936)
* Quine, Willard Van Orman, « Two Dogmas of Empiricism » (1951)
* Kripke, Saul, ''Naming and Necessity'' (1980)

=== Studia recentiora ===

* Boghossian, Paul, et Peacocke, Christopher (cur.), ''New Essays on the A Priori'', Oxford, Clarendon Press, 2000
* BonJour, Laurence, ''In Defense of Pure Reason'', Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998
* Casullo, Albert, ''A Priori Justification'', Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2003
* Coffa, J. Alberto, ''The Semantic Tradition from Kant to Carnap. To the Vienna Station'', Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991
* Friedman, Michael, ''Dynamics of Reason'', Stanford, CSLI Publications, 2001
* Kitcher, Philip, ''The Nature of Mathematical Knowledge'', Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1983
* Moser, Paul K. (cur.), ''A Priori Knowledge'', Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1987

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      <comment>Paginam instituit, scribens '{{Lexicon|Epistemologia}} ==※ Epistemologia ※== '''Epistemologia''' ea philosophiae pars est quae de natura, fontibus, limitibus et iustificatione cognitionis humanae inquirit: quid sit scire, num et quatenus quicquam sciri possit, quibusque notis [[Lexicon philosophicum/Scientia|scientia]] ab [[Lexicon philosophicum/Opinio|opinione]] distinguatur.  Vocabulum recens est, e Graecis vocabulis ἐπιστήμη (id est scientia) et λόγος (ratio, doctrina)...'</comment>
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==※ Epistemologia ※==
'''Epistemologia''' ea philosophiae pars est quae de natura, fontibus, limitibus et iustificatione cognitionis humanae inquirit: quid sit scire, num et quatenus quicquam sciri possit, quibusque notis [[Lexicon philosophicum/Scientia|scientia]] ab [[Lexicon philosophicum/Opinio|opinione]] distinguatur.

Vocabulum recens est, e Graecis vocabulis ἐπιστήμη (id est scientia) et λόγος (ratio, doctrina) conflatum, antiquis ignotum; res tamen ipsa antiquissima est, cum iam Plato et Aristoteles, Stoici, Academici Scepticique de scientia eiusque condicionibus copiose disputaverint. Quare quod hodie « epistemologia » dicitur, veteres sub doctrina de scientia et de [[Lexicon philosophicum/Cognitio|cognitione]] tractabant.

Notandum praeterea vocabulum duobus sensibus usurpari. Latiore sensu, qui in usu Anglico praesertim viget, epistemologia est universa de cognitione doctrina, quae de perceptione, de [[Lexicon philosophicum/Memoria|memoria]], de testimonio, de dubitatione agit. Angustiore autem sensu, qui in usu Gallico recentiore frequentior est, epistemologia proprie scientiarum philosophiam significat, id est criticam illam disquisitionem de methodis ac fundamentis scientiarum. Hic de latiore sensu praecipue agitur, altero sensu suo loco tractando.

== Historia philosophica notionis ==

=== Antiquitas: doctrina de scientia ===

Apud Platonem scientia (ἐπιστήμη) ab opinione (δόξα) plane distinguitur: illa enim stabilis est atque rationem sui reddere potest, haec autem incerta et fluxa. In dialogo ''Theaeteto'' Plato quaerit quid sit scientia, variasque eius definitiones examinat: an scientia sit [[Lexicon philosophicum/Sensus|sensus]], an vera opinio, an denique vera opinio cum ratione (λόγος) coniuncta; quae postrema descriptio, etsi a Platone ipso non plene probata, posterioribus tamen philosophis velut formula scientiae tradita est. In ''Re publica'' autem per imaginem lineae divisae gradus cognitionis distinxit, a sensibilibus ad [[Lexicon philosophicum/Idea|ideas]] adscendens.&lt;ref&gt;Plato, ''Theaetetus'' 151-187; ''Res publica'' VI, 509-511.&lt;/ref&gt;

Aristoteles scientiam proprie dictam esse statuit cognitionem rei per causam, eius scilicet rei quae aliter se habere non potest; quam in ''Analyticis posterioribus'' per demonstrationem explicat. Prima autem principia, ex quibus demonstratio procedit, non ipsa demonstrantur, sed per inductionem et per intellectum (νοῦς) apprehenduntur. Idem inter habitus intellectuales scientiam, artem, [[Lexicon philosophicum/Prudentia|prudentiam]], [[Lexicon philosophicum/Sapientia|sapientiam]] et intellectum distinxit.&lt;ref&gt;Aristoteles, ''Analytica posteriora'' I, 2 et II, 19; ''Ethica Nicomachea'' VI, 3-7.&lt;/ref&gt;

Stoici criterium veritatis in viso illo « comprehendibili » (φαντασία καταληπτική) posuerunt, id est in ea animi specie quae a re vera tali modo imprimitur ut a falsa discerni possit; cui si mens [[Lexicon philosophicum/Assensio|assentitur]], [[Lexicon philosophicum/Comprehensio|comprehensio]] (κατάληψις) oritur, in qua scientiae initium ponunt. Contra Academici, ut Arcesilas et Carneades, hoc ipsum criterium oppugnaverunt, nullum dari [[Lexicon philosophicum/Visum|visum]] verum contendentes quod non possit etiam falsum esse; unde nihil percipi posse, atque adeo sapienti assensionem cohibendam esse, concluserunt. Carneades tamen, etsi scientiam tollebat, [[Lexicon philosophicum/Probabile|probabile]] (πιθανόν) tamquam vitae ducem reliquit, in eoque gradus distinxit, prout species aut sola persuadeat, aut nulla re repugnante persuadeat, aut etiam undique explorata. Has autem controversias Cicero in ''Academicis'' Latine reddidit.&lt;ref&gt;Cicero, ''Academica'' (''Lucullus'' praesertim); Sextus Empiricus, ''Adversus mathematicos'' VII.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Media aetas ===

Per mediam aetatem scientia fere ad Aristotelis demonstrativam rationem revocata est. De origine tamen cognitionis variae sententiae fuerunt: alii, Augustinum secuti, mentem veritates aeternas divina quadam illuminatione cernere docuerunt; alii, ut Thomas Aquinas, intellectum species rerum ex sensibus per [[Lexicon philosophicum/Abstractio|abstractionem]] haurire. Disputatio quoque de [[Lexicon philosophicum/Universale|universalibus]] ad ipsam cognitionis naturam pertinebat. Scotus praeterea et Ockham inter cognitionem intuitivam, qua res ipsa praesens immediate percipitur, et abstractivam distinxerunt.&lt;ref&gt;Augustinus, ''De magistro''; Thomas Aquinas, ''Summa theologiae'' I, q. 84-85.&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Aetas recentior ===

Aetate recentiore quaestio de cognitione in philosophiae cardine collocata est. Cartesius, certitudinem quaerens, omnia quae in dubium vocari possent removit, donec ad illud unum perveniret quod negari nequit, se scilicet cogitantem esse; unde tamquam e fundamento certo ceteram scientiam exstruere conatus est. Hinc illa ratio quae cognitionem in primis quibusdam fundamentis stabilire studet.&lt;ref&gt;Descartes, ''Meditationes de prima philosophia'' (1641), II.&lt;/ref&gt;

Mox de origine cognitionis acriter disputatum est. Alii enim, quos rationalistas vocant (ut Cartesius, Spinoza, Leibnitius), praecipuum scientiae fontem in ipsa ratione collocaverunt; alii contra, empirici (ut Locke, Berkeley, Hume), praecipue in experientia. Hac in controversia magna ex parte recentioris aetatis de cognitione doctrina versata est. Humius praesertim, ad extremas [[Lexicon philosophicum/Empirismus|empirismi]] consequentias progressus, an ex experientia umquam de rerum nexu causali aut de futuris certo concludere liceat dubitavit.&lt;ref&gt;Locke, ''An Essay concerning Human Understanding'' (1690); Hume, ''An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding'' (1748), IV-V.&lt;/ref&gt;

Immanuel Kantius hanc controversiam componere studuit, docens cognitionem nostram et ex sensibus materiam et ex mente formas accipere. Mentem enim non res ipsas passive recipere, sed nonnisi secundum proprias formas [[Lexicon philosophicum/A priori|a priori]] (spatium, tempus, intellectus categorias) obiecta experiri posse, quae formae possibilis experientiae condiciones sunt; unde illa conversio quam ipse Copernicanae comparavit. Hinc tamen sequitur nos res non prout in se sunt, sed prout nobis apparent, cognoscere; estque adeo cognitioni humanae certus quidam finis positus.&lt;ref&gt;Kant, ''Critica rationis purae'' (1781/1787), praefatio editionis alterius.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Doctrinae recentiores ==

Saeculo demum undevicesimo, cum vocabulum ipsum « epistemologia » (vel apud Germanos « Erkenntnistheorie ») effictum esset, haec doctrina velut philosophiae pars distincta constituta est.

Ac primum quidem triplex fere scientiae genus distingui solet: aliud enim est rem aliquam novisse (ut hominem aut locum), aliud aliquid facere scire (ut natare aut fidibus canere), aliud denique scire aliquid ita esse (ut terram circa solem volvi). Quod postremum genus, quod propositione enuntiatur, epistemologia praecipue rimatur.&lt;ref&gt;De his generibus cf. Russell, ''The Problems of Philosophy'' (1912), cap. 5; Ryle, ''The Concept of Mind'' (1949), cap. 2.&lt;/ref&gt;

Inter recentiores praecipue quaesitum est quid sit illa scientia quam quaerimus. Multi descriptionem quandam tripertitam, e Platone repetitam, secuti sunt: scire scilicet esse opinionem veram quae insuper iustificatione nitatur. At anno millesimo nongentesimo sexagesimo tertio Edmund Gettier brevi libello ostendit hanc descriptionem non sufficere: posse enim opinionem et veram et probatam dari quae tamen scientia non sit, si forte fortuna potius quam ratione vera evadat. Quo facto longa orta est disquisitio de eo quid ad veram probatamque opinionem addendum sit ut scientia efficiatur.&lt;ref&gt;Gettier, Edmund, « Is Justified True Belief Knowledge? », ''Analysis'', vol. 23, 1963, p. 121-123. Cf. Plato, ''Theaetetus'' 201 C-D.&lt;/ref&gt;

Disputatur etiam quomodo opiniones nostrae inter se nitantur. Quae controversia ex illo regressu nascitur: si enim omnis opinio alia rursus opinione probari debet, aut in infinitum proceditur, aut in orbem quendam reditur, aut alicubi in opinionibus per se notis sistendum est. Alii enim putant dari quasdam opiniones primarias per se notas, quibus ceterae tamquam fundamento innitantur (quam sententiam fundamentorum doctrinam appellant); alii nullam opinionem per se stare, sed omnes mutua inter se congruentia sustineri (quae cohaerentiae doctrina dicitur). Quaeritur praeterea utrum ad iustificationem requiratur ut ipse sciens rationes suas introspiciat, an satis sit opinionem via fida atque ad verum ducente effectam esse, etiamsi sciens id non perspiciat: quarum sententiarum prior interna, altera externa vocari solet; haec autem posterior, quae scientiam ex processu fido atque ad verum plerumque ducente pendere docet, nomine « reliabilismi » insignitur.

Vetus praeterea illa dubitatio, an quicquam omnino sciri possit, numquam plane consenuit. Recentiores eam acrius etiam proposuerunt, fingentes hominem a malo quodam genio aut machina quadam ita deludi posse ut omnia quae sentiat falsa sint, neque tamen ipse id dignoscere valeat; quaeritur tum quo tandem argumento talis dubitatio refelli possit.

Willard Quine eam epistemologiam quae cognitionem extra scientiam et ante eam fundare velit repudiavit, eamque potius in ipsam naturae scientiam, in psychologiam scilicet, inserendam esse censuit: ita enim non quomodo cognitio a priori iustificanda sit, sed quomodo homines re vera ex sensuum irritamentis notitias suas struant, investigari.&lt;ref&gt;Quine, Willard V. O., « Epistemology Naturalized », in ''Ontological Relativity and Other Essays'', Novi Eboraci, 1969.&lt;/ref&gt;

Recentius praeterea multae novae viae apertae sunt. Alii enim epistemologiam socialem excoluerunt, quae de testimonio, de dissensu, de peritorum auctoritate atque de communitatum cognitione agit; alii virtutum epistemologiam, quae scientiam ex [[Lexicon philosophicum/Virtus|virtutibus]] quibusdam intellectualibus repetit; alii probabilitatis calculo in cognitione aestimanda utuntur; sunt etiam qui ex feminarum condicione novas de cognitione quaestiones moveant. Disputatur insuper utrum verbum « scire » pro rerum adiunctis aliter atque aliter usurpetur, et quantum scientia ipsa, prae mera opinione vera, aestimanda sit.

Quod ad angustiorem illum sensum attinet, Gaston Bachelard aliique epistemologiam historicam excoluerunt, quae scientiarum progressum non continuum esse docet, sed per rupturas quasdam fieri, atque obstacula illa investigat quae mens superare debet ut ad cognitionem obiectivam perveniat; unde illud « obstaculum epistemologicum » quod ipse in libro de scientifici animi formatione introduxit. Ad eandem scientiarum philosophiam pertinent etiam quae apud alios de scientiae methodo et progressu disputata sunt, ut Popperi de falsificatione vel Kuhnii de mutationibus scientiarum doctrina.&lt;ref&gt;Popper, Karl, ''Logik der Forschung'' (1934); Kuhn, Thomas, ''The Structure of Scientific Revolutions'' (1962).&lt;/ref&gt; Quae epistemologia, scientiarum potius quam communis cognitionis studiosa, a latiore illa distinguenda est.&lt;ref&gt;Bachelard, Gaston, ''La formation de l'esprit scientifique'' (1938).&lt;/ref&gt;

== Quaestiones philosophicae ==

Prima et maxima quaestio est quid sit ipsa scientia. Etsi enim descriptio illa tripertita (opinio vera et iustificata) plurimum valuit, post Gettier dubium manet num scientia ullis omnino notis definiri possit, an potius primaria quaedam et indefinibilis sit.

Altera de fontibus cognitionis: utrum ex sensibus an ex ratione, ex testimonio an ex memoria, praecipue hauriatur. In qua re vetus illud [[Lexicon philosophicum/Empirismus|empirismi]] et rationalismi certamen perdurat, cum quaestione de cognitione [[Lexicon philosophicum/A priori|a priori]] arte coniunctum.

Tertia de structura iustificationis: utrum opiniones nostrae fundamentis quibusdam per se notis, an mutua tantum congruentia, nitantur; et utrum ad sciendum requiratur ut sciens rationes suas perspiciat.

Quarta de ipsa dubitatione: an quicquam certo sciri possit, et quibus argumentis ei qui omnia in dubium vocat occurrendum sit. Quae quaestio per omnem epistemologiae historiam, a veteribus Academicis ad recentiores, recurrit.

Restat denique de ipsa vocabuli significatione cautio: cum « epistemologia » modo universam de cognitione doctrinam, modo angustius scientiarum philosophiam designet, ne quis hos sensus permisceat. Atque ulterius disputatur utrum epistemologia ipsa scientiae naturalis pars sit, an propria quaedam et normativa disciplina maneat.

== Notae ==

&lt;references /&gt;

== Bibliographia ==

=== Fontes antiqui ===

* Plato, ''Theaetetus''; ''Res publica'' V-VII
* Aristoteles, ''Analytica posteriora''; ''Ethica Nicomachea'' VI
* Cicero, ''Academica''
* Sextus Empiricus, ''Pyrrhoneae hypotyposes''

=== Fontes recentiores ===

* Descartes, René, ''Meditationes de prima philosophia'' (1641)
* Locke, John, ''An Essay concerning Human Understanding'' (1690)
* Hume, David, ''An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding'' (1748)
* Kant, Immanuel, ''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'' (1781/1787)
* Russell, Bertrand, ''The Problems of Philosophy'' (1912)
* Gettier, Edmund, « Is Justified True Belief Knowledge? » (1963)
* Quine, Willard Van Orman, « Epistemology Naturalized » (1969)
* Duhem, Pierre, ''La théorie physique. Son objet, sa structure'' (1906)
* Popper, Karl, ''Logik der Forschung'' (1934)
* Kuhn, Thomas S., ''The Structure of Scientific Revolutions'' (1962)
* Bachelard, Gaston, ''Le nouvel esprit scientifique'' (1934); ''La formation de l'esprit scientifique'' (1938)
* Canguilhem, Georges, ''Le normal et le pathologique'' (1966)

=== Studia recentiora ===

* Audi, Robert, ''Epistemology. A Contemporary Introduction'', 3a ed., Novi Eboraci et Londinii, Routledge, 2011
* BonJour, Laurence, ''Epistemology. Classic Problems and Contemporary Responses'', Lanham, Rowman &amp; Littlefield, 2002
* Dancy, Jonathan, ''An Introduction to Contemporary Epistemology'', Oxonii, Blackwell, 1985
* Williams, Michael, ''Problems of Knowledge. A Critical Introduction to Epistemology'', Oxonii, Oxford University Press, 2001
* Bernecker, Sven, et Pritchard, Duncan (cur.), ''The Routledge Companion to Epistemology'', Londinii et Novi Eboraci, Routledge, 2011
* Fricker, Miranda, ''Epistemic Injustice. Power and the Ethics of Knowing'', Oxonii, Oxford University Press, 2007
* Goldman, Alvin I., ''Knowledge in a Social World'', Oxonii, Oxford University Press, 1999
* Sosa, Ernest, ''A Virtue Epistemology. Apt Belief and Reflective Knowledge'', vol. I, Oxonii, Oxford University Press, 2007
* Williamson, Timothy, ''Knowledge and Its Limits'', Oxonii, Oxford University Press, 2000
* Zagzebski, Linda, ''Virtues of the Mind'', Cantabrigiae, Cambridge University Press, 1996
* Shope, Robert K., ''The Analysis of Knowing. A Decade of Research'', Princetoniae, Princeton University Press, 1983
* Everson, Stephen (cur.), ''Epistemology'', Cantabrigiae, Cambridge University Press, 1990

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